International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80

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International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture

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Review

A review on forming techniques for manufacturing lightweight

complexdshaped aluminium panel components
Kailun Zheng, Denis J. Politis*, Liliang Wang, Jianguo Lin
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London, SW7 2AZ, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Aluminium alloys are being increasingly utilised in the automotive and aerospace industries to reduce
Received 6 February 2018 the weight of vehicles. Extensive research has been conducted to overcome the poor ductility of
Received in revised form aluminium alloys at room temperature and improve formability of the materials, to enable complex-
26 March 2018
shaped panel components to be manufactured. To this end, this paper contains a comprehensive re-
Accepted 27 March 2018
Available online 3 April 2018
view of widely used forming processes for aluminium alloys, under cold, warm and hot forming con-
ditions, and the material characteristics and equipment used for each process. Based on a detailed
analysis from the view of industrial requirements, recent progress in experimentation techniques are
Keywords:
Aluminium alloys
reviewed addressing the limitations and improvements of specific forming processes. Furthermore,
Forming material modelling methods at both cold and elevated temperature forming conditions have been pre-
Complex-shaped sented. In addition, finite element (FE) simulations with the implementation of material models are
Panel components discussed. This review article intends to provide a systematic guide for process designers to choose the
Modelling most appropriate sheet forming technique for specific industrial applications.
© 2018 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
The concerns of environmental protection and stringent re-
quirements of greenhouse gas emissions have driven trans-
portation industries to reduce the weights of their products [1].
Applying lightweight materials, such as aluminium and magne-
sium alloys or composites [2], to replace traditional steel raw ma-
terial candidates [3], has become an efficient and popular approach
to achieve weight targets. In addition, the development of battery
electrical vehicles (BEVs) has also required the usage of lightweight
materials to compensate for the insufficient energy density of
current batteries and extend the range of BEVs [4]. Among the
family of lightweight materials, aluminium alloys have been
extensively used in the automotive and aircraft body structures [5],
due to the advantages of low density, high strength to weight ratio,
good corrosion resistance and relatively low cost compared with
composites [6].
For automobile applications, the manufacture of panel compo-
nents has been the subject of significant research as they occupy a
large proportion of the mass of body structures, as shown in
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: denis.politis06@imperial.ac.uk (D.J. Politis).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Board of International Journal of
Lightweight Materials and Manufacture.
Fig. 1(a) [7]. Previous usage of high strength aluminium alloys has
been restricted by the poor ductility at room temperature. Recently,
the rapid development of forming techniques has also contributed
to the manufacture of complex-shaped high strength aluminium
alloy panel components, resulting in their applications being
significantly extended [8]. Body in white structures have been
manufactured from aluminium alloys in some luxury vehicles, such
as Jaguar Land Rover and Audi [9]. An overall summary and eval-
uation of recent progress of forming techniques driven by industrial
demands is currently lacking.
This paper provides a systematic and comprehensive review of
the forming techniques used to form complex-shaped aluminium
alloy panel components. Material characteristics, processing vari-
ables, specific equipment used, and advantages and disadvantages
of each forming technique are also presented. Moreover, recent
research progress to address the identified disadvantages, such as
new experimentation and theoretical modelling techniques are
also reviewed. Finally, conclusions on the latest state of the art
forming processes are drawn summarising the recommended ap-
plications of each forming technique. Finally, through a review of
the literature, the paper aims to provide process designers and
researchers a guide to selecting appropriate forming techniques
and processing parameters and also identify the trends of future
scientific research.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlmm.2018.03.006
2588-8404/© 2018 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
56 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80

[7] and (b) Airbus 380 [10].

Fig. 1. Applications of aluminium alloy panel structures in an automobile and aircraft: (a) Audi TT coupe

2. Lightweight aluminium alloys and forming techniques
2.1. Lightweight aluminium alloys
Wrought aluminium alloys are the most widely used raw ma-
terial candidates for panel structures. Nowadays, non-heat treat-
able AA5xxx, and heat treatable AA6xxx, AA7xxx and AA2xxx, are
popular candidates for automotive and aircraft industries. This
section briefly reviews the current applications of these alloys and
their characteristics and properties, enhancing the analysis and
evaluations of forming these alloys using different techniques.
2.1.1. Applications in automotive and aerospace industries
Typical applications of different alloys in an automobile are
summarised in Table 1. Non-heat treatable aluminium alloys, such
as AA5754 (Al-Mg), are widely used for internal body structures to
compensate for the insufficient strength. The strengthening
mechanism of this alloy is strain hardening, normally by cold
working during fabrication, in association with solution hardening.
Therefore, AA5xxx sheet components are normally cold stamped,
in the annealed(O), as fabricated (F) or strain hardened (H) condi-
tions with greater ductility. In comparison, medium or high
strength aluminium alloys, AA6xxx and AA7xxx, are potential
material candidates for outer panel structures. These alloys are
precipitation hardened, and their strength arises from the typical
T6 heat treatment for the automotive industry. However, the cur-
rent use of high strength alloys, like AA7xxx, is still limited for
automotive vehicles.
In terms of the aircraft industry, AA7xxx and AA2xxx are the
main material candidates due to their high strength and good
corrosion resistance. The corrosion resistance property of AA7xxx is
poor at T6 condition with peak strength, which results in such al-
loys being applied in an over-aged condition, such as T73. Al-Li
alloys were first developed in the 1920s. To date, the third gener-
ation Al-Li is believed to be at a mature stage and capable of being
used extensively. Compared with other aircraft alloys, Al-Li alloys
exhibit the advantages of low density, high stiffness and good fa-
tigue resistance, which are widely used in the wing structures of an
aircraft [10].
The applications of a specific alloy are predominantly deter-
mined by their mechanical properties. However, it should be noted
that, the work-ability of an alloy can also determine its application.
For example, the extensive usage of AA5xxx aluminium alloys re-
sults from such alloys being soft and easily formable. For high
strength aluminium alloys, which have similar strength levels to
conventional mild steel, the ductility is poor at room temperature
which results in these alloys being unable to sustain higher de-
formations and be manufactured to complex-shaped components.
The corresponding applications are restricted, and advanced
forming techniques are required.
2.1.2. Characteristics and comparisons
Essentially, the differences of mechanical properties of different
alloys arises from the addition of alloying elements. As each
element has a different solute ability within the aluminium matrix,
the type, quantity and combination of alloying elements results in
variations in microstructure and mechanical properties. For
instance, AA2xxx alloys have lower fracture toughness than those
of AA7xxx with similar yield strength level, as larger sizes of inter-
metallic compounds exist in the AA2xxx alloys. To improve the
fracture toughness, the levels of iron, silicon or copper can be
reduced to avoid the formation of large and brittle compounds.
Table 2 summarises the main compositions of typical wrought
aluminium alloys in literature considering the slight difference in
element percentage of different commercial aluminium alloy sup-
plier. Although various alloys have been commercialised, this paper
only focuses on commonly and widely used materials for auto-
motive and aircraft industries. Progress made to develop novel
aluminium alloy grades with new additional elements, and corre-
sponding metallurgy are not taken into account.

Table 1
Lightweight properties and applications of typical aluminium alloys in automotive and aircraft industries.

Industry Alloy grade Main chemical Density (kg/m3) Strength/Density Applications

composition (Pa/(kg.m
3))

Automotive AA5052 Al-Mg 2680 72,000 Interior panels and components, truck bumpers and body panels [11]
AA5754 2670 86,000 Inner body panels, splash guards, heat shields, air cleaner trays and covers,
structural and weldable parts, load floor [11]
AA6016-T4 Al-Mg-Si 2700 81,500 Outer panels and structural sheets (Europe) [12]
AA6111-T4 2710 103,000 [13] Outer and inner panels (North America) [12]
AA7020-T6 Al-Zn-Mg 2780 127,000 [14] Potential applications for A pillar and B pillar [15,16]
Aircraft AA7055-T7751 Al-Zn-Mg 2860 222,000 Case of fuselage [17]
AA7075-T73 2810 180,000 Upper wing skins, stringers and horizontal/vertical stabilizers
AA2024-T3 Al-Cu-Mg 2780 1,740,000 Upper wing structure [17]
AA2199-T8 Al-Cu-Li 2640 152,000 Fuselage and lower wing structure [18]
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80 57

Table 2
Main chemical compositions of some aluminium alloys (wt%).

AA5754 [19] Mg Mn Fe Si Cu Ni Ti Zn Al
3.0 0.24 0.26 0.03 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Bal
AA2024 [20] Cu Mg Mn Si Fe Zn Ti Cr Al
4.5 1.5 0.5 0.41 0.40 0.20 0.12 0.07 Bal
AA6082 [21] Si Mg Mn Fe Cu Zn Cr Ti Al
1.05 0.8 0.68 0.26 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 Bal
AA7075 [22] Zn Mg Cu Fe Cr Si Mn Ti Al
5.4 2.2 1.4 0.22 0.19 0.07 0.04 0.02 Bal

