TRUtiNG CllKT ·tAO TH.

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CR~~TECHNICAL PUBLISHERS, INC.

IS ILLINOIS 60430-4600
 Welding Skills. 3"' Edition and CD-ROM contain we lding procedures common ly practiced in industry. Specific
procedures vary from plant to plam and must be pcrfonncd by a qualified person. For maximum safety, always refer
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state, and local regulations: and any authority having jurisdiction.
-----------------------

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Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 0-8269-30 10·7

Acknowledgments
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The awhor and publisher are grateful for the technical il!formation and assistance ptvvided by the
following companies, orgarziz.arions, cmd individua/.1·:

Airco Kamwe ld Technologies

American Welding Society LECO Corporation
ASJ Robicon The Lincoln Electric Company
Bacharach. Inc. LOCK-N-STTTCH, Inc.
Baker Testing LPS Laboratories, Inc.
Bernard Welding Equipment Company Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
Bobcat Company, a Unit of Ingersoll-Rand Motoman. Inc.
Boeing Commercial Airplane Group Nederman. Inc.
.Buchler Ltd. Osborn International
Chrysler Corporatjon Pandjiris. Inc.
Cleaver-.Brooks Rath Manufacruring
Columbus McKinnon Corporation, Industrial Sciaky, Inc.
Products Division Sellstrom Manu fact uring Co.
The Duriron Co, Inc. SJFCO Selective Plating. Cleveland, OH
E.l. du Pont de Nemours and Company Smith Equipment
ESA B Welding and Cutting Products SPM Instrument. Inc.
Exxon Company Stork Technimet. Inc.
Panuc Robotics North America Thermadyne Industries, Inc.
Paxitron X-Ray Corporation Thermo GasTech
G.A.L. Gage Co mpany Tmius Olsen Testing Machine Co.. Inc.
Harrington Hoists, Inc. Victor, a Division of Thermadyne Industries, Inc.
Haynes International. lnc. Wal l Colmonoy Corporation
Hobart Welders Weld Tooling Corp.
Ironworkers. Local Union 378

Thomas J . Clark Thomas P. Hcraly

Ironworkers. Local Union 378 Milwaukee Technical College
Charlie R. Cramlet Gary Reed
E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company STPCO Selecti ve Plating
Dave Doner Glen Schulte
Prairie State College Joliet Junior College
Dave Heidemann Mark Schumann
Miller Elect ric Manufacturing Company Mi ller Electric Manufacturi ng Company
Contents
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-
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sectiotl . 0 n e
lnu«tuetton to W.ktU\9
1 An Essential Skill _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ l
Wl>ereWelclinQ/sUs8d• Dew/opmentotw eldlnQProcesses • Points to Remember 7
WelclinQProcesses • OccupalionaiOpporltrltiesln Welci1i;l Questions for study and Discussion _ _ 7

2 Welding Safety _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 9
.Job919Solety •Sote~t0pel01ion • PeoonotProtectlv& Points to Remember 27
EQ<.t:meo~ · ,._..dousSltJ61aloeConloln8ts · CUimgSaf<>ly ·
c>.yocel}'1en9welclinQSaf<>ty • AtcWelclinQSote ty • Pr!Mlnlt1glias
Questio ns for stud y and D.ISCuss1 on _ _ 28

3 Joint Design & Welding Terms - - - - - --------,-------,------29

Points to Remember 44
WelclinQ rem>11o1ogy . w etctJc>nts. &JttJolnts. r-.100rs. topJOOts .
ComerJOOts • EageJOOts • WetctType$•WetctDesfgls Questions for Study and Discussion __ 45

4 CAW-Equipment _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 47
OXygen fa welding . Acel)'l9neForWetcilg • SoleHordngot Points to Remember fff
~ • Welc*lgADpaatus • Olt>ef Wek*lgGases Questions for Study and Discussion __ fff

5 OAW-Setup & Operation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____ 61

WeldhQApporoM~ • Selecli>gWeldlnQJbs • Ugtltng Points to Remember __ 67
Torches • Aq\J$1iog theWeldir>gflorn<J • ShuffingOII Torcnes Exercises 67
Questions for Study and Discussion __ 68

6 OAW-Fiat Position _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _69

Cotlyt)goWetdPooi • AdcklgRIIetMeta • WeldlngBuffJOOts • Points to Remember 78
~Other.100/s • OAW-Cost/ron • 0Aw-Alrni1t.m • OAv.<- Exercises __ 78
Questions for Study and Discussion __ 84

7 OAW-Other Positions - - - - -- - - - - - - -Points

Ho<~zontotonct~Weldhg · o-tleoclwelcfng
- - - - - - - -85
to Remember 86
Exercises 86
Questions for Study and Discussion __ 88
 section. three
~ M.tat A..o ~no tsMA.'M

8 SMAW-Equipment _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 89
Eledrical Pnnc/p/eS • Weting Mac/line Output • COnstant-current Points to Remember 103
We/dlhg Machines • Sialic PowerSoutces • Engine-Driven Power
Sources • Weldi1g Machine Ratings • We/dng EQ<.ipmenl • Shop Questions for Study and Discussion _ 103
Equbment • Personal Proteclfve Eqllipment

9 SMAW-Selecting Electrodes _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 105

fledrodas • ldenllfying EleCtrodes • Seleclhg Correct EJectroctes • Points to Remember _ 115
ConseM"lgondSIOIY>g Electrodes • Electrode Oas9flcotion •
\.ttklbl9$ofSe/9c1i lgEiec/rodas • SpedatElectrodes Questions for Study and Discussion _1 16

1 0 SMAW- Striking an Arc - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 117

Bosi::Prilc/p/eSotSUttahi'lgaw91dngArc • Cl>ectanQond Points to Remember 120
~EQI.JPment • GIPPhg the Electrode • Aq\.os1i"lg the
Cl.m;nt Exercises 121
Questions for Study and Discussion _122

1 1 SMAW-Depositing a Continuous Bead - - - -- - - - - - - - - - 123

Points to Remember 129
Essentials ofArc Welding • Etectr0d9 Selection • Arc Length •
Cvnent Selection • Travel Speed • ElectrOde Ang.'e • Crater Exercises 130
fom'JOtion • CootrOifing Crote<S • Arc Blow Questions for Study and Discussion _131

1 2 SMAW-Fiat P o s i t i o n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 133
Points to Remember _ 139
We«1 A::l!$9$ • Root Alss • nte.mediale WeiCIAlss • eo-Alss• .Jotlls
Weldedi1Ra1Posltiot> • ~Jolnl$ • T·Jo/nl$ • Buff Jolnl$ • Comet
Exercises _ 140
Jolnls • &sfoctlg • SMAWRaiPosltiot> Problen ~ Questions for Study and Discussion _ 146

1 3 SMAW-Horizontal Position - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 147

Points to Remember _ 148
Holf.'Ontal Position Welding • Welding Procedure • Depo<ili"lg
8ea:1s lnHOiiZontol PositiOn • We/dKlg o ~Poss lap Jointin Exercises _ 149
HOII?ontol Position • Welding o Multiple-Pass T·Joinl in HOII?ontd Questions for Study and Discussion _152
Postion

14sMAW-Vertical Position - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - 153

Points to Remember _155
Exercises 155
Questions for Study and Discussion _158

1 5 SMAW-Overhead Position------ - - - - - - - - - - - - 159

<Mmeoc~wel<:*>g. Ovetl'readWel<:*>gP!oced<le Points to Remember 1(l)
Exercises _ 161
Questions for Study and Discussion _162
 see rio n . f 0 U r
Gm lu.nttten A~e Weldin; (&TAW)

16GTAW-Equipment - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - 163
=Tungsten Arc Weldilg • GTAWCvrrent Selection • Constont· Points to Remember _ 176
CvtrentWeld.'ngMachines • lllverterWe!dingMochines • GlAW
Equipment • G lAWFIRerMetOIS Questions tor Study and Discussion _ 176

1 7 GTAW-Procedures - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - 177
GTAw Considerations • Joint Preporolfon • Weld 8ocldng • GTAW Points to Remember _ 185
Procedt.tre1 • Stcsrtirtg the Arc • Hottzonlal Weldilg Procedure •
VertiCal 'Neldi1g Procedufe • Overhead Weldilg Procedure • Hot Exercises _ 185
Wue V.~ • Puls6dGTAW(GTAW.P)
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 190

1 8 GTAW-Applications - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 191
Aturnficm • sta/rllessSt&el • CepperOfldCopperAloy • M<:>gne$iUm • Points to Remember _ 196
CottxlnStool
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 196
sec tio n . fiVe
G• Meted Af~ Wetdif\9 (GMAW)

1 9 GMAW-Equipment - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - 197
Gas Me/0/Atc Welding • GMAW Current Selection • GMAW We/Oing Points to Remember 211
Machines • GMAWEq!AiJment • GMAWWeldilgW/fe
Questions for Study and Discussion _212

2 0 GMAW-Procedures _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ 213
Joint Preparation . WeldBocking • GMAW5etllpProce<Jutes • Metot Points to Remember _ 224
TronsftN Modes • GMAWWelciDisccntfnuities
Exercises 225
Questions for Study and Discussion _230

2 1 GMAW-Applications - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - 231
Corbof>Stooi · Alumino.m • stolnJesssteet• Cepper Points to Remember _ 237
Questions for Study and Discussion _237
sec rio n .six
Othet WetdinQ Pl~eU~$

2 2 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- 239

RtJKCcredArc We/ding(FCAWJ • Advontogesot FCAw • FCAw Points to Remember 245
Equipment • WeldingMochlnes • WeldilgG<xl • Flc)xCcred E · 246
Electrodes • Wire FeedlN . ShieldngGas • FCAw App lications xerc1ses _
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 248
2 3 Brazing, Braze Welding, & Soldering - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - 249
Brazing • MontJOI Brazing • Production Brazing • Braze Weld.Vlg • Cast Points to Remember _ 264
Iron Broze Welding • Broze Welding Oisc<:fvcntoges • Soldering •
HeottngDevices • Soldering Tecf1rliques • /nspectingSoi<:JeredJoj()ts Questions for Study and Discussion _ 264

24 Surfacing------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - 265
SUrfoclng • WeorTypes • SUrfoclngMethods • We/(1ing • GTAWond Points to Remember _ 281
GMAWOverloys • PAWWek!Overloys • SAW Weld Overlays •
SurfocePreporollor> • WeldOverloyF/uerMetO/s • Thermo/Spraying Questions for Study and Discussion _ 281

2 5 Cutting Operations----- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 283

CllttingOperofions • Oxyh;eiCuttingGoses • Torches • Pl&cingHoles • Points to Remember 294
Bevefng • ClltltlgRaundSiock • Cutting Cast ~on • Plo'imolllc Cutffng
(PAC) • AlrCorbonllJc Cllttlng (CAC·A) • SafelyPrecoutions Exercises 294
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 297

2 6 Repair Welding--- - - - - - - - -- - - -Points

- - - - -- - 299
to Remember _318
Evolootlng f?epo/r MethocJ.s • Mec/1oniCOI Repo.'rM91110CiS • Weld
RepoirMell1ocJ.s • WeldRepojrPfor>s
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 318

319
Points to Remember _336
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 336

337
Points to Remember _ 362
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 362

363
Points to Remember _ 373
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 373

30 Plastic Welding--- - - - - - - - -- - - -Points

- - - - -- - 375
Types ofPlastics • Hot Gas Welding • HeotecJ.Too/ Welding •
to Remember _ 382
Indue /ion We/(1ing • Friction Welding
Questions for Study and Discussion _ 382
sec tion . seven
1 W•ta 1'4aluQtion e~nd le"'ng
31 Destructive Testing 383
Destructive Test Types • TensiieTest • SI1eorTest • Bend Test • Points to Remember _411
Hardness Test • Toog/1ness Tests • Break Tests • Specimen Preparation
• Re.sldiJaJSiressMonogement Questions for Study and Discussion _ 412
3 2 Nondestructive Examination - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- 4 13
Vlsud&o<i ...A*>•(VT) • IiqlldP&netrontExicrrtlo1ion(PT> • Mognelic Points to Remember _447
/'ortfr;le~(MT) • (lfrOiiOric Exa1li iOIIol 1(!IT) • Roriog~
EJ<o•••oflott@T> • ElecJrorrw:Jg~&licExcuoiOiiot•(El) •PtoofTesti'ig Questions for Study and Discussion _448

3 3 Metallography - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 449
Points to Remember _463
tviO~&.ca•oiOib• · OJtttigandRour;fi~ · M<xnltlgax:J
ll'!eGmca>g . Rour;fiax:JFhdPolst1tlg . Elchngax:JExicrrtlo1ion .
Mm~&.a.'inotiou • Moctootr:to-.gax:JfJ«:rrW>t:tffo •U{pfrQ Questions for Study and Discussion _464

3 4weld Discontinuities _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 465

W<lkiSiresse. • Croek> • Ccrvffies · lnduslons · ~teftJslonond Points to Remember _484
~tePeneuotton • /nce«ectShope • Miscelorl<ioos
Dlsconti'>l.i lles Questions for Study and Discussion _ 484

3 5 Welding Procedure Qualification------------- - - - 485

Points to Remember _ 501
W<JidlngPtoce<~ure QuoliflcotionVorlat:>les • We/ditlg Proce<iure
SpecificOI/on (WPS) • Procect.tre Quo'fflcoflon Recotd(PQR)
Questions for Study and Discussion _ffY2.

3 6 Welder Performance Qualification - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - 503

WPQ StondordsOildCo<tes • PrOd.Jet{;pedffcWPQs Points to Remember ff:ff
Questions for Study and Discussion _51 0
section . eight
w.ttuno Ted\nolQ9v
3 7 Welding Metallurgy - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- 511
MetoiUgico/StructUte • W<lkiReQions • EffsctoiWel<:fnQ on Points to Remember _ 535
Pliysico/Properlies • Effect ol Welct"lg onlvlectior*:o/Properlies •
EffectofWeldrlgSire..onwelds . ElfectofWeldingonCaro9on Questions for Study and Discussion _536
I<B$t5la>oo

3 8 Metal Identification - - - - - - - - - - - -- Points

fvlcrl.Jfoc~tYerPopetwot~<
- - - - - - - 537
• McterfdsNonooniOtmOne9 Reporl •
to Remember _ 554
VdUOI!denliflcotlon • QualftotiVe ldenliflcoflon • 5erni-Qvonlii011Ve
ldllfltlflcotlon • Quan#totiVe ldenliflcoflon Questions for Study and Discussion _554

3 9 Weldability of Carbon & Alloy Steels - - - -- - - - - - - - - - 555

CotbonandAioy Steels • Stoo!Deoxidotion • GenerotWel<:fnQ Points to Remember 566
Considerations for CGftlonondA.IoySteels • Specllic WBidhg
ConsidefotionstorCOibonondA.IoYStOOIS Questions for Study and Discussion _ 566

40weldability of Tool Steels & Cast I r o n s - - - - - - - -- - - - - 567

Weldal:;iNtyo r rootSteels • Generotw e/ditlgCon9dero tionsforToot Points to Remember _ 580
Steels • WeldoblilyoiCosf ~ons • GenerOIWelo!hg Con9derotions for
Casllrons Questions for Study and Discussion _580
4 1 Weldability of Stainless Steels - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - 581
WeldobRilyotSfolnlessSteeJs • GenerOI Welding Consideroliol'ls kx Points to Remember 595
Stainless SteelS • Specific Weldlhg Considerations tor StointessS1e91s
Questions tor Study and Discussion _ 595

4 2 Weldability of Nonferrous Metals - - -- - - - - -Points

- - - - - - - 597
to Remember
we/clobifity ofNickel AHoY> • Weldobillty o r CopperAlloY> • 612
WelcJob.Wty ofAluminum Alloys • Weldoblfity ofMagnesium Alloys •
wetdobi/ffyotTitoniumANoys Questions for Study and Discussion _612

4 3 Distortion Control - - - - - - - - - - -- - -Points

-------
to Remember 623
Dlstorlion • WeldMeto/Silrlnl<oge • Bose Meta/Shrinkage • Distortion
613
Control • MechonicafRestroint Methods • HeatShaping • Dlstorlion
Control ofComponents • Residual Stress Questions for Study and Discussion _624

44welding Symbols _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ 625

WeldlngSWnbo/s • Combining WeldingS)-rnbols • Nondestructive Points to Remember 637
Exominolion$)-rnbols
Questions tor Study and Discussion _ 637

4 5 Materials & Fabrication Standards & Codes - - - - - - - - - - - - 639

MolerfolsStondords • MoterfotsStonda«:isOrgonizotions • Using Points to Remember 6tiJ
MoteriolsStonctords . FoblicotionsStondords ondC<XIes
Questions for Study and Discussion _6t!J

A p p e n d i x - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 661
Glossary 687
Index 709

CD-ROM Contents
-------------------------------------------------------------------
~ - --- ---- --- ------ - -

• Using This CD-ROM

• Quick Quizzes'"
• Illustrated Glossary
• Welding Resources
• Media Clips
• Reference Material
Introduction

Welding Skills, J'd Edition, is the product of an extensive revision effort ro address all aspects of the
weld ing trade and the latest we lding technology. Now in full color, th is comprehensive text has been
completely updated and expanded to cont inue the trad ition of an industry- leading instructional tool. A
new contemporary design, derailed illustrations. descriptive photographs, and concise text enhance the
learn ing process. Step-by-step exen:ises, currenl AWS terrniuology, key points, ami informative factoius
supplement essential content throughout the rext.

The Third Edir ion bui lds on lhe quality of previous edit ions and offers valuable new content contributed
by Bert J. Moniz. Having over 37 years of experience in metallurgy and many facets of welding, Mr.
Moniz currently serves as Materials Engineering Consullanr with the DuPont Company. In his current
position, he is involved with selecting materials for constructiou, fabricarion. and failure analysis world-
wide. He has !aught related courses, authored books, and written and presented several papers. His hands-
on knowledge and expertise are reflected throughou t the text and in the developmcnl of new chapters
covering:

Repair Welding
Metallography
Weld Discontinu ities
Metal ldenri fication
Weldabi lity of Common Metals
Distortion Control
Materials and Fabrication Standards and Codes

The text begins with an introduction to the welding process and welding in industry. Throughout the text
an emphasis is placed on fundamen ra l principles of welding processes, equipment, welder performance
qualification, and weld evaluario11 and test ing . The text a lso covers the latest technology in welding
metallurgy, metal weldability, d istortion control, robotics, aud marerial standards and codes. Chapters in
the rex t have been organized into eight sections to progressively enhance knowledge and skills. Safety
procedures and potential heal th and safety hazards arc covered in context with appropriare cautions and
wm·nings. The Appendix conrains reference marerial pertinenr to the welding trade, and the Glossary
provides definitions of welding terms introduced in the text.

The Welding Skills, 3"' Edition CD-ROM in the back of the book is a self-study aid designed to augment
content inc luded in I he rext. The CD-ROM inc I udes a Quick QuizTM for each section of the text. an
Illustrated Glossary, Media Clips, Welding Resou rces, and related welding re ference material. Informa-
tion about using the CD-ROM is included on the last page of the book.

Welding Skills, 3n1 Edition, is one of several high-quality training products available from American Tech-
nica l Pub lishers, Inc. To obtain information about related training products, visit the American Tech web
site at www.go2atp.com.

The Publisher
section . 0 ne Introduction to Welding

Welding is an efficient, dependable, flexible, and economical means of fabrication. Welding is widely
used in industry as a principal means of fabricating and repairing metal products. Welding can lower
production costs by simplifying design and eliminating costly pauems and machining operations. Weld-
ing ctm also be used in repair operations and adding new meta/to worn parts.
There are many opporlllnities for IVelders trained in welding techniques. materials, designs. and
appliccuions.

WHERE WELDING IS USED and jigs and fixtures: and in the con-
struction of boilers, furnaces. and rai l-
We/dh1g is the coa lescence or joining
way cars. We lding is a lso common ly
together of metals, with or without rc
used in the manufacture of products
Ii ller metal, using heat, allCllor pressure.
for househo ld use, such as te levi sion
Bonding of metals during welding oc-
sets, refrigerators. storage cabinets. and
curs through localized me lting or mi-
di shwashers. Cons truction off bridges
crostructural changes at the in terface
and s hips a lso comm o nl y requires
between the meta ls. Welding is used
we lding.
thr oughou t industry in building con-
struction. aircraft m<mufacluring, and for
automobile production. See Figure 1- I. 0 Nearly twQ·third.r fl/ltllwelders work intire
Welding is used extensively for the C()nSiru,·Jimr, trt.mSparJatiOu eq.u ipmellt,
fal>ricllletl mew/ fJI'Oducts. nwchinery. and
manu facture and repair of farm equip- moror velticlt and t!quipmellf indrlSiries.
ment. mining and refinery equipment.

Welding in Industry
FigUte 1-1

n.,. U.niln F.lrrtrlt- C.~~

CONSTRUCTION AVIATION AUTOMOTIVE
 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDING
PROCESSES
Modern welding processes evolved
from discoveries and inventions dat-
ing back to the year 2000 B.C. when
forge weldiJJg was firSt used as a means
of joining two pieces of metal. It was a
crude process of joining metal by beat-
ing and hammering until the objects
were fused together. Today, for ge
welding is used only in limited appli -
cations.
Tire combustion of 11 Acetylene gas was discovered in
mixture of acetylene
1836 by Edmund Davy. When com-
ami oxygen /JrtHiuces
bined with oxygen, acetylene produced
tl flame tltlll is suit·
able for welding all(/ a flame suitable for welding and cut-
cutting. ting. The application of heat generated
from an electric arc between carbon
electrodes was the basis for the arc
welding process. Res istance welding,
which also uses electricity, was also
developed in the late 1800s and first
used in the early 1900s.
One of the most s igni ficant devel-
opments at the time was tbe invention
of an electrode that is consumed into
the weld while providing heat from an
Tht• t)rimtu')' duty Q/ a ar c (the shielded metal arc welding
welder ruing ():t.)'fuel process). Modifications to the coating
welding is to comrol applied on the consumable electrode
umJ clire<:t heat olllo
tire edges cif tire metal allowed greater applications for arc
ro bl' joined. welding.
Ano ther improveme nt in the arc
welding process was the add ition of
an inert shielding gas to protect the
weld area from atmospheric contami-
nation (the gas tungsten arc welding
process). Tb.is proved to be an espe-
cially important process in welding
magnesium and aluminum on World
War II fighter planes. The electrode
used was made our of tungsten and was
not consumed into the we ld. O rigi-
nally, helium was used as a shielding
gas, but was later replaced by the less
expensive argon.
New develop me nts in t he field
continue to address new requirements
and applications in industry. Current
welding processes are the product of
2 ~ Welding Skills
continued refinements and vanatJons
of the we lding processes discovered
in the 1800s.
WELDING PROCESSES
The demands of a growing industrial
economy during the 1800s spurred the
development of modern welding pro-
cesses. The welding process to be used
for a pa rticular job is determined by
the following:
• type of metals to be joined
• costs involved
• nature of products to be fabricated
• production techniques used
• job locat ion
• material appearance
equipment avallability
• welder experience
Welding processes used today are com-
monly classified as oxyfuel welding, arc
welding. and resistance welding. See Fig-
ure 1-2.
6 ,, UUO. Sir Humphrey Da'~'· dis(:ov~red
rha1 an tlecrric ore could be mn;,rrained m
will by bringi11g two tlm11i11als ofhigh volt-
age electricity near each other. 17te length
mu/ inll!nsity could be ''(Jritd by tldjusring
tire voltage of tire circuit.
Oxyfuel Welding
Oxyfuel welding (OFW) is a group of
welding processes that use beat from
the combustion of a mixture of oxy-
gen and a fuel for welding. Acetylene,
methylacetylene-propadiene stabilized
(MAPP) gas. propane, natural gas,
hydrogen, or propy lene may be used.
The heat is obtained from the combus-
tion of a combustible gas and oxygen.
OFW welding processes are used with
or without ft.ller metal. Tf filler metal is
not used in the joint. the weld is au-
togenous. An autogenous weld is a
fusion weld made witbout filler metal.
Oxyacety lene welding is the most
common ly used oxyfue l process.
Oxyacetylene welding (OAW) is an
oxyfuel welding process that uses
acetylene as the fuel gas.
Welding Processes Because of its flexibility and mo-
Figure 1·2 bility. oxyacetylene welding is used in
all metalworking industries, but is most
commonly used for maintenance and
repair work.

