Empirical Article

Research on Aging
1–12
Subjective well-being and mental health ª The Author(s) 2020
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the role of institutional trust

Sunwoo Lee1

Abstract
This study examined the relationship between material adversities due to pandemic crisis, institutional trust, and subjective well-
being and mental health among middle-aged and older adults aged 50þ in Europe. The study used a cross-sectional design to
examine Eurofound COVID-19 survey data collected from 27 European countries in April 2020. A total of 31,757 European
middle aged and older adults aged 50 þ were analyzed (Mean ¼ 59.99, SD ¼ 7.03). Analysis focused on the financial impact and
material security in relation to pandemic lockdown, institutional trust (news media, police, national government, European Union,
and healthcare system), and subjective well-being and mental health. Regression analysis indicated perceived insecurity in
employment and housing, worsening finances, and difficulty paying for basic necessities were significantly related to respondents’
life satisfaction, happiness, self-rated health, mental health index, and psychological distress. Institutional trust partially mediated
the relationship between perceived adversities and subjective well-being and mental health.

Keywords
pandemic, material and financial difficulty, subjective well-being, mental health, institutional trust, Europe

As the perceived uncertainty increased as the epidemic develops,
the value of social solidarity and cohesion, resilience, tolerance
toward larger restrictions (e.g., mobility constraints), and coop-
eration between people and countries become more important
than ever before (Baniamin et al., 2020; Frey et al., 2020; Lin
et al., 2020; Lofredo, 2020; Rudolph et al., 2020). That is also to
say, global, national, organizational leadership, and trust play an
important role in guidance and support, which, in turn, foster
psychological empowerment and public efficacy (Nutbeam,
2020; Oksanen et al., 2020; Wong & Jensen, 2020). Baniamin
et al. (2020) argue that collaboration of the state-centric provi-
sion, citizenship, and public attitudes toward policy lead to the
most successful policy management during the pandemic crisis.
Because the tolerance toward strict measures are important to
combat a pandemic, for the similar stringency of the measures,
more collectivist and authoritarian societies realize relatively
effective responses to the pandemic crisis. Frey et al. (2020), for
example, found that countries with more compliant- and collec-
tivist-oriented cultures, such as China, tended to experience
greater mobility decline compared to individualistic and demo-
cratic countries. Interestingly, however, it was suggested that
countries with more democratic and collectivist cultural traits,
such as South Korea, better managed the global challenge even
though they barely enforced stringent measures in relation to
mobility.
Recent empirical studies in relation to the COVID-19
response revealed that institutional trust plays a pivotal role
in coping with various difficulties (Nutbeam, 2020; Oksanen
et al., 2020; Sibley et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2020). According
to Oksanen et al. (2020), COVID-19 mortality varies across
European societies and is significantly related to the implemen-
tation of restrictions, perceived sociality, and different levels of
social trust in parliament, politicians, political parties, the
police, and legal system. In a society with a higher level of
institutional trust, a lower COVID-19 death rate was found.
Oksanen et al. further suggested that cooperation between rel-
evant health and social domains played a significant role in
better coping with the pandemic crisis. Nutbeam (2020) also
stresses that high levels of public trust in institutions including
government and public health authorities significantly facilitate
people’s acceptance and adaptation of government information
and scientific advices that further increase precautions and
avoidant behaviors. On the other hand, low levels of trust
between public, governments, social and health systems, and
sciences often cause miscommunication and social disagree-
ment that hinder effective epidemic management.
1
Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech
Republic
Corresponding Author:
Sunwoo Lee, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, José
Martı́ho 31, Prague 6, 162 52, Czech Republic.
Email: lee@ftvs.cuni.cz
2 Research on Aging XX(X)
Institutional trust reflects people’s confidence in, satisfac-
tion with, and attitudes toward state (e.g., governmFent, par-
liament, legitimacy systems) or non-state organizations (e.g.,
media, NGO). Therefore, institutional trust is considered as a
measure of support for, or sustainability of, the political sys-
tems and implementation of a wide range of policies (Boda &
Medve-Balint, 2014; Newton & Zmerli, 2011). Social and
institutional trust also appears to be significantly associated
with people’s quality of life and well-being (e.g., Ciziceno &
Travaglino, 2019; Hudson, 2006; Piumatti et al., 2018; Thor-
esen et al., 2018; Tokuda et al., 2009; Yi, 2009). Thoresen et al.
(2018) found that institutional trust significantly decreased
among the people who experienced a disaster; and that low
trust in the police and legal system was significantly related
to mental health problems, lack of social support, and lower life
satisfaction among them. According to Ciziceno and Trava-
glino, (2019), perceived trust in institutions (i.e., banks, police,
the judicial system, healthcare system, and government) was
positively related to life satisfaction, and institutional trust
played a mediating role in the relationship between the per-
ceived corruption index and life satisfaction. Similarly, Piu-
matti et al. (2018) revealed a positive sense of trust in
national, local, and regional governments to life satisfaction
among Italian older adults 65 years and over. They further
indicated that the relationship between institutional trust and
life satisfaction was in part mediated by political interest.
Tokuda et al. (2009) showed that perceived health condition
was significantly associated with trust in mass media (i.e.,
newspapers and TV) and the healthcare system among Asian
populations.
Sibley et al. (2020) reported that, in the beginning of the
lockdown in New Zealand, people’s psychological distress
level increased; meanwhile their trust in the government, pol-
iticians, police, national identity, and sense of community also
increased compared to before the lockdown. According to
Dohle et al. (2020), trust in science significantly increased
acceptance of protective measures (e.g., hand hygiene, social
distancing) and trust in politics and science significantly influ-
enced adoption of protective measures (e.g., closing restau-
rants/pubs, closing sports facilities). Wong et al. (2020) also
found that a higher level of institutional trust led more people to
look for proper preventive and help seeking behavior among
Chinese populations. Similarly, studies from the previous epi-
demics provided evidence that those who showed a higher level
of trust in their government and authorities were more likely to
practice precautions and avoidant behaviors during the epi-
demics (e.g., Rubin et al., 2009; Vinck et al., 2019). However,
there was also contrasting observation in Singapore. According
to Wong and Jensen (2020), a higher level of trust in their
government and its risk management measures led people to
rather reduce risk perception and compliance with government
guideline, thus, increased risk-taking behaviors. Therefore, this
opposing view should be further investigated to determine if