Fig. 2 summarises the mechanical properties of a series of

commonly used aluminium alloys. Compared with low strength
AA5754, AA6082 exhibits significantly improved strength, which
makes this alloy the preferred grade in the automotive industry. In
comparison, AA2024 and AA7075 exhibit even greater strength,
which enables them to be used in aircraft applications. In addition,
for heat treatable aluminium alloys, heat treatment temper is also a
significant factor determining the application of an alloy. Although
the strength of AA7075 in T73 condition (overaged) is less than that
in T6 condition (peak age), the corrosion resistance property is
improved due to the growth of precipitates when the alloy is
overaged. The large precipitates contribute to corrosion resistance
in the severe service environment of an aircraft. For automobiles,
the service environment of components is not as severe, and hence
aluminium alloys are normally heat treated to the peak strength to
meet vehicle safety requirements.
2.2. Review of sheet metal forming techniques
To evaluate and enhance the analysis of a specific forming
technique, raw material selection, which depends on alloy grade
and heat treatment temper needs to be considered, as the micro-
structure and mechanical properties of a material play an intrinsic
role on the capability of individual forming techniques. This section
briefly reviews the forming techniques and corresponding material
characteristics for commonly used commercial aluminium alloys.
2.2.1. Cold forming
2.2.1.1. Cold stamping. Cold stamping using rigid dies is believed to
be the most commonly used forming technique for the manufac-
ture of aluminium alloy components, especially for non-heat
treatable AA5xxx. For heat treatable alloys, such as AA6111
shown in Fig. 3, the ductility in T6 condition is very poor which is
not beneficial for producing complex-shaped structures. To address
this disadvantage, W-temper forming [24] or stamping at T4
Fig. 3. Characteristics of cold stamping using rigid dies: (a) Stress-strain curves of
different alloys and different tempers [35,36], (b) Springback defect [26] and (c) Shape
distortion due to additional heat treatment [27].
temper condition can be used. W-temper refers to the super satu-
rated solid solution state after solution heat treatment [25]. Alloys
in such a state exhibit lower strength but improved ductility, as
shown by the dash line in Fig. 3. However, the strength of W-
temper or T4 formed components needs to be increased by addi-
tional heat treatment, to restore the microstructure and mechanical
properties of T6 temper. However, springback [26] and quenching-
induced distortions [27] may be experienced during the additional
heat treatment, especially for high strength alloys [28]. The loss of
dimensional accuracy from cold stamped aluminium alloys pre-
sents difficulties in component assembly in a mass production
setting.
Besides the proper selection of initial blank heat treatment
temper to improve draw-ability, multi-stage deep drawing can also
be used to manufacture high aspect ratio components [29]. How-
ever, multi-stage deep drawing is deemed not suitable for auto-
motive components, due to the lower production efficiency and
irregular shapes of automobile parts. Lubrication is another feasible
approach to reduce interface friction and enhance the ability to
produce a good quality part [30]. In addition, lubricant enables tool
life to be extended by reducing wear [31]. Rao and Wei [32]
investigated the lubrication performance of an environmentally-
friendly and low cost boric acid film by comparing conventional
commercial solid and liquid lubricants. Higher sheet metal draw-
ability and lower forming forces were found to be the direct ben-
efits that can be achieved. Recently, to remove the post-cleaning of
lubricant operation, surface coating techniques, especially low
frictional carbon-based coatings have been extensively investigated
on a laboratory scale [33,34]. However, for large cold stamped
aluminium alloy parts, lubricants are not indispensable considering
the much lower strength of aluminium alloys compared to steel.

2.2.1.2. Cryogenic forming. Cryogenic forming [37] is motivated by

Fig. 2. Comparisons of mechanical properties of commonly used alloy and different
heat treatment temper [19,23].
reducing the discontinuous deformation of stamping AA5xxx at
room temperature. The discontinuous deformation is marked by
the formation of deformation bands that not only leave undesirable
traces on the surface of panels, but also reduce the ductility of the
alloy [38]. The phenomenon is known as the Portevin-Le Chatelier
(PLC) effect [39]. To reduce the negative impact of the PLC effect,
58 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
aluminium alloys can be formed at cryogenic temperatures (below
room temperature) selectively. Schneider et al. [40] performed
tensile tests at temperatures ranging from 25  C to
196  C and
strain rates from 1.7  10
3 to 6.6  10
2 for aircraft alloys. Fig. 4
shows the variations of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength
and fraction elongations at different temperatures. Strength in-
creases with decreasing temperature for all alloy candidates, while
ductility of EN AW-7021 exhibited a drop at
196  C. Glazer et al.
[37] also observed the improved strength toughness, strain hard-
ening rate and tensile elongation with decreasing temperatures for
AA2090-T81. Welpmann et al. [41] tested the low temperature
deformation of Al-Li alloy, AA8090, from room temperature
to
196  C. Yield strength, uniform strain and elongation to failure
were gradually improved as the test temperatures decreased. Such
enhanced properties conclude the potential of forming complex-
shaped components at cryogenic temperatures of aluminium al-
loys, although the process is more technologically challenging than
elevated temperature forming for automotive industry [11]. Feasi-
bility of cryogenic forming aerospace alloys still exists considering
the smaller volumes and price insensitivity of aerospace
components.
Fig. 4. Characteristics of cryogenic forming, (a) Improved mechanical properties of different alloys and (b) Substitutional solute atoms at stationary forest dislocations generate
Cottrell-atmospheres [40].
Formed sheet metal blanks normally experience at least a ten-
sile deformation in one direction. The mechanism of cryogenic
forming is believed to be associated with the PLC effect caused by
Cottrell-atmospheres and dislocation movements. When the alloy
in a W temper is exposed to a cryogenic temperature, the diffusivity
of pre-dissolved additional atoms is generally decelerated, which
results in the formation of Cottrell-atmospheres of the same in-
tensity during the same period of time being unlikely. Then, the PLC
effect is reduced correspondingly and the elongation is increased.
In terms of the strength, at cryogenic temperatures, the activation
energy is decreased. Consequently, the force required to move a
dislocation through the crystal lattice can be increased. Based on
the above discussion, aged conditions with precipitates capable of
promoting the formation of Cottrell-atomospheres, such as T4 or
T6, are not ideal states for cryogenic forming processes [40].
2.2.1.3. Sheet hydroforming. Sheet hydroforming is a relatively new
sheet metal forming technology originating from the well-
established hydroforming technology, that was first developed in
the 1890s [42]. A typical forming method among sheet hydro-
forming techniques is hydrodynamic deep drawing, as
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
schematically shown in Fig. 5. Instead of the conventional deep
drawing with a die cavity, oil or other pressurising liquid medium
are utilised to press the sheet metal tightly onto the punch when it
is drawn into the die by the rigid punch. In this stage, the friction
between the sheet metal and die is reduced as a result of the liquid
medium in the die cavity, which flows out between the upper
surface of the die and the sheet metal. This fluid flow results in a
lubrication effect that reduces frictional forces. By this process, the
sheet metal can be drawn to a greater depth and drawing ratio (DR)
value of sheet metal can be increased, as shown in Fig. 5(b), and the
quality of the part can be improved [61].
Several novel process modifications have been made based on
the hydrodynamic deep drawing to increase the ability of
manufacturing complex-shaped components. Nakamura and
Nakagawa proposed radial pressure assisted hydraulic counter
pressure deep drawing [43] and reverse redrawing under hydraulic
counter pressure with its radial pushing [44] in 1985, which en-
ables the significant increase of draw-ratio. Kolleck and Cherek [45]
proposed an active hydrodynamic deep drawing to form large
extensive deep drawn parts. In this process, a preforming stage is
involved prior to hydrodynamic deep drawing. Springback can be
reduced and resistance of denting can be strengthened using such a
process.
Blankholding force and liquid pressure are critical process pa-
rameters in sheet hydroforming, which determine the flange
wrinkling and tearing [46]. Yossifon and Tirosh [47] developed a
fluid assisted blankholder to be used in conventional deep drawing,
which is effective for preventing flange wrinkling. Damborg and
Jensen [48] achieved adjustable blankholding force in the hydro-
dynamic deep drawing using a closed-loop control system. How-
ever, it was found that the variable blankholding force has little
effect on the forming. Double-sided hydroforming [49] enhances
the formability of sheet due to the fluid pressure increasing the
hydrostatic pressure imposed on the sheet. The hydrostatic stress
state is able to suppress the void expansion and growth, and
thereby delays the fracture initiation [50]. Chen et al. [51] proved
that appropriate liquid pressure can be used for manufacturing
wrinkling-free parts from AA2219 both experimentally and
analytically. Besides the above investigations of process variables
for sheet hydroforming, novel contributions have also been made in
areas such as tooling [52] and viscous pressure medium [53], which
were not discussed in detail in this section. In addition, sheet
hydroforming can also be integrated with other forming processes,
such as stamping [54] and stretch forming [55].
Fig. 5. Sheet hydroforming: (a) Comparisons between conventional deep drawing and sheet hydroforming [42], and (b) Improved draw ratio using sheet hydroforming [61].
59
The advantages of sheet hydroforming can be summarised as
follows:
 Friction at the flange can be reduced due to fluid lubrication [56]
and Friction retention effect on the punch is affected [57].
 Draw-ability can be significantly increased [42].
 Reduced surface defects of the formed part due to the liquid
pressure medium [58].
 Fewer dies are used thus reducing the tool cost [58].
Despite all the advantages, there are several drawbacks with
sheet hydroforming. Compared with conventional stamping pro-
cesses, the manufacturing efficiency is low especially for the
automotive industry [59] and the manufacturing cost per part is
high. Although sheet hydroforming is mainly used for closed-form
revolutionary components, with shape distortion and springback
being eliminated, there is an additional heat treatment process
required to restore the component strength resulting in additional
cost. Extensive research has been performed on sheet hydro-
forming, resulting in a very mature process that is widely used in
industry [60].
2.2.1.4. Incremental sheet forming. Incremental forming was first
introduced by Matsubara in Japan in 1993 [62], with an extensive
review of incremental sheet forming developments being reported
by Emmens et al. [63]. The process can be sub-divided into different
types according to the tool configurations [64], as shown in Fig. 6.
Among them, single point incremental forming (SPIF) is the most
commonly used. During the SPIF process, the blankholder is utilised
for clamping and holding the sheet blank in position. The backing
plate supports the sheet and its opening defines the working area of
the single point forming tool. The rotating single point forming tool
is utilised to progressively shape the sheet into a component and its
path is generated by a CNC machining centre. During the forming
process, there is no backup die used to support the bottom surface
of the deformed sheet [65]. Echrif and Hrairi [66] reviewed the
recent research and progress of incremental sheet forming, mainly
on methods and potential applications. The advantages were
summarised as below:
 The SPIF can be executed in a conventional CNC machine, hy-
draulic press is not required.
 Design changes can be performed efficiently and easily by the
programming of CNC machine.
60 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80

Fig. 6. Schematics of incremental sheet forming with various tooling configuration [64].