Arc Welding
Arc welding (AW) is a group of welding
processes that produce coa lescence of
metals by heating them with an electric
arc. The arc is struck between a weld-
ing electrode and tbe base metaL The
OXYFUEL WELDING (OFW) weld ing e lectrode is a component of
the welding circuit that terminates at
the arc. The joint area is shielded from
the atmosphere until it is cool enough
HEAT FOR to prevent the absorption of harmful im-
WELDING
PRODUCED BY purities from the atmosphere.
ELECTRIC ARC
AW is the most common method of
welding metals. AW processes include
sh ielded metal arc welding (SMAW).
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas SMAW electrodes um
metal arc welding (GMAW), Jlux cored
arc weld ing (FCAW), submerged arc
welding (SAW). and plasma arc weld-
I be modified to allow
for wider appli<.YtlioJJ
of SMA W 1>•vcesses.

ing (PAW).
Shielded Metal Arc Welding. Shielded
metal arc we lding (SMAW) is an arc
welding process in which the arc is
shielded by the decomposition of the
elecu·ode coating. The electrode is con-
ARC WELDING (AW) s umed into the weld while providing
heat from an elecu·ic arc. Variations in
composition of the electrode coating
HEAT FOR WELDING
PRODUCED BY RESISTANCE TO a llow diffe rent applications of the
OF ELECTRICITY SMAW process.
Common app lications of SMAW
ELECTRODES
are in the fabrication of machinery and
structural steel for bu ildings and
bridges. SMAW is considered ideal for
making storage and pressure vessels
as well as for production-line products
using standa rd commercial metals.
SMAW is also used in repair work and
in weldiog large structures.
RESISTANCE WELDING (RW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. Gas lung-
sren an: welding (GTAW) is an arc welding
Figure 1-2. \Veli/ing pff.NXSS#:S ore (:(»tunOtlly t:-l(lssijicd as process in which a shielding gas protects
Q.l){uel v.:eJdlng, arc weMing. (UI(/ ll!Sistmwe weldi11g. the arc between a nonconsumable (does

An Essemial Skill ~ 3
 not become pan of the weld) tungsten
electrode and the weld area. GTAW uses
a nonconsumable llmgsten electrode and
a shielding gas, usually helium or argon.
for welding. The GTAW process can be
used to weld using filler metal, or with-
out Iiiler metal to form an autogenous
weld. GTAW is widely used for joining
thin-wall tubing and depositing the root
pass in pipe j oints. GTAW produces a
very high-qual ity weldment.
Gas Metal Arc Welding. Gas mew/ arc
welding (GMAW) is an arc welding pro-
cess that uses an arc between a cominu-
ous wire electrode and the weld pool.
Argon is used as a shielding gas for non-
ferrous metals such as alum inu m, and
carbon dioxide/carbon dioxide mixtures
(such as 75/25, 9812) with argon are
FCAW uses a tulm·
lt1r t;l~ctrode h'ith used as a shield ing gas for steels. The
flux m us core. GMAW p rocess uses a continuously fed
consumable wire, e liminating the need
to stop and change electrodes. This has
increased the popularity of GMAW in
manufacturing.
Flux Cored Arc Welding. Flux cored
arc welding (FCAW) is an arc weld ing
process that uses a tubular electrode
with flux in its core. FCAW produces
fast, clean welds with excellent ap-
pearance and high deposition rates,
and the process can be automated.
Like GMAW, the primary benef it
of FCAW over SMAW is the higher
productivity rate possible with the
continuous- feed system, which also
results in lower production cos ts.
FCAW is commonly used to weld car-
bon, low-alloy and stainless steels, and
cast iron. Typical app lications include
field and shop fabrications.
Submerged Arc Welding. Sublllerged
arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding pro-
cess that uses an arc bet ween a bare
metal electrode and the weld pool. The
electrode, arc. and weld pool are sub-
merged in a granular flux poured on the
base metal. SAW is limited to flat or low-
curvature base metals. SAW produces
4 ~ Welding Skills
high-quality weld metal with fast depo-
sition rates. The weld surface is smooth
with no spatter. SAW is automated and
most often used to join thick me tals re-
quiring deep penetration, such as in
heavy steel plate fabrication.
Plasma Arc Welding. Plasma arc
welding (PAW) is an arc welding pro-
cess that uses a constricted arc between
a nonconsumable tungsten electrode
and the weld pool (transferred arc), or
between the electrode and constricting
nozzle (non-transferred arc). Trans -
ferred arc PAW produces a deep, nar-
row, uniform weld zone and is suitable
for almost any metal.
Transferred arc PAW is used for
weld ing high-strengt h, thin metal.
Non-transferred arc PAW is typically
used for therma l spraying.
Resistance Welding
Resistance welding ( RW) is a group
of welding processes in which weld-
ing occurs from the heat obtai ned by
resistance to the flow of cu rrent
through the metals joined. A resistance
we ld in g machine fu ses metals to-
gether by heat and pressure. RW is
used to make localized (spot) or con-
tinuous (seam) joints. An advantage
of resistance welding is its adaptabil-
ity to rapid fusion of seams.
RW uses special fixtures and au-
tomatic handlin g equ ipmen t for the
mass production of automob ile bod-
ies, electrical equipment, hardware. or
other domestic goods. RW can be used
for joining almost all steels, sta inl ess
steels. aluminum alloys. and some
dissimi lar metals.
OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
IN WELDING
The widespread use or welding in
Ame1ican industry provides a constant
sou rce of emp loyment for welders.
According to the U.S. Department of
Labor, there are approximately 588,000
persons employed as welders. Over half
of these work in industries that manu-
facture durable goods such as transpor-
tation equipment, mach inery. and
household products. Many others work
for constl'tlction fums and repair shops.
A growing number of welders are re-
quired to operate automated <tlld robotic
welding machines.
Employment Outlook
Opportunities for those who desire to
become welders differ by occupational
specialty. A healthy economy and a
need to replace experienced workers
who leave the field create a demand
for we lders . Certified welders. espe-
cially those certified in more than one
process, have better employment op-
portunities than non-certified welders.
Although many companies have
automated some tasks traditionally per-
formed manually. qualified welders are
still requ ired. Many automated weld-
ing machines and robots require a
single operator overseeing mu ltiple op-
erations. However, fabrication and re-
pair applications are still common in
the welding industry. See F igure 1-3.
Training
Training to be a welder is avai Iable
from different sources. Many schools
offer comprehensive welding training
programs. Company training programs
can vary from a few months of on-
the-job training to several years of for-
mal training. Apprenticeship programs
that include welder training are also
available through unions such as the
Internationa l Association of Bridge,
Structural. Ornamental, and Reinforc-
ing !ron Workers or the lnternationa l
Union of Operating Engineers (fUOE).
Most employers prefer applicants who
have some welding ex perience and
courses in mathemat ics, mechanica l
drawing, metals. and blueprint reading.
17w needfurcerrified
we/(/ers cominues to
~row iu the welding
ilulustl)t
f igure 1·3. Rabmic wehlinu machines uri! pro·
~mmmed m {H!Iform rCfKiili~·e \tY!Ids on uwss-produced
J11'(U/Ul'IS Out/ Yi!IJIIife .tupC11!fSiOJI by il skiflei/ W~f(/.
iuf: mac.:lline operatat:
Welders must have good manual
dexterity, eyesight, and hand-eye co-
ord ination. They should be ab le to
concentrate on detailed work for long
periods and must be free of physical
disabilities that would prevent them from
bending, stooping, or working in awk-
W<tl'd positions. Welders must also be
able to lift 50 lb regularly and I 00 lb
occas ionally.
Before being assigned to work
wbere the quality and strength of the
weld are critical, a welder generally has
to pass a certification test g iven by an
employer, government agency, or in-
spection authority. See Figure 1-4.
Typically, welders are certitied by an The Americ:au Weld-
ing Suciery (A IVS)
employer to perform s pecific welds.
mainwins a natimwl
Recent. efforts by the American Weld- regisrry of ce11ijied
ing Society (A WS) allow certified welders UJ assist em-
welders to be listed on a national reg- t>loyers in find in.~
employee.v that/rave
istry. The national registry assists em- auained a particulur
ployers in finding employees that have skill le••el.
attained a particular skill level.
An Essential Skill :§: 5
f~u~ 1-4. Wtldtn an t·utifi~d
b' un '"'Pitt\fl'.. 'fl~·trnm~nr
U(t't*'"l. ur tns~ll(llf authonh to
~rft~rm tp.-ufu •tlds.
Job Classifications
Welding jobs differ in the degree of
skill required. Welding machine opera-
tors can learn the required procedures
in several hours. while welders may
need years of on-the-job training to
m~ter their craft. A beginning welder
usually starts on simple production
jobs and gradually works up to higher
levels of skill with experience.
Welders must have a working
knowledge of metal properties and
effects of heat o n welded structures.
They must also have an understand-
ing of how materials are fabricated.
Welders must be able to read detailed
drawings. prepare the work area. con-
trol expansion and contraction forces.
"" •·~"'· £1--c,_,..,
111t IIUtlfarcertified welders is growi1111 01 tXfJrrit•llfttlwt/dus /eave tile worAforce.
6 ~ IVeldiug Skills
read welding symbols, recognize weld
defects. and perfonn all taSks required
to finish the welding job. A welder
may be proficient in several welding
task areas or a specific welding task.
As a rule. the welder is always cert.ified
for the specific welding task required
Skilled welders may, by promotion.
become inspectors or supervisors.
Some of (he principal job titles of weld-
ers include the following:
Welder /-Ieiper. Entry-level welder.
clean~ slag for Welder, positions
worl..pieces, help~ move materials.
Welder. Person who performs
welding using the required process.
Welder Operator. Welder who op-
erates automatic welding equipment,
such a~ that found on automobile as-
sembly lines.
Pipe Welder. Welder with additional
training and certilicmion in welding pipe.
Welding Layout and Set-up Person.
Welder with printreading experience.
Must prepare workpicces for welding.
Some welding personnel arc re-
quired to oversee welder certification.
instruction, and quality control. The
following supervisory positions require
additional training:
Welding Inspector. Certified welder
who has undergone additional certi-
fication to work as an inspector.
Welding S upervisor. Person with
good management skills who can ef-
fectively nm a weld shop and maintain
the required welding schedule and
quality of workmanship. Welding su-
perviwrs mu\t be knowledgeable about
,;umpany ~tamlanh ami procedures.
n~ltling Instructor. Person employed
by a high school. community college.
vocational program, or apprenticeship
program. Instructors must be certified
to meet AWS standards.
Welding Engineer. Person with a
coll ege degree and professional certi-
fication qua lified to specify necessary
weld rcqui remcntS.
 I. The combustion of a mixture of acetylene and oxygen produces a name that is suitable for
welding and cutting.
2. The primary duty of a welder using oxyfuel welding is to control and direct heat onto the edges
of the metal to be joined.
3. SMAW electrodes can be modified to allow for wider application of SMAW processes.
4. FCAW uses a tubular electrode with flux in its core.
5. Tile need for certil1ed welders continues to grow in the welding industry.
6. The American Welding Society (AWS) maintains a national registry of certified welders to
assist employers in finding employees that have attained a particular sk ill level.

f1~1Jif'ii[•]~~11•l;Jiill•flm1~1·J·]~MJl'iit•]~-

I. Name some manufacturing applications for which welding is commonly used.

2. What is the basis of the arc welding process'?
3 . Name the three common classillcations o f weld ing processes used today.
4. Define autogenous weld.
5. What is the most common welding method used for welding metals?
6. What is one difference between FCAW and GMAW?
7. What is transferred PAW typica lly used for? Non-transferred PAW?
8. List training programs that provide education for welders.
9. What are some skills that all welders shou ld have?

An Essemial Skill ~ 7
8 0 1\'l'ltlill!( Skills
Eve1y year, thousands of welders stiffer injuries as a result of accidems that occur because proper safety
precautions are not followed at the j ob site. Accidents occur because of indifference to regulations. lack of
informal ion, or carelessness. Any injwy can be painful and can incapacirate a person. or lead ro permanenr
disability or death.

Safety precawions are effective in reducing rhe occurrence of accidems ar the job site. Safety means using
common sense and ln•oiding serious accidems; and it has to be observed constamly. Eswblished safery
pmctices should be followed at all times. If good safery practices are consistemly followed, an awareness
of proper behavior is established thar usually prevenrs mistakes.

JOB SITE SAFETY is usually required and is beneficial for

Week/1• sa[l'/y meet·
Indus try places a strong emphasis on
safety in the workplace. A tremendous
amount of time and effort is spent on
keeping current with company safety
regu lations. Safety meetings are a good
way for employees to keep current
I ings are a conreuient
wcry for employers
to discus.'> n!lewmt
job site safety iJ'Surs
about potential hazards that have arisen
safety training and awareness. The Oc- or to inform a supervisor about hazards
aut/ COIICttniS.
cupational Safety and Health Adminis- they have noticed at the job site.
tration (OSHA) standardizes safety
practices for most types of work envi-
ronmenL~. The Occupmional Safety and Figure 2-- 1. T{,t• Occupatimwl
Health Adminisrration (OSHA) is a fed- Silf~ty wul Htttlt!J Admini.W'ttlimr
(OSf./1\) t'(q•ti,.t'.\ t!mph>_,,~rJ' f(l
eral agency that requires all employers prm·hlt' a ,;:mfr wm-J: rtlvirmuuent
to provide a safe environment for their for Nuployttt>$.
employees. See Figure 2 - 1.
Employers are responsible for safety
training at the job site and for ensuring
that their employees are familiar with,
and follow, OSHA regu la tions. Most
compan ies have a comprehensive new-
hire training program to cover the over-
all safety requirements of the company.
Weekly safety meetings and/or toolbox
talks are also held to discuss current
safety topics and employee safety con-
cerns, and to answer any employee
questions. Attendance at these meetings

9
 Reporting Accidents
According to the Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics, approximately 26,000 welders per year
are injured on the job site. Welders are ex-
posed to health risks every day: !he ultra-
violet rays of !he welding arc can injure
the eyes or the skin; some gases produced
by welding may be toxic and if breathed
in may affect !he lungs; and welding or
cutting near tlammab le materia ls, or
welding o n containers that have held
combustible materials, poses a fire risk.
While precautions must be taken to
prevent ir~uries, accidents do happen. All
accidents should be reported, regardless
of how minor they may be. A small scratch
might lead to a serious infection, or a minute
particle lodged in d1e eye could result in a
serious eye injury. Prompt attention to any
injury usually minimizes the seriousness
of !he injury. See Figure 2-2.
Any job site where physical work is
perfonned should have <m established ac-
cident reporting procedure. Since !his re-
porting procedure is in the best interest of
the worker, it is irresponsible to ignore it or
rry to avoid reporting an accident Instead,
workers should become fully informed
abom what should be done and !hen lake
immediate action if ;m accident occurs.

Fl!'!lbe S!:IIU!
lt f'!A~
ACCIDENT REPORT OF INJURY
_.,._
!il: F"n1M~
0 PanTJMO 0 ModieN Tionemot~e
INJURED
PERSON
0"""'--

TIME OF
ACCIDENT

_2.__-·--
DATE OF
ACCIDENT

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~====~~~----r----PLACEOF
ACCIDENT
........
IO. ~~~~~ '---Pt• 0 Hr
gMIIOial.......,.hO!n - -

tJc:,•P~bO:l.
=-- CAUSE OF
ACCIDENT
TYPE OF ...,.,_,_
ACCIDENT

CIRCUMSTANCES

11 Wllot~"*~i~'" 1l!Bt·us•o,...Cill*l'*"'l::f) Stgq m<rlerialpappui..dm:inq

Weld109 Loose ~IQtj wa~ projectedqwavfmm wack surtace4nd stntclr.
helper m tM ,yt:. '

IMMEDIATE
SUPERVISOR

FiJ!ure Z.2. A1t act:idt!nt ,.tporl !on11 nwsl be filled 0111 to accurlilely reflecz zhe t'\'ellts of tm acddcm. lisr injuri~·. a1td derail job ltaz.anls tlrat
mt1y neecl mrenrio,.

10 @o Welding Skills
 confined space include having a stand- \VIrt>n working i11 u
Work Behavior
by person available, guarding openings. cmrfinetl.~fXlCt, h11 \"l'
Occasionally, workers may engage in us ing adequate ventilat ion. and per- II Slllllt/-by f1USOII

what might appear to be harmless forming oxygen content checks. tWtJilable w en.mre tl
,wfe en~~irotmlf!JI,
pranks. However, there arc many re- Welding and culling operations per-
corded incidents where a prank ended formed in confined spaces create spe-
in serious injury. Any form of horseplay cific safety hov.ards. For instance, a leak
in a shop is dangerous and can lead to in welding equipment can displace life-
an accident. Most work areas are rea- s upporting oxygen levels. Sec Appen-
sonably safe if proper work precautions dix. Some gases. sucb <IS argon. cannot
are taken, but no one is safe if good work be detected by smell and in confined or
attitudes are ignored. low-ventilated areas build to tollic lev-
els. Welding, tlame cutting, or allied pro-
SAFE EQUIPMENT OPERATION cesses should never be started until
safety precautions are addressed. Weld-
Welding equipment should not be used ing safety procedures are developed to
unless exact operatin g ins truc ti o ns avoid hazards that might be present
have been received a nd understood. from welding operations. 1l1cse include
Manufacturer recommendations should hazards of welding products, fumes and
be followed at all times. Attempting to gases. electric shock. noise. heat. bums. A WARNING
operate a piece of equipment without and radiation. ll1e welder must be sat- Any weldil\g cquipmenl
instruction may not on ly damage the isfied that the confined space entry pro- malfunction' ,hall be
repor1cd to the supcn•isor.
equipment, it could result in a serious cedure and paperwork are satisfactory.
injury. If not, the welder has the right to refuse
Opera10rs of eq uipmen t should to perform the work until remed ial ac-
wear appropriate personal protective tions arc taken.
equipme nt , properly mainta in the A permit is rcqujrcd when a con-
equipment they are operating, and use fined space contains atmosphe ric haz-
the safety features of the equipment. ards that h:lve the potential to cause
All welding equipment is safe to op- serious physical harm to a weJdcr. Sec
erate providing it is used in the proper Appendix. A permit-required coufi/letl
manner. Malfunctioning welding equ ip- space is a confined space with one or
ment s hould be repaired by a trained more of the following characteri stics:
service technician. It contains or has the potential to
contain a hazardous atmosphere.
Confined Spaces • It contains a material that has th e
potential to engulf tbe entrant.
A confined space pem1it is necessary • It has an internal configuration
when repair welding is carried out in such that the an e ntrant could be
specific physical si tuations. A co/1- trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly
Jiued space is a workspace that h~s converging walls or by a noor that
any of the following features: I) 11 1S slopes downward and tapers to a
large enough and so configured that smaller cross section.
a person can bodily en ter it and per- • The confined space contains any
form assigned work, 2) it has limited other recognized seri ous safety or
or restricted means for entry or exit, health hazard.
or 3) it is not des igned for continuous
occupancy.
Examples of co nfin ed spaces in - 0
Confined spaet permits are iss.,ed for a
.'flecific fltriotl of time. Work mltSt b~
clude tanks, sitos, storage bins, hoppers. complelttl in the t11loted time or tiii<'W pennrt
vaults. pits. and trenches. Specific safety nuut be obtain~d.
precautions required when working in a
Welding Safety ~ II
 Under any or all of these conditions
a permit system is required in which
worker enu·y into the confi ned space is
regulated. The employer must develop
procedures for preparing and issuing
permits to enter, work inside, and re-
tum the confined space to service at the
end of the job. Permit-required confined
spaces require assessment of emry pro-
cedures in compliance with OSHA stan-
dards prior to entry.
A non-permit confined space is a
A WARNING confined space that does not contain,
Cvcn with proper vcntila· or have the potential to contain, any
lion. a rcspiml<lr should be hazards capable of causing death or
used when nlclals th:u give
off toxic rurncs ~-·rc wcltled. serious physical harm. Conditions can
change as tasks such as welding occur.
Ventilation
Welding should only be performed in
well-ventilated areas. There must be suf-
ficient movement of ai r to prevent an
accumulation of toxic fumes or, possi-
bly, a deficiency of oxygen. All wind
or air movement (ventilation) should be
across the body, not from in front or
from behind. Front- and rear-di rected
air movement causes wind tunnels (roll-
ing) in front of the body and into the
respiratory traer. Adequate ventilation
becomes extremely critical in confined
spaces where d<mgerous fumes, smoke,
and dust are likely to collect. When
working in a shop, the installed venti-
lation system is usual ly not adequate to
vent the toxic fumes generated by weld-
ing. Additional ventilation is required,
by the use of either a respirator, fans, or
an exhaust system. See Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3. A 1.:emi/(Jtion sy:riMI
is rt•quirelllt> remo v~ wxic fitmi!S.
smoke•, wul Ju.tt cau,ft!il IJy
wehling.
L2 @: Welding Skills
An exhaust system is necessary to
keep tox ic gases below the prescribed
health limits in areas where much weld-
ing is performed. An adequate exhaust
system is especially necessary when
welding or culling zinc, brass. bronze,
lead. cadmium, or beryllium. This in-
cludes galvanized steel <mel metal paimed
with lead-based paint. Fumes from these
materials are toxic and hazardous. Even
when venti lation is provided, a respira-
tor should be used when metals that give
off toxic fumes are to be welded. Near
the work area. toxic fumes may be
breathed in before they can be extracted
by the ventilation system. See Figure 2-4.
Sc<lb tnwn M••>if<d •ri..
Figure 2-4. A respimtar s hould be U/()1''11 when
wt:ltNn~: memls tltlU t>n>tlucr to:rk fum~s.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
Personal Protective Equipment is a de-
vice worn by welders to prevent injury.
All personal protective equipmem must
meet requirements specified in OSHA
29 CFR and other app licable safety
standards. All welding and cutting op-
erations generate sparks and/or ultra-
violet and infrared rays. Sparks may
lead to serious burns. and ultraviolet
and infra red rays are extremely dan-
gerous to the eyes and skin. A welder
must be aware of poss ible dangers to
the body during any welding or cutting
operation and learn the safe practices
for personal welfare. Suitable eye pro-
tection, clothing, and ear protection cu·e
necessary. See Figure 2-5.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Atomic
Nuclei Gamma Rays
30 fm
Accelerators

X-rayTubes
X rays

Atomic
Electrons

Lasers 300nm

Electric
RAYS Arcs
GENERATED
IN WElDING 800nm
PROCESS Hot Solids 30 ~tm

Infrared
Molecules

---------
Magnetron 3cm
Microwaves
Klystron

------------
Television
Electric 3m
FM Radio
Currents

300m

AM Radio

Longwave 30km
Radio

Nf'drnllatt./nc
f1gure 2-5. 111~my,t J.!tiiUcllt!d b;; wdding "" Jurrmful In W()rl\ers. A weldt•r slwu/(1 always wear suimblt persmwl t'mtl't'tll·e etluipmt•ttl w pmtcct
aguirt,rt lite u/mn•iulel and i11[ran•tl rll)W gem:>mu:tl durillK wc.•lding.

Welding St~fery @o l3
 Eye Protection
When welding. ab'"'O)'S
Wt'ar safety glasses Eye protection is essential for welders.
witlt apprmted jilll'r Radiation produced by welding and
plates. culling may be harmful to lhe welder.
Radiant energy may be ion izing
(s uc h as X-ray s) o r non-ioni z ing
(such as ultravi ole t, visible. or in-
frared light). Rad iation can burn the
ski n and damage the eyes. The effects
depend o n the radiant e nergy wave-
length and intensity. and exten t o f
exposure.
Most arc welding and torch cutti ng
processes produce non-ionizing radia-
tion such that eye protection is neces-
sary. A welding arc should only be
viewed through fi lter plates that meet
the requi rements of the American Na-
tional Standards In stitute (ANS I),
Z87. I. Practice for Occupational and
Educational Eye and Face Protection.
Welders should always be alert for re-
flecti ons from welding arcs. Passersby
can be protected by welding screens,
CUJtains. or remaining an adequate dis-
tance from lhe job.
Welding Helmets
Figure 2·6
AUTO DARKENING FLIP FRONT FlXEDSHADE
Figure 2·6. A wcldi11g Jrcdmtl prtJII,cls lire wt'lder from infrllrcd lmd u/tr{lvio/(1{ rfl)'.f
14 ~ Welding Skills
Cutting and weldi ng opera tio ns
produce sparks and hot slag lhat can
be projected from lhe welding surface
toward the welder. Proper protection
must be used to prevent injury to the
eye. Eye protectio n is ava ilable with
prescription lenses for welders who
normally wear g lasses. Some welders
may prefer to have prescription lenses
on the safety glasses because wearing
glasses, safety g lasses. and a helmet
may be unwieldy.
Helmets. We lders also wear protective
welding he lmets with spec ial fi lte r
plates or filler glasses to protect against
inj ury and exposure to ultraviolet and
infrared rays. He lmet designs allow
botb hands to be used for welding.
Helmets are made to fit over the head,
attach to hard hats. or be held by hand.
An adj ustable headband inside the
helmet provides a comfortable fit. The
he lme t may be sw ung up whe n not
welding. The band-helrl helmet is userl
by observers. See Figu re 2-6.
COMPACT
and ltm spotk.f.
 Welding helmets should be in good
condition since openings or cracks can
allow arc light through. A cover plate
should be placed on the outside of the
filter plate to protect it from weld
spaller. The filter p late should be
made of tempered glass so that it will
not shauer if hit by flying objects.
Filter plates are marked showing the
manufacturer, the sbade number, and
the letter H indicating they have been
treated for impaet resbtance.
HelmetS may have fixed or adjustable
lenses. Auto-darkening lenses darken in
less than a hundred-mi llionth of a second
when arc light strikes the filter.
Colored lenses should be examined
and replaced if cracked. Lenses come
in different shades. depending on the
welding to be done. For oAyacetylene
cutting operations. a #5 shade may be
used. For arc welding at 75 A (amps) to
200 A. # 10 shades or higher should be
used. In general. for welding operations.
the recommended shades. based on
welding current are as follows:
• Shade 10- 75 A to 200 A
• Shade 12 - 200 A to 400 A
• Shade 14 - over 400 A
Colored lenses arc protected by
clear glass or plastic cover plates. The
clear lens is placed over the colored
lens inside the face plate. During the
welding process, small particles of
metal fly upward from the work and
may lodge on the lens. distorting the
welder's view. However. clear vision
is necessary at all times during weld-
mg. sn the clear plastic cover plate must
be replaced when it becomes spattered.
Although the methods of inserting cover
plates differ among manufacturers.
changes can be made easily and
quickly. The cover plates arc inexpen-
sive and can be purchased from any
welding supply dealer. Always follow
manufacturer recommendation for the
appropriate lenses and cover plates.
Safety Glasses and Goggles. A weld-
ing helmet does not provide total pro- FOr most arc "rldm11
opuouons. a 110
tection to a welder. so safety glasse~ sllaik sltollld lx UJ«i
and/or goggles should be worn at all For or\'(lc·tt.\1t'llt'
times when welding. During shielded cLI/Jmg. a 115 shod•
conl>e llst•d.
metal arc welding, a Lh in crust (slag)
fonns on the deposited bead. This slag
must be removed from the weld. When
removing the slag. tiny particles may
be deflected upward. Because of
stresses that build up in the weld. slag
may occa~ionally pop off the weld.
These particles can cause ~erious eye
injury unless proper eye protection is
worn. Sec Figure 2-7.
Figure 2·7. Stt}t!lv gltn<rt·f or
Safety Glosses and Goggles gd~glu shuu/J ulwu~·s bf.' _..ftrn
Figure 2· 7 during K'ffllm~ In f1Tnrnt damt1R~
to the ~·ts rcs.ullm~ fmm d~jln:tnl
,,01:.
s:taar-'' 1 w.-·(~"'
SAFETY GLASSES
GOGGLES
A WARNING
Never look at a "'elcJing :uc
wi1hou1 3 \\o~ldmg hchntl .
Proper Clothing
Welders are required to wear the
proper protective clothing to shield
them from burns re su lting from
sparks, spatter, and the harmful rays
emitted by welding. Welders and
workers in the area should wear pro-
tective clothing made of fire-resistant
\\'1-/ditrg Str/1'1)' ~ 15