the effect of institutional might be curvilinear or linear.
During imposed self-isolation and lockdown due to the
COVID-19 pandemic, older adults are more likely to
experience adversities in daily living and leisure activities and
increased psychological distress such as social isolation and
depression (Armitage & Nellums, 2020; Ayalon et al., 2020;
Berg-Weger & Morley, 2020; Kar, 2020; Losada-Baltar et al.,
2020; Morrow-Howell et al., 2020; Previtali et al., 2020; Vahia
et al., 2020). Besides this, some older adults might also encoun-
ter financial difficulties if household income decreased, or in
the advent that any household member lost his/her job either
temporarily or permanently. According to recent COVID-19
survey data (Eurofound, 2020a), one in three European older
adults aged 65 years or over reported a worsened financial
situation during the pandemic and more than 40% believed
their finances would worsen over the next 3 months. Data also
showed that 18% of older adults in Europe experienced some
difficulties paying for basic necessities, and 15% reported the
likelihood of job loss. Lack of material and financial resources
can exacerbate older adults’ social exclusion by preventing
them from receiving necessary health and social services and
increasing psychological instability (Croda, 2015; Lee &
Cagle, 2018; Precupetu et al., 2019; Wethington et al., 2016).
Therefore, material deprivation due to pandemic crisis and its
impact on older adults’ quality of life and mental health should
be closely examined.
I argue that older adults’ institutional trust would play an
important role in explaining their resilience, attitudes toward
organizational measures, and coping strategies; which in turn,
affect quality of life and psychological well-being during the
pandemic crisis. This also leads to contend that although job
security and financial concern due to the pandemic crisis
diminish subjective well-being and increase psychological dis-
tress of the older adults, those who with a higher level of
institutional trust tend to show better compliance and tolerance
to policy measures and better cope with stressful situations.
However, no studies, to our knowledge, examine organiza-
tional and institutional trust and its pathways to subjective
well-being and mental health during the ongoing pandemic
crisis aimed at middle aged and older adults. Building on this,
the current study developed a twofold objective. First, this
study examined the relationship between financial, housing and
employment difficulties due to the pandemic crisis and subjec-
tive well-being and mental health outcomes among older adults
aged 50 years or over in Europe. Second, the role of institu-
tional trust was examined if it mediated the relationship
between perceived difficulties and subjective well-being and
mental health.
The current study investigates trust in five social institutions
that are most relevant to COVID-19 pandemic response:
national government, healthcare system, media, police, and the
European Union. National governments play the most pivotal
role in managing and implementing necessary policy and pub-
lic health measures. State governments also facilitate public
collaboration among the experts across different sectors in
order to reduce the risk of infectious disease including medical
institutions, sciences, industry, and education. Likewise, ade-
quate performance and service of the police provide a guidance
for people’s behavioral response and help maintain security of
Lee
the society during a time of uncertainty. As many countries
have experienced medical disruptions during the rapid spread
of coronavirus, reliable healthcare system has become more
significant social infrastructure than ever before. In addition,
media has been urged to play a responsible role in preventing
infodemic by examining the misleading information about the
coronavirus and promoting policy measures and precautious
and preventive behaviors. Lastly, EU governance is crucial to
strengthen trust in government bodies on the COVID-19
response, providing inclusive advice for political leaders and
communities and disseminating necessary resources and fund-
ing priorities.
The study findings will expand our understanding of how
older adults’ perception in social institutions affects their well-
being and mental health under difficult financial and social
conditions. This will also provide insights into what can be
done by institutions to ensure that through their performances
the older adults’ institutional trust is maintained and improved.
Working Hypothesis
Three hypotheses were examined: the financial impact of the
COVID-19 crisis is significantly associated with institutional
trust (H1); the financial impact of the COVID-19 crisis is sig-
nificantly associated with subjective well-being and mental
health outcomes (H2); and institutional trust would fully or in
part mediate the relationship between the financial impact of
the COVID-19 crisis and subjective well-being and mental
health (H3).
Methods
Study Design and Data Collection
The current study employed a cross-sectional analysis using
data drawn from a survey of living, working and COVID-19
which developed by one of the European Union associated
agencies, The European Foundation for the Improvement of
Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound). During the initial
outbreak of COVID-19 in Europe, Eurofound developed on-
line survey aimed at people aged 18 and over from 27 European
nations and the UK to investigate Europeans’ psychological
and behavioral responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. The
survey was constructed employing existent Eurofound’s Eur-
opean Quality of Life Survey (EQLS; Eurofound, 2016), Eur-
opean Working Conditions Survey (EWCS; Eurofound, 2019)
and other relevant resources (e.g., Eurofound, 2018). Survey
questionnaire comprised specific questions relevant to pan-
demic crisis including any changes in work environment,
impact on financial condition, attitudes toward public institu-
tions, subjective well-being (i.e., life satisfaction, happiness,
and perceived health), and mental health (i.e., WHO mental
health index and psychological distress). Developed survey
was made available in 22 different languages to be implemen-
ted across Europe. Survey participants were recruited based on
snowballing technique and extensive advertisements on social
media. The on-line questionnaire was widely distributed
3
through various social media channels including Eurofound
subscribers and additional social media outlets (e.g., facebook).
Data were collected during the month of April, between 9th and
30th of April (Eurofound, 2020a).
According to Eurofound (2020a), by the end of April, more
than 85,000 individuals’ data from 27 European nations and
beyond were recorded; half of the raw database involved indi-
viduals aged 50 years or over. According to Abrams et al.
(2011), there is variation in perceived age categorization,
between 55 years and 68, across different European nations
(i.e., what age is perceived to start old age). In order to grasp
more extended understanding of the older adults from different
cultures, the current investigation included individuals aged 50
years or over.
The Eurofound COVID-19 survey data was made available
to the author of the current study with a confidentiality agree-
ment on access to the preliminary dataset. Due to nature of the
current study-secondary data analysis, the Ethic Committee of
the author’ institutions waived the need for approval.
Measurement
Financial and material impact were measured using four ques-
tionnaire items. In order to measure job and housing security,
respondents were asked to indicate how likely or unlikely they