 Parts are produced directly from a CAD file, and no male and
female dies are required.
 The forming load is small and formability can be increased.
Given these advantages, the main concerns with this technique
are: (1) the production efficiency, which severely restricts its
application for the automotive industry; (2) thinning of the formed
sheet and (3) limited geometry accuracy such as accumulated step
change errors and springback. In addition, the surface quality can
be another issue as a result of the tooling component sliding and
scratching the sheet surface, although this depends on the surface
quality of tool and forming speed. To address these drawbacks,
Araghi et al. [67] proposed a hybrid process, by combination of the
SPIF and stretch forming, which enables a reduced processing time
and improved uniformity of thickness after forming. Lubrication is
also an effective approach to address the issue of surface quality.
Jawale et al. studied the effect of lubrication on SPIF from the
microstructure point of view [68]. The SEM images from different
lubrication states were compared and it was found that there was
some influence of lubrication on the surface quality. It was
observed that the marks left by the forming tool and the devel-
opment of valley like structures along the grain boundaries were
the cause for increased surface roughness. Azevedo et al. [69] tested
a series of lubricants of SPIF aluminium 1050 and DP780, and
proved that using lubricant guarantees a better surface finish of
SPIF aluminium rather than steel.
into these categories, for example warm hydroforming [56] and
incremental forming [70]. Normally, warm forming refers to
forming material at temperatures below the recrystallization
temperature [71] and above 0.3 times the melting temperature (0.3
Tm ) [72]. For hot forming, temperatures are selected to be above the
recrystallization temperature and normally below the solvus tem-
perature. Semi-solid forming [73] is not considered in this review.
This section reviews commonly used elevated forming techniques
for aluminium alloys based on the warm or hot classification
criterion.
2.2.2.1. Warm stamping. Stamping sheet alloys at warm forming
condition using conventional rigid dies is the most commonly used
warm forming technique. The process can be either isothermal or
non-isothermal depending on the die temperatures. Fig. 8(a) shows
a typical non-isothermal warm forming process with a non-
uniform temperature distribution. In this process, the sheet blank
can be heated to elevated temperatures using an external furnace
or hot dies [75]. The punch is cooled using pre-machined water
cooling channels. The advantages of this non-isothermal process
are summarised as follows:
1. Material ductility and forming limit can be increased at warm
forming temperatures, as shown in Fig. 8(c) and (d) [76,77].
2. Springback defect can be reduced compared with cold stamping,
resulting in a good dimensional accuracy of formed part [78].

2.2.2. Elevated forming techniques

To address the poor ductility of aluminium alloys and increase
the ability of manufacturing complex-shaped components, forming
at elevated temperatures becomes a feasible solution. Alloy
ductility is increased and material strength is reduced with
increasing forming temperatures. Different elevated temperature
forming techniques, such as warm forming, quick plastic forming,
superplastic forming and hot stamping, exist and have been
extensively investigated and used for industrial applications.
Fig. 7 shows the classification map of different elevated forming
techniques according to the approximate temperature and strain
rate for reference [74]. For aluminium alloys, elevated temperature
forming techniques can be further divided into warm or hot
forming conditions with traditional forming processes classified Fig. 7. Classifications of elevated forming techniques [74].
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
Fig. 8. Characteristics of warm stamping using rigid dies: (a) Schematic of non-isothermal warm stamping [83], (b) Comparisons of cold and warm formed components [84], (c)
Improved uniaxial ductility of warm forming [76] and (d) Improved forming limits of warm forming condition [77].
3. Non-uniform temperature distribution contributes to increase
draw-ability [79].
4. Manufacturing efficiency is high compared with warm hydro-
forming and warm incremental forming processes.
However, there also exist some limitations of the warm forming
technique, which are briefly listed as follows:
1. Warm forming is extensively being researched in a laboratory
setting, with no well-known press shops implementing the
process [11].
2. Warm forming is believed to be unsuitable for high-strength
heat treatable aluminium alloys, since heating might affect the
alloy microstructure and deteriorate post-form strength [80].
3. The interfacial friction is increased resulting in high tempera-
ture lubricants being required [81].
It should be noted that, lubrication exhibits two opposite effects
[82], the positive effect of lubrication is the reduced tool wear and
improved product surface quality, while the negative effect is that
the process is unsuitable for mass production. The pre-brushing on
the tools and post-cleaning of formed components of lubricant
affect the productivity and makes the process uneconomical.
2.2.2.2. Warm sheet hydroforming. The relatively complex die set-
up of hydroforming results in a sheet blank that is unable to be
heated using an external furnace and subsequently transferred to
cold dies. In order to hydro-form aluminium alloys at elevated
temperatures, the sheet blank is simultaneously heated with
forming dies using an external furnace [85] or heating bands [86].
61
The punch can be kept cool if blankholders are self-heated [87].
Compared to cold hydroforming, warm hydroforming utilises the
improved formability of aluminium alloys at elevated tempera-
tures, which is effective for high strength aluminium alloys [88],
such as AA6xxx and AA7xxx with poor ductility at room temper-
ature. There are several key challenges to be addressed for warm
hydroforming:
1. Forming temperature is dependent on the pressurizing medium
sustainable temperature. The conventional oil medium tem-
perature is below 300  C.
2. An optimal non-isothermal temperature distribution needs to
be determined within the tooling [89], similar to warm forming
using rigid dies.
3. Warm hydroforming is currently being developed to achieve
reduced number of manufacturing steps and part consolidation
[87].
2.2.2.3. Warm/hot sheet incremental forming. Warm/hot incre-
mental sheet forming is an improvement from conventional in-
cremental sheet forming by utilisation of a heating device to
improve the formability of aluminium alloys. Compared with
stamping using rigid dies, a relative simple set-up of incremental
forming enables various kinds of flexible heating methods to be
used. Ji and Park [70] selected a heating method of hot air blowers
to heat the AZ31 sheet blank. Duflou et al. [90] used the laser-
assisted local heating method for single point incremental form-
ing a TiAl6V4 sheet. The method is believed to be highly efficient
and costly. Fan et al. [91] proposed an electrical heating method to
62 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
heat the blank using material resistance and external electrical
power. Considering the sheet blank experiences thickness varia-
tions due to plastic deformation during forming, temperature
control by adjusting current density can be challenging. Surface
finish and geometrical accuracy are two main problems due to the
extreme high temperature at local areas [92] when using a localised
electrical heating method. Ambrogio et al. [93] used a conduction
heating approach for forming the AZ31 sheets. A heater band was
mounted at the external surface of the tools and the blank was
indirectly heated using the hot tools. Compared to the local heating
approach, this method lacks energy efficiency. It should be noted
that the above heating methods can also be combined to increase
the heating efficiency.
2.2.2.4. Hot gas forming. Hot gas forming refers to blanks utilising
a pressurised gas medium. From this point of view, hot gas
forming can be further divided into superplastic forming (SPF)
which has already been extensively investigated, and quick plastic
forming (QPF) which was developed by General Motors [94], as
shown in Fig. 9(a). The major difference between SPF and QPF is
the strain rate and raw material candidate. SPF deforms
aluminium alloys at a strain rate exhibiting maximum ductility,
while QPF process aims to deform aluminium alloys at strain rates
significantly greater than those in SPF to reduce the processing
time. In addition, SPF requires raw material that is intrinsically
superplastic with fine grains. Generally, SPF is designed to form
low volume highly complex-shaped components, while QPF is
designed for producing parts of less complexity but of high pro-
ductivity. Table 3 summarises the main differences between QPF
and SPF.
In terms of SPF, as shown in Fig. 9(b), the blank is heated to a
pliable state, 0:5
0:6 Tm , then pressurised by gas to deform the
Fig. 9. Schematics of hot gas forming, (a) Quick plastic forming [94] and (b) Superplastic forming [97].
Table 3
Comparisons of SPF and QPF processes [95].
Super plastic forming
Process variables Strain rate/Temperature chosen for exploiting maximum
material ductility
Market features Aerospace
 Low volume (100 panels per year)
 High price points product
 Hand rework common for dimensional and surface quality
Manufacturing system Low level automation, manual handling
Low capital, high piece cost
Typical panels Extreme shapes
High forming strains-back pressure to limit cavitation
Maximum mechanical properties
sheet blank into the die cavity. The high temperatures allow the
alloy to be elongated or stretched, to a much greater degree
without rupture than would be observed in cold or warm forming
processes. Furthermore, finer details of the part can be successfully
formed, which requires less overall forming force compared to
conventional forming methods. Typical features of SPF can be
summarised as follows:
1. SPF is an isothermal forming process. Therefore, the whole