/1J addition ta ap·
pmt·ed work dmhe.,·.
lu:t"')'·duty welding
requires n ll'lllhtr
jarkel or apron am/
/e(JJIIer gatllllll't·/)1><'
glcwes.
Proper Clothing
Figure 2-8
F'igure z...s. 7'hl' prttJit!r pmtt!ctiw: durlring it uq;,irt'tl tv prtl'ent injury or bunrs during welt/mg.
16 ~ Welding Skills
material. Pant c uffs or clothing with
open pockets that can catch and re-
tai n molten metal or sparks shou ld
not be worn. Work boots, leather leg-
gings, and fire-resistant g loves should
be worn . Pant legs shou ld be worn over
the outside of the boots. Helmets and
hand shields that prov ide protection
for the face. neck. and ears should be
worn, as well as a protective head cov-
e ri ng. Approved work cloth es. a
headcap. welding helmet. work boots.
and gloves are required for all li ght-
duty welding and cutting operations.
In addition , heavy-duty we lding re-
quires a leather jacket or leather apron
and leather gauntlet-type gloves.
Work Clothing. Work clothes wom by
welders should be made of natura l
materials such as leather. wool. or cot-
ton as these materia ls have a higher
resistance to burning. Synthetic mate-
rials such as polyester shou ld never be
worn, as they melt and bum easi Iy, and
can cause severe inj ury to a welder.
LIGHT DUTY WELDI NG
Coveral ls or work c lothes
shou ld be heavy enough to preven t
infra red and ultraviole t rays f rom
penetrating to the skjn. Cufls on panL~
should be turned down or e li min ated
and pockets removed to prevent mol-
ten metal from catching in the clothes.
Sleeves and collars should be kept
buttoned. See Figure 2-8.
Gloves. Gloves should be worn to pro-
tect the hands from ultraviolet rays and
spattering hot metal. Gloves are also
useful when picking up metal~ that have
been welded. The red hot color of metal
fades and metal returns to its original
gray color quick ly: however. metal re-
mains hot for some Li me after welding
and can not be identified as hot simply
by looking at it. Gloves should be worn
at all times when working with metal
that may be hot to prevent the hands
from being burned.
Several types of g loves are ava il -
able for welding. Leather work gloves
and gauntlet-type gloves both prov ide
HELMET
r LEATHER
/ SLEEVES
ON JACKET
, f-"'" LEATHER
GAUNTLET·
TYPE
GLOVES
HEAVY DUTY WELDING
protection. Gloves should be nexible
enough to permit proper hand move-
ment, yet nor so thin as to allow the
hear 10 pcnernlle easily. Sec Figure 2-9.
Leather Jackets and Aprons. A leather
jacket or apron is recommended when
welding. as spauer might cause injury.
A leather apron offers the best
protection from hot \pauer. In
situation~ where there may not be an
excessive amount of metal spa11cr.
suitable coveralls (tire-retardam) may
be worn to protect the clothing.
Gloves
Ftgure 2·9
WORK
GAUNTLET-TYPE
tlgurt 2..9. Alwa,·~ "'·~ar Klm·n ~hrn '14tldinR wul
.~lfllf( tn prolnt th~ /uJnJ.s frm" ulucn·wl~l rou
.. ..J V"fltlt'r:
Work Boo ts. Work boots must be
approved safety shoes or boots made Nn·tr ptm·r '"'~<I<
or m.tru tn·rrO'n$:t'"
of leather or other approved material. orga.rc.\Ji,ult•n. Ga.r
with a reinforced or steel toe to prcvc111 can lr11L under
impact injuries. Metatarsa l (in!.tep) clothin,t: arul ,ffllrt "
fire.
protec tion shou ld also be worn to
preven t s lag material or sparks from
dropping into the shoes. Street shoe~
must never been worn. regardlcs\ of Lhe
material from which they are made.
Ear Protection
Some we lding operations, such us
chipping, peening. air carbon arc goug-
~
ing, and plasma arc cu lling. produce Eor pmtct·tiau \lumld
be u·om wlw11 h·tld·
high levels of noise. Engine-driven §J_ iug tllr trn·\\in•
tlf
generator\ can also be noisy. Exce~­ n()IU t:t-nrrmnl h_,.
sive noise affects hearing capability. wdtlin.tt t·wt trflru
lrroriug.
h may be a temporary loss from which
the ear~ recover if removed from the
noise source. However, if a person i'
exposed to thi~ same noise for long pe-
riods of rime. the hearing loss may be-
come permanent. The time required to
develop permanent hearing loss de-
pends on various factors. Ear plug~ or
car muffs must be used when engi-
neering contr<>l~ (such as shielding)
are not cffccti ve in reducing exces-
sive noise.
Ear plug> and e.'lf muffs arc supplied
by the employer in siruatiom where
workers arc exposed to extreme noi,c.
Earplug.\ arc a device insencd into the
ear canal to reduce Lhe level of noi\c
reaching the eardrum. Earplugs ;arc
made of moldable rubber. foam, or pla~­
tic. Ear muj}:1· are a device worn over
the cars to reduce the level of noise
reaching the eardrum. Sec Figure 2-10.
Safe noise levels and levels ar which
hearing protection is required arc in-
dicated by regulations developed by
the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and OS HA. Ear protection de-
vices ;arc rated for noise reduction to
maintain permissible noise levels. A
noise reduction rating number (NRR)
is a number Lhat indicates the noi\e
level reduction in decibels (dB) .
Welding Sa[l'lv ~ 17
Figure 2- lO. Ear protutiPn
shnuld he ust!ti/<Jr "''"'ling np·
t!rotiow:. suclr as cllippiug. ~~n ·
ing. t'tlrbon urr air gnugf11g, ant!
plasma af'C' cmtmg, that producr
Mglt lt!vt'ls of noiu.
18 ~ Welding Skills
Ear Protection
Figure 2· 10
EAR PLUG
For example, an NRR of 27 means
that the noise level is reduced by 27
dB when tested under factory condi·
tions. If a factory has a noise level
of 95 dB, the exposure limit without
ear protection is 4 hr. !For workers ex-
posed to those noise levels for an 8 hr
shlft, ear protection is required. Ear
plugs commonly have an NRR of about
27. which would reduce the noise
level from 95 dB to 68 dB. Sixty-eight
decibels is a moderate intensity and
well within the permissible exposure
limit for an 8 hr shift. thus reducing
the danger of hearing impairment. See
Figure 2- I I.
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE
CONTAINERS
Fumes and gases are produced by
welding and cutting and so me are
harmful to a welder's bealth. Problems
arc compounded by welding or cutting
on surfaces contaminated by chemicals
or corrosion products . Fumes and
solid particles originate from rhe
welding process. Gases are generated
during welding, or may be produced
by the effects of welding radiation on
the surrounding environment.
EAR MUFF
Adequate ventilation must be avail-
able to remove fumes from the work
area. Where ventilation may be inad-
equate, air sampling should be used
to determine where corrective mea-
sures are to be applied.
Hazardous substances include those
that are combustible. tOl\ic. or corrosive.
Hazardous substances may be present
in a container having previously held
any of Lhe following:
• a volatile liquid that releases
potentia ll y hazardous, flammable,
and/or toxic vapors at atmospheric
conditions
• an acid or alkaline material that reacts
with metals to produce hydrogen
• a nonvolati le liquid or solid that at
ord inary temperatures does not
release potential ly hazardous vapors.
but does so if the container is heated
• a dust cloud of finely divided air-
borne particles that may still be
present in an explosive concenuation
• a flammable or rox ic gas
Cleaning Hazardous Substance
Containers
For maximum safety, only qualified
personnel shall designate the container
clean ing method . The cleaning met hod
Decibel Levels
Figure 2·11

SOUND LEVELS
-;·~ .~;- .... -~-:-',.,
. . ~.
. .·
.· . .'.1~.··
,·, ,•·•.,,,,,. ,_·;;--·;1.''1
'', :,~_-.,_ -~~.1!',-.. !5~1- .._-~ .:,.....
;1';,~~ "t'"' ;:·" -· • : • ,.,r, .. ~:-.
:~.~ .. ~· 'r • '.;.._ •!••o ,~ .... !~ '}~ ~.!. ~1'~!:.; ~ ,:~h}l~t...J!i
\,~ ~ --~~t.,.l
~l~~!·lr~:.::l':: :~~·L)rl :>-<. 1 ~.
.. 1 -; •• • · ' .._

' :':' :'

120 thunder, artillery,

Deafening
110 nearby riveter
100 loud street noise.
Very Loud 90 noisy factory,
unmuHied truck
80
noisy oHice.
Loud 70 average street noise,
average factory
60
noisy home.
Moderate 50 average conversation,
quiet radio
40
quiet home,
Faint 30 private oHice.
quiet conversation
20
whisper.
Very Faint 10 sound proof room,
threshold of audibility
0

NOISE LEVEL INTENSITY

•• r; :,,', .. !;~,,- ~: ... ~~-:;,·,-.- :; ' ',• '
-.. ·. ;!,
*
'• ' .I .
- ' - .. ~:
8 90 NOISE REDUCTION RATING:
Ear Plugs= 27 dB
6 92
4 Ear MuHs =32 dB
95
; typical, varies by manufacturer
3 97
2 100
Example: A noisy factory has a decibel level of 95 dB that
1~ 102
1 105 with ear plugs can be lowered to 68 dB, which Is of moderate
intens~y but well within permissible exposure times.
'l4 107
~ 110
IIi or less 115
·tnhrS
I indOCit>CIIs (dB)

PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE TIMES

Figun. 2-11. Enr prmectimt rttlut-'t'.f 1/r~ dui~ll~~-(1/ 10 k'ltich 1h~ ~11rdroms ut~ t-.qwst·d. rt!tluciiJg lht! clumu of damage to tht! \mrker'.s hr11rbrg.

used depends upon the substance pre- clea ning tbe container are available,
viously held in the container. The wa- including the hot chemical solution.
ter method of c leaning is used when steam, mechanical c lean ing. or chemi-
the substance is known to be readily cal cleaning methods. Occasionally.
soluble in water. The residue can be combinations of al.l methods of c lean-
removed by completely filling the con- ing must be used prio r 10 welding or
lainer with water and draining several cutting. Care must be taken to protect
times. When the substance originally personnel and to prevent hazardou s
held in the contai ner is not read ily reactions when combining cleaning
soluble in water. additional methods of methods.

Welding Sl~(ety ~ 19

A WARNING
A .::Qntuu-.cr 1ha1 h~ held
unknown \Ub:.t.mc:e.\ bhoufd
never be dtantd nnd
welded bccau$e unknown
:;ofccy hnl'..-af\J'; .:1rc 10\'0ivcd.
Hot Chemical Solution Method. The As a final precaution after c leaning. a
hot chemicai solution me thod uses container should be vented and filled
trisodium phosphate {a strong wash- with water before welding or cutting.
ing powder) or a commercial ca us- The con tainer should be arranged so
tic cleaning compound dissolved in that the container can be kept filled
hot water. Tbe cleaning agents a re to within a few inches of the point
mix ed with hot water and added tO
where the welding or cu ttin g is to
the container to be c leaned . The con- take place. but not intctfere with weld-
tain er is tben fi lied with water and ing. See Figure 2-12. When welding
stirred until the chemicals have been or culling on containers. observe the
cleaned from the container. follow ing safety precautiOn$;
• Vent the container 10 allow for the.
Steam Method. The steam method for
release of air pressure or sterun dur-
cleaning containers uses low-pressure
ing welding.
sieam and a hOt soda or soda a.~h to re-
• Use a spark-resistive tool to remove
move substances. The cleaning agents
heavy sludge or scale when scrap·
are added to the container and the
ing or hammering.
container is fi lled w ith live steam and
• Never usc oxygen to venti late a
stirred w1til tbe chemicals bavc bee n
comai ner as it may stan a fire or
removed from the container.
cause an explosion.
Mechanical Cleaning Method. The
mechanical cleani ng method is gener-
ally us:ed when scaly. dry. or insoluble
residues have been left on tbe surface
of the container. Mechanical cleaning
may be performed by scraping, sand
or g rin blasting, high-pressure warer
washing. brushing, filling the container
one-quaner full of clean dry sand and
rolling it on the floor, or any method in
which t1lc con taminant can sa fely be
dis lodged. During mechan ical clean -
ing, the container should be grounded
to minimize the poss ibility of stati c
charge buildup and spark cbarges.

Chemical Cleaning Method. The

chemical clean ing method is generally
used when rhe container has insoluble
deposiiS or when it cannot be mechani-
cally cleaned. Care must be used in
selecting a chemical solvent; some sol-
vents may be as hazardous as the de-
posits they are intended to remove.
When selecti ng chemica l sol vents,
consult the manufacturer of the ma-
terial w be re moved.
Containers should be checked
carefully after any clean ing method
to ensure that all chemicals have been
thoroughly removed from the container.
l"igure 2-12. Coutawt-rs sltuutd lk pllrti.(t/ly filled
whh wat("r bcforl' r.uulng o,. wr!J;n,~.
Never rely on sight or smell to de-
tennille the safety of welding or cut-
ting a c losed container. A sma ll
amount of residual flammable liq-
uid or gas may not be detectable.
but it could cause an explosion.
Never weld or cut drums, barrels.
or tanks until the danger of fire or
explosion has been eliminated.

20 :@: IVI!Itiing SVI/s

Material Safety Data Sheets
Before any container is: cleaned. the
hazardous characteristics of the sub-
stance previously held by the container
must be determined. Information
about the substance and safety pre-
cautions to follow when working with
the substance are contained in a Ma-
terial Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). A Ma-
terial Safety Dma Sheet (MSDS) is
primed material that includes data
about every hazardous component
comprising I% or more of a material's
conlem and is used by a manufacturer.
imporler. or distributor to relay chemi-
cal hazard info1mation to the employee.
MSDSs arc obtained from the sup-
pliers of welding filler metals. fluxes,
and gases. They sbould be kept on ti lc
at a designated location in the work- Material safety data
place. The infonnation is used to infom1
and train employees on the safe use of
hazardous materials. See Fjgure 2- 13.
I ·''ht!ets inclmle data
aluJJif every hazarti-
O'US COIIIJII)IIell/ COlli·
pdsing !%or more of
a material's content.
lf an MSDS is not provided. rhe em-
ployer must write to the manufacturer.
ilisuibutor. or impotter to obtain the miss-
ing MSDS. An MSDS has no prescribed
format but must contain certain infor-
mation related to the chemical hazard.
identification, physical and chemical
characteristics. tire hazards. reactivity and
health hazard data, hand!ing precautions.

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

~"~~~(
INFORMATION
Springfield
Chemical Products
170t Hillman Stroot
I~
--- A£00XU -.£A

...... '*t~1>10;1 .,.,_,

I
Pttlsburgh, Pa 00740

'fllfls.14Ull.-n-11;n
ll:ll
il'il

..,,,~
m~·
CHRONIC HEALTH
} HAZARDS
1cUoo I - ~
...........
IIOI1IlQJ10I

PRODUCT {
INFORMATION 5:- REACTIVITY
} HAZARDS
CHEMICAL {
NAME/CASE
NUMBER OF SPILL, LEAK. AND
HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL
INGREDIENTS } PROCEDURES

PHYSICAL {
CHARACTERISTICS
PRECAUTIONS AND
PERSONAL
PROTECTIVE
FIRE/EXPLOSION { EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
HAZARDS AND
FIRE FIGHTING
PROCEDURES

HANDLING AND
STORAGE
HEALTH HAZAROS
AND FIRST AID ) PRECAUTIONS
PROCEDURES
DISCLAIMER
} STATEMENT

Figlll"t 2,.13. Au MSDS is prm•itfrd with all rhemir11l t..'QJUOillerS us~d in ;ndustry. Befon• wddirlf.: suclr nllltlmll'TS, th~ MSDS 11Ut.\l ~ ,.,trrk<>d
to tnsllre tlwt drtmirtll:t Iron• bt'len f"'Of1erly remdw•ilfmm tit~ crmtm'm:r.

We/di"ng Safery @< 21

 and control measures of the hazardous
material. MSDS files must be kept up-
to-date and well organiLcd to allow quick
access to infonnation in an emergency
situation. Employees shoold become fa-
miliar with the MSDS for chemicals com-
monly encountered on Lhe job.
CUmNG SAFETY
Fires often occur during cutting opera-
tions because proper safety precautions
were not followed. Sparks and falling slag
can travel great distance. and can pass
through cracks in walls or floors out of
sight. Persons rcsponsib.e for perfonn-
ing or supervising cutting should observe
the following <;afety precautions:
Never use a cutting torch where
sparks will be a hazard, such as
near rooms contaimng flammable
materia ls. especially dipping or
sprayin g rooms.
• Sweep floors c lean and wet them
before heginning cu tting. Provide
a bucket or pan con taining water
or sand to catch dripping slag.
• Use fire-resistant guards. partitions,
or screens if cutting must be per-
fanned near flammable materials
that cannot he moved.
In greasy. dirty. or gaseous atmos-
phere~. extra precautions should be
taken to prevent e"plos ion s that
can result from electric sparks or
open fi res during cutting or weld-
ing operations.
• Keep flame and sparks away from
oxygen cylinders and hoses.
Keep combustible materials at least
35' away from any cutting or weld-
ing operations.
• Never cut ncar ventilators.
Never usc oxygen to dust off
clothing or workpieces.
• Never u~e oxygen a<; a <;nh<;titute
for compressed air.
0 Weldet-s ~~~~frequnuly exr<>Sed w hawrdous
.rillmtions. Personal /Jrorective equipmtm
sut·h as ,foftl)' shiJcs. gogglt~s. htlmets wUh
fJrtJtecti\:t•len..'iP.f, ttntlnth~:'' tle1>ices 10pm't?nt
injury sltmtld alwtl)'.f ~ IISetl.
22 ~ Welding Skills
OXYACETYLENE WElDING SAFETY
Safety precautions for oxyacetylene
welding cover the proper handling of
cylinders. operation of the regulators.
use of oxygen and acetylene, care of
welding hose~. testing for leaks, and
lighting a torch. All safety regulations
shou ld be followed.
Additionally, all piping and fiLLings
used 10 convey gases from a centra l
supply system to work stations must
withstand a minimum pressure of 150
psi. Oxygen piping may be black steel.
brass. or copper. Only oil-free com-
pounds should be used on oxygen
threaded connections.
Piping for acetylene must be wrought
iron. After assembly, all piping must be
blown out with air or nitrogen to remove
foreign mmcrials before first use. Observe
the following basic rules for the safe han-
dling or oxyacetylene equipment:
• Locate the nearest fire extinguisher
before performing any welding or
cu ttin~: operation.
• Keep oxyacetylene equipment clean.
free of oil, and in good operating
condition. Never handle cylinder:.
with oily or greasy gloves.
• Keep heat, flame, and sparks away
from combustibles.
• Prevent leaks in oxygen and acety-
lene cylinders.
• Open cylinder valves slowly.
• Purge oxygen and acetylene hoses
before lighting torch.
• Never move cylinders without pro-
tccti vc caps in place.
ARC WELDING SAFETY
AJc welding proce.~ses include shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW), gas tung-
sten arc welding (GTAW). gas metal arc
welding (G MAW). and flux cored arc
welding (FCAW). General safety mea-
sures arc indicated for these areas since
arc welding c4uipmcnt for each process
varies conside rabl y in size and type.
Equipment may range from a small por-
table SMAW machine to a highly
mechanized production spot welding
machine. ManufactUJ;er recommen-
dations should be followed for the
equipment used. See Figure 2-14.
Electric shock can be fatal. Live
electrical parts sh.ou ld not be
touched, and manufacturer instruc-
tions and all recommended safety
practices must be followed. Faulty
insulation. improper grounding. and
incorrect operation and ma intenance
of e lectrical equipment a re typ ica l
sources of danger from electric shock.
Use only welding machines that meet
recognized national standards, such
as those identified by the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association
1'11Lr""~'\~ ludtmrirs, /,_,_.
(NEMA), NEMA EW-1, Electric Arc Proper workpt'ece connectiotM' to complete a weldi11g cin:uit pre••eut electric shock
Welding Power Sources. (lnd persorwl injury.

Figurr 2-14. Fclllowi'ng t'Vflurwn

Common Welding Safety Practices saf~t'}1 pucm11ions r~d11tes thl!
Figure 2·14 chmlces <1 an acddtnt occ11rriJ1g
during wt!lding.

LOCATE POWER DISCONNECT NEAR ATTACH WORKPIECE CONNECTIONS

WELOING MACHINE SECURELY

rr..-u,..-llb. ekc1fl£ C~'lwn

DO NOT PICK UP HOT WORKPIECES USE OPERATING CURRENT LEVELS WITHIN
RATED CAPACITIES

Welding Safety ~ 23
 All electrical equipment and the
workpiece should be grounded. The
workpiece lead must not be used as
a ground and is used on ly to com-
plete the weldi ng circuit. The correct
size leads for the welding application
shou ld be used. Sustai ned overload-
ing causes failure of the welding leads
and results in electric shock or fire haz-
ard. AU electrical connections should
be tight. c lean, dry, and in good con-
i•u·ulated
Alwli)'S liSt' dition. Poor connections can overheat
electrotle Jwldcrs
and melt, or produce dangerous arcs
wlreu wehliJ'8 with
SM1\ W to prei'CIII and sparks. Water, grease, or din must
elect rh:· shock ami not be al lowed to accumulate on plugs,
injury.
sockets. or e lect rical un its.
Only insu lated electrode holders
shou ld be used for SMAW. Semiauto-
matic welding guns for continuous wire
processes should use low-voltage con-
trol switches so that high voltage is not
brought into the electrode holder in the
welder's hands. I n ful ly automatic
equipment, higher voltages are per-
milled because they are inaccessible
to lhe operator during t he normal
welding sequence.
Welders who fol/()w all safety requirements ensure a safer work envirrmmelll for
themselve.f 011d 01hers iu the work area.
24 0 Welding Skills
High open circuit voltages should
be avoided. When several welders are
working with arcs of different polar-
ity, or when a number of AC machines
are being used, the open circuit volt-
ages can be addirive and increase the
severity of the shock hazard.
Electrode leads and workpiece
leads should not be coiled around
welding machines or the welder.
Electrode holders should not be hung
where they can accidentally come
into contact wi th the other side of the
circuit. Electrodes should be removed
from the electrode holder when not in
use. Power cables coming into a weld-
ing machine should not come into con-
tact with welding leads. The welding
machine must be kept dry and if it
should become wet it must be dried
properly by electrical maintenance per-
sonnel. Ln addition. the work area must
be kept dry. Welders should never work
in water or damp areas because water
reduces a welder's resistance and in-
creases potential electrical hazards. The
welder should :stand on a board or in-
sulated platform. The following safety
rules are common to most arc welding
operations:
• Install welding equipment accord-
ing to provisions of the National
Electrical Code~.
• Use we ld ing mach ines eq uipped
with a power disconnect switch lo-
cated at or .ncar the machine so the
power can 'be shut off quickly.
• Ensure th:at the work area is
grounded. Do not ground to pipe-
lines carrying gases or flammable
liquids.
• Use proper safety guards when us-
ing press-type weld ing machines.
• Use s uitable spark shields around
equipment when flash welding.
• Turn OFF the welding machine,
pull the power disconnect switch.
remove the electrode, and hang the
electrode holder in its designated
place when welding is completed.
• In spect we lding cab les for cuts.
nicks, or abrasions.
Do not pick up pieces of metal that
have just been welded or heated.
• Do not make repairs to weld ing
equipment unless power to the ma-
chine is OFF. The high voltage of
arc welding machines can cause se-
vere, even fatal injuries.
Do not change polarity when the
machine is under load. The ma-
chine should be id led and the cir-
c uit open; o the rwi se. an arc may
occur, burning the contact su rface
of the switch and severely burning
the welder.
• Do not overload welding leads or
operate a machine with poor con-
nections. Operat ing with cu rrents
beyond the rated cable capacity
causes overheating.
Neatly arrange the we lding leads
mtd secure the proper connections.
Do not we;d on hollow (cored) cast-
ings unless they have been properly
vcntcrl; nn ex plosion m~y occur.
Comb ustible materia ls shou ld be A CAUTION
removed from the work area, o r the
Comhu.~lible malCrio.ls
location of the work must be at least 111U"I be located ill least 35'
35' away from combustible materials. aw3y rrom any arc:J where
welding is 10 ~ done.
lf neither is possible, combus tibl es
shou ld be protected with a cover of
fire-resistant materials. A fire extin-
guisher s hould be kep t near cutti ng
and welding operations at all times. If
the risk of fire is great, fire watchers
should be available. If possible. the
work area should be enclosed with por-
table. fire-resistant screens. Welding or
culling should not be done where dan-
gerously reactive or flammable gases
arc present.
6 Exf>losion.jire. '"other health /wzards
result if welding or cuuing is
IIIli)'
peiformed 011 comainers that llre not
free of hazardous .wbsttmces. No
cmuainer slumld bt~ presumetl 10 be
clemr or .wife. Comainers COli be made
stifefor weltling om/ culling pro~'ided the
necessmy stt'ps ond safety precawio11S
(Ire followed.