thought it was that they might lose their job in the next 3 months
using a 5-point Likert scale, (1) very likely to (5) very unlikely.
Respondents were also asked to indicate how likely or unlikely
they thought it was that they would need to leave their current
accommodation within the next 6 months because they could
no longer afford it, using a 5-point Likert scale, (1) very likely
to (5) very unlikely. A lower score indicated higher insecurity
of the employment and housing.
Respondents were asked to indicate if their household finan-
cial situation changed when compared to 3 months ago using a
3-point Likert scale, (1) became worse, (2) remained same, or
(3) became better. Respondents were also asked to report how
well their monthly household income covered their necessary
expenses on a 6-point Likert scale, (1) with great difficulty to
(6) very easily.
Institutional trust was measured by respondents’ trust in five
institutions: news media, the police, the country’s government,
the European Union, and healthcare system. Respondents were
asked to indicate how much they personally trusted each insti-
tution on a 10-point Likert scale, (1) do not trust at all to (10)
trust completely. Measure of institutional trust indicated a good
reliability (Cronbach’s a ¼ .836). Five items were then com-
bined to generate a composite score of institutional trust.
Three domains of subjective well-being were assessed: life
satisfaction, happiness, and self-rated health. Each domain was
measured using a single questionnaire item. Life satisfaction
was measured using a 10-point Likert scale, (1) very unsatisfied
to (10) very satisfied and happiness was also measured using a
10-point Likert scale, (1) very unhappy to (10) very happy.
Self-rated health was measured using a 5-point Likert scale,
(1) very bad to (5) very good.
4 Research on Aging XX(X)
Mental health was examined using the World Health Orga-
nization—Five Well-Being Index (WHO-5) and any experi-
ence of psychological distress over the past two weeks (Topp
et al., 2015). The WHO-5 contains five statements that repre-
sent current emotional and psychological stability (e.g., “I have
felt calm and relaxed”). Respondents were asked to indicate, to
what degree, they felt calm and relaxed over the last two weeks
with a 6-point Likert scale, (1) at no time to (6) all of the time.
A higher score signified better mental health.WHO-5 mental
health index indicated a good reliability (Cronbach’s a ¼ .892).
Three questionnaire items measured psychological distress
caused by the pandemic crisis. Respondents were asked to
indicate how often they felt tense, lonely, and downhearted/
depressed over the last two weeks using a 6-point Likert scale,
(1) all of the time to (6) at no time. A lower score signified
higher level of distress. The multi-item scale for psychological
distress had a good reliability (Cronbach’s a ¼ .806).
Covariates
Literature often shows demographic variability in subjective
well-being and mental health in older adults (e.g., Chehregosha
et al., 2016; Lee, 2020; Lincoln et al., 2010; Niedzwiedz et al.,
2014; von Humboldt et al., 2015). In order to control the effect of
such correlates, the covariates in the analyses included major
predictor variables and socio-demographic variables including
nationality, gender, age, education level, household size, and
urbanization that might be associated with outcome variables.
Demographic characteristics included age (in years), age
category (50–64, 65–74, or 75þ), and gender (male ¼ 1).
Socio-economic factors included level of education (primary,
secondary, or tertiary), employment status (employed, self-
employed, unemployed, retired, or homemakers/students), house-
hold size (single household ¼ 1), presence of partner/spouse in
household (yes ¼ 1), and living area (open countryside, a village/
small town, medium to large town, or a city or city suburb).
Data Analysis
Initial survey data was cleaned by removing cases with high
non-response rates and aged under 50 years old. In order to
produce a representative sample data, the cleaned data were re-
adjusted by applying multivariate weights and sample balan-
cing according to each respondent’s country’s demographic
characteristics including gender, age, education, and residences
(Eurofound, 2020a). The use of weighted data allowed for
analytic strength of the survey data and helped study results
better align with a broadened aging population in Europe.
Descriptive statistics and Pearson’s correlations were exam-
ined for all variables. In order to determine the assumptions for
the regression analysis, normality was tested for the study vari-
ables. Cronbach’s a values were calculated in order to deter-
mine internal consistency of the multiple-item scales including
institutional trust, mental health, and psychological distress.
In order to examine the relationship between study vari-
ables, a series of regression analyses were performed. The first
stage of the regression analysis examined the relationships
among the independent variables and the mediating variable
(H1). The second stage of the regression analysis examined the
relationship between independent variables and dependent
variables, ignoring the effect of the mediating variable (H2).
In the third stage of the regression analysis, the relationship
between the independent variables and dependent variables
was examined controlling for the effect of the mediating vari-
able (H3). Sobel-test was used in order to examine the statistical
significance of the mediation effect if the mediating variable
carries the influence of the independent variables to the depen-
dent variables (Baron & Kenny, 1986). The confidence interval
level to be considered was 95%. The data preparation and
analyses were conducted using the software IBM SPSS Statis-
tics 20.
Results
Sample Framework
The study sample was comprised of 31,757 individuals aged
50 years or over from 27 European countries (Mean ¼ 59.99,
SD ¼ 7.03). Of the study sample, 73.8% were between 50 and
64 years, 23.0% were between 65 and 74 years, and 3.2% were
75 years or older. The sample was comprised of 26.2% males
and 73.8% females. Almost half of the respondents (44.7%),
reported that they were employed, 10.9% were self-employed,
32.7% were retired, and 4.5% were unemployed. Crosstabs
analysis showed that 71% of the employed and self-
employed were aged between 50 and 64 years; and 16% were
65 years or over. More than half of the sample (62.8%) reported
they had a tertiary education, 33.6% had a secondary level
education, and 3.6% reported they completed primary school.
In relation to household size, single-person households
accounted for 19.9%, two-person households (44.7%), three-
person households (18.9%), four-person households (11.1%),
and five or more in a household (5.6%); of the respondents,
66.6% reported that a partner/spouse lived in their household.
Respondents reported 33.8% lived in a city or city suburb,
28.3% lived in a medium to large town, 28.0% lived in a village
or small town, and 9.8% reported they lived in open country-
side. Socio-demographic information were added to the regres-
sion analysis to control for the effects. Table 1 provides a
summary of the demographic and socio-economic characteris-
tics of study sample.
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations
Table 2 contains information about the descriptive statistics
(Mean and SD) and reliability of the measured variables. Table
3 displays the results of the correlation analysis. Study vari-
ables were weakly to highly correlated (r ¼ .089 to .804).
Regression Analysis
The first stage of the regression analysis examined H1: the
financial impact of the COVID-19 crisis would be significantly
Lee 5