tooling set-up is normally located within a furnace to guarantee
the blank and die have the same temperature, resulting in dif-
ficulties in automation.
2. Extremely large plastic deformation could be observed, which is
ideal for forming very complex panel components, as shown in
Fig. 10(a).
3. Sheet blank should have fine grains and grain growth rate must
be slow during forming, as shown in Fig. 10(b).
4. The productivity of SPF is low.
A number of aluminium alloys have been proved to exhibit su-
perplasticity. Table 4 summarises the process variables and super-
plastic features of commercial alloys with superplasticity.
Compared with superplastic forming aluminium alloys, the re-
quirements of alloys used in QPF are not strict. QPF incorporates
much more automation compared to conventional SPF processes
for producing dimensionally accurate components directly from a
forming cell. The QPF process is highly optimized around each
specific component to minimize the cycle time and maximize
productivity. Although the shape complexity is less than SPFed
components, forming at elevated temperatures still enables poor
formability of aluminium sheet materials to be overcome compared
to cold stamping conditions.
Quick plastic forming
Strain rate/Temperature chosen to maximize productivity
consistent with final quality
Automotive
 High volume (tens of 1000s panels per year)
 Low price point product (Consumer goods)
 Emphasize first time dimensional and surface quality
High level automation, automatic handling
Higher investment, lower piece cost
Moderate shapes (More complex than automotive metal stamping)
Moderate forming strains-back pressure not required
Moderate post-form strength
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
Fig. 10. Typical features of superplastic forming: (a) Schematic superplastic forming
mechanism [98], and (b) EBSD maps of superplastic forming an Al-Zn alloy [99].
2.2.2.5. Hot stamping with rigid dies. Recently, to extend the ap-
plications of aluminium alloys in the transportation industry,
especially the automotive industry, hot stamping of high-strength
heat treatable aluminium alloys at even higher forming temper-
atures than conventional warm forming has become feasible and
efficient. One of these processes, named Hot Form and Quench
(HFQ®), was proposed by Lin et al. [100], and is believed to be a
leading-edge technique in this area [74]. Fig. 11 illustrates the
temperature profile of a blank in the HFQ® process [101]. Initially a
blank is heated to its Solution Heat Treatment (SHT) temperature
and soaked for a specific time period to dissolve the original
coarse precipitates and soluble inclusions within the a-Al matrix
and obtain an optimum microstructure. Then the blank is quickly
transferred to the press, stamped and held for a brief period be-
tween the cold dies which quench the blank to lower tempera-
tures (normally lower than the artificial ageing temperature for
heat-treatable aluminium alloys). The blank is more ductile at
elevated temperatures, and using cold die quenching can achieve
a cooling rate rapid enough to prevent the formation of coarse
secondary phase at grain boundaries and obtain a super saturated
solid solution state in the formed part. For heat treatable
aluminium alloys, the hot stamped part can be artificially aged to
Table 4
Compositions of superplastic aluminium alloys and corresponding superplastic forming conditions [96].
Alloy Composition, wt%
2004 Al-6Cu-0.4Zr
5083 Al-4.5Mg-0.7Mn-0.1Zr
7475 Al-5.7Zn-2.3Mg-1.5Cu-0.2Cr
8090 Al-2.4Li-1.2Cu-0.7Mg-0.1Zr
2090 Al-2.5Cu-2.3Li-0.12Zr
63
achieve higher strength to meet the design requirements of
vehicle manufacturers. Beneficial characteristics of HFQ® can be
summarised as follows:
1. HFQ® is a hot stamping process integrated with heat treatment,
which is independent of alloy grade and initial heat treatment
temper. Optimal microstructures can be controlled during hot
forming and post-formed strength can be guaranteed.
2. Ductility can be maximized, which enables the successful
forming of complex-shaped components and extends the
application of aluminium parts in car body structures.
3. The combination of solution heat treatment, hot forming and
quenching can reduce manufacturing operations and improve
productivity.
4. Holding the formed part between cold dies while it cools
eliminates springback and ensures part shape accuracy.
Another typical hot stamping process for the manufacture of
high strength heat-treatable aluminium alloy components was
proposed by Maeno et al. [103]. Two major characteristics of this
process are: initial T4 heat treatment temper and quick heating.
The quick heating can be achieved by resistance heating of initial
blanks with the same cross-section area, or by furnace heating with
a pre-designed thermal gradient. Such a process enables the
removal of solution treatment found in HFQ® and the sizing pro-
cesses to determine part accuracy in cold stamping. Aluminium
alloy aircraft parts with a high strength and dimensional accuracy
were successfully produced by this process. However, arising from
the requirements of this process, there also exists several chal-
lenges that need to be addressed:
 The selection of raw material is not flexible. An initial T4 temper
of alloys is required, which restricts its application using com-
mercial aluminium alloys such as those in T6 or O tempers.
 An extremely high heating rate is required for high quench-
sensitive alloys to avoid the coarsening of precipitates during
heating according to the Temperature-Time-Property curve,
such as AA7075 and AA7050, which means a powerful heating
facility is required.
 The uniformity of temperature for a large initial blank using
quick heating approach might be a potential concern.
3. Recent progress of experimentation
Sheet metal forming processes have been investigated for many
years. Each forming technique has its own advantages and appli-
cations. In addition, the disadvantages of each results in there being
no single forming technique suitable for all industry scenarios.
Comprehensive reviews on specific manufacturing techniques have
been performed in the literature [11,42,104,105]. Therefore, the
following section focuses on recent experimental progress that has
been made with elevated forming temperature techniques from the
view of the analysis of advantages and limitations in previous
sections (see Fig. 12).
SPF temperature ( C) Strain rate (/s) Elongation (%)
460 ~10 e3
800e1200
500e520 ~10e3 ~300
515 2  10
4 800
530 5  10
4 1000
530 ~10e3 500
64 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
Fig. 11. Hot Form and Quench (HFQ®) process [101,102].
Fig. 12. Hot stamping process of high-strength aluminium alloy aircraft parts using
quick heating [103].
3.1. Warm stamping
3.1.1. Raw material candidates
Warm forming has been proved to be suitable for non-heat
treatable aluminium alloys, while its application for heat-
treatable aluminium alloys is controversial. Recently, research has
been performed on warm forming of high strength heat-treatable
aluminium alloys. Kumar and Ross [106] investigated formability
and post-form strength of high strength AW7921-T4 using uniaxial
tensile tests at different warm forming conditions. Fig. 13(a) shows
the temperature effect on the post-formed strength and strain to
failure. By increasing the warm forming temperature, severe loss of
strength was observed, while the ductility was significantly
improved. The reasons for such trends was identified and explained
by Huo et al. [107] through TEM observations, as shown in
Fig. 13(b). For warm formed AA7075, the dominant phases at 200  C
were fine h0 and GP zones, while well-developed h0 and coarser h
phases were found at 250  C. These phases determined the post-
formed and post-paint-bake mechanical properties. Specifically,
200  C warm forming caused limited coarsening of matrix pre-
cipitates and generated a certain number of dislocations. The
combined effect of the decreased precipitation strengthening and
increased dislocation strengthening enables to preserve the
inherent high strength of 7075-T6. However, 250  C forming led to
severely decreased hardness due to the rapidly coarsened matrix
precipitates, resulting in the loss of strength. Therefore, it can be
found that temperature plays a dominant role in determining
precipitation and corresponding mechanical properties. In general,
the increase of warm forming temperature is detrimental for
guaranteeing post-formed strength, and the temperature effect
varies with different alloy grade and initial temper. Hui et al. [108]
found that the draw-ability and stretch-ability of AA7075 can be
significantly improved within a temperature range of 140  C and
220  C.
AA7xxx belongs to the highly quench-sensitivity alloy category,
which exhibit sensitive response of precipitates during heating and
cooling. In comparison, AA6xxx is not as sensitive, which might
experience different responses on formability and post-formed
strength under warm forming conditions. Mahabunphachai and
Koç [109] utilised hot bulging tests to evaluate the formability of
AA6061. The formability was increased at 300  C and a low strain
rate. However, the post-formed strength was not evaluated. Fan
et al. [110] tested the draw-ability and post-formed strength of an
Al-Mg-Si alloy within a temperature range of 25  C and 500  C. The
limit drawing ratio increased as temperature rose to 200  C and
decreased afterwards. In addition, hardness peaked at 200  C and
500  C. Formation of coarse b
precipitates were believed to cause
the decrease in hardness at temperatures ranging from 250 to
450  C. Rapid heating may avoid the coarsening of precipitates
when warm forming aluminium alloys with an initial T4 temper
[103]. To this end, systematic studies with an overall analysis on
warm forming heat-treatable aluminium alloys considering effects
of temperature, strain rate, heating rate, alloy grade and initial heat
treatment temper are minimal.
3.1.2. Process variables
3.1.2.1. Heating. Heating history prior to warm forming may
determine the subsequent deformation and post-formed strength
of heat-treatable alloys. To obtain a carefully controllable heating
stage, novel and robust heating devices are required. For sheet
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80 65