PREVENTING FIRES
Welding operations expose welders to
heat, sparks, and name. Precautions
should be taken to ensure that the job
site is safe and that adequate fire pre-
vention strategies are in place.
Fire may be produced by molten
metal, sparks, s lag. and hot work s ur-
faces. Sparks may cause fire or explo-
sio n if precautionary meas ures are
not used. Sparks can pass through or
become lodged in c rac ks. clothing.
pipe holes. and other small openings
in floors and partitions. Typical in-
door comb ustib le ma terials are
floors. partitions, roofs, and bui !d-
in g co nte.nt s. Indoor com bustib le
materials may consist of wood . pa-
per, clot hing. plastics, and chemical
and flammab le li quids and gases. Ex-
!ofllln l:lf'>"fnl' Mt•ru.fi.HT.-.r•'".f\ (.',~
amples of outside combustible male- Weltling shops shoultl be equipped with a fire extinguislrer thai is /n(.'atetl near the
rials are dry leaves, grass, and brush. work nrea for easy <ICce.rs iJJ ('ase offire.

Welding Safety ~ 25
 The National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) c lassities fires into
five types: A, 13, C, D, and K. The
classifications a re based on the
combustible material and tl1e type of
extinguisher required to put out the
fire. Extinguisher c lassifications can
also be idemified by color and shape.
•Wood • Water
See Figure 2-15.

A • Paper
• Rubber
·Plastic
• Cloth
• Dry chemicals

Class A
A Class A fire may be caused by most
combustible materials, such as wood,
paper, rubber, plastic, and clotlb. Class
A fires are tlle most common type of
• Aammable • Dry chemicals fire. A Class A fire ext inguisher is
liquids • Foam identified by tllc color green inside a
• Grease • Carbon dioxide triangle shape. Class A fires c;m be ex-
• Gases tinguished with water or dry chemicals.
Carbon dioxide, sodi um, and potas-
sium bicarbonate chemicals should not
be used on a Class A fire.

Class B
A Class B fire is caused by llammable
• Electrical Non-conducting
liquids, gases, or grease. A Class B fire

•
agent such as:
• Dry chemicals
exti nguisher is identified by the color
• Carbon dioxide red inside a square. Class B fires can
be extinguished with dry chem icals.
Foam and carbon diox ide extinguish-
ers may also be used.

Class C
• Combustible • Extinguisher A Class C fire is an e lectrical fire. A
metals particular to Class C fire extinguisher is identified

*
•Magnesium type of metal by the color blue ins ide a circle. Elec-
• ntanium trical fires require a non-conducting
• Zirconium
agent, sucb as carbon dioxide or dry
• Sodium
chemicals, to extinguish them. Foam
extingu ishers or water should never be
used on an electrical fire.

Class D
• Commercial • Wet chemicals
cooking • Dry chemicals A Class D fire is cau...:;ed by combustible
grease
K metals, such as magnesium. titanium, or
sodium. A Class D tire extinguisher is
identified by the color yellow inside a
star. Cl:1~s D fires ca nnot be extin-
guished with a common A, B, or C ex-
Fi~tu re 2.--JS. Fire cxtit~gui#t~rs are t'lassijiNI u.t A. 8, C. D. imd K. tingui sher; the chem icals in com mon
26 ~ Welding Skills
extinguishers can intensify the fire,
rather than put it out. Dry powder ex-
tinguishers are available that are made
specifically for metal hazards.
Class K
A class K fire is caused by grease in
commercial cooking equipment. Class
K fi re extinguishers coat the fire with
wet or dry chemicals.
Common dry chemical extinguishers
should be available in ca~e spark.s from
welding set other marerials on tire. The
two basic types of dry chemica l
extinguishers are the stored-pressure
and th e cartridge operated. A fire
extinguisher labeled ABC is composed
of dry chemicals and is capable of
extingu.ishing cla~s A, B, and C fires. A
fire extinguisher labeled either A. B, or
C can only extinguish the fire for which
it is labeled. Using an improper fire
exti.nguisher can have an adverse effect
on a fire, making the lire worse rather
than ex tingui shing it.
Welders must be particularly aware
of the fire hazards involved in the
metals they are welding and ensure that
the proper type(s) of ext inguisher are
available.

J. Weekly sa fe ty meetings <tre a conveni ent way for employers to discuss relevant job
s ite safety issues and concerns.
2. When working in a confined space. have a stand-by person available to e nsure a
safe environment.
3. When welding. always wear safety glasses with approved filter plates.
4. For most arc welding operat ions, a # I 0 shade should be used. For oxyacety lene
cutt ing, a #5 shade can be used.
5. In addition to approved work c lothes, beavy-duty welding requires a leather jacket
or apron and leather gauntlet-type g loves.
6. Never place jackets or shirts over oxygen or gas cy linders. Gas can leak under
clothing and start a fire.
7. Ear protection should be worn when weld ing as the excessive noise generated by
welding can affect hearing.
8. Material safety data sheeiS include data about every hazardous component comprising
I % or more of a material"s content.
9. Always use insulated e lectrode holders when welding with SMAW to prevent electric
shock and injury.

Welding Safety :@: 27

 I. What are some of the main causes of accidents?
2. Why should all accidents be reported immediately?
3. How is il possible to become involved in an accidem when playing around in the shop?
4. What may happen i f wel ding equipment is used without proper instruction?
5. What should be done if a malfunction occurs in any welding equipment?
6. What general practice should be followed regarding vemilation when perfom1ing
we lding?
7. Why shou ld used containers be thoroughly cleaned and safely processed before any welding or
cutting is done?
8. Why do fi res often occur during a cuuing operation?
9. What are some precau ti ons that should be taken when using a cutting torch?
I 0. Why must welders wear proper personal protective equipment when welding?
I I. A dry chemical fire ex tinguisher can be used 10 extinguish which elass(es) of lire?
12. What class of lire ex tinguisher should be used for a fire .invol ving burning metal?
13. What is the purpose of an MSDS?
14. Why should a welder never look at an electric arc without eye protection?
15. What determines the correct shade of lens for use during welding?
16. Why should shaded lenses be covered with clear pl astic lenses?
17. Why are safety glasses required when welding?
18. Why should leather gloves be worn when welding?

28 ~ Welding Skills
 Engineers and designers consider allfac/ors in the design of a weld joint to eiLI'ure safety and efficienC)t These
factors include load requirements of the weld; the adaptability of the joint fin· the product being designed or
welded: the accessibility of the weld; the type of load on the weld; the intended function of the structure;
governing codes and specifications; and economic considerations such as the cost of preparing the joim.

Weldedjoims are used in virwally eve1y indusuy. In the building indusuy. welds are used to join structural
elemems such as columns. trusses, girders, and other stmctural components.

WELDING TERMINOLOGY such as those used in shielded metal

Before proceeding with a ny welding
operation. welders mu s t understand
common welding terms.
111e base metal is the metal or alloy
thai i~ to l>e wt:lut:U. A n electrode is a
component of the welding circu it that
conduct$ electrical current to the weld
area. Electrodes may be consumable
or nonconsumable, depending on the
welding process. Some electrodes.
arc welding, arc covered with a nux
coating.
A weld bead is a weld that results
from a weld pass. A weld pass is a single
progre~sion nf welding nlnng n wP.Id
joint. See Figure 3- 1. A s ingle pass
weld requires only one weld pass. When
laying a bead in a mu ltiple-pass weld,
each weld pass bui lds on the previous
pass. The movement of the heat source

PASS

SINGLE PASS MULTIPLE PASS

Figure: 3-l. When l11ying o bc>t1J. C(lch fXISS builtJs 011 tit~ prel'ious pass. TIJt' mm·emtnl of tit~ wt'lding lre(ll stmrce t'r~ote.t dptJies liS 111~ bt>atl
i.'f tlcpruittu/.

29

FU!ure 3--2. A crmtr is 11 depr~s­
·'·imr mtule in 1/r~ bo.'U! mcllll by
1lr~ weldl".r; b t"t~l s ourt'l'. Join/
p~murmion is tlr~ d~pth of the
cr<.ll~r witllin rlrt' base mdal.
1
11Je mot pass is the
initial weld plu'S tlrllt
prOl1ides complete
penetration tluvugh
the rhicJ..nc~~ of the
joim member.
Fig ure 3-3. A pmp·n r()(lf open·
ing mi1St l>e prepared ro prt!w!rrr
t"XUSS weldiug. \Veld nhiftn'Ct!•
m~nl is "'t.Jd m~tal lhm is
mowtdtd across rlre '''dd width.
30 €)o Welding Skill.s
creates ripples as the weld bead is de-
posited. A ripple is the shape within
the deposited bead caused by the move-
ment of the welding heat source.
A craTer is a depression in the base
metal that is made by the welding beat
sou rce at the termination of the weld
bead. Joint penetration is the depth of
the weld metal from the weld face into
the joint. l11e joint penetration measure-
ment does not include the weld rein·
forcement measurement. See Figure 3-2.
+-
DIRECTION OF
BASE
WELDING
Weld reinforcement is the amount of
weld metal in excess of that required to
fill the joint. Root reinforcemem is rein-
forcement on the side opposite the one
on wltich welding took place. Face re-
inforcement is reinforcemen t on the
same side as the weld ing.
The root face is the portion of the
groove face wirhin the joint root. The
root opening is the distance between
joint members at the root of the weld
before weld ing. The roo1 open ing must
be accurate so that excess welding is
nol necessary. Weld witith is the dis-
tance from toe to toe across the face
of the weld. See Figure 3-3.
/ WELD
_L REINFORCEMENT
l:.._ ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
ROOT FACE
The weld toe is the point where the
weld metal meets the intersection of
the base metal and the weld face. The
toes are the points where the base metal
and weld metal meet. 11te weld face is
the exposed surface of the weld.
bou nded by the weld toes on the side
on wh ich weld ing was done. The face
may be either concave or con~cx. The
weld root is the area where filler metal
intersects the base me1al and extends
the furthest into the weld joint
The actual throat is the shortest dis-
L<m<.:c: from llo~ fat.:c: uf a li Uc:t wc:lu tu
the weld root after welding. The effec-
tive throat is the minimum distance,
minus convexity, between the weld
face and the weld root. A weld leg is
the distance from the joint root to the
weld toe. The weld leg is the size of a
fillet weld made in lap or T-joints. See
Figure 3-4.
Filler metal is metal deposited in a
welded, brazed, or soldered joint dur-
ing the welding process. Fusion weld-
ing is welding that uses fusion of the
base metal or base metal and filler
metal to make a weld. Fusion weld-
ing is the most common method of
j oin ing metals.
Welding progression concerns the
addition of filler metal in a weld joint
root and beyond. A joint root is the por-
tion of a weld joint where joim mem-
bers are the closest to each other. A joint
root may be either a point. a line, or an
area. A roor bead is a weld bead that
extends into or includes part or all of
the joint root. A IVOI pass is the initial
 Figure 3-4. A fillel weld can be
Crt).u-seclifmetf tQ itlelllify ils
variou,,· paru.

weld pass that provides complete pene- how stresses are to be applied during
tration through the thickness of the service, and whether tension, bend ing,
joint member. or torsion is a factor, must be considered
Several weld beads (multiple-pass in joint design. Joinl design requirements
weld) may be required to complete a vary depend ing on whether the load is
weld. A multiple- pass weld conta ins static, cyclic, or variable. Joints are also
two or more weld beads. designed for economy or accessibility
during construclion and inspection.
WELD JOINTS The five basic weld joints used are the
bun, T, lap, corner, and edge joints. See
A weld joinr is the physical configura-
Figure 3-6.
tion at the juncmre of the workpieces
to be welded. Weld joints must be cor- 0 When designing weld joints for
rect] y designed and have adequate root building~~
consideration IIWS I be given
IO the effects of trtm.fverse shr;nkage.
openings to suppo1t the 'loads transferred
which occurs in ~·upport columns as a
from one workpiece to another through building is constmcred. Shrinkage can
the welds. See Figure 3-5. The follow- occumulnte if unoccowuetl for il1 the
ing are some basic considemtions in the weld designs.
selection of any weld joint:
• whether the load will encounter
tension, compression, bending,
fat\gue, or impact stresses
• bow the load is to be applied to the
joint, i.e., whether the load is a stalic,
impact, cyclic, or variable load
the displacement of the load in
relation to tbe joint
the direction from which the load is
to be applied to the joint
the cost of preparing the joint
Weld joint design is based on the
strength of the joint, safety requirements, 11rr J.lmyJ(tJ £/et=trir Cil!WJWul)'
and the service conditions under which Professional weltlers Ill/lSI lu~t~e tm wuierstmuling o.fweMing tennhrology, processes.
the joint must perform. Additionally, ond specificmions.

Joint Design & Welding Terms ~ 31

 Load Considerations
Figure 3-5

Static Impact Cyclic or Variable

MOTION

DISPLACEMENT

TRANSVERSE
LOAD

DIRECTION

Figun J..S. UHJt"r.' .shtmltl lir fumiliaf' ~' itlr how lood~ will impact wdtlt!d joitlls 11m/ with tlte rrquinmen/3 fur mt1king tile J1mprr joint !rel«lil'tL

Fi2urt 3·6. TJrt- fi\'r btw(· WC'Id

jniiiiS MS(!d iff n-e/iJl11g (H(' llrt' b1111,
Basic Weld Joints
7; l11p. c.·•~rner. tmd tdftc>. Figure 3 -6

BUTT
CORNER

LAP

T EDGE

32 ~ Welding Skills
Butt Joints
A bull joint is a weld joint in which
two workpie.ces are set approximately
level to each other and are positioned
edge-to-edge. ln a butt joint, the weld
is made bet ween the edge surfaces of
the two sections to be fused. The joim
may be either square or grooved. Butt
joints include square, single bevel,
sing le- V, double- V, single-U, and
double- U butt joints. See Figure 3-7.
Bull joims are common ly used in fab-
ricating vessels and subassemblies and
for repair operations.
Square Uut!l Joints . The square bull
joint is intended primarily for materi-
als that are 3/is" thi ck or less. Square
bull joints require full and complete
fusion for optimum strength. For sub-
merged arc welding, materials up to
%" thick wi1h a minimum gap of Va"
can be welded. The square bull joint is
reasonably strong in static tension but
is not recommended when the joint is
to be subj ected to fati gue or impact
loads, especially <It low temperatu res.
Preparation for a square butt joint re-
quires matching only the edges of the
workpieces. Square bull joints are an
inexpens ive weld joint option.
Single Bevel Butt J o ints . A single
bevel butt joint is a partial penetrat-
ing sing le bevel groove weld. It is
welded from one side and is gener-
ally used on metals no more than
112" thick.
Butt Joints
Figure 3 · 7
SQUARE
SINGLE-V
StNGLE·U
Single-V Butt Joints. A single-V butt
joint is used on metal from %" to %"
thick. Preparation for a single-V butt
join t is costly because a specia l
beveling ope~ration and more f ill er
material are required than for a square
bull joint. A si ngle- V buu joint is
strong in static loading but. like the
square bull joint, is not particularly
suitable when subject to fatigue or
impact loads at the weld rooL
Double-V Butt Joints. A double- V
butt joint is suitable for all load
conditions. The double- V is often
specified for stock that is beavier than
metal used for a si nglc-V. Heavy Square huff joints
slwulll be used witlt
metals that usc a double-V joint arc
materiols ~t>n thick
typically %" thick or greater. For tJr less.
maximum weld strength, penetration
must be complete on both sides.
The cost of preparing a double- V
joint is higher than the single- V. but
usually less filler material is requ ired
because a narrower groove angle can
be used. To keep the joint symmetrical
and warpage of the joint to a
minimum. the weld bead must be
alternated . The welding should be
A tloubfe· V burrjoim
done first on one s ide and tben the is .,11illlblefar"lf /(Xu/
other, with the welder alternating sides ctmditiun~'f.
until the groove is filled.
Single-U Butt Joints . A single-U bull
joint meets all ordinary load conditions
and is used for work requiring high-
quality welds. The single-U works well
on applications joining workpieces 'h"
Figure 3-7. Common bull JO mU
u.sttl for 1t' ddmg include the sqriCl~.
fillgltt bt'\'ci. tln~r:lt··V. tl fmblr·V.
-~;ngll•·U. and doubi~·U.
SINGLE BEVEL
DOUBLE·V
DOUBLE-U
Joim De.,ign & Welding Terms @< 33

A 1j'm'm is fonuetl
whl'n 1wn members
tJre /JOSill'nnetl OJI•
fJIV.timuu:ly 90° to
one anmher.
Jiigu rt 3·8. T-j()ints or(! u.t cd ou
till sttuult~rd mPIIIIthickm:J',tt!$ and
i1u:fude sqt«r~• .slnxle INw:f. dtmble
bt'vel, siJaglt> J, am/ doublt>·J.
4
34 :@: We/dill!! Skills
to %" thick. The single-U joint needs
less fi ller metal than the single- V or
double- V joint, and generall y, less
warpage occurs.
Double-U Butt Joints. A double-U butt
joint is intended for heavy metals %"
thick or more on which welding can eas-
ily be accomplished on both sides. The
double-U joint can meet all regular load
conditions. Prepamtion costs are higher
than for the single-U bun joint.
T-Joints
A T-joint is a weld joint formed when
two workpieces are positioned at ap-
proximately 90° to one another in the
form of a T. A T-joint can be made on
all standard meta l thicknesses. The
edge of one workpiece rests on the sur-
face of the base workpiece. Basic
T-joints are square, single bevel,
doub le bevel, single-J. and double-J.
See Figure 3-8.
Square T-Joints. A square T-joint can
be welded on one or both sides and
requires the use of a fillet weld. Square
T-Joints
Figure 3-8
SQUARE
SINGLE BEVEL
SINGLE-J
T-joints can be used for thin or rea-
sonably thick materials where applied
loads subject the weld to longitudinal
shear. Since the stress distribution of
the joint may not be unifonn, this fac-
tor should be considered wiJere severe
impact or heavy transverse loads are
encountered. For maximum strength,
considerable weld metal is required.
Single Bevel T-Joints. A single bevel
T-joint can withstand a more severe
load than the square T-joint since it al-
lows for better disu·ibution of stresses.
It is generally confined to plates 112''
thick or less where welding can only
be done from one side.
Double Bevel T-Joints. A double bevel
T-joim is intended for use where heavy
loads are applied in both longitudinal
and transverse directions, and where
welding can be done on both sides.
SingJe-J T-Joints. A single-J T-joint is
used on plutes I" thick or more where
welding is limited to one side. ll is es-
pecially suitable for welding workpieces
that are exposed to severe loads.
DOUBLE BEVEL
OOUBLE-J
Double-J T-Joints. A double-J T-j oint
is pruticularly suitable for heavy plates
11./z" th ick or more where unusua lly
severe loads are enco untered. Joint
location sho uld permit welding on
both sides.
lap Joints
A lop joim is a weld joint between two
overlapping members in paralle l
planes. A lap joint is one of the stwn-
gest joi nts avai lable, despite the lower
uni t strength of the filler metal. Lap
joints arc commonly welded on both
sides. An overlap greater than th ree
times the thickness of the thi n nest
workpiece is recommended. T\vo ba-
sic lap joints are single fillet and double
liUet lap joints. See Figure 3-9.
lap Joints
Figure 3 -9
SINGLE FILLET
DOUBLE FILLET
Figure 3..9, The s;t~gle fillet at~d douhlt fillet ICltJ
joirtts (I re the strongest u·eld joims uwiilabk
Single F illet Lap Joints. A single ftllet
lap joint is very easy to weld. Fi Iter
metal is depos ited along the seam on
one side of the joint. The strength of
the single fillet weld depends on the siz.e
of the fillet. Metal up to 1/2" thick can
be welded with a single fillet if the load-
ing is not too severe.
Double F illet Lap J oin t. A double
fillet lap joint can withstand greater
loads than the single fillet and is one
of the more wide ly used joints in
weldi ng. If the double fillet weld is
properly made, irs strength is com-
parable to that of the base metal.
Corner Joints
A comer joint is a joint fonned when
two workpieces are positioned at an
approximate right angle io the shape
A la11 joilll is usually
of an L. Comer joints are used in many welded onbolh sides
appl icat io ns to j oin sheet and p late of1hejoin/.
metal sections exposed to general ser-
vice loads. Common corner joints are
flush, half-open, and fu ll -open. See
Figure 3- 10.
Figure 3·10. Comer joifll$ ore
Corner Joints genually u,retl only where sew•re
Figure 3- 10 /(mds tu·e '"'' etJCQmlfere(/.
FLUSH
HALF-OPEN
FULL-OPEN
Flush Corner Joints. A flush corner
joint is designed primarily for welding
sheet metal 12 gauge and Lighter. It is
res tricted to light materia ls because
deep penetration is sometimes difficult
to achieve, and the joint is able to sup-
port only moderate loads.
Half-Open Corne r Joints. A half-
open comer joint is usually more adapt-
able for materials heavier than 12 gauge.
It is suitable for loads where fatigue or
Joifll Design & Welding Terms €): 35
 impac t are not too severe and where
the welding can only be done from one
side . The two edges of the workpieces
are shouldered together so there is less
tendency to burn through the plates at
the co rner.
Full-Open Corner Joints. A full-open
corner j oint permits we ldi ng on both
sides so it produ ces a stro ng joint ca-
pable of carrying heavy loads. All metal
th ick nesses ca n be we lde d wit h full -
ope n co rner j oints. A full-open corne r
joint provides good stress distribut ion.
" ..."'- - - - _.,
.....-
--~
f:SAH W.'ldi1lX (Iud CUI/inK P""lu ct,
71Je weld type used must be designed for the particularjoint to be welded and the load
requirements ofthe weld.
Edge Joints
An edge join t is a weld joint form ed
when the edge s of two or more paral -
lel o r nearly parall el members arc
joined. The edge j oint is suitab le for
plates 114" thick or less and can sus-
tain o nly light loads. Edge joints can
be co mbined with butt joints or corner
joints and the edges can be squared or
beveled. See Figure 3-1 1. An edge joint
is commonly used to join support struc-
tures and short len gth s of st ruc tural
36 ~ Weidilll! Skills
steel. A flanged j oint is a joint in which
one of the joint members has a !langed
edge at the weld j oint.
Edge Joints
Figure 3·11
saUAREEDGE
SINGLE BEVEL EDGE
DOUBLE BEVEL EDGE
Ftgure 3-11. Edg e j oinIs art' common ty used f or
light load applications. MallY comb inations of j oint
edges are possible since edge j oints eWI he square
01" beveled.
WELD TYPES
A we ld type is the cross-se ct io na l
shape of the weld after filler met al is
added to the joint. The weld type dif-
fers from the weld joint in that the weld
type indic ates the way in which fill er
metal is added while the weld joint is
the configuration of the join t members.
The weld type used is determined by
the we ld joint des ign and de pends on
the load requirements of the weld. To
maximize weld streng th and econo my,
the following basic rules are observed:
• Minimize edge preparation. Minimiz-
ing edge preparation reduces cutting
and machining costs.
• Provide weld access. Allow for access
to the weld by we lding machin ery.
The welding equipment available for
the job must be considered.
• Minimize filler metal. M inimiz ing
filler meta l reduces costs .
 Reduce excess heat. Reducing the
amount of excess heat app li ed to
the weld a rea duri ng welding
mini rnizes metallurgical changes of
the base metal and Iiller metal.
Minimize the number of weld s.
Minimizing the number of welds
reduces the filler meta l required.
Additional ly, distortion of joint
rnem bers from hca t app Iication is
reduced.
• Size the weld for the thinnest joint
member. The size of the weld
shou ld not exceed the strength of
the thinnest joint member.
Joint design se lection uses root
open ings and groove openings that re-
quire the least amount of weld metal
yet still provide accessibility to the joint.
Joint design selection is also in11uenced
by the type of metal to be welded, the
location of the joint in the weldment,
and the required performance of the
weld. Weld joints and types are selected
for specitic applications.
Weld types include fillet weld,
groove weld, plug or s lot weld , sur-
facing weld, stud weld., spot and seam
weld, projection weld. and back weld.
See Figu re 3- 12.
Fillet Welds
A filler weld is a weld of approximately
triangular cross section that joins two
surfaces at approx imately right angles.
Fillet welds may be used for lap, T, or
comer joints. Fillet welds are the most
commonly used weld type and are pre-
ferred over groove welds because they
are easier to prepare and are less ex-
pensive to complete. Fillet welds may
be made from one s ide (single fillet
weld) or both sides (double ~iller weld).
Fillet weld s ize is specified by the
lengths of the legs of the largest right
triangle that may be inscribed with in
the Iiller weld cross section.
Fill et welds are commonly used
when load stresses are low and the re-
qui red effective throat is less than %".
The strength of the fillet weld is based
on the effective throat of the weld. H
the load requ ires an e ffective throat of
o/s" or larger, a groove weld should be
used, poss ibly in combin ation with a
fillet weld to provide the required size.
Groove Welds
A groove weld is a weld made in the
groove between the two workpieces to
be j oi ned . A groove weld may be
squa re groove, single-groove, or
double-groove. A square groove weld
is economical, but its use is lim ited by
the thickness of the joint and the ser-
vice load. A groove weld is adaptable
for a variety of joints, most commonly
the butt joint. The groove weld shou ld
use th e smal lest root opening and Cl'oove welds are
very adaptable for t1
g roove angle poss ib le for the job to w1riery of joims. bm
provide a sound weld using the least theil' use is limiTetl by
amount o f filler metal. thl' thickness o.f the
With a suita ble opening and back- material.
ing strip, square groove weld joints up
to 1/.o" thick can be made by SMAW.
Square groove weld joints up to %"
thic k can be made with GMAW,
FCAW, and SAW. The root of a square
groove weld shou ld not be under ten -
sion when the weld is bent under load.
Single-groove and doub le -groove
welds a re normally used for th ick
joints. A single-groove weld is a groove
weld that is made from one side on Iy.
Single-groove welds include s ingle-
square-groove, sing le-beve l-groove,
sing le- V-groove, s i ngle-J-groove,
s i ngle-U-groove. single- fla re-bevel-
g roove, and sin gle-flare- V-groove.
A double-groove weld is a groove weld
that is made from both sides.
Double-groove welds include double-
square-groove. double-bevel-groove,
double-V-groove, double-J - groove
with backing, doublc - U-groove ,
double-llare-bevel-groove, and double-
flare -Y-groove. The edge of each
workpiece must be prepared to provide
accessibi lity for welding and to ensure
the desired soundness and s trength .
The selection of a single-groove weld
over a double-groove weld is princi-
pally dictated by cost.
Joi111 Desig11 & Welding Term.r ~ 37
 WELD TYPES AND JOINTS
.
' ..
- :
' .