Table 1. Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics of Sample b ¼ .06, t-value ¼ 6.29, p < .001, and less psychological dis-
(N ¼ 31,757). tress, b ¼ .07, t-value ¼ 7.75, p < .001. However, no significant
Variable Category Valid %
association was observed between less change in finances and
self-rated health. Capability to make the ends meet significantly
Gender Male 26.2 predicted life satisfaction, b ¼ .24, t-value ¼ 26.24, p < .001,
Female 73.8 happiness, b ¼ .21, t-value ¼ 22.35, p < .001, self-rated health,
Age 50–64 73.8 b ¼ .20, t-value ¼ 20.26, p < .001, mental health, b ¼ .20,
65–74 23.0
t-value ¼ 21.40, p < .001, and less psychological distress,
75 þ 3.2
Education Primary 3.6 b ¼ .15, t-value ¼ 16.03, p < .001.
Secondary 33.6 In the third stage of the regression analysis we examined H3:
Tertiary 62.8 the relationship between the independent variables and depen-
Employment status Employed 44.7 dent variables, controlling for the effect of the mediating vari-
Self-employed 10.9 able. Controlling for the effects of the demographics and
Unemployed 4.5 institutional trust, the direct effect of the perceived financial
Retired 32.7
impacts remained a significant predictor for subjective well-
Others (homemaker, 7.4
student) being and mental health. Institutional trust also significantly
Household size Single-person 19.9 and positively associated with five dependent variables. Fur-
2 44.3 ther, it appeared that the effect of perceived financial impacts
3 18.9 on dependent variables decreased compared to the second step
4 11.1 of the regression. This means, institutional trust in part
5þ 5.6 mediated the relationship between financial impacts and
Partner/spouse present in Yes 66.6
dependent variables. Sobel-test showed that the indirect effect
household No 33.4
Urbanization The open countryside 9.8 of each measure of financial impacts was all statistically sig-
A village/small town 28.0 nificant (Z ¼ 4.23 to 20.45). For example, the effect of less
A medium to large town 28.3 difficulty paying for basic necessities on life satisfaction in the
A city or city suburb 33.8 third step of regression was smaller than the effect in the sec-
ond step of regression, 2nd step: b ¼ .24, 3rd step: b ¼ .18,
indicating that instructional trust mediated the relationship
between the two measures. Sobel test showed that the indirect
associated with institutional trust. Results indicated that effect between the less difficulty paying for basic necessities
employment security was positively associated with institu- and life satisfaction (b ¼ .06) was statistically significant,
tional trust, b ¼ .07, t-value ¼ 7.47, p < .001. Housing security Z ¼ 20.45, p < .001. Three steps of regression analysis and
was also significantly associated with institutional trust, Sobel-test supported a partial mediation effect of the institu-
b ¼ .08, t-value ¼ 9.19, p < .001. A significant positive asso- tional trust. Table 4 provides a summary of the statistically
ciation was observed between less change in finances and insti- significant standardized estimates of path coefficients between
tutional trust, b ¼.04, t-value ¼ 4.51, p < .001, and between the study variables, and Sobel test statistic.
less difficulty paying for basic necessities and institutional
trust, b ¼.25, t-value ¼ 26.03, p < .001. The results of H1 are
depicted in Table 4. Discussion
The second stage of the regression analysis examined H2: The current study examined how change in finances, employ-
how the financial impact of the COVID-19 crisis was associated ment, and housing security during the COVID-19 pandemic
with subjective well-being and mental health. Results showed affected older adults’ subjective well-being and mental health,
that job security was positively related to life satisfaction, and further examined if the institutional trust played a role in
b ¼ .10, t-value ¼ 11.15, p < .001, happiness, b ¼ .09, mitigating negative financial impacts. As hypothesized, the
t-value ¼ 10.51, p < .001, self-rated health, b ¼ .03, more older adults experienced financial and material uncer-
t-value ¼ 3.53, p < .001, mental health, b ¼ .11, tainty, the lower the score they reported on life satisfaction and
t-value ¼ 11.84, p < .001, and lower level of psychological happiness. Results also revealed that employment and housing
distress, b ¼ .12, t-value ¼ 13.34, p < .001. Housing security security and difficulty in covering their basic necessities were
was significantly and positively related to life satisfaction, significantly related to self-rated health, while there was no
b ¼ .09, t-value ¼ 10.47, p < .001, happiness, b ¼ .09, significant association found between finance change and
t-value ¼ 11.19, p < .001, self-rated health, b ¼ .03, t-value self-rated health. This finding reinforces that declines in
¼ 3.15, p < .01, mental health, b ¼ .07, t-value ¼ 7.61, p < .001, finances and material resources was significantly associated
and less psychological distress, b ¼ .12, t-value ¼ 14.01, with deteriorated quality of life and well-being of the older
p < .001. Less change in finances was significantly associated adults (Precupetu et al., 2019; Wethington et al., 2016; Wilson
with life satisfaction, b ¼ .08, t-value ¼ 9.43, p < .001, happi- et al., 2020). According to our sample data, approximately 56%
ness, b ¼ .07, t-value ¼ 7.73, p < .001, better mental health, of respondents were employed or self-employed, and 16% of
6 Research on Aging XX(X)