Fig. 13. Warm forming of high strength heat treatable aluminium alloys: (a) Effects of warm forming temperatures on mechanical properties of AA7921 [106], and (b) Micro-
structure evolutions at different warm forming temperatures of AA7075 [107].

metal blanks, these include (a) commonly used furnace heating
[111] and (b) resistance heating [112] as shown in Fig. 14. The ap-
plications of (c) contact heating [113] and (d) induction heating [74]
methods are still limited to laboratory scale shapes. Furnace heat-
ing is the most mature heating method, and extensively used in hot
stamping press shops. The significant advantages of furnace
heating are: (1) uniform temperature distribution, (2) the system
layout is easy to be arranged and the furnace easily integrated into a
production line, (3) several blanks could be heated simultaneously
and (4) suitable for mass production applications. However, several
disadvantages exist including: (1) a relatively slow heating rate due
to the low emissivity of aluminium alloys, and (2) sophisticated

Fig. 14. Heating methods used for warm forming processes: (a) Furnace heating [111], (b) Resistance heating [112], (c) Contact heating [113] and (d) Induction heating [74].
66 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
handling systems are required for integration with the forming
process.
To increase the heating rate, resistance and induction heating
have been developed. Potential problems of resistance heating are:
(1) non-uniform temperature distribution, (2) resistance heating is
not suitable for complex-shaped initial blanks and (3) the electrical
resistance of aluminium alloys is relatively low, according to Joule's
law, a greater power input has to be used. With regard to induction
heating, induction coil design is critical in determining the heating
rate. The heating efficiency of heating aluminium alloys depends on
the frequency of power supply, induction coil design and layout.
Induction heating is less efficient at heating non-magnetic mate-
rials such as aluminium alloys, compared with steels.
Moreover, there are still improvements needed to develop lab-
oratory scale heating methods to a mass production setting. Rasera
et al. [113] developed a contact heating method for hot stamping
process which enabled a reasonably high heating rate, uniform
temperature distribution and high efficiency to be obtained. In
terms of heating aluminium alloys, target heating temperature is
relatively lower, between 400  C and 500  C. Commonly used
material for heating platens is steel material that is low cost.
However, the temperature of the heating platens needs to be
constantly monitored for mass production. For hot stamping
aluminium alloys, a solution heat treatment is normally used,
which requires the heating platens to clamp the sheet blank which
may lower productivity.
3.1.2.2. Forming. Aluminium alloys heated and formed above 0.3
Tm , result in the material deformation mechanism changing from
elastic-plastic to elastic-visocoplastic. The mechanisms involved in
this region become complicated, involving several time-dependent
parameters, such as diffusion, recovery/annihilation, recrystallisa-
tion and grain growth. The dominant deformation mechanisms in
warm forming conditions are related to temperature [109], defor-
mation rate [113] and grain size [114].
Temperature and strain rate effects on warm forming AA5xxx
has been critically reviewed by Toros et al. [11]. In general, form-
ability, reflected by forming limit curves, is increased with
increasing temperature and decreasing strain rate. Kumar et al.
[115] systematically investigated the formability of AW-7020-T6
using uniaxial tensile, swift-cupping and cross-die deep drawing
tests at a temperature range between 150  C and 250  C. AW-7020-
T6 has been proved to be temperature and strain rate dependent
through tensile tests, as the yield and ultimate tensile strength
decreased with increasing temperature. True fracture strain (uni-
axial tensile), limit draw ratio (swift-cupping) and limit drawing
depth (cross-die deep drawing) increase with increasing temper-
0
ature above 150  C due to dynamic recovery and dissolution of h . It
should be noted that, the draw-ability at elevated temperatures is a
very complex definition, which is related to not only alloy intrinsic
properties, such as alloy grade, grain size, heat treatment temper
and responses to temperature and strain rate, but also external
factors, including blankholding force and tooling condition (fric-
tion and heat transfer for non-isothermal scenario). Details of
above factors are discussed along with hot stamping condition in
Section 3.4.
3.2. Warm sheet hydroforming
The temperature limit of pressurizing medium used in hydro-
forming determines the success of warm sheet hydroforming [116].
Oil and gas are two commonly used pressurising medium for warm
sheet hydroforming. Oil, in comparison with gas, offers the ad-
vantages of lower compressibility, higher thermal capacity and
pressurization, whereas its application is restricted due to its
flammability. Hence, non-flammable gases are used for higher
temperature applications. The temperature ranges of oil and gas,
along with the required pressure of hydroforming an aluminium
alloy, is given by Hartl [116] and presented in Fig. 15. Palumbo et al.
[86] performed the warm hydroforming of age hardenable AA6xxx
and found that the optimum working temperature was 200  C and
the exposure time of the material to the warm-forming tempera-
ture had to be minimized. In addition, an increased strain rate was
beneficial due to strain rate hardening, in terms of die cavity filling
and sheet thinning, to obtain sound products. Lang et al. [85] found
that the pressure rate is a factor that can influence the deformation
of material in warm hydroforming. To determine the optimal
loading path of warm hydroforming, Choi et al. [117] proposed a
methodology to determine profiles of the hydraulic pressure and
the blank holder force under warm hydroforming conditions at
different punch speeds. An adaptive FE analysis with fuzzy control
algorithm was developed. Thinning, wrinkling, punch wall contact,
die corner floating and conduction were used as criteria in the fuzzy
control algorithm.
3.3. Hot gas forming
3.3.1. Quick plastic forming
The QPF developed by General Motors has been successfully
applied to the automotive industry and enables the manufacture of
complex-shaped aluminium components at a rate of 100,000 per
year. The technology has been successfully used on four production
closures [94] and a review of this technology has been conducted
by Krajewski and Schroth [94]. Currently, the material candidates
mainly concentrate on AA5083, AA6xxx alloys and magnesium al-
loys [118] depending on the specific applications in automobiles.
Recently, the QPF technology has been used in the aerospace in-
dustry, mainly for forming titanium alloys [94] and Al-Li alloys
[119]. Fan et al. [119] investigated the strengthening behaviour and
microstructure evolutions of AA2195 using a hot gas forming pro-
cess integrated with heat treatment, as shown in Fig. 16(a). The
objective of this process was to avoid subsequent heat treatment
and resultant thermal distortion. The sheet is formed into the
required shape by high gas-pressure within several seconds after
being solution heat treated, then cooled quickly within water-
cooled dies or by some other cooling methods. Obvious recrystal-
lization, as shown in Fig. 16(b), was observed during hot gas
Fig. 15. Example of required internal pressure depending on temperature and strain
rate for the forming of an aluminium alloy [116].
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
Fig. 16. Quick plastic forming of Al-Cu-Li with integrated heat treatment: (a) Experimentation details and (b) EBSD maps of different locations on a hot bulged part [119].
forming, which was believed to be initiated by the initial disloca-
tion density and high forming temperature. However, the current
progress has concentrated on simulating the microstructure evo-
lutions in the process, and practical operation methods have not
been developed. Wang et al. [120] performed hot gas bulging tests
of friction stir welded (FSW) AA2024-T4 at a temperature of 400  C.
The deformation of FSW sheet was also concentrated in the weld
zone during free bulging tests and the global formability of FSW
sheet was poorer than that of the base metal. To date, quick plastic
forming for aerospace alloys is still limited.
3.3.2. Superplastic forming
The major concern of SPF is the over-thinning that occurs in a
complex-shaped component, as shown in Fig. 17(b). The reason is
that during SPF, the sheet blank is firmly clamped without being
drawn-in and the material experiences pure bulging deformation
using the superplasticity of the alloy. To address this drawback,
some modifications have been made to SPF. Luo et al. [121]
developed an advanced hybrid forming process by combing SPF
with a hot draw mechanical pre-forming process. The advantage
of this process is, using a hot draw pre-forming, a certain amount
of material can be drawn into the die, and a more uniform
thickness distribution is obtained in the subsequent SPF. As can
be seen in Fig. 17(b), using such a process, the tight radius of the
rectangular box can be successfully formed without rupture.
Luckey Jr. et al. [122] proposed a two-stage SPF process, which
was demonstrated by practical forming trials of AA5083 to prove
the ability of overcoming excessive thinning and necking. The
operation of this process is to use gas pressure to form the blank
into a preform die cavity of a single die, prior to the pressure
being reversed to form the sheet into the final component cavity.
The preforming of the blank contributes to form longitudinal
geometry without severe thinning, while guaranteeing metal
thickness in certain regions to improve the thickness profile of
the final part.
67
3.4. Hot stamping
HFQ®, a hot stamping process for aluminium alloys, was
patented in 2008. The complex temperature profile of this process
results in a material that exhibits different microstructural evolu-
tions and corresponding mechanical properties. Therefore, the
conventional characterisation methods of aluminium alloys, like
isothermal warm forming, are not suitable for the HFQ® process.
3.4.1. Material characterisation
Ductility and formability of an alloy is normally characterised by
uniaxial tensile and forming limit tests. Material in HFQ® experi-
ences solution heat treatment first to obtain an optimal micro-
structure. Then, to characterise the ductility under a uniaxial stress
state or forming limits under a biaxial stress state at different
temperatures, a fast cooling is required to quickly quench specimen
to target temperatures. This results in conventional isothermal
dome tests being unsuitable. Novel test facilities with capabilities of
precisely controlled heating, cooling and deformation, as well as
new test schemes, are required.
Fig. 18 summarises two commonly used heating methods for
uniaxial tensile tests, which enables to quickly heat a specimen at a
fixed heating rate. Resistance heating in a Gleeble machine is
believed to be the most commonly used method. However, the
clamping grips are water cooled resulting in the temperature dis-
tribution on the specimen being non-uniform. The determination
of gauge zone becomes an important issue. Induction heating is
another popular heating method, which enables the heating device
to be independent of the mechanical testing facility. However, the
non-magnetic characteristic of aluminium alloys restricts the effi-
ciency of induction heating. In addition, to achieve the complex
heating path of HFQ®, air or water cooling devices are normally
integrated into the test equipment.
Both resistance and induction heating belong to the localised
heating method category. There exists a temperature gradient
68 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80

Fig. 17. Hot draw mechanical pre-forming superplastic forming (HDMP-SPF) [121]: (a) Schematic of HDMP-SPF and (b) Rectangular boxes formed by HDMP-SPF and SPF for AA5083.

Fig. 18. Novel uniaxial testing facilities for hot stamping: (a) Resistance heating (Gleeble) [125] and (b) Induction heating [126].

within the longitudinal direction of the specimen due to the grip
cooling effect [123], compared with environmental heating such as
conventional furnace heating. To generate a uniform temperature
distribution within the specimen using such local heating methods,
and to avoid determining gauge zone, an advanced grip design was
proposed by Ganapathy et al. [124], as shown in Fig. 19(a). The
innovative design of the new grips developed enables uniaxial
tensile tests under hot stamping conditions to be performed in a
simpler way resulting in more accurate results. As can be seen in
Fig. 19(b), the concept of self-resistance heating grips, which en-
sures better uniformity of temperature fields in test-pieces, can be
potentially applied for tests of different alloys under complex
plane-stress conditions, such as biaxial tensile, with modifications
on the grip material and circulation designs.
In terms of hot stamping complex-shaped components, a sheet
metal blank experiences variations of temperature, strain rate and
strain path. Using uniaxial ductility only is insufficient to evaluate
formability. The forming limit diagram (FLD) is conventionally used to
evaluate the formability of sheet metals [127], which comprises a set of
forming limit curves enabling the boundary between uniform defor-
mation and the start of plastic instability leading to material failure to
be identified. Similar with hot tensile tests under HFQ®, robust test
devices are required to achieve heating and cooling functions.
The FLD is commonly determined using either MK tests [128]
or cruciform tests [129]. Bariani et al. [130] presented an inno-
vative experimental set-up based on conventional Nakajima tests,
enabling the forming limits of hot stamping high strength steel to
be evaluated. An induction heating method, as shown in
Fig. 20(a), was utilised. With the combination of air cooling, the
actual phase transformation kinetics for materials under defor-
mation conditions can be simulated with controls of temperature
and strain path variations to be achieved. Such a device also has
potential to be used in determining the FLD of aluminium alloys at
hot stamping conditions. Shao et al. [131] established a novel
biaxial test system and scheme for optimising cruciform speci-
mens specifically used for the resistance heating. Using such a
novel system, for the first time, the forming limit data of an alloy
can be generated at various temperatures, strain rates and strain
paths and forming limits predicted under hot stamping
conditions.
3.4.2. Process variables
From the view of transferring laboratory research to industrial
production, temperature and strain rate (forming speed) are two
key variables in hot stamping aluminium alloys. Fig. 21(a) sum-
marises the temperature effect on alloy ductility of various
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80 69