FILLET -
!
11
I
I
2b -
9
SQUARE·
GROOVE ! 0 l -
6 [][] 9J
BEVEL-
GROOVE
l Q !
!
~
I
!
6 OJ 9J
V-GROOVE ! 0 l - -
rYJ 9J
U-GROOVE l \J r - -
LiJ 9
J-GROOVE l Q l !
Cl
I
I
6 rn 9J
FLARE-BEVEL-
GROOVE !
"9 l ! ~ ~ rn 9J
- -
00 ~
FLARE-V-
GROOVE
! l

PLUG - ~ ~ -
~
SLOT -
~ ~ -
~
EDGE - - - rn -

FLANGED
~ 1
/0 17
I
8 [JJ ~
SPOT -
~ ~ -
~
PROJECTION - ~ ~ -
~
SEAM - ~ ~ ~ ~
BRAZE !
Figure J.. az. 1'11t bMic weld j()illtS
[]
(~rt•
l !
L1

used with upf1licable

I
I

wtltl typ~$
db
m mt:et load requi rt!mt!IIU.
-
9J
38 @o Welding Skills
Plug or Slot Welds
Plug welds and slot welds may be used
to join two overlapping pieces of metal
by welding through circular holes or
slots. A plug weld is a weld made in a
circular hole in one workpiece, fusing
that workpiece to another workpiece.
A hole is cut in one workpiece, which
is then positioned over the second
workpiece. The weld is made through
the hole. A slot weld is a weld made in
an elongated hole in one workpiece of
a joint. fusing that workpiece to another
workpiece. The circular hole or slot
may be open at one end. Welding is
done by completely till ing the circular
hole or slot to join the two workpieces.
Plug welds and slot welds are often
used instead of rivets.
Plug and slot welds should not be
confused with fillet welds because the
base of the circular hole or slot is com-
pletely filled. A fillet weld only depos-
its filler metal in a triangular shape on
the perimeter of the circular hole or slot.
Plug welds were originally used dur-
ing de.~ign transitions from riveted to
welded structures and are most com-
monly used for joining sheet to a sub-
strate to provide protection such as
corrosion resistance.
Surfacing Welds
A swfacing weld is a weld applied to
a surface, as opposed to a j oint, to ob-
tain desired properties or dimensions.
Surfacing welds are commonly used
to strengthen selected surfaces of a
single component, such as an ex·
truder. A sulfaciog weld applied to in-
crease wear resistance is known as
hardfacing or fusion hardfacing. Sur-
facing welds do not require prepar-
ing an actual weld joint.
A surfacing weld is different from
thermal spraying. Thermal spraying
(THSP) is a group of processes in which
finely divided meta ll ic or nonmeta.llic
materials are deposited in a molten or
sem i-molten condition to form a coat-
~
ing. The surfacing material may be in A plug welt/ or slot
weld is usell to join
the form of a powder, rod, cord, or wire. [;g]_ overlapping pieces of
THSP is also called arc spray, flame metflllluvugh circular
spray, and plasma spray. Thermal spray ltoles Qr sl01s mtule in
one member.
hardfacing (non-fusion hardfacing) is
the application of a tllin layer of materi-
als to the surface in such a way that local
melting does not occur.
Stud Welds
A stud weld is a weld produced by join-
ing a metal stud or s imilar pan to a
workpiece. During the welding process,
part of the stud is melted, providing
weld reinforcement at the base of the
stud. Welding may be done with heat
and pressure.
Spot and Seam Welds
A spot weld and seam weld are, respec-
tively, circular cross-sectional or con-
tinuous welds made between ovedap-
ping members in which coalescence
may start and continue on the fayin g
surfaces, or may proceed from the outer
surface of one member to the faying
surface. A fayt'ng swface is the mating
surface of a member that is in contact
with or in close proximity to another
member to which it is to be joined.
A spot weld is a weld made between
overlapping w<>rkpieces in which coa-
lescence forms a series of circular cross
sections. A see1m weld is a continuous
weld between overlapping workpieces
in which coalescence produces a con-
tinuous seam or series of overlapping
spot welds.
Projection Welds
A projection weld is a resistaoce weld
produced by the heat obtained from
the resistance to the flow of welding cur-
rent. The resulting welds are local ized
at predetermined points by projections,
embossments, or intersections. Spot and
projection welds are specified in
pounds per weld. Seam welds are
Joint Design & Welding Tennv ~ 39
 specified in pounds per inch of joint
strength. A weld strength greater than
the strength of the minimum nugget
size should be specified in the design.
A nugget is the weld metal that joins
the workpieces in spot, seam. or pro-
jection welds.
Back Welds
A back weld is a weld made in the weld
root opposite the face of the weld. A
back weld is deposited after welding
on the face side of the workpiece is
comp leted . Back welds are usual ly
made to improve the quality of the lirst
pass of weld metal (root pass). This is
achieved by gouging or grind ing om
imperfections in the root pass. followed
by depositing the back weld.
WELD DESIGNS
Weld joint designs are governed by
AWS codes and other appropri a te
codes. For example, in buil di ng con-
struction. AWS codes govem structural
and welding materials, weld details.
AIVS codes lire ta be processes and techniques. weld qual-
u ..fed tl.t ll guitle to
design consi.c;tent. ity, and inspection. The design of the
qualily welt/ joims. structural elements is governed by
American Institute of Steel Construc-
tion (ALSC) specifications. The weld
joint design selected must factor in wind
forces. loads. seismic cond itions. and
other conditions that can cause fat igue.
Additional codes such as the Uniform
Building Code and other appropriate
state and local codes may also apply.
The designer or engineer is responsible
for determining the proper weld design
to use; however, a welder should be
aware of joint design requiremen ts in
order lO produce a weld that better
meets the established specifications for
the job.
Weld Joint Selection
Welded joints provide strength and ef-
ficiency and can be made more
quickly than other joining methods.
40 ~ Welding Skills
Welded joints have replaced many
parts and structures that previously
used fasteners or the casting process.
Most welded joints are subjected to
loads that require strength and rigid ity
to prevent failure. Loads in a stmcture
are transferred from member to mem-
ber through the welds. Welded joints
subjected to minimum loads are con-
sidered tO be "no-load'' welds. For
example, access covers and panels and
safety guards require " no-load'' welds.
AWS Weldin g Positions. Weld joint
selection is also affected by the weld-
ing position. The four bas ic welding
positions arc flat, horizontal. vert ical,
and overhead. See Figure 3-13. Flat
position is the most widely used weld-
ing position because welding can be
done quickly and easily, and flat posi-
tion welding allows for the greatest
control of the welding process.
In the horizontal, ver tical. a nd
overhead posi tions. g rav ity reduces
penetra tion and filler metal control,
which can cause weld defects resul t-
ing in weak welds. Horizontal weld-
ing is difficult because the molten
pool has a tendency to sag. Vertical
welding is done in a vertical line from
the bottom to the top or from the top
to bottom of the workpicecs. On th in
mate rial, a downhi ll weld ing tech-
nique is usua ll y more app lica ble.
Overhead welding is difficult because
the molten metal sags. A un iform bead
with the proper penetration must be
secured.
Small parts are commonly welded
in flat position for efficiency. How-
ever, some large parts that cannot be
pos itioned for nat-position weld ing
can be con tro ll ed us ing j igs, tack
welds. spacers, or consumable inserts.
A tack weld is a weld used to hold
workpieces in proper alignment until
the final welds are made. Subsequent
welding on the weld joint melts
through the tack welds. Spacers pro-
vide a gap between the joint members
to be tack welded.
 HORIZONTAL (2G)
VERTICAL (3G)
OVERHEAD (4G)
Figure 3-13. Tile four CIIIIIIIIIJ/1 welding pc>sition.r 11r~ jim. huri:<IIIWI. 1•micill. m1d 6Vtrilend.
After tack weld ing, the spacers are
removed before continuing the weld-
ing process. Consumab le inserts are
melted during the welding process and
become part of the ri ller metal added
to the weld joint.
Joint Preparation. A quality weld is
dependent on proper j oint preparation.
Edges are commonly cut, sawed, or
machined to prov ide good fit-up of
parts. Edge preparation for groove
welds must also be considered. Fit-up
must be consistent through and a long
the entire joint. The follow ing genera l
requirements provide for proper joint
preparation:
• Sheet metal <U1d most fillet and lap
joints shou ld be clamped tight for
the entire length of the workpiece
to be welded. Gaps or bevels must
be accurately controlled ove•· the en-
tire j oint. Any variation in a given
joint forces the welder to adjust the
welding speed to avoid me lt-
through (burn-through) and to use
different e lecu-ode manipu lations to .Joint preparation
fill the fit-up variation. guide!t'nes muss be
followed dosely to
Correct groove angle is requi red for pmvide good jil-up
good bead shape and penetrat ion. during 'veltfi,g.
See Figure 3-14.
Joiw Design & Welding 1erms ~ 41
 Groove Angle • Proper groove angle of 60° to 75°
Figure 3-14 shou ld be maintained. A sufficient
bevel is necessary for a quality bead;
however, any excess bevel creates
additional work for the welder and
wastes filler metal. Filler metal is
expensive. and any variation from
the recommended groove angle
size contributes to excess cost, in
both material and time, in making
a weld. See Figure 3-l G.
CORRECT
45'

PROPER
GROOVE
ANGLE

PENETRATlON
INCORRECT

Figure 3·14. A t·on·ect gnH>w• ""$'"is essemi(l/ for

a good we-lei as it ai/{JWS lfrt Wl'ltl metal 10 fully
pttit lfllft! 1/u• ni(JI upnliug.

Fig.urc 3·J6. An O\trly larf(t gmu~e (mgft wa:a~s

An insufficient bevel prevents the
electrode from penetrating into the
joint. Deep, narrow beads may lack
penetration, and they have a ten-
dency to cn~ck. A wide bevel groove
is typically used in pipe welding to
ensure complete penetration. See
Figure 3-15.
Pipe Welding Angle
Figure 3-1 5
Figun.· 3-I S. A pipe weld rtqui,·u a widt 75•
groCJt~e auglt.
filler metal tmd tim~. n.nrlli11g in greater wel.di11g costs.
Sufficient gap is needed for full
penetration. Without adequate
penetration. a welded joint cannot
withstand the loads imposed on it.
A I though proper penetration
depends to some extent on
electrode manipulation, it is
essential thai the welder provide a
correct roo1 opening to achieve
full penetration. See Figure 3-17.
Either a 1/s" root face or a back-
ing strip is required for fast weld-
ing and a good quality weld.
Feather-edge preparations require
a slow. costly root bead. How-
ever, doub le- V butt joints without
a rool face are pracl ica l when the
root bead is offset by easier edge
preparations and when th e gap
can be limited to about %2". See
Figu re 3- 18.

42 ~ Welding Skills
Root Opening required root open ing for proper pen-
Figure 3- 17 etration and sufticienl weld reinforce-
ment. See Figure 3-19. Workpieces
should be aligned edge-to-edge and
-11- '!..>• TO !Ao"
end-to-end, and also should lie in the
same plane. Subassemblies can elimi-
nate some access problems.
Each weld joint type has certain
advantages and limitations. Welders
must be especially aware of the limita-
tions, as the effectiveness of the weld is
often contingent on the type of joint that
is used as well as the skill of the welder.
Load requirements dictate the strength
of the required welds. Weld lypes are
used with the applicable weld joint, and
figure 3-17. PrCiper r()Ot o~11ing Yit.e is r~quirt'd ill
ordu to m.t1kt '' Jmmd weld 11u~ root Opt'lli11g siz.~ i.f include fillet. groove. plug or sloL and
deumt~ilt~d by tire wall tlticlmess of tlr~ mt!ttll. surfacing welds.
Welding Location. Welding is per-
ROOT formed in the shop or in the field, de-
pending upon the size and fabrication
requirements of the structure .. Small
parts, structures, and subassemblies are
often welded in the shop. The shop
provides a controlled envi ronment in
which welding variables can be closely
controlled. Additionally, fixtures and
positioners can be used to move a part
or hold a pmt in position for improved
welding productivity.

BACKING STRIP

f1gu.re 3-18. TI1t pm1J('r root Jactt mu.u bt! prcrvid~d

for a quality 'Weld.

Joint Access. Sufficient access is re-

quired for the welding equipment and
the deposition of filler metal. For ex-
ample, the large welding gun required
for tlux cored arc weld ing limits the
access to welds in tight areas. Proper
fit-up also ensures that the workpieces
are in correct alignment, have the cor- 71fwo f.,fN'{J/n J;l.n•lfK' CIJ#ff~MY

rect edge preparation, and have the Joilll dej·ign must wke imo consideratlOJl access ro 1he joillf /))'the wei<Jc,r.

Jciru Design & Welding Tl'l'lll.l' ~ 43

Proper Fit-Up
F1gure 3-19

Angle Too Large

Angle Too Small

Wrong Edge Preparation

GROOVE
ROOT OPENING WELD
SIZE

ALIGNMENT EDGE PREPARATION ROOT OPENING

f-Igure 3 -1 9. CorrtC'I (lil'gllmt lll, tdgt> prtJWI'Otioll. (llrd root Q~11in,-: ore neussary for proptr flt·up.

A fixture is a device used to main- Welding is performed in the field

tain the correct positional relationship
between workpieces as requ ired by print
specifications. A positioner is a me-
chanical device that supports and moves
workpieces for maximum loading.
welding, and unloading efficiency.
Positioners can be used with hand- and
machine-controlled welding machinery.
In production settings, positioners and
welding equ ipment are used together
for maximum welding efficiency.
when the size or fabrication require-
ments of the s tructure prohibit as-
sembly in !he shop. Welding in the
field often results in a decrease in
welding productivity because addi-
tional variables are introduced that
can influence the finished weld.
A mbi enl temperature. weather,
welding conditions, and welder ef-
ficiency in the field affect welding
productivity.

l. The root pass is the in itial weld pass that provides complete penetration through the thickness of
the joint member.
2 . Square butt joints should be used primarily with materials o/ts" thick or less.
3. A double-V butt joint is suitable for all load conditions.
4. A T-joint is formed when two members are positioned approximately 90° to one another.
5 . A lap joint is usually welded on both sides of the joint.
6 . Groove welds are very adaptable for a variety of joints, but their use is limited by the thickness
of the material.
7. A plug weld or a slot weld is used to join overlapping pieces of metal through circu lar holes or
slots made in one member.
8. AWS codes are intended as a standard guide by which to design consistent. quality weld joints.
9. Joint preparation guidelines must be followed closely to provide good fit-up during welding.

44 ~ Welding Skills
 I. What factors must be considered when detennining the type of joint to usc in welding
any structural unit?
2. What is a fillet weld?
3. In what type of joints arc groove welds made?
4. What is a plug weld?
5. Wben is a surfacing weld used?
6. Why are grooved butt j oints better for welding th ick plates than square butt joints?
7. Wbat are the basic types ofT-joints?
8. Describe a double fillet lap joint.
9. Which type of corner joint is the strongest?
I 0. What is the toe of a weld?
I I . What is the root of a weld?
12. What are some of the basic principles that contribute to good joint-geometry?
13. When are doub le bevel T-joints nonnally used?
14. Which butt joint requires the least amount of preparation before welding?
15. What is reinforcement of the weld?
16. How is the root opening size determined?
17. Why is a proper groove angle required?
18. How is the size of a weld leg determined'?

J<Jilll Design & Weldiug Terms ~ 45

46 ~ Welding Skill.~
section . tW 0 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

O.tyacetylene welding does not require electricity and is typical~v used for maintenance, in body shops.
and in the repair of small parts where other welding processes are too expensive.
Oxyacetylene welding can be used to join iron, steel, cast iron, coppe1; brass, aluminum, bronze. and other
metals. Often, dissimilar metals such as sreel and cast iron, brass and steel, copper and iron, and brass and
cast iron can be joined with oxyacerylene welding. Oxyacetylene welding equipment can also be used for
preheating, cutting mew/, case hardening. and annealing.

OXYGEN FOR WELDING the air and removes any remammg

carbon dioxide and water vapor. At the
The atmosphere (air) is comprised
top of each dry ing cylinder are spe-
of approximately 20% oxygen. The
cial cotton filters to prevent particles
majority of the atmosphere is made up
of foreign matter from being carried
of nitrogen with a percentage of rare
into the high-pressure lines.
gases such as helium, neon, and ar-
The dry. clean, compressed air then
gon. For oxygen to be usable for weld-
goes into rectifying or liquefaction
ing, it must be separated from the other columns where the air is cooled and
gases. The two methods that can be expa nded to approximately atmo-
used to isolate oxygen are the liquid- spheric pressure. As the pressure is
air and the electrolytic methods.
lowered. the extremely high-pressu re,
The liquid-air method of producing cold air cools and liquefies.
oxygen draws air from the atmosphere
into huge con tainers called washing
towers. ln the washing towers. the air
is washed and purified of carbon di-
oxide. A solution of caustic soda is
circulated through the towers by
means of centrifugal pumps to wash
the air.
As the air moves out of the wash-
ing towers, it is compressed and passed
tllrough oil-purging cyunders. In the
oil-purging cylinders, oil particles and
water vapor are removed. From the oil-
purging cylinders, the air moves into
drying cylinders. The drying cylinders .,..,'"""'- '"""''"''· 1.,
contain dry, causlic potash that dries A mixwre of n.tygeu and ilCNyirue i.r used for most welding wul culling operations.

47
 The separation of the nitrogen from position. This provides a seal to reduce
the oxygen is possible once the air has leakage from the va l ve. A protector
liquefied because nitrogen and oxygen cap screws onto the neck ring of the
have different boi ling points. Nitrogen cylinder to protect Ute valve from dam-
boils at -320° F (-195.5°C) and oxy- age. The protector cap must always be
gen at -296°F (-l82°C). The nitrogen, in place when the cylinder is not in
having a lower boiling poim, evapo- use. See Figure 4-1.
rates first, leaving the liquid oxygen at
the bottom of the condenser. Tbe iso-
lated liquid oxygen passes through a
heated coil, which changes the liquid
oxygen into a gaseous form. After the
gas moves through the heated coil, it
is stored in a storage tru1k. A gas meter
mounted between the heating coil and
the storage tank registers the amount
of gas entering the $lorage tank. The
stored oxygen gas can then be drawn
from the storage tank and compressed
into receivi11g cy linders.
The electrolytic method i.s a process
that uses water and electricity to iso-
late oxygen. Water is a c hemical
compound consisting of oxygen and
hydrogen. By sendi ng an electrical
current through a solut ion of wa ter
contai ning caust ic soda. oxygen is Figure 4· 1. A /lfOlt'C'ItJr <·tql .\a~w.-. onto tltt! llr't·l:.
ri11g fl/ till! C'ylhulu Ja l''"ut<'l 1lu• tttlw• from domt1gt'"
given off at one terminal plate, and whtoJt 1101 In ustt.
hydrogen at the other. The oxygen.
having been separated from the hy-
There are three common sizes of
drogen. is sui tab le for welding. The
oxygen cylinders. The large cylinder
electro lytic method is a very expen-
holds 244 cubic feel (cu fr) of oxygen.
sive method of producing oxygen;
The large size is common ly used in
for this reason the li quid-air method
industrial plants and shops that require
is more commonl y used to produce
large quantities of gas. A medium-size
commercial oxygen.
cylinder can contain 122 cu ft of
oxygen and a small cylinder can hold
Handle o.'C)'gCJJ aJUI 80 cu ft.
ar.fiylene cylinders Oxygen Cylinders
Cylinders are charged with oxygen
with care. Nt!\V!rex·
JK.IS(' 1hem m e.xce.o;. Oxygen cylinders are made from at a pressure of 2200 psi at a tempera-
si\'(' ht•aJ andprew!lll seamless drawn steel and tested with a ture of 70°F (21 °C). Gases expand
cmuac1 '''Iih oil OJul water (hydrostatic) pressure of 3360 psi. when heated and contract when cooled,
grease.
The cy linders are equipped with a so the oxygen pressure will increase or
high-pressure valve that can be opened decrease as the temperature changes.
by ruming the handwbeel on top of the For example, if a full cylinder of oxy-
cylinder. The valve handwheel should gen is allowed to stand outdoors in
always be opened by hand and not near-freezing temperalllres. the pres-
with a wrench. The handwheel must sure of the oxygen will register less
be turned sl owly to permi t a gradual than 2200 psi. However. none of the
pressure load on the regula tor. The oxygen has been lost; cooling has only
valve bandwheel is turned to fu ll open reduced the pressure of the oxygen.

48 ~ Welding Skills
 Si.n ce the pres.~ure of gas varies with Figure 4-2. An ncf'rrh•ue C)limla
it poc-ked 11ith tl pOr{)lfS mutc-ritd
the surrounding temperature. all oxy- //1(1/ i.t !WIIU'att•d wilh (1('('1011(' 10
gen cylinders are equipped with a 11/Jow thl' .«(t smm.ttr of act:l)•lellf'.
safety nut that permits 1he oxygen to
drain slow ly if the temperaiUre in-
creases the cylinder pressure beyond
i1' rateJ safety loau. If" ~;ylinder wo::•e
exposed to a hot tlame. the safety nut
would relieve the pressure before 1he
cylinder reached its exploding poinl.

ACETYlENE FOR WELDING

Acetylene is a colorless gas with a very
distioclive. nausea ling odor that is
highly combustible when mixed with
oxygen. Allhough it is very stable a1 low
pressures, i1 becomes very unstable if
compressed 10 more than 15 psi.
Ace1ylene gas is formed by tbe mix-
lure of calcium carbide and water. The
commercial generator in which tbe gas
is produced consists of a huge tank
containing wmer. A specified quantity
of carb ide is put into a hopper and
raised to the Lop of the generalor. The
carbide i~ then allowed to fall into the
water. As the carbide meets 1he waler,
bubbles of gas are given off. The gas
is collected. purified, cooled. and
slowly compressed into cylinders.
Acetylene Cylinders
lA WARNlNG
Acctylcuc becomes danger-
ous: and unSUlblc if cum·
pres~d kl more than 15 psi
of pres~•re .
The cylinder valve is opened with
an insta ll ed va lve hand le. See Figure
4-3. The cylinder valve should never
be opened more than one complete 1urn.
ll is advisable to open the cylinder only
s lighlly so the valve can be closed
quickly in case of an emergency.
figure 4 -3. "fltt' uct:l\•lene rydimltr
,•u/\'C #u.mld bt· Ofli!ntd u·irh fl,t.
ill!illllled wrl\'l" JwmJ/1>.

To ensure the safe storage of acety-

lene. the cyli nde r is packed wi1h a
porous material. Tllis porous material
is saturmed with acetone. which is a
chemical liquid that dissolves or ab-
sorbs large quanlities of ace1ylene
under pressures greater than 15 psi
without changing the nature of the
gas. The acetylene cylinder is equipped When a considerable amount of
with a fusible plug that melts, reliev- we ld in g is to be performed in an
ing excess pressure, if the cyliuder is area. as in industry or in a school
subjected 10 any mechanical pressure welding shop. acetylene cyl inders
or undue heat. such as from a fire. See are frequenlly connected to a mani-
Figure 4-2. Acetylene cylinders fold system with pipelines carrying the
should never be laid down as the cor- gas to the welding stations. See Figure
rosive nature of the acetone can erode 4-4. The demand for acetylene is usu-
Ihe seals in the tanks . ally hi gher than can be supplied by a

OAW - Equipmem 0 49

Figur~ 4-4. A ct>l )'f' "t' c_vlitultrs
arc COIIIIt:l'Ud 10 ' ' mm11/o ltl
.ty:ttem w llft'tU where a llfgh
''olume C)f h'eldirtg is lo be
f1t'rformi'd.
A WARNING
Ne,•e.r move; cylinders with
rcguJotors .-.uac;b(:d. Always
remove the regulator"\ and
ins1all the pn>~cc::ri vc cap
prior to moving.
50 ~ IVeldi"g Skills
single cy linder, so a manifold system
is commonly needed. A multiple cylin-
der manitold system allows the necessruy
volume of acetylene to be supplied to
the work are<~. Acetylene can be drawn
off no faster than one-seventh the total
volume of the cylinder per hour, which
is the quickest the acetylene can be re-
leased from the acetone lining in the
cyl inder. A flash arrestor is also used
in the manifold system to prevent a
flashback from reaching the stored
cyl indcrs.
....B I!HJ... ...,C~·. . ~.......
Flash Arrestors. A flash arrestor is a
safety device thai prevents an explo-
sion or a backfire in the torch or torch
head from reaching the regulator and
the acetylene cylinder. Two types of
flash arrestors are the torch-mounted
and the regu lator-mounted.
The torch -mounted flash arrestor
is a check valve that prevents a re-
verse gas flow from reaching the cyl-
inder. The regulator- mounted flash
arrestor is a combination check valve
and flame barrier. The barrier meta I
is a porous flame-retardant material
thai allows gas to llow through, but
blocks out a flame. Torch-mounted
and regulator-mounted flash arrestors
should always be used on fuel hoses
and oxygen hoses. Regulator-mouoted
flash arrestors prevent backfires and
flashbacks from entering the hoses,
and possibly the cyl inders.
A backfire is caused by the flame
goi ng out suddenly on the torch. A
backfire may occur when the tip is
touched agai nst the workpiece; if the
flame settings are too low; if the tip is
diny. damaged. or loose; or if the tip is
overheated.
When a torch backfires, it could
cause a flashback. A flashback is a
cond ition in which the flame burns in-
side the tip, the torch, or the hose. In
case of a flashback, the oxygen and
fuel valves must be immediately closed
to prevent possible explosion of the
cylinders . Flashhacks are typically
caused by malfunctioning equipment.
If a tlashbac k occu rs, the equipment
should be removed from service and a
service technician called to correct the
problem or replace the equipment.
Hoses should be discarded after a
flashback. The torch tip is reusable. but
it should be removed from the torch
and thoroughly blown out with alr to
remove any soot or residue.
SAFE HANDLING OF
CYLINDERS
To move a cyl inder, rotate it on its bot-
tom edge. Place the palm of one hand
over the protector cap and ti lt the cyl-
inder backward onto the edge. Start the
cylinder rolling by pushing it with the
other hand. See Figure 4-5. Follow
these safety precautions when handling
oxygen and acetylene cylinders:
• Never lift a cyUnder by the protector
cap.
• Always keep cylinders in a vertical
position.
• Do not allow grease or oi l to come
in contact with cy linder valves.
A l though oxygen is in itself
nonflammable, il quic kl y aids
combustion if exposed to flrunmable
materials.
• Avoid exposing cylinders to furnace
heat, radiators, open fire, or sparks
from a torch.