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Measured Variables.

Cronbach’s
Construct Empirical Indicator Mean (SD) a

Life satisfaction How satisfied are you with your life these days? 6.24 (2.33) –
Happiness how happy would you say you are? 6.41 (2.20) –
Self-rated health In general, how is your health? 3.61 (0.82) –
Mental health How you have been feeling over the last two weeks 3.58 (1.29) .892
I have felt cheerful and in good spirits
I have felt calm and relaxed 3.59 (1.31)
I have felt active and vigorous 3.47 (1.32)
I woke up feeling fresh and rested 3.43 (1.41)
My daily life has been filled with things that interest me 3.70 (1.34)
Psychological distress How you have been feeling over the last two weeks .806
I have felt particularly tense 4.21 (1.30)
I have felt lonely 4.74 (1.41)
I have felt downhearted and depressed 4.65 (1.28)
Institutional trust How much you personally trust each institution .836
The news media 4.65 (2.33)
The police 6.32 (2.19)
Your country’s government 5.06 (3.05)
The European Union 4.89 (2.62)
The healthcare system 5.92 (2.69)
Job security How likely or unlikely do you think it is that you might lose your job in the next 3 months? 3.93 (1.19) –
Housing security How likely or unlikely do you think it is that you will need to leave your accommodation 4.50 (0.91) –
within the next 6 months because you can no longer afford it?
Finances change When you compare the financial situation of your household 3 months ago and now would 1.64 (0.53) –
you say it has become better, worse or remained the same?
Difficulty paying for Is your current household’s total monthly income able to make ends meet? 3.51 (1.38) –
basic necessities
Life satisfaction was measured using a 10-point Likert scale, 1 (very unsatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied); happiness was measured using a 10-point Likert scale, 1 (very
unhappy) to 10 (very happy); self-rated health was measured using a 5-point Likert scale, 1 (very bad) to 5 (very good); mental health was measured using WHO-5
mental health index with a 6-point Likert scale, 1 (at no time) to 6 (all of the time); psychological distress was measured using a 6-point Likert scale, 1 (all of the
time) to 6 (at no time); institutional trust was measured using a 10-point Likert scale, 1 (do not trust at all) to 10 (trust completely); job and housing security was
measured using a 5-point Likert scale, 1 (very likely) to 5 (very unlikely); finances change was measured using a 3-point Likert scale, 1 (worse), 2 (the same),
3 (better); and difficulty in making ends meet was measured using a 6-point Likert scale, 1 (with great difficulty) to 6 (very easily).