Fig. 19. Advanced Gleeble grip design [124]: (a) Schematic of grip design and (b) Stress-strain curve using new grip.

commercial wrought aluminium alloys. For aerospace alloys, such
as AA2024, AA7075 and Al-Li alloy AA2060, strain to failure in-
creases with increasing temperature initially, and then decreases
afterwards. The maximum ductility emerges at temperatures lower
than the solution heat treatment temperature. The sharp decrease
of ductility is believed to be caused by the low melting phases
within the matrix. Wang et al. [132] performed SEM observations of
AA2024 and found that when the temperature exceeds 450  C,
softening of grain boundary occurs due to the solute enrichment (at
higher heating rates liquation may be involved) and softening of
the matrix around inclusion particles. For alloys preferred for
automotive applications, such as AA5754 and AA6082, ductility
continuously increases with increasing temperature until the so-
lution heat treatment temperature, which demonstrates that hot
stamping such alloys directly after solution heat treatment (SHT)
results in a maximum ductility.
Forming speed is another critical influencing factor for two main
reasons. Firstly, strain rate hardening is the dominant mechanism
of deforming aluminium alloys at elevated temperatures. Different
forming speeds correspond to different flow stress levels that

Fig. 20. Novel experimental set-ups of determining forming limit diagrams at hot stamping conditions: (a) Elevated Nakajima tests using induction heating [130] and (b) Cruciform
tests using resistance heating [131].
70 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
Fig. 21. Process variable effects on the hot deformation of aluminium alloys, (a) Temperature effect on the ductility of different alloys [101,132,135], and (b) Forming speed effect on
the failure mode of AA6082 [101].
determine the uniformity of deformation and success of forming.
Secondly, the heat transfer between hot blank and cold dies results
in the forming process being non-isothermal. The heat exchange
time is determined by the forming speed and punch stroke, which
plays an interesting role on the failure location and deformation
uniformity. Mohamed et al. [101] established a process window of
hot stamping AA6082 as a function of forming rate, as shown in
Fig. 21(b). El Fakir et al. [133] and Zheng et al. [134] also concluded
that a higher forming speed is beneficial for obtaining a uniform
deformation.
3.4.3. Novel tooling techniques
The high temperature of material using hot stamping results in
lower material stress level and less hardening feature due to re-
covery, which affects material flow in the flange and induces
localized thinning. To address these potential problems, improve-
ments on the tribological and thermal properties of die surfaces
determining flange material flow and temperature field within a
blank during hot stamping, are feasible approaches. Compared with
extensive research on the tooling of hot stamping high strength
steel, considering the lower strength, greater heat transfer phe-
nomenon and greater aluminium alloy adhesion tendency, novel
tooling techniques are required for hot stamping aluminium alloys.
Zheng et al. [134] proposed a macro-textured tool surface concept
and these textured tool surfaces were investigated in bending [134]
and drawing [136] types of forming process at both cold and hot
stamping conditions [137], as shown in Fig. 22. The advantages of
using texture design on the tool surfaces are: (1) less contact on the
flange between hot blank and cold dies is beneficial for preserving
the flange temperature. The more uniform temperature contributes
to obtain a more uniform material deformation within the blank.
(2) The material that is absent of contact with die surfaces expe-
riences no friction, and this material is easier to be drawn into the
die to assist the remaining material to flow. (3) The required
blankholding force of suppressing flange wrinkling is low. For the
type of bending deformation, as shown in Fig. 22(a), material un-
dergoes one-dimension however the textured design may induce
buckling on the material that does not experience blankholding
force. To control buckling and provide guidelines to tool designers,
a series of buckling models, based on beam [136,137], plate [136]
and shell [138] assumptions, under cold [136], warm [139] and
hot stamping [137] conditions were established.
To improve the tribological performance of tooling and achieve
the objective of minimising or eliminating lubricant, Dong et al.
[140] proposed a methodology of duplex-treated tooling surfaces
for hot stamping dies. In this treatment, low-cost tool material
candidates, such as cast iron, can be utilised as substrate tool ma-
terial, as the forming load of hot stamping aluminium alloys is not
as high as that of high strength steel. Then, plasma treatments, such
as plasma-nitriding or plasma-carburising, are performed on the
tool surfaces to further increase the tool surface strength. Finally, to
improve the tribological properties, different coatings, such as WC:
C coating, are applied on the top layer. Fig. 23(a) illustrates the
microstructure of a duplex-treated tool. A series of tribological tests
were performed for different tool surface conditions using con-
ventional pin on disc tests. The friction coefficient can be reduced
significantly compared with untreated tool surfaces, as shown in
Fig. 23(b). It is interesting to note that, PNC treated tool surface has
no significant effect on reducing friction coefficient. The function of
PNC treatment is mainly for increasing tool surface strength, which
contributes to using cheap tool material, like cast iron, to replace
conventional expensive hot working steels. Zheng et al. [141]
further tested the lubrication performance of duplex treated tool
surfaces in a practical deep drawing process. The results have
shown that the advanced WC: C Diamond-like Carbon (DLC)
coating could significantly reduce the use of lubricant for hot
stamping.
3.4.4. Characterisation methods of interface properties under hot
stamping condition
Interfacial heat transfer coefficient (IHTC) and friction coeffi-
cient (CoF), representing the thermal and tribology properties of
die surfaces are crucial for the accuracy of finite element simula-
tions [143]. Therefore, characterisation methods of these two
properties become important. In terms of the interfacial heat
transfer coefficient, two commonly used methodologies, named as
one-dimensional (1D) closed-form calculation [144] and inverse FE
method [145] are shown in Fig. 24. Xiao et al. [146] utilised the 1D
closed-form calculation to calculate the interfacial heat transfer
coefficients of hot stamping AA7075 at different contact pressures
and lubrication conditions. The results have shown that IHTC values
increased with increasing contact pressure and use of lubricant.
Ying et al. [144] performed a systematic investigation on the IHTC
of HFQ® forming AA7075-T6. Effects of contact pressure, surface
roughness and lubrication conditions were evaluated. In addition,
the obtained IHTC was used in the simulation process to be vali-
dated against a typical U-type experimental model. The finite
element assist method is used to compare IHTC values imple-
mented in FE with experimentally recorded values to compare
temperature histories. To precisely measure the temperature evo-
lutions of a specimen and tools during hot stamping, Liu et al. [147]
developed a novel experimental facility based on the Gleeble
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80 71

Fig. 22. Textured tool surfaces for hot stamping dies [134,136].

Fig. 23. Duplex surface treated hot stamping die surface, (a) SEM photo of WC: C coated & PNC treated G3500 die [142], and (b) Friction coefficient evolution of treated tool surface
at hot stamping condition [140].

testing machine, as shown in Fig. 24(b). The IHTC values between
AA7075 and three different tool materials were characterized. In
addition, utilising this methodology, Liu et al. [147] further used
this method to investigate the effects of lubricant on the IHTC
during hot stamping AA6082 with different thicknesses. The IHTC
was increased using a graphite lubricant to fill the vacancies of
asperities at the contact interface. The increase in IHTC when
applying lubricant compared to air is approximately 26% and 20%
for the 2 and 3 mm thick specimens respectively. In addition, it was
also found that the IHTC decreases dramatically from a stable value

Fig. 24. Methods of determining interfacial heat transfer coefficients, (a) One-dimensional closed-form method [144] and (b) Inverse FE method [145].
72 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
when the lubricant layer thickness is lower than 20 mm at different
contact pressures.
A precise determination of friction coefficient (CoF) is very
challenging as the hot stamping process introduces non-isothermal
contact. In addition, CoFs are also related to material pair, tem-
perature, sliding speed, sliding distance, lubrication and surface
roughness. A robust test method and new test scheme are required
to include these influencing factors. Fig. 25 summarises typical
methods used to determine interfacial friction coefficients, which
can be potentially used for hot stamping processes. The Pin on disc
method [140] is believed to be the most commonly used method to
determine the CoF and wear during sliding. However, the contact
condition at the interface is different with actual conditions expe-
rienced in hot stamping. In addition, the range of test variables,
such as sliding speed, is dependent on the capability of test
equipment. Shi et al. [148] developed simple test equipment used
to determine friction coefficient under warm forming condition, as
shown in Fig. 25(b). The whole test rig was mounted within a
furnace to heat both tools and blank to elevated temperatures. A
sufficiently high sliding speed and distance can be obtained with
the combination of hydraulic press. However, the contact condition
still a point to surface contact. Hot strip drawing [149] is believed to
be the most similar test method to simulate the actual contact
during hot stamping. However, previous research mainly concen-
trated on investigating the tribology of steel with limited research
being performed on hot stamping aluminium alloy sheets.
4. Material modelling and numerical simulations
For sheet stamping processes, the development of material
modelling has mainly concentrated on the modelling of stress-
strain response, hardening and failure of materials under
different forming conditions. The developed material models can
be implemented into different finite element software to give
comprehensive and precise simulations to predict sheet metal
deformation.
Fig. 25. Methods of determining interfacial friction coefficient of hot stamping aluminium alloys, (a) Pin on disk [140], (b) Strip drawing on pin tool [148], and (c) Hot strip drawing
[149].
4.1. Cold forming condition
4.1.1. Fundamentals of material model
Materials experience elastic-plastic deformation, with the uni-
axial stress-strain relationship at room temperature deformation
conditions given in Eq. (1), where E represents the Young's
modulus, εe , εp and εT represent the elastic, plastic and total strain
respectively. s represents the effective stress. A plane stress
assumption is normally used for sheet forming process, enabling
the uniaxial case to be written as Eq. (2).


s ¼ Eεe ¼ E εT
εp (1)


sij ¼ Dijkl εeij ¼ Dijkl εTij
εpij (2)
In FE analysis, the total strain is obtained from nodal displace-
ments, which are achieved by solving global system equations.
Therefore, to calculate stress, the calculation of plastic strains be-
comes vitally important. Plastic strain can be calculated from
constitutive relationships, as given in Eq. (3).
 
