LESSON 1

A lot has taken place in the lives of human beings over the last century. Among these changes, and
perhaps the most important one, is the presence of ’globalization.’ The question of what it is, is probably an
easy one to answer but as it appeared, the term ’globalization’ has several competing meanings,
sometimes contradicting each other since it encompasses a multiple of processes involving one’s cultural,
economic and political systems, which directly affect the structures of the society.

What, then, is globalization and what does it stand for in our contemporary world?

 Globalization has connotations pertaining to progress or development, and sometimes, integration.

 Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King (1990) define globalization as "all those processes
by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society." Anthony Giddens
(1991),

 The Consequences of Modernity, writes: "Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of
worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are
shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa."

 For Roland Robertson (1992), Professor of Sociology at the University of Aberdeen and an early
writer in the field, globalization is “the compression of the world and the intensification of the
consciousness of the world as a whole."

 David Held and his co-writers describe globalization as “the transformation in the spatial
organization of social relations and transactions—assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity,
velocity and impact—generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows (Global Transformations,
1999).

 Paul James (2005) defines globalization as “the extension of social relations through changing
world-time.

 Lechner and Boli (2012) define globalization as more people across large distances becoming
connected in more and different ways.

 By the same token, the Suny Levin Institute describes globalization as “a process of interaction and
integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven
by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has
effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and
prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.”
  Alternatively, others refer to globalization as something related to regression, colonialism and
destabilization. Marin Khor (1990), director of the NGO Third World Network, once regarded
globalization as colonization.

 On the other hand, Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson (2001) states that globalization is “the
process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer” pertaining to “the
increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with
somebody on the other side of the world.”

 The best scholarly definition of globalization is provided by Manfred Steger (2009) who describes
globalization as “a variety of accelerating economic, political, cultural, ideological and
environmental processes that are rapidly altering our experience of the world.” He described the
process as “the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world
time and world-space.”

In truth, globalization is a complex concept that cannot be defined within a set time frame. It is also not a
process that can be defined clearly without any biases or ambiguity. It cannot even be explained with
certainty and be applicable to all people and in all situations. Indeed, globalization may be difficult to assess
since it is a global process that embodies everything.
It is for this reason that some scholars do away with talking about globalization as one whole process.
Instead, they prefer to discuss the diverse and overlapping dimensions of globalization, which will be
discussed in great detail in the next lessons.
Given that there is no generally accepted definition for globalization, Steger (2013) describes it as a
process, a condition or an ideology.
Globalization as a process relates to changes in technology as well as in many aspects of human existence
ranging from cultural, economic and political systems that have brought a multi-dimensional set of social
processes that escalate deepening connections, worldwide interdependence and social exchanges among
people from all different parts of the world.
Globalization as a condition is about the creation of linkages between people located at different corners of
the planet characterized by cultural, economic, and political interconnections and global flows, which make
any kind of barrier (be it political or economic) insignificant.
Globalization as an ideology explains that globalization exists in people’s minds because of a set of
coherent and complementary ideas and beliefs about the global order as defined by six (6) core claims:

1. Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets

Ever-heard of Adam Smith’s “Invisible Hand”? This claim asserts that globalization is a result of the
integration of markets as part of the ‘free trade.’ As published in the Business Week article in the late 90s,
“Globalization is about the triumph of markets over governments.” Proponents and opponents of
globalization agree that the driving force today is markets, inducing the role of government. Adjacent to the
concepts of liberalization and integration, the liberation of markets from state control is a good thing. As
Joan Spiro (US Undersecretary of the State for Economic, Business, and Agricultural Affairs in the Clinton
Administration) put it, “One role [of government] is to get out of the way — to remove barriers to the free
flow of goods, services and capital” (in Steger, 2009).

2. Globalization is inevitable and irreversible.

Manuel Villar, the former Philippines Speaker of the House of Representatives, insisted that, “We cannot
simply wish away the process of globalization. It is a reality of a modern world. The process is irreversible.”
Former President Clinton on his speech on US Foreign Policy told the audience that: “Today we must
embrace the inexorable logic of globalization – that everything from the strength of our economy to the
safety of our cities, to the health of our people, depends on events not only within our borders, but half way
a world away.”