Table 3. Correlations Between Study Variables.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Job security –
2. Housing security .356** –
3. Finances change .374** .238** –
4. Difficulty paying for basic necessities .425** .386** .439** –
5. Institutional trust .230** .208** .234** .351** –
6. Life satisfaction .267** .250** .277** .395** .388** –
7. Happiness .245** .244** .245** .362** .353** .804** –
8. Self-rated health .100** .116** .089** .244** .169** .201** .234** –
9. WHO mental health .225** .205** .205** .325** .257** .499** .558** .366** –
10. Psychological distress .248** .248** .216** .316** .269** .482** .548** .247** .616** –

Note. ** p < .01.

the employed were 65 years or older. For those older adults
who remained in the workforce, job and finances security
might be significant factors for well-being and life satisfaction.
Financial and material security were also significantly
related to mental health and psychological distress during the
pandemic. For example, older adults with more secure employ-
ment and housing who were also more capable of covering
their basic necessities, were less likely to experience negative
affect such as loneliness, tension, and reported feeling of dis-
heartened. This finding corresponds to the recent COVID-19
studies showing that the pandemic crisis significantly affected
older adults’ social isolation and psychological distress beyond
and over the other effect of personal and social variables; and
that restrictions like banned social gatherings and self-isolation
 Table 4. Regression Analyses Predicting Subjective Well-Being and Mental Health.

Step 1 Step 2

Institutional Trust Life Satisfaction Happiness Self-Rated Health WHO Mental Health Psychological Distress
Predictor b (t-value) b (t-Value) b (t-Value) b (t-Value) b (t-value) b (t-Value)

Step 1–2
Job security .07 (7.47) *** .10 (11.15)*** .09 (10.51) *** .03 (3.53)*** .11 (11.84) *** .12 (13.34)***
Housing security .08 (9.19) *** .09 (10.47)*** .09 (11.19) *** .03 (3.15)** .07 (7.61) *** .12 (14.01) ***
Finances change .04 (4.51) *** .08 (9.43)*** .07 (7.73) *** — .06 (6.29) *** .07 (7.75) ***
Difficulty paying for basic necessities .25 (26.03) *** .24 (26.24)*** .21 (22.35) *** .20 (20.26)*** .20 (21.40) *** .15 (16.03) ***

R2 .130 .158 .135 .113 .130

Step 3
Job security .08 (9.50) *** .08 (8.90)*** .02 (2.60)** .10 (10.62) *** .11 (11.90) ***
Housing security .07 (8.38) *** .08 (9.24) *** .02 (2.70)** .05 (6.27) *** .11 (12.85) ***
Finances change .07 (8.56) *** .06 (7.09) *** – .05 (5.85) *** .07 (7.35) ***
Difficulty paying for basic necessities .18 (19.24) *** .15 (16.15) *** .17 (17.36)*** .16 (17.02) *** .11 (11.41) ***
Institutional trust .25 (32.15) *** .22 (28.02) *** .09 (10.14)*** .15 (18.25) *** .12 (19.14) ***

R2 .211 .177 .072 .132 .149

Sobel test statistic

Job security Z ¼ 7.17*** Z ¼ 7.10*** Z¼ 6.10*** Z¼ 6.89*** Z¼ 6.90***
Housing security Z ¼ 8.56*** Z¼ 8.45*** Z¼ 6.90*** Z¼ 8.09*** Z¼ 8.13***
Finances change Z ¼ 4.55** Z¼ 4.53** Z¼ 4.23** Z¼ 4.47** Z¼ 8.13***
Difficulty paying for basic necessities Z ¼ 20.45*** Z¼ 19.06*** Z¼ 10.11*** Z¼ 15.77*** Z¼ 16.01***
Note. *** p < .001, ** p < .01. Step 1 regression examined the relationship between predictors and mediating variable (i.e., institutional trust) and step 2 regression examined the relationship between predictors
and dependent variables ignoring the effect of mediating variable. Step 3 regression examined the relationship between predictors and dependent variables controlling the effect of mediating variable. Analysis
controlled for demographic variables.