vf sij
dεpij ¼ H df (3)
vsij
f represents plastic potential, H is a scalar coefficient related to
hardening. For associated flow theory, plastic potential is assumed
to be yield locus, while for non-associated flow theory, the
assumption is invalid.
For cold forming, hardening is due to an increase in the dislo-
cation density due to plastic straining, resulting in the flow stress ss
increasing with plastic strain. Lin [150] proposed a complete ma-
terial model of an initially isotropic elastic-plastic solid subject to
monotonic uniaxial loading:
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80 73

8  
> jsj
sY n to predict earing in a deep drawn cup. The predicted and experi-
< εp ¼ sgnðsÞ; withjsj ¼ ss mental cup height profiles (earing profiles) with six ears are shown
K (4)
>
:
 to be in excellent agreement. Earing for strongly textured
s ¼ E εT
εp aluminium alloys, AA6111-T4, were also predicted by Yoon et al.
[168] using the Yld 2000 anisotropic yield function. An improve-
The above expression is derived based on dislocation density, ment in prediction was observed using Yld 2000 compared with
following the form of Ramberg-Osgood equation [151]. Other conventional Hill 48 yield criterion. It should be noted that, this
commonly used phenomenological hardening laws can be also review focused only on macroscopic yield functions, microscopic
used, which are summarized in Table 5. yield functions based on crystal plasticity are not taken into
account.
4.1.2. Improvements on material model under cold forming
condition
4.1.3.2. Kinematic hardening. In many sheet forming processes,
In terms of cold stamping complex-shaped aluminium alloy
especially those that include draw-bead and bending/unbending,
components, two particular issues need to be carefully considered
the sheet metal undergoes cyclic deformation. Cyclic effects caused
and modelled to improve the accuracy of model predictions.
by this type of deformation cannot be predicted with the common
isotropic hardening law, resulting in a suitable kinematic hardening
 Aluminium alloy sheet blanks are normally produced by rolling
law being required.
with strong anisotropy feature due to the texture of orientation
A series of constitutive models have been proposed considering
of materials. The anisotropy feature has an important effect on
kinematic hardening together with anisotropic properties and cy-
the material flow and earing of sheet stamping components
clic deformations. Teng et al. [169] combined Mroz's anisotropic
[154].
hardening rule to calculate the springback of sheet stamping. Wu
 For stamping a complex-shaped panel component, the material
[170] extended the Hill 48 anisotropic criterion to include mixed
is subjected to bending and unbending conditions. In additional,
hardening for sheet metals. Chung et al. [171] and Lee et al.
drawing and redrawing processes might be utilised to obtain a
[172,173] formulated the Yld 2000 plane stress yield function with
greater drawing depth. In such scenarios, kinematic hardening
modified Chaboche-type combined isotropicekinematic hardening
become important for the prediction of residual stress and
law to consider the Bauschinger effect and transient behaviour. In
springback after stamping.
these studies, the prediction capability of springback was
improved. Taherizadeh et al. [174] proposed an anisotropic material
model based on non-associated flow rule and mixed
4.1.3. Modelling of anisotropic and kinematic hardening isotropicekinematic hardening (ArmstrongeFrederick formula-
4.1.3.1. Anisotropy for earing prediction. Extensive research has tion), and implemented it into a user-defined material (UMAT)
been conducted to model the anisotropy of sheet stamping. Hill subroutine for ABAQUS with Hill’ 48 yield function being selected.
proposed a quadratic yield function as a generalization of the von This model was further compared with other advanced models
Mises yield function for anisotropic materials in 1948 [155]. How- using different yield functions [175].
ever, the well-known yield function is concluded to be unsuitable
for highly anisotropic aluminium alloys [156]. Various types of
4.2. Elevated temperature forming conditions
anisotropic models have been developed and proposed to consider
different aspects of anisotropy by Hill [157e159], Hosford [160] and
Aluminium alloys exhibit viscoplastic behaviours when they are
Barlat et al. [161e163]. A comprehensive review of these models
deformed at a temperature T=Tm > 1=3, where Tm is the melting
was given by Habraken [164]. The above classical anisotropic yield
temperature of alloy. Therefore, viscoplastic theories should be
functions are widely used in engineering applications. Recently,
used for elevated temperature forming conditions of aluminium
Stoughton and Yoon [165] proposed a new anisotropic model based
alloys. When the material is deformed at high temperatures, ma-
on the non-associated flow theory, which is a significant
terial properties, such as flow stress, are dependent on forming
improvement on the isotropic hardening non-associated flow
temperature, strain rate, strain and strain rate history and hence
theory proposed in 2002 [166]. Based on Stoughton's non-
constitutive models of forming aluminium alloys at elevated tem-
associated hardening model, Lee et al. [167] proposed a non-
peratures become vitally important. In this section, phenomeno-
associated flow rule which simply couples quadratic and non-
logical (empirical) and physical-based material models are
quadratic yield functions to describe the evolution of yield sur-
reviewed.
face. The contribution of the non-quadratic part is to control the
curvature of the whole model, while the quadratic part is to
describe anisotropic hardening throughout a deformation history. 4.2.1. Phenomenological models
The model comparison shows that the present model can follow Phenomenological plastic constitutive models are widely used
the anisotropic hardening of AA5182-O and AA6022-T43. in modelling the forming processes of alloys at high-strain-rates
To validate the anisotropic models, Yoon et al. [154] imple- and temperatures. Table 6 summarises a series of commonly used
mented the Yld2004 yield function into finite element simulations phenomenological models.

Table 5
Commonly used empirical constitutive models of cold forming.

Model Expression Descriptions

Ludwik [152] s ¼ Cεn C is a constant stress, n is a strain hardening exponent

Swift [127] s ¼ Cðm þ εn Þ C, m and n are empirical constants
Voce [153] s ¼ Cð1
me
nε Þ e is the exponential constant, others are constants
(  m
1 )
Ramberg-Osgood [151] s0 is a nominal yield stress, a is a dimensionless constant
ε ¼ sE 1 þ a ss0
74 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80

Table 6
Commonly used phenomenological models.

Model Expression Descriptions

Fields and Bachofen (FB) [176]
Modified FB
Johnson-Cook (JC) [177]
Khan and Huang (KH) [178]
KhaneHuange Liang (KHL) [179]
Zener-Hollomon (Arrehnius) [180]
s ¼ Kεn εm K is the strength coefficient, n is the strain hardening coefficient,
and m is the strain rate hardening coefficient.
s ¼ k þ Kεn εm k is the threshold stress
8
< sðA þ εn BÞð1 þ ClnB_ε* Þð1
T *m Þ A is the yield stress at the reference temperature Tr and strain
ε_ * ¼ ε_ =_ε0 rate ε_ 0 B is strain rate hardening coefficient, n is the strain rate
:
T * ¼ T
Tr =Tm
Tr hardening exponent
C and m are material constants.
J2 ¼ f1 ðεp Þf2 ð_εp Þ J2 is the flow stress, εp and ε_ p are equivalent plastic strain and
strain rates. f1 and f are functions of equivalent plastic strain
and plastic strain rate respectively.
n1
s½A þ Bð1
ln_ε=lnDP0 Þ εn0 εcln_ε ð1
T *m Þ A, B, n0 , n1 , C and m are material constants, DP0 equals to 106/s.
ε_ ¼ А½sinhðasÞn expð
Q =RTÞ Q is the activation energy, R is the ideal gas constant. A, a and
Z ¼ ε_ expðQR=TÞ n are material constants.
s ¼ 1=alnfðZ=AÞ1=n þ ½ðZ=AÞ2=n þ11=2 g

4.2.2. Physical based material model s !n

ð1
uÞ

R
k 1
Phenomenological models can be used to model strain hard- ε_ p ¼ (5)
ening at elevated temperature forming conditions, which do not K
take into account microstructure evolutions. In terms of some
particular forming processes, such as SPF, where recrystallisation
R_ ¼ 0:5r0:5 ðr_ Þ (6)
takes place, dislocation-free grains are generated, which results in
the reduction of the dislocation density and material softening.
Therefore, in order to precisely model various microstructure
ðr_ Þ ¼ Að1
rÞj_εp j
C rn2 (7)
evolutions for a specific forming process, physical mechanisms-
based material models are required.
Physically-based models containing mechanisms of deforma- h1  p h2 
tion such as dislocation dynamics and thermal activation have been u_ ¼ h3 j_ε j (8)
ð1
uÞ
developed in the literature. These include: Zerilli-Armstrong (ZA)
[181], Hybrid model based on neuro-fuzzy and physically based

component [182,183], Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) [184], s ¼ Eð1
uÞ εT
εp (9)
Preston-Tonks-Wallace (PTW) [185], Voyiadjis-Almasri (VA) [186],
Bonder-Partom (BP) [187], and Cellular Automaton (CA) [188]. It where Eq. (5) is the traditional power-law viscoplastic flow
should be noted that, most of above physically-based models were formulation, which considers the effects of damage u on visco-
focused on extreme loading conditions or materials other than plastic flow. Eq. (6) represents the evolution of material hardening,
aluminium. The applications of modelling aluminium alloy R, which is a function of the normalised dislocation density r
deformed at different elevated temperature forming techniques defined by r ¼ ðr
ri Þ=rm, where ri is the dislocation density of the
were not performed. material at the initial state and rm is the maximum (saturated)
dislocation density of the material. Hence, the range of normalised
4.3. Unified material model dislocation density, r, is from 0 to 1. Eq. (7) represents the rate of
accumulation of dislocations. Eq. (8) represents damage evolution
In terms of forming aluminium alloys at elevated temperatures, for the uniaxial formulation, which is a function of plastic strain
various microstructure evolutions, such as dislocation accumula- rate ε_ p . Eq. (9) is Hooke's law for a simple uniaxial state. In this
tion, recovery, recrystallisation, grain growth, grain refinement, equation set, n2 and h3 are temperature-independent parameters,
precipitate dissolution, formation and growth, interact with each while the material parameters K, k, n1 , B, A, C, E, h1 , and h2 are
other and affect the macroscopic mechanical properties. In addi- temperature dependent, given in Eq. (10)
tion, microscopic damage during large deformation processes is
also important for predicting rupture in sheet metal forming, K ¼ K0 expðQK =RTÞ
especially for hot stamping and superplastic forming. Internal state k ¼ k0 expðQk =RTÞ
variables have been used for a long time to represent damage or n1 ¼ n10 expðQn =RTÞ
A ¼ A0 expð
QA =RTÞ
hardening of alloys. Lin and Liu [189] developed a set of unified
B ¼ B0 expðQB =RTÞ (10)
mechanism-based constitutive equations for modelling different
C ¼ C0 expð
QC =RTÞ
microstructure evolutions during warm/hot forming with the
E ¼ E0 expðQE =RTÞ
 