Figure 4-S. To safely mO'I!c 11 cylimler. tih rlre cyUJtdtr
backward wirl• one ha11d mu/ roll 11, rylindu,
guidins the cylinder with the Q/htr hond.
Never transport a cyli nder by
dragging, sliding, or rolling il on its
side. Avoid striking it against any
object that might create a spark, as
there may be jus t enough gas
escaping from the cylinder to cause
an explosion.
• Shut OFF cylinder valves completely
before moving cylinders.
• Do not tamper with or attempt to
repair cylinder valves. If valves leak
or do not function properly, notify
the supplier immediately.
• Keep valves closed on empty
cylinders.
• Do not use a hammer or wrench
to open cylinder valves. 1f they
cannot be opened by hand or with
a T-wrcnch. notify the supplier.
• Keep cylinders covered with valve
protector caps when not in use.
• Cylinders s hou ld be c hained in
position at aU times during use and
when stored. Cylinders in usc
should be securely attached to a
hand Cart. or chained near the work
station. See Figure 4-6.
Figure :a-6. Cylinders .shoultl he
chni11t-d at 1111 time'f during ll$C'
aud wlle11 stort>d.
WELDING APPARATUS
The weldi ng apparatus consists of a
torch with an assortment or different-
sized tips; two lengths of hose. one
red for acetylene and the othe!f green
for oxygen; two pressure regulators;
two cylinders. one containing acety-
lene and the other oxygen; a welding
sparklighter: and a pair of goggles.
See Figure 4-7.
Cylinders are typically chained to
a two-wheel hand truck to permit
moving the equipment to a desired lo-
cation. If the cy linders are positioned
near the workbench. they should be
chained to a fixed object.
Welding Torches
The welding torch. or b lowpipe. is a
tool that mixes acetylene and oxygen
in the correct proportions and permits
the mixture tO n ow tO a tip, where it
is burned. Although torches vary to
some extent in design, Lhey are made
to provide complete control of the
nam e during the we ld ing operation.
See Figure 4-8.
OAW- Eq11ipment ~ 51
Figurt 4·7. C.v liudns c:tm bco
rhain<>d 10 11 lu'O•"'Itt:d ham/
trud.: fnr ,•asy uan.sportatimJ.

OXYGEN CYLINDER

Figure 4-8. Atr tJ.\')'IICt:lylem.'

wddi~tg torch provide.t CtJtUJ,Ielt
tonmH qf 1h.e jlmu(' duriux wl!lding.

~CAUTION
Cylinders must be properly
secured; mhllrwrse. rhey rll:ly
lip over :1.nd ruin 1hc regulator.,.
or cause an c~plosion.
52 ~ We/di11g Skills
ll1e two primary types of torches are
the medium-pressure and the injector.
The medium-pressure torch requires
acetylene pressures of I psi to I 0 psi.
The injector torch is designed to use
acetylene at very low pressures (0 up
to I psi). Bol.h types of torches operate
when acetylene is supplied from cylin-
ders o r medium-pressure generators.
ln a medium-pressure torch. the oxy-
gen and acetylene are fed independently
to a mixing chamber. after which they
flow out through the tip. In an injector
torch. the oxygen, as it passes llhrough a
small opening in the injecto.r nozzle,
draws acetylene into J.he oxygen stream.
When small fluctuations in lhe oxygen
suppl y occur, a corresponding change
occurs in the amount of acetylene drawn, Welding Tips
maintaining consistent proportions of the
Welding on eli fferent thicknesses of
two gases while the torch is in opera-
metal is possible because torches are
tion. The medium-pressure torch is the
equipped with an assonment of differ-
most commonly used torch.
ent size heads, or tips. The size of the
Both rypes of torches are equipped
tip is governedl by the diameter of its
with two need le va lves; one regulates
opening. which is marked on the tip.
the flow of oxygen at the torch and
the other regulmes the flow of acety- Care of Welding Tips. A welding tip is
lene at the torch. At the base of the designed to be installed and removed
torch are two fittings for connecting by hand. Frequent tOrch use causes
each hose. To eliminate any chance of carbon to form in the passage of the
interchanging the hoses. the oxygen fit- tip. Carbon mu.st be removed from the
ting is made with a right- hand thread tip regularly to ensure the free tlow of
and the acetylene fiuing is made with gas. See Figu re 4- J 0. To clean a torch
a left-hand thread. tip. fol low the procedure:
I. Fi le the e nd of the tip flat with a A/way.v /l(mfl 11p 11
Care of To rc h es. When welding is
metal file. torch ,,·Jzeu 1101 in use
completed, the torch shou ld be prop- 10 prevent ir frmtt
2. Insert a proOperly-sizcd tip cleaner
erly secured to prevent it from falling dropping to the floor
into the tip and puU it straight ouL anti being IJent ur
and becoming damaged. Needle valves
Repeat until the tip is clean. damas~d.
are especially delicate, and if the torch
drops and st rikes a hard object. th e
needle valves can break easily. Needle
Jolgurt 4-10. A Hp dttmu!r is w:ed
valves may loosen and turn 100 freely, Cleaning a Torch Tip m dnm a wrtlt lip.
making it difficult to keep the proper Figure 4-10
adjus tment for the required mixture.
When the needle va lves loosen. the
packing nuts on the stem of the needle
valves shou ld be tightened with a slight
tum of a wrench. See Figure 4-9.

0 FILE TIP FLAT

A CAUTION
Never remove welding
tips with pliers. If a tip ha.s
to be cleaned, usc a tip
c leaner.

® INSERT TIP CLEANER

F"tgure 4--9. Th~ parking mtLt o, the -uc·m of tlte 11t>txlle
''al~·ts art righrtt~td witlr a c.·orrtt:tly ji1ti11g wrMth.

OAW - Et111ipment @o 53
 Regulators Regulators
Oxygen and acetylene pressure regula- Figure 4· 11
tors perform two functions. They con- WOR.KING·
PRESSURE ~ r CYLINDER
trol the flow of gas from the cylinder / PRESSURE
to maintain the required working pres-

~·
sure, and they produce a steady flow
of gas under varying cylinder pres-
sures. Regulators are equipped with two
gauges-a cylinder pressure gauge.
which indicates the actual pressure in
the cylinder, and a working- pressure
gauge. which shows the working. or
line, pressure used at the torch. The oxy-
gen cylinder pressure can be as high OXYGEN
as 2200 psi. The required working
WORKING·
pressure for oxygen is from 1 psi to PRESSURE CYLINDER
PRESSURE
25 psi. The acetylene cylinder pres-
sure can be as high as 250 psi. Tbe
working pressure for acetylene must
be between I psi and 12 psi. The regu-
lator must main tain the proper work-
ing pressure, even as the cylinder pres-
sure changes. If the oxygen in the cyl-
inder is under a pressure of 1800 psi
and a pressure of 6 psi is needed at the
tot·ch, the regulator must maintain a
constant pressure of 6 psi even if the ACETYLENE
cy linder pressure drops to 500 psi.
The oxygen cylinder pressure gauge Figure 4-l J. O.r)lgf:lt tmd tlcrtylt'tu* regulators
control the flow tJf gos to l>i! usn/ fol' ~l-·t/ding.
is a graduated scale up to 4000 psi.
A second scale on the gauge is cali- A single-stage regu !at or must be
brated to register the contents of the continually adjusted to maintain cor-
cylinder in cubic feet. The oxygen rect working pressure. The adjusting
working-pressure gauge is graduated screw on a re.gulator must be released
in divisions from 0 psi to 60 psi and (turned out) before the cylinder valve
the acetylene working-pressure gauge is opened. If the adjusting screw is not
is graduated in divisions from 0 psi to released and the cylinder valve is
30 psi. The acetylene working-pressure opened, the 1remendous pressure of
gauge is usually marked with a warn- the gas in the cylinder. forced onto the
ing color above 15 psi. The acetylene working-pressure gauge, may blow out
cylinder pressure gauge is graduated up the screw and damage the regulator.
to 350 psi or 400 psi. Sec Figure 4-ll. The adjus~ing screw is turned to
Be .mrr the m/justing
screw on a rt!gulator
The two types of regulators are the increase or decrease the gas pressure
<•fully releasedbefore single-stage and the two-stage. The from the torch to the regulatOr by
opening 11 cylinder single-stage regulator is typically less ex- controiHng the force of a spring on
Wl/l'l~. the flexible diaphragm. The dia-
pensive than the two-stage type. With
the single-stage regulator. there is no in- phragm moves a valve, allowing gas
termediate chamber through which gas to flow into the regulator. As the gas
passes before it enters the low-pressure pressure in the regulator increases, it
chamber. The gas from the cylinder bends the diaphragm back, closing
flows into the regulator and is controlled the va lve. During welding, the regu-
entirely by the adjusting screw. lator reduces the gas pressure beh ind
54 :@: Welding Skill.v
the diaphragm and the spring opens Do not attempt to interchange the
the valve. allowing gas to flow. The oxygen and acetylene regulator~.
change in internal pres;,ure is registered • If a regula10r does not function
on the working-pressure gauge. properly, shut OFF the gas supply
With the two-stage regulator, the and have a qualified service tech-
reduction of the cylinder pressure to nician check the regulator.
that required at the torch is accom- • Check the regu lator regu larly for
plished in two stages. In the lirst stage, creeping. If the regulator creeps
the gas flows from the cylinder into a (does not remain at set pressure).
high-pressure chamber. A spring and have it repaired immediate! y. Creep-
diaphragm keep a predetermined gas ing can be seen on the working-
pressure in the chamber. For oxygen. pressure gauge after the needle
the pressure is usually 200 psi. and valves on the torch are closed. A
for acetylene, 50 psi. From the high- creeping regulator usually requires
pressure chamber, the gas passes into that the valve sea t or stem be
a reducing chamber. Control of the changed.
pressure in the reducing c hamber is • Check the mechanisms regularly.
governed by an adjusting screw. If the gauge pointer fails to go
When acetylene and oxygen are back to the pin when the pressure
mixed correctly and ignited. the flame is released, the mechanism is likely
can reach temperatures of 5700"F sprung. caused by pressure enter-
(3150"C) to 6300"F (3482°C), which ing the gauge suddenly. Thb con-
melts commercial metals so completely dition should be repaired.
that they flow together to form a com- Always keep a tight connection
plete bond without the application of between the regulator and the cyl-
any mechanical pressure or hammer- inder. If the connection leaks after
ing. Filler metal is usually added to the tightening, close the cylinder valve
molten metal to build up the joint for and remove the regu Ia tor. Clean
greater strength. On very thin metals. both the inside of the cylinder valve
the edges are generally flanged and seat and the regula.tor inlet-nipple
melted together. ln either case, if the seat. If the leak persists, the seat
weld is performed correctly. the sec- and threads are probably marred,
tion where the bond is made is as and the regulator must be returned
strong as the base metal. to the manufacturer for repair.
Car e of Regulato rs. Regulators are
Check Valves
~ensitive instruments and must be
treated as such. A slight jolt can ren- A check val1•e is a valve that allows the
der a regulator useless. Regulators now of liquid or gas in one direction
should be handled extremely carefu lly only. See Figure 4-12. In welding ap-
when being removed from the cyli n- paratus, the pressure in the supply hose
dt'r Nrvc>r leave n r<'gulntnr nn n hPn<'h is higher than the pressure in the torch,
top or floor for any length of time as it allowing a valve disk in the check valve
could be moved and damaged. Gen- to open and release the gas into the
eral guidelines for the care of regula- torch. If the pressure in the torch be-
tors include the following: comes higher than that in the ~upply
• Check the adjusting screw before hose. such as when a flashback occurs,
the cylinder valve is lUrned ON and the valve disk closes. shutting OFF the
release it when welding has been supply of gas to the torch. A check valve

I
must be positioned at the tOrch inlet, Do 1Wt lubri('(IW the
completed. tulju.ttii•R .,crrwmr a
• Never use oi l on a regulator. Use and can also be placed at the regulator reg11lawr with l'il
only soap or glycerin to lubricate outlet. The check valve must be re- U.rt UNIP orgl)..:enn.
the adjusting screw. placed if a flashback occurs.
OAIV- Eqttipmem ~ 55
Figu rt ... 12. A chuJ, \'oh•t is
ro~uJa:ti'd to tilt' rorrh ami dt~ IH>Se
to en..turc tlrat OX\):/'11 tllltl fX·t!fylmt'
j/£M• only toward 1/re wrr:h.

REVERSE ACETYLENE
OW STOPPED

SPRING

!..-·
ACETYLENE
TO TORCH
VALVE
DISK

Oxygen and Acetylene Hoses

Nt:Vt."r inl~rdumg~ /u the United Statt!S, green (OA)"gtm) and

I oxygrn ami acetylene

lm.tes. A\·oid drlJ,CUting
tlrem m·er gretM)'
/111013.
A special nonporous hose is used for
welding. To prevent the hoses from be-
ing misconnected. the oxygen hose is
red (acetylene} tire tire ,ttandnrd colorJ'
usedfor /r()ses.ln EJrrope. b/Jre is u.sed for
oxygen hoses and oraflge for ucer)'lt!lle
lrosu. Some fXIriS of tire world tLJe black
always green in color and the acetylene oxyge11 hnst~s.
hose is red. Hoses must be properly
marked because if oxygen were lO
pass through a hose that had previously
comained acetylene. a dangerous com-
bustible mixture might result.
A standard connection is used to
attach the hose to the regulator and
torch. The connection consists of a
NOTCH
ACETYLENE
~
nipple that is forced into the hose and
r RtGHT·HAND
a nut that connects the nipple to the / THREAD / NIPPLE

~EN...._
regulator and the torch. The acety-
lene nut ca n be distinguished from
the oxygen nUL by tbe notch that runs
around the center, indicating a
left-hand thread. See Figure 4-13. A
clamp i s used to squeeze the hose Figure 4·13. Tfrc mn 011 Jltt aan·ft,~ Nmmxtion
/rtu (/ 11()/c/t t/Wt fliiiS dfQIIIJI/ Jht <"C'"Itr.
around the nipple to prevent it from
Ji.'flinxuislli,rg it {tom tit~ ""' mt thr O.\ ygcu
working loose. cmwtctimr.

56 €)o Weltliux Skills

Care of Welding Hoses. All hose con-
nections must be tight. The connections
should be tightened with a close-titling
wrench to prevent damage to the nuts.
Do not drag the hose across a greasy
floor, as grease or oi l can even tuall y
soak into, and erode, the hose. The
hose should not be pulled around sharp
objecL~ \lr across hot metal, and should
be positioned so that it cannot be
stepped on or damaged. When weld-
ing bas been completed. the hose
should be rolled up and suspended so
that it will not drop to the tloor. Also
note these additional precautions:
All new hose is dusted with talcum
powder inside. The powder should
be blown out with <lry air before
first use.
• Long lengths of hose tend to kink.
Usc the shortest length of hose to
properly service the shop.
Do not try to repair a leaking hose,
replace it with a new hose assembly.
Spark lighters
A sparklighter, or striker. is a tool used
for igniting the torch. See Figure 4-14.
A sparklighter should always be used
to light a torch. Never lliSe matches or
lighters to light a torch because the puff
of the name produced lby the ignition
of tl1e acetylene flowing from the Lip is
likely to burn the skin.
CSA8 ":pJhJKa111l c.,,,,'W I'N<t.·h
Hgurc 4-14. A -"Jil1rl.lig/uer i_t idrtl for t;gJuin,g o rordt.
Goggles
An oxyacetylene name produces
intense Light and heat rays that may
destroy eye tissue if the eyes are not
properly shielded. Goggles that have a
1\~nr proper gos..~tes
suitable approved colored glass shou ld
011d li/!Jer t>~rsollOI
always be worn. The density of the col- prmrcm't! l!lflllpmen1.
ored lenses should be such that drunag-
ing light and heat rays are not allowed
to pass through to the welder.
For most oxyfuel welding, goggles
with shade numbers of 4, 5, and 6 ru·e
recommended. Goggles also protect the
eyes from flying sparks and pieces or
molten metal (spatter). See Figure 4-15.
The American Welding Society CAWS)
produces standards for eye protection
that have additional in formation on
the correct shielding for each weld ing
operation.
Protective Clothing
An apron. shop coat. or coveralls should
always be worn when welding with
oxyacetylene equipment. Sparks com-
monly shoot away from the molten
metal and. unless suitable covering is
worn, will burn holes in clothes. Sparks
that burn through clothes may a lso
burn the skin. Under no c ircumstances
shou ld flammab le garments be worn
when welding. A small spark that falls Ne••er liglu " sordr
on flammable garment~ may burst into
a rapidly spreading flame. A welding
cap should also be worn to prevent bot
I wilh tl
lighter.
march or cJ
metal particles from falling on the hair.
A pair of lightweight gloves should
be worn to prevent burns. Occasionally
the hot end of filler metal or a piece of
metal that has been set down to cool is
picked up by mistake, and without gloves,
serious burns may result.
OTHER WELDING GASES
Although acetylene is commonly used
for cenain types of welding, other gases
may be used. The most common of
these are methylacetylene-propadiene
stabilized. more commonly known as
MAPP gas. and hydrogen. The princi-
I
pal difference between these gases and Ne\·er use air bltJWII
tlurmgh the tnn·h to
acetylene is in the propen.ies of the gas blow tlin ontl dust
used in the burning mixture: the weld- from clothing.
ing technique is the same.
OAW - Equipnumt ~ 57
Ji'it;urr 4-15. Gnggles willr lite
r('(X~tllllk'lllltd
sllnd<- mm1her sll(}ll/d TYPE OF
olwtJ):t bt worn {/uriiiR u•rlding. GAS WELDING PLATE THICKNESS
Gas Welding
Ugh! less than*"
Medium *"toW"
Heavy over * ...
Oxygen Cutting
Ught less than t•
Medium 1"'to6...
Heavy overs·
MAPP Gas
Acetylene produces a very high flame
temperature but is very unstable. MAPP
gas has many of the physical proper-
tics of acetylene, bu t lacks the shock
sensitivity of acetylene. MAPP gas is
the result of a rearrangemen t of the
molecular structures of acety lene and
propane. When the two gases are com-
bined, their molecular s tructure is
changed and a very stable fuel results.
with a llame temperature nearly com-
parable to acetylene.
Although propane itself is very
stable. its low name temperature limits
its capabi lities for weldi ng. MAPP
gases can be used for weld ing if the
fuel-to-oxygen ratio is increased to
raise llhe temperature of the flame.
Deoxidized filler metal must also be
used to ensure a sound weld when us-
ing MAPP gas for welding.
Generally, a slighlly larger welding
tip is required with MAPP gas because
of its greater gas density and slower
flame propagation rate. The only sig-
nificant difference is in the flame ap-
pearance. A neutra I flame for welding
will have a longer inner cone than with
oxyacetylene gas.
58 ~ Welding Skills
SHADE NUMBER
4 orS
5or6
6or8
3or4
4or5
5or6
Since MAPP gas is not sensitive to
shock, it can be stored and sh ipped in
light er cylinders. Because acetylene
must be stored in cyli nders fi lled with
a porous filler material saturated with
aceto ne. empty acety lene cy l inders
weigh about 220 lb. Empty MAPP cyl-
inders weigh only 50 lb. Normally, a
filled cylinder of acety lene weighs
240 lb while a filled cylinder of MAPP
gas weighs 120 lb.
Hydrogen
The combination of oxygen and hy-
drogen generates a low-temperature
flame used primari ly for welding thin
sections of metal, usually aluminum.
on which low temperatures are re-
quired. One of the unusual character-
istics of an oxyhydrogen flame is that
the flame is practically nonluminous.
Conseq uently, it is often difficult to
adjust for a neutral flame. To avoid
welding with an oxidizing flame, the
regulator s hould be adjusted for ao
accurate hydrogen flow before .adjust·
ing the oxygen. Oxyhydrogen weld-
ing is commonly used for underwater
welding as it can be used at hi gher
pressures than acety lene.
 I. Handle oxygen and acetylene cylinders with care. Never expose them to
excessive beat and prevent contact witb oil and grease.
2. Always hang up a torch when not in use to prevent it from dropping to the
floor and being bent or damaged.
3. Be sure the adj usting screw on a regulator is fuUy released before opening
a cylinder valve.
4. Do not lubricate the adjusting screw on a regulator with oil. Use soap or
glycerin.
5. Never interchange oxygen and acety lene hoses. Avoid dragging them over
greasy floors.
6. Wear proper goggles and other personal protective equipment.
7. Never light a torch with a match or a lighter.
8. Never usc air blown through the torch to blow dirt and dust from clothing.

I. What safety devices are used to prevent cyl inders from exploding when subjected to inte.nse
pressure?
2. What is the pu rpose of the protector cap on a cylinder?
3. How much should the cy linder valve be opened on an acety lene cylinder? On the oxygen
cylinder?
4. Why is it dangerous to allow grease or oil to come in contact with the oxygen cylinder valve?
5. What is the function of the needle valves on a welding torch?
6. Why are the oxygen and acetylene hose fillings made with differem screw threads?
7. How is the size ot a welding tip indicated"!
8. What could happen if pliers are used when removing welding tips?
9. What is a tip cleaner? When and why should it be used?
I0. What is a two-stage pressure regulator?
I I. What precautions should be observed in handling a pressure regulator?
12. Why is it dangerous ro light a torch with a match or a lighter?
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using MAPP gas?
14. Hydrogen is often used instead of ac.etylene for what operation?
15. What welding goggle shade numbers are common ly used for most oxyacetylene welding?
16. What type of protective clothing is commonly worn when oxyacetylene welding?
17. Name three ways of distinguishing oxygen hoses from acetylene hoses. Name three ways of
distinguishing oxygen fillings from acetylene fittings.
18. Who is responsible for repairing a damaged regulator?
19. How are oxygen and acetylene cylinders moved safely?

OAW- Equipmenr ~ 59
60 ~ Welding Skills
The welding apparatus must be correctly assembled by the welder to ensure safe operation. A certain
sequence must be followed in assembling the welding appara/lls to ensure a proper and safe connection.
Once the apparatus is assembled, the torch can be lit and adjusted .for the required welding pressure.

Oxygen and acetylene cylinders must be safely stored when not in use. When stored, cylinders must be
chained in tm upright position, with the oxygen cylinders separated from the ace1ylene cylinders. When in
use. cylinders can be secured on a hand truck, chained to a secure object such as a bench in the shop. or
secured in position adjacent to a manifold system.

WELDING APPARATUS ASSEMBLY threads. Always use the proper size

Before assembling the welding appa-
ratus, cylinders must be securely fas-
tened to a hand truck or some fixed
obj ect where they arc to be located.
Remove the protec10r cap from each
cyl inder and exam ine the ou tlet
nozzles closel y. Make sure the con-
nection seat and screw threads are not
damaged. A damaged screw thread
may ruin the regulator nut. while a poor
connect ion seat causes the gas to leak.
See Figure 5-1. To assemble a we ld-
ing apparatus follow the procedure:
I. Crack the cylinder valves to re-
move foreign matter. Panicles of
dirt can collect in the outlet nozzle
of the cylinder va l ve. Wipe out
the connection scat with a clean
cloth. If not cleaned out. tbe dirt
can work into the regu lator when
the pressure is turned ON.
2. Connect oxygen regula tor and
hose. Connect the oxygen regu-
lator to the oxygen cylinder and
the oxygen hose to the oxygen
regulator. Usc a wrench 10 tighten
the nuts and avoid stripping the
wrench to tighten the nuts; a
l oose-fitting wrench will evenlll- Cyllnfll!YS mu:u be
ally wear the corners of the regu- properly secured w
pre1·~·111 tfttmfiJ!.e and
1ator nuts.
possible injttl';\'·
3. Connect the acetylene regu lator
and hose. Connect the acetylene
regulator to the acetylene cy linder
and the acetylene hose to the
acetylene regulatOr.
4. Purge hoses. Check the adjusting
screw on each regu lator to ensure
that it is released. then open the cyl-
inder valves. Blow out any din that
may be lodged i n the hoses by
opening the regulator adjustin g
screws. Open i ng the adjusting
screws stightl y will also purge the
hoses of any residual gases .
Promptly close the regulator ad-
justing screws.
5. Connect check valves and hoses
to torch. To prevent the reverse
flow of ga~es that would result in a
combustible mixture in the welding
hose, check valves are mounted to
the welding torch. Under normal
conditions. gases flow toward the
weld ing torch.

6J
Figure S· l. Tlte b't!/dtng appora·
tus m11st bt! prnp·erly ll.t~embltll to Welding Apparatus Assembly
t:mmrc pro~r aru/ .wl[~ OJHrlllion Frgure 5- 1
Juring wehlm:~.