3. Nobody is in-charge of Globalization.

The third claim is founded on the classical liberal concept of the ‘self-regulating market.’ The connection
between ‘globalization-market’ and the adjoining idea of ’leaderlessness’ is plain and simple. As Steger
(2009) puts it, “if the undisturbed workings of the market indeed preordain a certain course of history, then
globalization does not reflect the arbitrary agenda of a particular social class or group. In other words,
globalists are not ‘in charge’ in the sense of imposing their own political agenda on people. Rather, they
merely carry out the unalterable imperatives of a transcendental force much larger than narrow partisan
interests.
Robert Hormats, Vice Chairman of Goldman Sachs, asserted that: “The great beauty of globalization is that
no one is in control. The great beauty of globalization is that it is not controlled by any individual, any
government, any institution.” In fact, the meetings, the groups, the foundations, that all work on spreading
neoliberal principles and new world order principles have been deeply rooted in ancient history.

4. Globalization benefits everyone (in the long run)

The characteristics of globalization are found to have led to expansion of wealth and prosperity in the world.
For those who have embraced globalization, opportunities for growth and progress have opened up. With
free trade and free markets, societies may be lifted out of poverty while individual nations work hand in
hand with their respective regions and the entire global trading community to build a world that trades in
freedom and therefore grow in success (in Steger, 2009).
5. Globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world.
There exists a similarity between the terms freedom, free markets, free trade and democracy. Francis
Fukuyama asserts that there is a correlation between a country’s economic development and successful
democracy (which actually resulted from globalization). This democracy leads to the creation of civil
societies with a powerful middle class that will facilitate democracy (in Steger, 2009).
6. Globalization requires a global war on terror.
This last claim combines the idea of economic globalization with openly militaristic and nationalistic ideas
associated with the American-led global War on Terror. Before the September 11 attack, the economic
globalization was dominated mainly by Western Europe, US and Japan. These core states were challenged
by Al Qaeda’s Bin Laden during the 9-11 attack. Globalists believe that an aggressive, militaristic US
foreign policy will protect the gains of globalization. (in Steger, 2009).
 Again, globalization is not so easy to define. The flourishing literature about globalization has
resulted in several approaches or theories that provide diverse ways of interpreting the said social
phenomenon. While there exists many contradicting assumptions about it, it is best to discuss the major
theories to give us a clear view of globalization.
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF GLOBALIZATION

 WORLD SYSTEM THEORY

The World Systems Theory was developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein. It is an approach to world
history and social change that suggests that there is a world economic system in which some countries
benefit while others are exploited. Just like we cannot understand an individual's behavior without reference
to their surroundings, experiences, and culture, a nation's economic system cannot be understood without
reference to the world system of which they are a part of.

The main characteristics of this theory are as follows:

The world systems theory is established on a three-level hierarchy consisting of core, periphery, and semi-
periphery areas.
o The core countries dominate and exploit the peripheral countries for labor and raw materials.
o The peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for capital.
o The semi-peripheral countries share characteristics of both core and peripheral countries.
o This theory emphasizes the social structure of global inequality.

 GLOBAL CAPITALISM
Global capitalism is a qualitatively new stage in the evolution of capitalism characterized by the rise of
transnational capital, a transnational capitalist class, and a transnational state. Global capitalism is
capitalism that rises above national borders and is known as the fourth period of capitalism in recognition of
the three periods that came before it.
o The Characteristics of Global Capitalism:

1. Production takes place on the global stage.

Companies can produce goods in a variety of places around the world. Global corporations like Walmart
are an extreme example of globalized capitalism when they source and distribute products from suppliers
all over the world without producing a single item themselves.
2. Labor can be sourced around the world.
As companies expand their production across borders, they do not make use of the labor available in their
home country. Instead, they can now draw from an entire globe's worth of labor and locate production
wherever workers are cheaper or more highly skilled.
3. The financial system operates globally.
Collecting taxes becomes very difficult when companies generate and hold wealth around the world since it
is now possible for global corporations to develop complex organizational structures and spread wealth
across multiple jurisdictions to minimize their liabilities to pay taxes. This way, companies can have great
power to avoid corporate taxes on accumulated wealth.
4. Power relations are transnational.
Transnational capitalists have the power to shape the policies of trade, finance and production at a global
level. These policies may trickle down to national and state governments. Hence, companies have an
expanded influence in the society as a result of globalization—this gives them great power to impact
people’s lives all over the world.
5. Global system of governance.
Global capitalism requires a new system of transnational governance. Core institutions such as the World
Trade Organization, the United Nations, the World Economic Forum, the International Monetary Fund, the
World Bank and the G20 make the rules and adjudicate global trade, setting an agenda for global
capitalism that nations must comply with if they wish to participate in the system.