concept of internal state variables. In this section, unified consti-
h1 ¼ h01 expQh1 RT 
tutive equations of hot stamping and superplastic forming pro-
cesses were reviewed. These two sets of equations can be further
h2 ¼ h01 exp
Qh2 RT
implemented into finite element software, which is discussed in
the next section.
4.3.2. Superplastic forming
4.3.1. Hot stamping (HFQ®) A set of SPF damage constitutive equations for AA7475 based on
The set of unified viscoplastic constitutive equations of HFQ® is the power-law have been introduced by Lin et al. [193]. Damage
based on the fundamental framework proposed by Lin and Dean variable, ductile void growth damage and effective damage are
[190] and Lin et al. [191]. The equations are given below [192]: included in this equation set as shown below.
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80 75

"  #
2lfh0:5 ε_ pzz

p
ε_ ¼
p
ε_ ss
1þ
1 (11) s_ ¼ E ε_ T
ε_ p (18)
d ε_ pss
* s + Eqs. (13)e(15) represent the steady-state flow of a viscoplastic

R
k
p 1
fd n
m material. In the early stage of deformation, the overall material
ε_ zz ¼ þd (12)
K hardening is due to grain growth rate and increase of dislocation
density. Eq. (14) represents the isotropic hardening variable R,

which is related to the accumulation of dislocations and expansion
s
R
k n
m
ε_ pss ¼ þd (13) of the yield surface during plastic deformation. b and Q are material
K
constants. Eq. (15) represents the evolution of average grain size, d.
In this equation, g0 and f represent the effects of isothermal and
R_ ¼ bðQ
RÞj_εp j (14) plastic strain-induced grain growth respectively. a and b are ma-
terial constants.
d_ ¼ ad
g0 þ bj_εp jd
4
At the late stage of deformation, softening due to micro-damage
(15)
dominates resulting in the decrease of flow stress. Grain-boundary
! sliding and grain rotation are two important mechanisms in SPF.
3=2
f 2lfh fd The relative movements result in void nucleation and growth at
f_h ¼ h d_ þ fd
ε_ zz (16) grain boundaries. A cavitated cylindrical material assumption is
d d
utilised, which is similar to the intergranular void growth under
f_d ¼ D1 fdd1 ð_εp Þ 2 þ D2 ð_εp Þ 3 coshðD3 εp Þ

d d
high stress creep. Details of the formulation of this set of equations
1 is given in the work by Lin et al. [193]. Eq. (13) represents the
for fh ¼ 0 l_ ¼ l_εpcc steady-state creep rate of power-law zone. k is the initial yield
2 (17)
stress and m is the material constant. Eqs. (16) and (17) represent
1
p  the evolutions of void volume fraction and effective damage
for fh > 0 l_ ¼ fd ε_ cc
f_h
2fh

Fig. 26. Finite element simulations of hot stamping AA5754 [133].

Table 7
Material constants determined from calibration [133].

E0 (MPa) C0 (s-1) B01 (MPa) k0 (MPa) K0 (MPa) h01 h02

13,211 217.8 6.75Eþ18 3.3932 0.0846 0.03203 1.7211
QE (J/mol) QC (J/mol) Qk (J/mol) QK (J/mol) Qh1 (J/mol) Qh2 (J/mol) Qn1 (J/mol)
6669.49 60,999.8 11,181.5 34,630.3 26,837.6 17,594.1 12,993
h03 Qh3 (J/mol) A0 QA (J/mol) n2 n01 B02
4.381 9469.6 1.9996 2898.3 0.3 3.56E-01 6.005
76 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
Fig. 27. Finite element simulations of superplastic forming Al-Zn-Mg, (a) comparisons
between experimental results and model fitting [193], and (b) Field plots of fh and fe
for Al-Zn-Mg with target strain rate, e_tgt ¼ 2  10
4 and 2  10
3 s
1, respectively
[194].
respectively, where fd is the effective void volume fraction, ranging
from 0 to 1, and fh is the value of void volume fraction. fd ¼ 0 means
no effective damage is incurred while fd ¼ 1 signifies failure. Eq.
(12) represents the plastic strain rate with voids. The plastic strain
rate is given in Eq. (11), and l represents the cavity spacing.
4.4. Model application
4.4.1. Hot stamping
The set of constitutive equations for hot stamping aluminium
from Eq. (5) to Eq. (10) in Section 4.3, can be calibrated using a
series of uniaxial tensile tests at different temperatures and strain
rates to determine material constants. Fig. 26(a) shows the com-
parison between model fitting (solid lines) and experimental data
(symbols). The calibrated material constants are given in Table 7.
The developed material model can then be implemented into FE
software via subroutine, such as Abaqus, Pamstamp and Mark. El
Fakir et al. [133] performed numerical simulations of HFQ forming
AA5754 with the implementation of material model. Fig. 26(c)
shows the plastic strain contours of a computed component with a
comparison to the successfully part. As can be seen in Fig. 26(b),
Table 8
Material constants for Al-Zn-Mg at 515  C [193].
k K n m
0.2912 85.1712 1 1.6236
f D1 D2 D3
5.5E-5 8.145E-9 69.5748 1 30.0013
good correlation with a deviation of less than 5% was achieved
between the thickness distribution of the simulated and experi-
mentally formed parts, verifying the capability of the model.
4.4.2. Superplastic forming
To determine the material constants from Eq. (11) to Eq. (18)
under SPF conditions, experimental stress-strain and grain size
data, shown in Fig. 27(a) are necessary. To obtain the best fitting
between the equations and experimental data, optimisation
methods are recommended. Table 8 presents an example set of
material constants for SPF Al-Zn-Mg alloy at a temperature of
515  C. From these constants, it was found that good correlations
between experimental and computational results are obtained 0for
both the flow stress and grain size evolutions [193]. The developed
constitutive equations can be subsequently implemented into FE
simulations to simulate practical SPF forming. Fig. 27(b) shows the
field plots of state variables for Al-Zn-Mg, at strain rates 2  10
4
and 2  10
3 s
1 respectively [194].
5. Conclusions and future research trends
A detailed review of forming techniques for manufacturing
complex-shaped high strength aluminium panel components was
conducted in this paper. The paper has identified and discussed
research studies for improving and addressing the current limita-
tions, both experimentally and theoretically, for a range of forming
techniques. The current state of the art forming technologies have
shown that:
(1) Non-heat treatable aluminium alloys, AA5xxx, are widely
used for automotive body structures, while the use of high
strength heat treatable alloys, such as AA7xxx, is increasing.
However, the current applications of high strength alloys are
restricted due to the poor ductility at room temperature,
requiring novel forming techniques to be utilised.
(2) Cold stamping in alloys in T conditions is believed to be un-
suitable for high strength aluminium alloys. W-temper
forming is an alternative way of manufacturing some com-
ponents with lower complexity of geometries, which is
preferred by industries considering the mature cold stamp-
ing production line. The springback is relatively low due to
the less yield strength of material in W condition. Sheet
hydroforming and incremental forming techniques enable
the manufacture of more complex structures, while the
production efficiency is not as high as conventional cold
stamping and their applications are restricted.
(3) Forming at elevated temperatures increases alloy ductility.
Warm forming techniques, including warm stamping, warm
hydroforming and warm sheet incremental forming, have
been extensively investigated. However, warm forming
temperatures may deteriorate favourable microstructures,
and additional heat treatments are required to restore
component strength for heat-treatable aluminium alloys.
(4) For hot forming techniques, from the view of productivity,
SPF is mainly used for manufacturing complex-shaped
components in the aerospace industry, while QPF is
concentrated on the automotive industry and has already
b Q a g0 b
0.1537 7.6744 6.9E-2 2.4 2.6
d1 d2 d3 E l0
3.3 1.7658 1.0E3 3.6347
 K. Zheng et al. / International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 1 (2018) 55e80
been widely applied. HFQ® is a novel process integrating hot
forming with heat treatment, which is believed to be a
leading technique in this area.
(5) Extensive research has been carried out on formability and
post-formed strength of alloys at different elevated temper-
atures which are affected by alloy grade, heat treatment
temper, process variables, and tooling.
(6) The novelty and robust capabilities of HFQ® promotes new
characterisation methods and test schemes to be developed
to evaluate formability of aluminium alloys under hot
stamping conditions. In addition, tooling of HFQ®, focusing
on heat transfer, coating and surface texturing techniques,
was well developed to assist the manufacture of complex-
shaped panel components.
(7) Material models under different forming techniques need to
consider specific process characteristics, such as non-
isothermal, variations of strain, strain rate and strain path
and microstructure evolutions during forming. The consti-
tutive models can enhance the prediction accuracy of FE
simulations.
Based on the above drawn conclusions, the future research of
manufacturing complex-shaped high strength aluminium compo-
nents should focus on four objectives: (1) maximize the process
ability to achieve the manufacture of complex-shaped re-
quirements with the industrial developments of component de-
signs and new material candidates; (2) guarantee the post-formed
strength of aluminium components to meet increasing and strin-
gent requirements with the increasing occupation of aluminium
alloy usage among body structures of vehicles; (3) increase the
dimensional accuracy of component geometries considering the
assembling requirements of volume production of aluminium
components; (4) reduce the overall cost of manufacturing
aluminium components to enhance the competitiveness of
aluminium alloys with traditional steels.
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