7
8 Research on Aging XX(X)
hampered their social and mental well-being (e.g., Armitage &
Nellums, 2020; Ayalon et al., 2020; Berg-Weger & Morley,
2020; Losada-Baltar et al., 2020). The current analysis further
informs the field that perceived adversities in finance and mate-
rial resources during the pandemic also significantly impacted
older adults’ emotional and mental well-being.
According to the results, financial and material security
were significantly related to older adults’ attitudes toward their
relationship with social institutions. While older adults per-
ceived their worsening economic situation and were concerned
about their household income during the pandemic outbreak,
they might be more likely to look for prompt support and
political provisions that could resolve their financial and mate-
rial constraints. We should acknowledge that the ongoing pan-
demic will strain and overburden the nation’s economic and
social support systems within and across the societies. The
second wave of COVID-19 has further extended pandemic
recession that requires governments to better develop and pro-
mote concrete provision of how they intervene in the financial
sectors for economic recovery while effectively preventing the
spread of the virus. Governments and official institutions
should pay particular attention to aging populations, which are
less capable to recover from the pandemic’s impacts. Consis-
tent information and prompt actions provided by governments
and other relevant authorities will help strengthen institutional
trust and resilience of the older adults who cope with financial
distress due to pandemic crisis.
Results showed that institutional trust significantly and posi-
tively contributed to older adults’ subjective well-being and
mental health during the pandemic crisis. Those older adults,
who scored higher on trust toward institutions, were more
likely to report a high score on the measures of life satisfaction,
happiness, and perceived health, and less likely to report a
negative effect. Literature showed that positive attitudes
toward institutional relationships were significantly related to
better health perception and life satisfaction (e.g., Ciziceno &
Travaglino, 2019; Piumatti et al., 2018; Tokuda et al., Yi,
2009). In relation to the COVID-19 outbreak, a handful of
studies revealed that a higher level of institutional trust was
positively related to people’s preventive and help seeking beha-
vior and even lower death rate from coronavirus (Oksanen
et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2020). Study results confirm that
institutional trust, in part, mediated the relationship between
perceived difficulties and subjective well-being and mental
health among older adults. All of this might suggest that insti-
tutional trust can serve as a resource for tolerance and resilience
while older adults adapt to any changes in finances during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Many COVID-19 studies pointed out the physical and psy-
chological vulnerability of older adult populations during the
COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., Kar, 2020; Morrow-Howell et al.,
2020; Previtali et al., 2020; Vahia et al., 2020). Relatively little
research exists on the societal and economic hazard faced by
older adult populations and its impact on their subjective well-
being and mental health. For older adults who remain in the
labor force, job security might play a pivotal role in
maintaining their daily living. For those who also care for other
at-risk family members (e.g., spouse or parents with illness),
deteriorated material resources caused by the pandemic crisis
significantly influence their health and well-being. Public
health authorities and local governments should identify older
adults affected by the shrinking economy and implement pro-
longed social security to help them cope with finance declines.
The study findings suggest that institutional trust can play a
role in mitigating the negative impact of declined finances and
material resources. During the national and global crisis, older
adults, in particular, those who lack other social resources (e.g.,
living alone, widowed), might depend and focus more on soci-
etal security and immediate policy provisions that minimize
negative effects on health, economics, and well-being. And this
further facilitates or mitigates the confidence in institutions
according to how the national government implements effec-
tive responses to the pandemic crisis, how the police manage
risk factors in order to preserve public order, how reliable
media information is, and how the healthcare system remains
accessible. According to Thoresen et al. (2018), it was difficult
to regain perceived trust toward institutions once it was under-
mined or lost among those who experienced a disaster, and
institutional trust had a long-term influence on health, emo-
tional, and social well-being many years after the disaster. This
might suggest that the role of institutions in the ongoing epi-
demic breakout should be further reconsidered and developed
considering the extensive aftermath of the COVID-19 pan-
demic crisis and beyond. If older adults perceive institutions’
performance managing the pandemic crisis as unhelpful or
insufficient, their level of trust and confidence in such institu-
tions would decrease. Since institutional trust appeared to
mediate the relationship between financial difficulties and
well-being of the older adults during the pandemic outbreak,
it is important that institutions consider their responses to be as
trustworthy as possible.
In order to provide more specific implications linked to
institutional trust, it is worth mentioning the functions and role
of social institutions assessed in the current study. Although the
current study neither systematically compared institutional
trust before and after the pandemic occurred, nor examined
difference in institutional trust among the institutions, our
study sample of European older adults expressed relatively low
trust in the news media and European Union; the mean score of
the trust in the news media (4.65) and European Union (4.89)
was far below the mean score of 5.37. This led to two consid-
erations concerning institutional responses to the pandemic
crisis. First, older adults might value more concrete authority
and leadership that directly affect their coping strategies.
Therefore, the role of the European Union becomes rather
subtle, even though the pandemic is a global challenge. Inter-
estingly, however, according to Eurofound’s preliminary anal-
ysis (2020b), trust in national governments decreased between
April and July, but trust in the EU has been increased mean-
while. Also, among those who have received financial support
or public services to help with living expenses or household
needs, the levels of trust in both national governments and the
Lee
EU significantly increased. During a prolonged epidemic, it
should provide the necessary equipment and supplies for older
adults at risk of finance and material deprivation, invest in the
science behind vaccine development, and promote awareness
about older adults’ coping behaviors and psychological inter-
ventions (Berman, 2020; Renda & Castro, 2020). Further, in
preparation for the post-pandemic period or the onset of
another pandemic, global governments including
the European Union should take a leading role in navigating
the new normal that lies within the larger societal structures.
This effort will empower a national level efficacy to combat the
pandemic crisis and facilitate collaboration between EU coun-
tries to alleviate human distress.
Second, news media play a pivotal role in promoting timely
policy measures and the importance of precautious and preven-
tive behaviors during the pandemic crisis. However, there has
been increasing caution concerning the misleading information
about the coronavirus (Casero-Ripollés, 2020; Cinelli et al.,
2020; Huynh, 2020). Many older adults were exposed to mas-