~
Poimlhe \'alve outle1
110:;)~ a..-ay befor~
~- t'rtrddllt; the cyliflller.

f.\ CRACK CYLINDER VALVE AND {.;\ ATIACH OXYGEN REGULATOR

\.VCLOSE \.V AND HOSE

{.;\ ATIACH ACETYLENE REGULATOR

\.VANO HOSE 0 PURGE HOSES

VALVE

f?\ CONNECT CHECK VALVES AND

\V HOSES TO TORCH ® TEST FOR LEAKS

62 ~ Welding Skills
 Any condition that might cause a To check for leakage in the weld-

I
Peruxllcalh• lfSt the
reverse flow of g~ will close the ing hose. adjust the regulators to work- weltlir~g uPJmraws
valve. Check valves should be left ing pressure. Submerge the hose in clean, for leah. Uu mop)•
in place oo the torch when the clear water. Check for any bubbles u:at~r only.

hose is detached. indicating a leak. On sections of weld-

Connect the hoses to the check ing hose tha t cannot be submerged,
va lves mounted on the torch. The brush on soa py water and c heck for
red hose is connected to the ace- bubbles. We lding hoses shou ld be
tylene check valve mounted on the routinely inspected for cuts and worn
needle valve fitting marked AC. areas that could eventually leak.
The green hose is connected to the
check valve mounted on the
needle valve filling marked OX.
Acetylene hose connec tions a l-
ways have left-hand threads as
indicated by the notched nut, and
oxygen hose connections have
right-hand threads.
6. Test for leaks. All new welding ap-
paratus must be tested for leaks be-
fore being operated. It is advisable
to periodically test apparatus .i n
service to ensure that no leakage
has developed. A leaky apparatus
is very dangerous as leaking gas
may be exposed to a spark and
develop into a fire. Additionally.
Using the rotYN:I si~ n~lding lip prvt·ld~s wffidrtrt IJtwt to melt tht' boJc m~mlfor th«
leaks mean that gas is wasted.
reqttirt"ll ·wt'ldbrg proccs.s.
To test for leaks. open the oxygen
and acetylene cylinder valves and, with
the need le valves on the torc h c losed, Selecting Welding Tips
71re u+eli/ing tip size
adjust the regulators to approximately i.f tletennined hy the
normal working pressure. Apply The size of the welding tip used de- t/oick11eS< <if metnl
soapy water with a brush on the fol- pends on the thickness of metal to be welded.
lowing points: welded. If very light sheet metal is to
be welded, a tip with a small opening
A-Oxygen cylinder valve is used. while a large-sized tip is
B- Acetylene cylinder valve needed for thick metal.
C-Oxygen regulator in let connection A numbering system is used to
D- Acetylene regu lator inlet connection identify tip sizes. The number system
E- ll ose connections at the regulators ranges from 000 to 15, with the most
and torch common tip sizes between 000 and
F- Oxygen and acetylene needle valves 10. See Figure 5-2. Witb this system,
Inspect each point carefully. Any the higher the number, the larger the
noises. such as a hissing sound or bub- tip diameter.
bles, are an indication or leakage. If a The correct welding tip must be used .A CAUnON
leak is detected at a con nection, use with the proper working pressure. If too
If 1/terc is ll SlliifJI!t' tt.!d /Nrk
a wrench to properly tighten the fit- small a tip is used, the heat wi ll nm be ;, a t•ylim/er. nUHif the
ting. If tightening does not remedy sufficient to fuse the metal to the proper cylinder Otll ~ of-tloor.t mvay
the leak, shut the gas pressure OFF, depth. When the welding tip is too from possible sourrrf of
ignil iOtl mul noti/'J til~
open the connections. and examine large. the heat is too great and burns supplit!r immt'dlatt/).
the screw threads. holes in the metal.
OA IV - Setup & Operation ~ 63
Figure 5·2. 111~ ,\'iZI' of the w~h/ing
tip i.f dt'tt>rmimtd by til~ 11/idm~s.t
of mt'lill Wt'ltlr•tl. Tlrt' prupu lit'
~iu am/ working l'~.strJr,. tttuSI
bt. st'lt't:U'd lo pr<w;dc tl quality
*'t'ld.
MEDIUM

DIA$-
METER::=~~·=:t·i:l:,::;:;:!!F;::;::_i:JCC:{Bott~~~
NOTE: TIPS
ENLARGED
0' SMALL
DIAMETER

Thid<ness up to
of
Ito

2 3 4 5 6 7 7 71!> 9

2 3 4 5 6 7 7 7~ 9

.......
A sati sfactory weld must have the
tight amount of penetrdtion and smooth,
even, overlapping ripples. Unless con-
di tions are optimized, it is impossible
for the torch to funct ion th e way it
should, and a poor weld will result. En-
sure that the apparatus, including the
hoses, regulmors. check valves, torch.
and welding tip arc properly connected
before lighting the torch.

Staud to on(' sit/e
httfm·e otuming a
cylimler ~~ah•e
be .surt• tire regula·
/()r adjusting screw
is fully rtleasttl.
64 :€): Welding Skills
lighting Torches
I . Select the correct welding tip size
lo r the metal to be welded and con-
nect it to the torch.
2. Stand to one side and open the
1-lgurc S-3. Sumd 10 01re sitle oflil4 rt'Jlu/mor when
oxygen and acetylene cylinder
Of~ni"g a c-yllndu \'lll~·~.
va l ves slow ly. See Figure 5-3.
Open the acetylene cyl inder valve
approximatel y one complete turn
amJ O!Jt'll tlrc:: uxygc::u val ve:: all the
way. Do not face the regulator
when opening the cy linder valve.
Oxygen and acetylene are stored
under high pressure. If the gas is
permitted to come against the
regulator suddenly, it may cause
damage to the equipment. In ad-
mtd dition, a defect in the regulator may
cause the gas to blow through, shat-
tering the glass and causing injury
to the welder.
3. Set the working press ure of the
oxygen and acetylene regulator
adjusting val ves to correspond to
the required working pressure of
the welding ti p being used.
4 . Turn the acetylene needle val ve
on the torch approximately one-
half turn.
5. With the spark lighter held about
I " away rrom the end of the weld-
in g ti p. ignite the acetylene as it
leaves the tip. Adjust the acetylene
until the smoke di sa ppears. See
Figure S-4.
 When igniting a torch. keep the tip
of the torch facing downward. Light-
ing the torch while it is facing outward
or upward could cause injury to work-
ers nearby.
Figure 5·4, Hole/ the sparJ.Iigllt~r (lppm:cinwte(\' I"
frtmr tilt tip "'hen UgJu;,tg thr tori•lt.
Adjusting the Welding Flame
With the acetylene ignited, gradually
open the oxygen needle va lve until a
well-defined white cone appears near
!he tip surrounded by a second, bluish
cone that is faint ly lum inous. This is
known as a neutral flame becau~e there
is an approximate o ne-to-one mixture
of acetylene and oxygen, which results
in a name that is chemically neutral.
A neurral flame is a flame that has
neither oxidizing nor carburizing
characteristics. The brilliant white cone
should be approximately '/ •s" to %"
long. depending on the welding tip size.
See Figure 5-5. A neutral name is used
for most welding operations.
Any variation from the one-to-one
oxygen-acetylene mixlUre will alter the
flame c haracteris ti cs. Wh e n excess
oxygen is forced into the oxyacetylene
mix rure, the resu lting flame is said to
be oxidizing. An oxidizing }lame is a
name in which there is an excess of
oxygen. The oxygen-rich zone extends
around and beyond the cone. An oxi-
dizing flame resembles the neutral
name s li ghtly. but has an inner cone
that is shorter and more pointed with
an almost purple color rather than bril -
liant white. It is sometimes used for
brazin g.
Figure 5·5. Wit It tltt' u t,·t·tylr n~
burning, gradual/.~ op en tlrr
UX.\'gen 11eeJie \'OI I't ta ()/Jiaill (I
llt utral flame.
If the oxyacetylene mixture con - A WARNING
sists of a slight excess of acetylene. Nc\'t:r use :J match to light a
the flame is carburizing. or reducing. ta<ch. This proc<durc brinss
A carburizing }lame is a reducing the fingers too close to 1hc tip
and the MKidcn igJlition Of the
flame in which there is an excess of acetyJene is likely to bum them.
fuel gas. The carbon-rich zone extends
around and beyond the cone. This
flame can be easily identified by the
existence of three tlamc zones instead
of the usual two fou nd in the neutral
flame. The end of the bri ll iant white
cone is no longer as well defined, and
it is surrounded by an intermediate
white cone, which has a feathery edge
in addiLion to !he usual bluish outer en-
velope. See Figure 5-6.
Figure 5·6. All oxitlitillg flomt+ If
tit~ re.,•u/t of au ucr.._o;.<; of O.t)'8~"
m tltl<' mL\IIlrt>. A ..ught e.rc:es.f cif
m:etyltrt~ l'roducts a Ctlrlmri:.mg
flame.
Adjust rlre torch to
tlsoft.nelllrtJ/jlame
f(Jr h'eltlinR 1mle.vs
the t.'J>e ofmewll>e·
iug welded requin'S
a differem typr of
flame.
OAIV - Setup & Operation ~ 65

Flam e Ch aracteristics. A flame may
be harsh or quiet. A harsh flame is
produced by too much pressure of both
gases to the welding lip. A harsh flame
is undesirable, since it has a tendency
to depress the mollen surface and cause
the metal to spatter around the edges
of the weld pool. A harsh flame is
noisy and makes it extremely difficull
to achieve complete fusion with
smooth. uniform ripples.
Prevell/ conditions
I that mal' cause tt
b<tckfire ~rflashback.
A quiet flame is just the opposite of a
harsh flame and is achieved by the cor-
rect pressure of gases flowing to the tip.
The flame is not a harsh, noisy flame but
one that perm its a continuous flow of
the weld pool without any undue spatter.
To ensure a soft, quiet, neutral tlame,
the welding tip must be clean and the
correct oxyacetylene mixture used. Even
with the proper proportion of acetylene
and oxygen, a good weld is difficult to
achieve unless the opening in the tip al-
lows a free flow of gases. Any for-
eign matter in the welding tip restricts
the heat necessary to melt the metal.
Flame Control. As welding progresse.~,
the flame cone should be observed to
ensure that the mixture remains con-
sistent. Changes in the flame occur as a
result of slight fluctuations in the flow of
the gases from the regu lators. A slight
Keep the pttssogl! i11
I tht• ,,·elding tifJ clean
mul flmvillgfreely.
adjustment to either the oxygen or the
acetylene will readjust the flame.
During welding, the torch may oc-
cas iona lly ''pop.'' Popping is an ind i-
cat ion that there is an insufficient
amount of gases flowing to the weld-
ing tip. Popping can be stopped by
further opening both the oxygen and
acetylene needle valves on the torch.
Another cause of popping is overheat-
ing of the weld pool by lingering, or
keeping the flame too long in one po-
sit io n and not melting enough filler
metal into the weld pool.
Backfire and Flashback. When the
flame goes out with a loud pop. it is
called a backfire. A backfire is a quick
recession of the flame into the welding
tip. typically followed by extinction of
the name.
66 :@ Welding Skills
I
A backfire may be caused by op-
erating the torch at lower pressures
than required for the welding tip
used: touching the welding tip against
the work; overheating the welding tip;
or by an obstruction in the welding tip.
If a backfire occurs, shut the needle
valves and, a fter remedying the cause,
relight the torch.
A flashback is a recession of the
flame into or back of the mixing cham-
ber in a flame torch or flame spray
torch. A flashback flashes quickly into
the torch and bums inside with a shrill
hissing or squealing noise. If a flash-
back occurs, close the needle valves
immediately. A flashback generally is
an indication that something is wrong.
A welding tip may be clogged, the
needle valves may be functionjng
improperly. or the acetylene or oxy-
gen pressure may be incorrect. The
malfunction must be corrected and
damaged equipment replaced before
rel igh ti ng the torch.
Shutting Off Torches
When welding is completed, the torch
must be properly shut off. After the
torch is shut off. it must be stored prop-
erly. The hoses must be removed from
the cylinders and hung out of the way.
Protector caps must be screwed on to
the cylinders to protect the handwheels
and valves. Cyl inders must be chained
and stored safely. Following is the cor-
rect sequence of steps for sbuui ng off
a torch:
I. Close the oxygen needle valve.
2. Close the acetylene needle valve.
3. If the entire welding unit is to be
shut down, shut off both the acety-
le ne and the oxygen cy linder
va lves.
4. Open the need le val ves until the
lines are drained to remove pres-
sure from the working pressure
gauges. Then promptly close the
needle valves.
5. Release the adjusting screws on
the pressure regu lators.
 I. Cylinders must be properly secured LO prevent damage and possible injury.
2. Point the valve outlet nozzle away before cracking the cylinder.
3. Periodically test the weld ing apparatus for leaks. Use soapy water only.
4. The welding tip size is detenn ined by the thick.ness of metal welded.
5. Stand to one side before opening a cylinder valve and be sure the regulator adjusting screw
is fully released.
6. Adjust the torch to a soft, neutral flame for welding unless the type of meta l being welded
requires a different type of flame.
7. Prevent conditions that may cause a backfi re or flashback.
8. Keep the passage in the welding tip clean and flowing freely.

~ Exercises

Testing the Flames

•••••••••••••••••••••••••
The characteristics of the carburizing and oxidizing flames must be understood for cor-
rect adjustment of the neutral flame. To become familiar with the effects of the various
flames, complete the following exercise:

I. Obtain a piece of scrap metal. short and the color changes to a

Light the acetylene and tum on the
oxygen unti l a white cone appears
on the end of the welding tip envel-
oped by another fan-shaped cone
that has a feathered edge.
2. While wearing goggles, apply the
carburizing flame to the metal,
holding the po int of the white
cone close to the metal. Notice that
as the metal melts, it has a ten-
dency to boil. This is an indica-
tic n that carbon is entering the
mol ten metal. After the metal has
cooled, the surface will be pitted
and very brittle.
3. Open the oxygen needle valve com-
pletely. The white cone becomes
purplish hue. The flame burns with
a roar.
4. Apply the oxidizing flame to the
piece of metal, aUowing the cone
to come in contact with the sur-
face. As the metal melts, n u mer-
ous sparks are given off and a
whjte foam forms on the surface.
After the piece cools, the metal
will be shiny.
5. Adj ust the needle valve until the
flame is balanced. Apply the neu-
tral flame to the piece of metal. The
molten metal flows smoothly, with
very few sparks.

OAW - Semp & Operation ~ 67

 I . Why should cylinders be securely fastened before being used·?
2. Why should the cylinder outlet novJes be examined closely?
3. What is the proper order for setting up the welding appanuus?
4. Why are check valves used?
5. What is tl1e proper metl10d of testing for gas leaks?
6. What governs the size of the welding tip that should be used?
7. Describe the process for lighting and adjusting the flame for a cutting torch.
8. How far should the acetylene needle valve be opened when lighting the torch?
9. What i; an oxidizing flame?
10. What is a carburizing flame?
II. What is the difference between a neutral name and a carburizing flame?
12. What are the characteristics of a neutral flame?
13. What is the difference between a harsh name and a quiet name?
14. What are some of the conditions tl1at may cause a backtire?
15. What is meant by a flashback when one is using an oxyacetylene torch?
16. Why are hoses purged after being connected to the regulators?
17. Why shou ld the welder stand to one side when opening cyl inder valves?
18. What is the last step done to the regulatOr when sbuuin g off the torch?
19. What kind of mixture of oxygen and acetylene is requ ired to achieve a neutral tlamc?
20. What happens when an ox idizing name is used to melt the metal?

68 ~ Welding Skills
Welding with an oxyacetylene torch requires practicing a series of operations in a prescribed ordet:
These operations involve carrying a weld pool, deptJsiting a weld bead wilh .filler mewl, (Ill(/ weld-
ing various types ofjoims. In flea position welding, Jhe torch and fi ller metal are lteldwith. tlte weld
joint in the f7at position.

CARRYING A WELD POOL Positioning and Moving the Torch

Before performing welding operations,
beginni ng welders should learn the
proper techn ique fo r forming and
main taining a uniform weld bead. A
cons istent we ld bead can be formed
and maintained using an oxyacetylene
torch to create and carry a weld pool.
The weld pool must be ca rried along
the j oint at a co nsi stent width and
depth. How Lhe torch is held. the torch
position in relation to the joint, and the
motion used to carry the weld pool
have a direc'l effect on the quality of
the weld bead.
The torch should be held so that the
name points in the direction of weJ<.l-
ing and at an angle of about 45° to
the weld j oint. If ri ght-hande<.l, start
the weld at the right edge of the metal.
The l eft -handed welder shou ld start
welding at the left edge of the metal,
working in the reverse direction. See
Figure 6-2.
l•'igure 6·2. To uuwe tile welt/ pwl
atTffS.~lht• wQrkpil'(:4', hafll t/w
wrd1 at a 45o (mgle rwd muuiptt·
/me if iu a c:irc:ular m miou.

Holding the Torch

A torch should be held like a hammer,
with the fi ngers lightly curled under-
neath the torch. See Figure 6- 1. To pre-
ven t fatigue, the torch should balance
easily in the hand.

LEFT-HANDED WELDER

Figure 6-1. \VIum weltling light-gauge mef(l/ in }1111 RIGHT-HANDED WELDER

(HJSitiOII, grasp lfrt! latch like u lumrmtN:

69
 Bring the inner cone of the neu-
Move rlre ron:!Jju.st
tral flame to within W' of the surface
ftw enou~:h to kup
tire weld pool ac:- of the workpiece. Hold the torch still
tivt! ami flowing until a molten weld pool form~. then
font'ard. move the weld pool across the work-
piece. As the weld pool travels for-
ward, rotate the torch in a circular
pattern to form a series of overlap-
ping ovals.
Do not move the torch ahead of
the weld pool. bu t s lowly work for-
ward, giving the heat a chance to melt
the metal. If the flame is moved for-
ward too rapidly, the heat fails to pen-
~
U.'fe filler ml!lal with
a dimm:ter equal to etrate far enough into the metal and
~- 1he thickn~.<rs oflhe
baJ·e mi!UIL
the metal does not melt sufficiently. ]f
the torch is kept in one position too
long , the flame will burn a hole
through the metal.
ADDING FILLER METAL
On some joints, it is possible to weld
two workpieces without adding filler
me ta l. For mos t weldi ng jobs,
however. filler metal is adv isable
because it builds up the weld, adding
strength to the joint The strength of a
weld depends largely on tbe skill with
which the filler metal is blended, or
interfused, with the edges of the base
metal.
The use of filler metal requires co-
ordination of both hands. One hand
must manipulate the torch to carry the
we ld pool across the plate, while the
other hand must add the correct amount
of filler metal.
Some welding applications may re-
q ui re that flux be added to the weld
with the filler metaL Flux is a material
that hinders or prevents the formation
of oxides and other undesirable sub-
stances in molten metal. Flux also dis-
solves or facilitates the removal of un-
desirable s ubstances and is used to
help clean the base metaL
Selecting Filler Metal
A welded joint should possess as much
strength as the base meta l itself. To
ach ieve the requ ired strength, it is
70 ~ Weldiug Skills
necessary to use filler metal that has
the same properties as the base metal.
Inferior filler metals may contain im-
purities that make them difficult to use
and that create a weak or brittle weld.
A good filler metal flows smoothly and
readily unites with the base metal with-
out excessive sparking.
A poor quali ty filler metal sparks
profusely, flows irregu larly, and leaves
a rough surface filled with punctures,
like pinholes.
Filler metals come in a variety of sizes
ranging from 1/ts" to %" in diameter. The
size filler metal to use depends Largely
on the thickness of the base metal. The
general rule is to use filler metal with a
diameter equal to the thickness of the
base metal. For example, if a Y\s" thick
metal is to be welded. a 1/Js" diameter
tiller metal should be used.
Many types of filler metal are avail-
able for weld ing a variety of metals.
For example, a mild (low-carbon) steel
Iiller metal is used to weld cast iron, a
nickel filler metal for nickel steel, a
bronze filler metal for bronzing mal-
leable cast iron and other diss imilar
metals. an aluminum filler metal for
aluminum welding, or a copper filler
metal for copper products.
Manipulating Filler Metal
Hold the filler metal at approximately
the same angle as the torch but slanted
away from the torch. The filler metal
shou ld be moved at a consistent rate
and speed as it is fed into the weld
pooL See Figure 6-3.
Figure 6-3·. fhtld tilt torcll <md filltr metal at the
Slime angle <md mai11lflin u t·ous;stelll tr<wd angle
und feet/ .tpenl when oddi11g filler mel(l/ Ia the welt/.
 Melt a small pool of the base metal
and then insert the rip of the filler metal
into the weld pool. To ensure proper
fusion, the correct diamete r fi ll er
metal must be used.
If the filler metal is too large, the
beat of the weld pool will be insuffi -
cient to melt it. If the fi ller metal is
too small, the heat of the weld pool
can not be absorbed by the filler metal,
and a hole wi II be !burned in the
workpiece.
As the filler metal melts in the weld
pool, advance the torch forward. Con-
centrate the flame on the base metal
and not on the filler metal. Do not hold
the filler metal above the weld poo l,
as the molten metal will have to drip
down to the weld pool. When molten
metal falls, it combines with the oxy-
gen of the ai r and part of it buros up,
causing a weak, porous weld. Always
dip the filler metal in lbe center of the
weld poo l.
A beg inning welder may have
trouble holding the tiller metal steady,
which can cmtse the filler metal to stick
to the base metal. Instead of inserting
the filler metal in the middle of the
weld pool where the heat is sufficient
to melt it read il y, the beginn ing welder
may insert it near the edge of the weld
pool where the temperature is lower.
However. the heat at the edge may not
be hot enough to melt the filler metal.
lf the filler metal is not melted suffi-
ciently it may stick to the weld. Do not
try to jerk filler metal loose, since such
an action will sim ply interrupt the
welding. Instead, to loosen the filler
metal , play the flame directly on the
tip and the filler meta I will be loos-
ened. While the filler metal is being
freed, the weld pool w ill likely so-
lidify; therefore. the weld poo l must
be re-formed before moving forward.
Depositing Weld Beads
Rotate the torch to form overlapping
ovals, and keep ra ising and lowering
the filler meta l as the we ld poo l is
moved forward. Ad vance the weld
pool about 1/ts" wi th each complete
motion of the torch. An alternate torch
movement is a sem icircu lar motion.
See Figure 6-4. When the filler metal is
not in the weld pool, keep the tip just
inside the outer envelope of the flame.
Figure 6-4. Th<! tord• (;tW be
Torch Movement Patterns iu ll drnlft1r (Jr semidn:u-
Figure 6· 4
ttWl't!d
lar mmion when deJ)o.tiiiug beml.t
,·, flm pcs;,;on.
ADVANCE PER OVAL
·+m1-
CIRCULAR
ADVANCE PER
SEMICIRCLE ABOUT \-8• --1 Do •uJt itol<l tite
filler metal so itigit
1
ABOUT Yo"
above tite weldpool
that lire molten
I meltll tlrips onto
rite weld pool.
SEMICIRCULAR
Maintaining Travel Speed. To secu re
weld beads of unifom1 width and height,
keep the forward movement of the torch
consistent. Tf the travel speed is too
slow, the weld pool is carried forward
too slowly, it becomes too large, and
may burn through the metal. lf the
travel speed is too rapid, the filler metal
does not fuse thoroughly with the base
metal but merely sticks on the surface.
[t will also be impossible t.o form even
ripples.
When the weld pool appears to be
geuing too large, withdraw the flame
slightly so that only the outer envelope \VIum welding with
of the flame is touchi ng the weld pool. filler metal. move the
torch in a semicir~
Do not move the flame 10 one s ide, cular or circular
since such a movement allows <tir to mmion.
strike the hot metal, ox idizing the metal.
OAW- Flar Position ~ 71