 NETWORK SOCIETY SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Information and technology are all around us. How much time do you spend on your phone or your
computer? Have you noticed how quickly you can communicate with people across the globe? While we
might take these things for granted today, they are part of a profound shift in the way that society, culture,
and the economy operate. This is known as the major shift in the society called information society,
whereby the circulation and production of information is key in social and economic activity. Things like
Internet Communication Technologies (ICTs), such as the internet, cell phones, and wireless networks, are
key to the functioning of our society.
o Characteristics of the Information Society

1. Information is a key economic resource in the information society - not that information is more
widespread but it is now crucial to how businesses and the economy function. In this modern day
and age, it is how companies make money, how the economy grows overall, and information
allows us to become more productive and efficient as a society.
2. Consumers are key to the information society. Citizens in the information society have started
using information and technology more and more. We consume more information technologies and
we also use information to make choices about everything ranging from what clothes we want to
buy to where we want to live.
3. The economy in the information age has a specific infrastructure meant for the circulation and
distribution of information. In other words, the economy is structured in order to facilitate the
circulation of information as a key economic resource.

 SPACE, TIME AND GLOBALIZATION

David Harvey coined the term “time–space compression” to refer to the way the acceleration of economic
activities leads to the destruction of spatial barriers and distances (Routledge, 2016). According to Harvey,
it is this compression of social time–space through economic activity that is the driving force behind
globalization.
In his best-selling The Condition of Postmodernity, he argues that capital moves at a pace faster than ever
before, as the production, circulation, and exchange of capital happens at ever-increasing speeds,
particularly with the aid of advanced communication and transportation technologies.

 TRANSNATIONALITY & TRANSNATIONALISM

Transnationalism is a social phenomenon that has grown out of the increased interconnection between
people, and the diminishing economic and social significance of boundaries among nation states (Levitt,
2001).
As discussed in passing in the previous topic about Global Capitalism, transnationalism as an economic
process involves the reorganization of the production process globally. This is when various stages of the
production of any product can occur in various countries, usually with the aim of minimizing costs.
Multinational corporations could be seen as a form of transnationalism, in that they seek to minimize costs,
and hence maximize profits, by organizing their operations in the most efficient means possible irrespective
of political boundaries.
Individuals, groups, institutions and states interact with each other in a new global space, combining
cultural and political characteristics of national societies with emerging multinational and multi-level
activities. Hence, transnationalism refers to multiple links and interactions linking people and institutions
across the borders of nation-states.
Transnationality and Transnationalism encompass the transformative processes, practices and
developments of corporations taking place not only in the local level but in the global level as well.

 GLOBAL CULTURE PARADIGM

Theorists of the global culture emphasize the effects of globalization on one’s culture such as
communication, consumption, ethnicity, religion, tourism, and the like. Obviously, religious differences and
other historical differences continue to shape human values today (Inglehart, 2005).
Rolan Robertson (1992) also perceived this cultural hybridization as an example of the phenomenon of
‘glocalization’ - a combination of the word’s “globalization” and “localization,” used to describe a product or
service that is developed and distributed globally, but is also adjusted to accommodate the user or
consumer in the local market. To put it simply, it is the adaptation of globally marketed products and
services into local markets, whereby a global product or service (which is something that everyone needs
and can get use out of), may be tailored to conform with local laws, customs, or consumer preferences.
Products that are 'glocalized' are, by definition, of much greater interest to the end user (the person who
ends up using the product) because while its localization makes it more specific to an individual, their
context, and their needs.

Indeed, these approaches help us understand the concept of globalization. However, it is important
to note that globalization has, in fact, varied and contending meanings which is why up to now, the concept
has fueled academic debates on how to correctly interpret globalization.