sive information through the web and social media platforms
during the lockdown. Often, overstated reports and negative
news, such as high daily death rates and the collapsed hospital
system increased their fear, anxiety, and hopelessness (Fiorillo
& Gorwood, 2020; Previtali et al., 2020). For example, in the
preliminary analysis of the different survey data, it was found
that 22% of older adults in the Czech Republic indicated that
they were exaggeratedly informed about the epidemic, 42%
reported they were missing positive news in media, and 24%
mentioned that there should be more news targeted toward
seniors. News media including public broadcasting and social
media platforms should be more responsible by providing
accurate health care information and guidelines for older adults
and critically monitor dis- and mis- information that can accel-
erate ageism and societal discrimination.
Along with our study findings, some methodological limita-
tions of the current investigation should be reported. Informa-
tion from the sample data at present were limited due to the
nature of survey method and cross-sectional observation. First,
data were collected via a self-administered on-line survey ques-
tionnaire, thus, it may lack the perspective of those without
constant or any internet service or those who do not use com-
puters or smartphones. This on-line survey method could pro-
duce common-method bias that might affect intercorrelations
between the measures, either to be inflated or deflated. Also,
cross-sectional observation may reflect immediate to short-
term effects of the responses to COVID-19 pandemic only. For
example, sample data did not provide any information about
the change in institutional trust, either decreased or increased
during the outbreak. Therefore, there still was insufficient evi-
dence to develop and implement a long-term policy provision
and social care system for the extensive aftermath of the pan-
demic outbreak. Based on the initial data collection, follow-up
survey will be fielded in July using a panel pool of people who
voluntarily agreed to participate in the follow-up survey (Euro-
found, 2020a). Once follow-up database is made available, a
longitudinal observation should be made in order to examine
9
how the pandemic crisis influences institutional trust and well-
being over time among older adults across Europe.
It is also important to note that study measures were limited
due to the use of secondary database. For example, institutional
trust was assessed using five different items (i.e., news media,
the police, the country’s government, the European Union, and
healthcare system). Although these institutions were consid-
ered as to be most relevant to emergent pandemic situations,
trust in other type of social institutions (e.g., trust in science and
scientific institutions) or mistrust (i.e., belief in conspiracy
theories) might also have impact on older adults’ behavioral
and psychological responses to the pandemic crisis. Further,
although five-item measure of institutional trust indicated a
good level of internal consistency in the sample data, some
may argue that trust in one institution or more does not neces-
sarily equate to trust in other social institutions. That is, people
can demonstrate varied level of trust across different social
institutions. For example, an individual shows a high level of
trust in national healthcare system, but a relatively low level of
trust in mess media. That is also to say, the meaning of insti-
tutional trust used in the current study was insufficient to fully
cover a dynamic aspect of institutional trust. Additional anal-
ysis should be done in order to determine if the trust in different
public institutions plays different roles in coping with pan-
demic adversities. In addition, perceived trust toward social
institutions did not guarantee trustworthiness of the institu-
tions. Therefore, we were cautious to interpret the results not
to conflate institutional trust and actual institutional perfor-
mance during the pandemic outbreak. Furthermore, the current
study employed five dependent variables (i.e., life satisfaction,
happiness, self-rated health, mental health, and psychological
distress) which led to numerous regression models. Therefore,
the covariance between the outcome variables was not taken
into account.
Lastly but not the least, the current study lacked information
about the individual factors, socio-demographic and cross-
cultural variation in reactions to pandemic outbreaks and its
effects on health, economics, and well-being. Study sample
data are hierarchical thus nested within other variables.
Although the effects of the key demographic variables, such
as nationality, age, and gender, were controlled in the regres-
sion models, it can be argued that these measures were not
enough. Likewise, there was little information available about
change in lifestyle or leisure activities of the older adults that
might significantly affect their subjective well-being and men-
tal health. Furthermore, the current study deemphasized other
societal and interpersonal relationships such as network and
social support. Yi (2009), for example, examined the relation-
ship between life satisfaction and different social resources
(i.e., voluntary organization, community and neighborhood,
social network, and institutions) and found that perceived trust
toward nationwide/local institutions was not significantly asso-
ciated with life satisfaction when controlling for other social
sources of trust. Therefore, if the data allows, the relationship
between institutional trust and extended interpersonal variables
should be taken into account.
10
There was also the possibility of societal and cultural dif-
ferences in the measure of institutional trust and its influence
on individual’s attitudes toward the measures implemented to
deal with COVID19. European countries have implemented
different measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
That is, optimal institutional responses to the COVID-19 crisis
should be culturally and situationally adopted in order to imple-
ment public health interventions and effective preventive mea-
sures. However, social and cultural factors were not fully
delineated in the current analysis. A handful of studies sug-
gested that political regimes and cultural variables, such as
collectivism, affect different attitudes toward and compliance
with preventive measures (e.g., Frey et al., 2020; Van Bavel
et al., 2020; Wong & Jensen, 2020). Thus, the effect of insti-
tutional trust on the older adults’ coping mechanism during the
pandemic may vary between countries (Wong & Jensen, 2020).
In a companion study, more detailed information will be pro-
vided about older adults’ psychological and behavioral
responses to the COVID-19 pandemic with an emphasis on
different socio-demographic influence across European
societies.
The study findings contribute to an expanded discourse on
health and well-being among older adults during the
COVID-19 pandemic. It appeared that older adults, to some
extent, experience uncertainty or less security in their finances,
employment, and housing, which, in turn, diminish subjective
well-being and emotional health. This preliminary analysis will
serve as a base for future studies and will have valuable impli-
cations for policy makers.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The current
study was funded by the Primus Research Programme at Charles
University [Primus/19/HUM/12]. None of the funding bodies had any
role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation,
or writing of the report.
ORCID iD
Sunwoo Lee https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7847-1529
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Author Biography
Sunwoo Lee, PhD has grounded her research activity in social and
behavioral research on aging in the context of leisure, social/civic
engagement, quality of life, and social and emotional well-being.