Pigure: 6·5. 1i1r-k w~ld.f re:uric•t
e.fpwuicm fun·tw ;,, m~w/ thai i.f
to bt• wt'ldnl.
Wilen using progres·
sit·e ~11acing. tJIIOw <I
Spil(:e belh'ttm work-
pieces t(} compenstue
for e:qxuw·nn force.t
72 ~ Wel<ii11g Skills
WELDING BUTT JOINTS
Once the task of carrying a weld pool
across the surface of a workpiece while
adding filler metal is ma~tered. the next
task is to fuse two workpieces together
using a butt joint.
Tack Welds
Workpieces must be tacked at regu-
lar intervals before weld ing to main-
tain the root opening. See Figure 6-5.
To make a wck weld, apply the flame
to the workpiece until it melts and then
add filler metal.
Progressive spacing may be used to
allow for closing of the root opening.
Progressive spacing between the edges
of a seam is not commonly used, but
if it is specified, allow a gap of about
Vt6" at the starting end of the joint and
approximately W' at the other end. The
space permits the flame to melt the
edges all the way through to the bot-
tom of the workpieces, allowing for
complete fusion.
Butt Joint Defects
T he first few welds a beginning welder
makes may easily break. A beginning
welder should practice until a straight,
smooth weld that does not open when
bent can be made. Some common de-
fects that may occur when first learn-
ing to weld are:
• holes in the joint caused by hold-
ing the flame too long in one spot
a briule weld. resulting from im-
proper name adjustment during
welding or dripping tiller metal
excessive metal hanging under-
neath the weld, as the result of too
much penetration caused by mov-
ing the torch forward too slowly
insufficient penetration, caused
by moving the torch forward too
rapid l y
When penetration is correct. the un-
derside of the scam should show that
fusion has wken place completely
through the joint. See Figure 6-6.
Penetration of Filler Metal
Figure 6-6
CORRECT
PENETRATION~
'{UNDERSIDE
It OFJOtNT
,~
~
Figure 6·6. Wht'll pc-uc-tmtitm is ('Orrt•ct , complett'
f us ion it ~l'illt'IJI nn th' undtrsitl~ of tht joim.
• hole in the end of the joint. caused
by not lift i ng the torch when the
end of the weld has been reached
• uneven wel d bead. caused by mov-
ing the torch too slowly or too mpidly
Often. a joint appears to have the
correct penetration but still cracks open
when tested. Cracks may be caused by
one of several problems, such as:
• improper space allowances be-
tween the edges of the workpieces
filling tbe space between the
workpieces with molten filler
metal wi thout sufficientl y melting
the edges of the workpieces, wh ich
 resuhs in a poor bond between the
base metal and the filler metal
• holding the torch too !lat. causing
the weld pool to lap over an area
that has not been properly melted
WELDING OTHER JOINTS
When the ability to weld a con·ect butt
joint is mastered, other j oints may be
welded using techniques simi lar to
those used on the butt joint. A flange
joint is used a great deal in sheet metal
work. particu larly on material that is
20 gauge or less. The flange port ion
shou ld extend above the surface of the
sheet a d istance roughly equal to the
th ickness of the sheet.
A corner joint is used extensively
in fabricat ing products such as tanks
and vessels. as well as in repair work.
The edges are fused without fi ll er
metal, as in welding a flange joint.
A lap joint is formed when one
piece of metal is laid on top of another.
Carefu l control of the direction of heat
is needed for a lap j oim weld.
A T-joint is made by laying one
workpiece flat and stand ing the other
workpiece on top to form a T. The T-
joint requires a greater amount of
fill er metal than other joi nt~. Correct
filler metal usage is critical.
OAW - CAST IRON
Gray cast iron may be welded; how-
ever, extreme caution must be taken
to offset expans ion and contraction
forces. Since gray cast iron is brittle, it
is suscept ible to rapid temperatu re
changes (thermal shock), making pre-
heating and postheating necessary
when welding cast iron.
To maintain the g ray iron structu re
throughout the weld area, the weld must
be made with the correct f iller metal.
All weld parts must be cooled slowly.
Lf the casting is cooled too rapidly, the
weld area is li kely to turn into white
cast iron. mak ing the weld section
extreme ly brittle and so ha rd that ma-
chining may be impossible.
Preparing Edges
lfpossible. use car-
The edges of the casting should be l>oll hacking btlrs
beveled to a 90° groove angle. The V when weltling cast
should extend on ly to lfs" from the iron.
bottom of the break. Beveling makes
it easier to build up a sound weld near
the bottom and lessens the likelihood
of melt-through. Placing carbon back-
ing bars underneath the joint also helps
to prevent the molten cast iron from
running out the seam.
Precau tions must be taken to clean
the surfaces of the joint before weld-
Clca11 all welding
ing. The weld area should be cleaned surface,,· 111 /ea.w In
at least I" on both sides of the V or the mvmultlte seam rlmt
j oint if no gToove is made in the metal. is to be welded.
Improperly cleaned surfaces result in
poros ity in the weld, even if sufficient
flux is used.
Preheating and Postheating
When we ld ing cast i ron, the en ti re
casting must be preheated to a dull red.
~
Preheat Cttst ironto
Uniform preheating equa lizes expan- t1 dull red before
sion and contraction forces and min i- ~- we/(/iug.
mizes the possibi lity of cracks. On a
small section of cast iron, preheating
can be carried out by playing the tlmne
over the casting. A large casting may
have to be placed in a preheating fur-
nace. The temperatu re must be moni-
tored carefully on a heavy cast ing ,
especially if it has thin members. to pre-
vent overheating.
After we ld ing is completed,
postbeat the cast iron by bringing the
entire casti ng up to a uniform tempera-
~
Postltetlt cast iron
ture. Use the same techn iques as for a/ll•r the wrld i.~
pre heating the casting. ~- compleutcl am/then
allow it t(l cool
slow(~~
Filler Metal and Flux
A cast iron f iller metal that has the
same composition as the base metal
is used to weld cast iron. The cast iron
filler metal contains silicon to ensure
flowabili ty. Correct preheating and
postheat ing a llow for machinabi lity.
Using flux is also essent ial when
welding cast iron to keep the weld pool
fluid . Otherwise, infusib le slag mixes
with the iron oxide that forms on the
OAW - Flar Posiriau ~ 73
 weld pool. If infusible slag mixes wi th to become entrapped in the weld.
iron oxide, the weld will contain in- which leads to a greater likelihood of
clusions and porosity. corrosion.
When welding heavy aluminum
OAW- ALUMINUM plat e 3f ,s" to 3fs" thick, the edges
Although the gas sh ielded arc weld- should be beveled to form a 90° to
ing processes (GTAW and GMAW) 100° V. AU ow a '!Is" to W' notched root
are the mos t practical for we lding face. Aluminum that is greater than o/s"
commercially pure aluminum , oxy- thick should be prepared as a double- V
acety le ne welding is occas io nally butt joint with a notched root face. The
used. lf oxyacetylene we lding must edges should be beveled to form a 100•
be used o n aluminum, care must be to 120° V. See Figure 6-7.
taken not to overheat the a lu minum. As a rule, the lap joint is not recom-
weakening the metal. mended for aluminum welding because
The following considerat ions must flux and oxide may become trapped
be kept in mind when welding alumi- between the su rfaces of the j oin t,
num with an oxyfuel process: causing the aluminum to corrode.
• A luminum has a relatively low
• CAUTION melting poin t compared to other
Aluminum Joint Design
Figure 6 -7
The fl3me should never metals. Pure aluminum melts at
be pcmtiued lQ come in
contact with lhe weld 122o°F (660°C). NOTCHES
TO :Yo(" APART
y,.·
pool. The therma l conductivity of alu-
minum is hig h- almost four times
that of steel.
• Aluminum colla pses sudd enly
into liquid when heaLed. Since it is
li ght in color. there is practically
no indication when the melting ALUMINUM PLATE
point is reached . (V16' TO 'Ylo")
• Molten aluminum ox idi zes ve ry
- i rTo1oo·
rapidly. A heavy coating forms on
the surface of the seam, which ne-
cessitates the use of a good flux.
• Aluminum is very flimsy and weak
when hot. Care must be taken to sup-
port it adequately during welding.
• Aluminum welds shou ld be made
in a sing le pass if possible. ALUMINUM PLATE
(31,•" TO %")
Joint Designs
In general, the same principles of joint
design for welding steel apply to alu-
minum. Aluminum from 1/1s" to 3f,s"
thick can be welded using a butt joint.
provided the edges are no tched with a
saw or chisel. Notching minimizes the
possibility of burning holes through the DOUBLE-V JOINT
joint. pennits full penetration. and pre- HEAVY ALUMINUM PLATE
vents local distortion. Permanent {OVER >Je}
backi ngs and fillet welded lap joints
f'igure 6-7. AlumiiiUJIJ joim <lesigll is suuiiM 10 tlwl
shou ld not be used when we lding for most allu•r metnf..t. 'IJJt' ungle.s, n(Jtt:lws, anti jltmges
alum inum as they may cause the flux art tltpcmltnt ou tltf: thickness of the aluminum.

74 @o Welding Skills
Using Flux
The edges o f a lum inum to be welded
must be thoroughly clean. All grease,
oi l, and di rt must be removed with an
appropriate solvent or by rubbing the
surface with steel wool or a wi re brush.
S ince alum inum oxidizes rapid ly,
a layer of flux must be used to en -
sure a sound weld. Flux is sold as a
powder. which can be mixed with
water to the consistency of a thin
paste (approximately two parts flux
to one part water). If filler metal is
not requi red , the flux is appl ied to
the joint by means of a brush.
When filler metal is used. it is
coated with flux by first heating the
filler meta l and then dipping it into
the flux.
On thick sections of metal. it is ad-
visable to coat the base metal as well
as the filler meta l to ensure complete
fusion. When weld ing is complete,
all traces of flux must be washed
away. Flux that remains on the weld
can cause corrosion. Flux is removed
by washing the workpiece in hot
water or by immersing in a 10% cold
solution of sulfuric acid, followed by
rinsing in hot or cold water.
Selecting Filler Metal
The proper filler metal must be used
when welding aluminum. The filler
metal composition should be compa-
rable to that of the aluminum to be
welded. The three most common filler
metals for welding nonheat-treatable
aluminum are I I 00, 4043, and 5356.
The 4043 and the 5356 filler metals
are recommended when greater strength
is required.
Fill er metals are available in Vts",
Ys", o/16", and \4'' diameters. GeneraiJ y,
a filler meta I whose diameter equals
the tbickness of the aluminum to be
welded should be used.
Preheating. All aluminum to be
welded, inc lud ing thin sheet, should
be preheated to minim ize the effects
of expansion and cracki11g. Aluminum
%" thick or more should be preheated
to a temperature of 300°F (149°C) to Always ust! the rec-
0111111<'/lded flt<x tmd
500°P (260°C). Preheating to these tem- filler metal when
peratures can usually be done by play- welding.
ing the flame of the oxyacetyleLle torch
over the work. For large or complicated
parts, preheating is done in a furnace.
The preheating temperature must
When u:eftlirt.g ttluuu'·
not exceed 500°P (260°C). lf the
num, keep the prehetu
temperature rises above 500°P, the al- ; temperawre lu•lmv
loy may be weakened or the aluminum 500"F (2fffC).
may collapse under its own weight.
The correc t preheating temperature
may be determined with a temperature-
indicating crayon or by one of the fol-
lowing methods:
• A mark made on the metal with a
carpenter's bl ue chalk wi II turn
wh ite.
• A p ioe stick rubbed on the metal
wi U leave a char mark.
• No metal lic ringing sound is heard if
the metal is st111ck with a hammer.
Selecting Torches
Since aluminum bas high thermal con-
\Vhe" welding ftlumi-
ductivity, a welding tip slightly larger
mmr, use a :.·lishtly
than one used for steel of the same thick- larger wei<iing tip
ness should be used. See Figure 6-8. than i.1 used for steel.
Many welders use bydrogen instead
of acetylene when weld ing aluminum,
and in many cases th is is preferable,
especially for welding light-gauge ma-
terial. In either case, the torch shou ld
be adjusted to a neutra l flame. Some
authorities recommend a s lightly re-
Use tm 1100. 4043,
ducing flame , but usually a neutral
or 5356.fillt?rmetal
flame is satisifactory for producing a for weMing alumi-
clean, sound we ld . Whether using mun.
acetylene or hydrogen, the flame
shou ld be adjusted to a low gas ve-
locity to permit a soft flame.
The torch angle has much to do with
weld ing speed. Instead of li fting the
flame from lime to time to avoid melt-
ing holes in the meta l, the weld ing
torch should be held at a flatter angle Use a IWUlral or
slightly reducing
to increase the welding speed. The flame for liJI (t/umi-
welding speed shou ld also be increased num weltling.
as the edge of the metal is approached.
OAW - Flo/ Position ~ 75
Figure 6·8. Tip orifk<' diamf'IU
se/rC"tiOn is bastd on tilt tlrick·
ti~~J iJf lilt alwnimmr 11~ IN wtldW.

CAW-STEEL V can have a 11iG" or Vs" square root

S1et!l thh:kttr than J.8"'

I slwulc/ be be•·e/ed be-

fore •reldi111:.
Henvy steel is rarely welded with oxy-
acetylene un less other types of weld-
ing equipmen t are not available.
face (unbeveled) o r ha ve the edaes
feathered to a sharp point.
Some we lding jobs require both
0

Welding heavy steel with oxyacetylene
is much s lower and less cost-efficient
than other methods. Occasionally, it
may be necessary to use oxyacetylene
welding to weld or repair a structure.
When welding steel using OAW, main-
tain the proper oxygen and acetylene
pressures. See figure 6-9.
edges of the joim to be beve led to
form the 60° groove angl e, single- V
butt joint. More skill is required to
weld a si ngle- V bun joint in horizon-
tal position because there is not a re-
tainin g s helf for the bead as there is
on a single bevel bun joint.

Single-V Butt Joints

Complete penetration of the weld is
necessary to achieve maximum weld
strengt h. On steel Vs" thick or less.
complete penetration is reasonably
easy to achieve. On thicknesses over
'Is", penetration is not possible unless
the edges are beve led. Edges can be
beveled using a torch, a beveHng ma-
chine. or a grinder. v,.• TOW' ROOT FACE

For steel up to W' th ick, a single-V SINGLE-V BUTT JOINT

Whn1 usi11g a single·V

I bn'<'l on sJeei,thegrom-e
angle should b.- 60'.
bevel is s ufficient. A s ingle- V bevel
s hou ld have a groove ang le of 60• .
See Figure 6-10. The bottom of the
Figure 6.10. A shtglc·V lmlf johtl is ust'..Jjor h~avy
Slt'tl "I~ In
UJtglt.
*'"'
tlric;k, mtd rt<JUirt!l o 60• gmm•t

Figure 6·9. Wlwu wtltliug su·t'l

11.~iug OA~V. maitJim'n the pmpt>r
t':rygt•u fllld m:etyltm~ tn·ts,,·ures.

76 0 Welding Skills
 The angle of the filler metal must
be c hanged for each pass when weld-
ing a single-V butt joint. The number
of passes depends o n Lhe thickness of
!he metal and lhe filler metal diameter.
Sufficient penetration into each previ-
ous pass is necessary for complete fu-
s ion of the we ld. On wide joints. the
weld s hould be fin ished with a cover
pass .. A cover pass is made by using a
wide weav ing motion that covers the
entit·e area of the deposited beads.
Double-V Butt Joints
On heavy steel \12'' thick or more, welds
should be deposited on both sides of
the joint. To deposit a we ld on both
sides. a double-V bevel is required. See
Figure 6-1 I. A double-V bevel has a
1/ts"· or 1/ s" root face. A 60° g roove
angle is also required.
GROOVE ANGLE
THICKNESS
OF HEAVY
S TE/
I to e nsure complete penetration. The
MORE
y,•
y,..• TO 11" ROOT FACE
DOUBLE-V BUTI JOINT
Figurt 6-11. A dfn~bl~- V bull joint is r~~1uire.d whrn
u h't!l.d musl be depo.t;uu/ on bnlll ,\ itlc.'i qf a jninL
When depositing a weld in a
double- V j oint. the weld shou ld be
buill up in layers. It is difficu It to con-
tro l th e weld pool and secu re good
penetration by tryi ng to fi ll. the V in
one pass. Deposit one layer near the
bottom of the V on both sides of the
workpiece; then add successive layers
to till the V. Each successive pa~s must
011 stet! ~H tllick or
completely penetrate the previous
passes and the sides of the base metal.
The joint can be welded us ing fore-
I '!'ore. ~o 1101 jill the V
m a smgle tJll.fS. Usl~
se••eral passes.
hand or backhand welding. Forehand
welding is a we lding techniqu e in
which the torch is directed toward the
progress of welding.
Backhand Welding
~
Whe11 bocklumd weld-
Backhand welding is a welding ing. do nm swi"g thi•
[§J_ tmrlt: in.rteatl. mtwe
technique in which the torch is directed thefiller mew/.
opposite to the progress of welding.
The backhand technique for welding
heavy steel is s imilar to that used for
thin metal; however, the problems A tlouble· Vjoinl muM
associated with heavy steel welding are be used with .tteel *...,
rhil'k or IIUJrt'.
more co mpl icated. In backhand
welding. the weld is carried from left
to right (or right to left for a left-handed
pe rson).
When weld ing on heavy steel, close
attention must be paid to joim prepara-
tion and to lhe amount of heat required
llame is directed back toward lhe com-
pleted port ion of the weld, and the
Iiller metal is held between lhe tlanne
and the completed weld section.
The flame is directed on the edges
of the V ahead of the weld pool, so no
sideways torch motion is necessary. A
narrower V can be used with backhand
weld ing than wi th forehand we lding.
The weld pool is less lluicl in backhand
we ld ing, and the ripples are heavier
and spaced further apart.
OAW - Flat Position 0 77
•

[!fil•ll~if'J(•Ji~~~~~~!;J~i-

l. Move the torch just fast enough to keep the weld pool active and flowing forward.
2. Use filler metal with a diameter equal to the thickness of the base metal.
3. Do not hold the filler metal so high above the weld pool that the molten metal drips onto
the weld pool.
4. When welding with filler metal, move the torch in a semicircu lar or circu lar motion.
5. Allow a space between workpieces to compensate for expansion forces.
6. Tf possible, use carbon backing bars when welding cast iron.
7. Clean all welding surfaces at least I" around the seam that is to be welded.
8. Preheat cast iron to a dull red before welding.
9. Postheat cast iron after the weld is completed and then allow it to cool slowly.
I 0. Always usc the recommended flux and filler metal when welding.
II. Use an 1100. 4043. or 5356 filler metal for welding aluminum.
12. When welding aluminum. keep the preheat temperature below 500° F (260°C).
13. When welding aluminum. use a slightly larger welding tip than is used for steel.
14. Use a neutral or slightly reducing flame for all aluminum welding.
15. When using a single- V bevel on steel. the groove angle should be 6o•.
16. Steel thicker than 1/l(' shou ld be beveled before weldi ng.
17. On steel 1fl' thick or more. do not fill the V in a single pass. Use several passes.
18. When backhand welding, do not swi ng the torch: instead. move the filler metal.
19. A double-V joint must be used with steel W' thick or more.

~ Exercises
Carrying a Weld Pool without
Filler Metal
•••••••••••••••••
I . Obtain a piece of mild steel 1/ta" to lh" thick. approxi-
mately 3" wide, and 5" long.
2. J3c sure the surface is free of oil, dirt. and scale.
3. Light the torch and adjust it for a neutral flame.
4. Hold the inner cone of tl1e flame approximately W' from
the work and position the torch at a 45° angle to the
workpiece. Move the torch from the right side of the
workpiece to the left side, using a circular manipula-
tion. Left-handed welders should reverse the direction
of travel.
5. Maintain a consistent travel speed to prevent melt-
through in the workpiece.
6. Practice depositing beads without fiUer until properly
formed beads are consistently produced.

78 €l< Welding Skills

 Depositing Beads with Filler Metal
••••••••••••••••
I . Obtain a piece of mild steel Yis" to 'h" thick. approxi-
mately 3" wide, and 5" long.
2. Be su re the surface is free of oil, dirt, and scale.
3 . Light the torch and adjust it for a neutra l flame.
4. Practice running consistent straight beads while ma-
nipulating the torch and the filler metal at the correct
angles.
5. A~ the torch is withdrawn at the end of the pass, fill
the crater by adding filler metal.

Welding a Butt Joint in Flat Position

••••••••••••••••
I . Obtain two pieces of metal Yis" to W' thick. approxi-
mately Ph" wide. and 5" long.
2. Place the wor\:pieces on two firebricks. Space for pro-
gressive spacing or tack weld the workpieces togelher.
3. Begin welding at the right end (or the left end if left-
handed), using 1th e same torch and Iiiier motion as when
depositing beads with fi ller.
4. Work the torch slowly to give the heat a c hance to
penetrate the joint. Add sufficient filler metal to build
up the weld al>out Yt6" above the surface. Be sure the
weld pool is large enough and the metal is flowing
freely before dipping the filler metal.
5. Maintain a molten weld pool approximately \4" to o/s"
wide.
6. Advance the weld pool about Vts" with each complete
motion of the torch while maintaining a uniform bead
wid th .
7. Uniform torch motion wi II produce smooth, even
ripples.

OAIV - Flat Po.5ition ~ 79

 Welding a Flange Butt Joint
in Flat Position
••• ...........~e~x~e~rc~i~se~----·
..... ~

I. Obtain two pieces of metal with flanged edges.

2. Place the pieces so the flanged edges are touching. Tack
weld the edges.
3. II old the torch on one end until a weld pool is formed.
4. Carefully manipulate the torch to maintain the pool as
the pool is carried along the entire joint.
5. Withdruw the torch at the end of the joint to prevent
burning a hole in the joint.

Welding a Corner Joint in

Flat Position exercise
••••••••••••••••••

I. Obtain two pieces of metal and tack weld to form a

corner joint.
2. Hold the torch on the end of the joint until a weld pool
is formed.
3. Manipulate the torch to maintain the weld pool along
the entire joint using a technique similar to that used
on the flange joint.
4. Withdraw the torch at the end of the joint to prevent
burn ing a hole in the joint.
5 . If add itiona l bu ildup is re<tui red, filler metal may be
added as the weld pool is carried along the joint.

80 ~ \\Hding Skills
 Welding a Lap Joint in
Flat Position exercjse
•••••••••••••••••••••
I. Obtain two pieces of metal 1/ts" to lh" thick. approxi-
mately I 1h" wide. and 4" tO 5" tong.
2. Lay one workpiece on top of the other. slightly offset,
and tack in place to form a tap joint.
3. Weld the workpieces U'>ing a semicircular motion of
the torch.
4. White manipulating the torch and fitter metal, direct
more of the heat to the bouom workpiece. This may
be accompli~hcd by incrca~ing the duration of the torch
motion on the bouom workpiece. The top workpiece
requires tess heat and may overheat if too much heat
is applied.
5. Weld one side of the workpiece and then practice on
the revcr~c side.

Welding a T-Joint in
Flat Position
I • • •
• ••••••••••••• ••••••••
I. Obtain two pieces of metal approximately 1/ts" to 1h"
thick. I 'h" \\ide. and 4" to 5* long.
2. Lay one workpiece nat and stand the other on top to
form a T-joint. Tack weld the workpieces. r AREBRICK

3 _ Tilt the tacked work pieces 45° to the work surface and
place a firebrick under one side for ~uppon.
4. Hold the torch so the welding tip forms an approxi-
I waDING
TORCH
mately 45° angle to the bouom workpiece.
5. Using the same technique used when welding a buu
joint, keep the inner cone of the name about W' away
from the deepest pan of the weld.
6. Manipulate the torch constantly whi le adding fitter
meiUI to produce a consistent weld free from undercuts.

OAW Filii Po.vitirm ~ 8I

 Welding Gray Cast Iron exercise
•••••••••••••••••••••
I. Obtain two pieces of cast iron and prepare the edges
tO be welde~. Bevel the joint if necessary and remove
all foreign mauer from the surface.
2. Slowly heat the entire workpiece to a dull red.
3. Concentrate the flame near the starting point of the
weld until the metal begins to melt. Keep the torch in
the same position as in welding mild :steel, with the
inner cone of the flame about \4!" to %" from the seam.
4. When the bonom of the V is thoroughEy fused, move
the flame from side to side. melting down the sides so
the molten metal runs down and combines with the
fluid metal in the bottom of the V. Rotate the torch in a
circular motion to keep the sides and bottom of the V
in a molten condition. ff the metal gets too hot and
tends to run, raise lhe torch slightly.
5. Once the weld pool is molten, bring lhe filler metal into
the outer envelope of the flame and keep it there until it is
fairly hot. Wben the filler metal is hot. dip it into the flux.
Insert the fluxed end of the filler metal into the molten
pool. The heat of lhe weld pool will melt the filler. The
filler metal should remain in the weld pool. Do not dip it
into and out of the pool. As the filler metal melts. the
molten metal will rise in !he groove. When the metal has
been built up slightly above the top surface of the
workpiece, move the weld pool forward about l" and
repeat the operation. Be sure oot to move the weld pool
before the sides of lhe V have been broken down, as this
wiiJ force lhe molten weld pool ahead onto the cold metal.
6. When gas bubbles or white spots appear in the weld
pool or at the edges of the seam, add more flux and
play the flame around the specks unt il the impurities
float to the top. Skim these impwities off lhe weld pool
with the filler metal. Tapping the fi ller metal against
the bench will remove impurities.
7. After the weld is completed. postheat the entire
workpiece to a dull red. Allow the casting to cool
slowly by covering with a blanket.
8. To test the weld sample, place it in a vise. The weld
should be flush with the top of the jaws. Wearing proper
eye protection. strike the upper end of the workpiece
with a heavy hammer until lhe workpiece breaks. If
the metal has been welded properly, the break should fluJC_
occur in lhe base metal, not along the welded line.

82 :@< Welding Skills

 Welding Aluminum exercise
•••••••••••••••• •••••••
I . Obtain 1wo pieces of aluminum and prepare th e
workpicces to be welded.
2. Preheat the workpiece to the proper temperature.
3. F lux the workpieces using the recommended flux.
4. Pass the flame over the starting point until the flux melts.
5. Scrape the surface with the filler metal at about 3- or
4-second intervals, permitting the filler metal to come
clear of the flame each lime; otherwise, it wilJ mell be-
fore the base metal. T he scraping action indicates when
welding should begin without overheating the alwninum.
6. Using the forehand welding technique, angle the torch
at a low angle (less than 30° above horizontal when
welding thin material). The torch shou ld be moved for-
ward without any side-to-side motion.
7. While moving forward, periodically dip the fi Uer metal
into. and withdraw it from, the weld pool. This method
of withdrawal closes the weld !JOOl, prevents porosity.
and assists the flux in removing the oxide film.
8. Maintain the same procedure throughout weld ing.
9. A correct oxyacetylene weld on aluminum will have
the necessary penetration with the correct bead ripple
and contour.

Welding a Backhand Weld exercise

•••••••••••••••••••
l . Obtain two pieces of %" mild steel and bevel the edges.
2. Form a butt joint with the beveled edges about VIs" apart and tack together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal position .
4. Start the weld at the left edge of the workpiece if right-handed (the right edge i f left-
handed) and bring !he edges of ~he V to a molten state. Hold Lhe end of !he fi ller metal in
the outer envelope of the flame so it melts as soon as the weld pool forms.
5. At the start, concentrate the flame slightly more on the bottom of the V. Once the weld pool
is fluid, dip the fi ller metal into it. As the weld pool moves, direct the flame more on the
filler metal and bui ld up the weld pool to the top of the V. As the molten metal fills up the
V, move the filler metal slightly from side 10 side to ensure that the weld metal fuses evenly
with the edges of the base metal
6. To test the weld, cut off several I" strips. Grind off the surplus weld metal so that the top of
the weld (face) is flush with the top of the workpiece (specimen). The grind marks should
run lengthwise on the specimen to prevent premature failure during testing. Place the
specimen in the guided bend tester. Apply pressure to the specimen. Lf the weld is satisfac-
lOry, there should be no indications of cracking or fracturing. \Use proper eye protection
when testing each specimen.

OAW - Flar Posiriorr ~ 83

 Welding a Single-V Butt
Joint in Flat Position
•• •• ••••• •••••• ••••••
I. Obtain two pieces of V.." mild stee l
and bevel the edges.
2. Form a butt joint with the beveled
edges about 1/as" apart and tack to-
gether.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld
joint is in flat position.
4. Usc 3/ae" filler metal. Use the correct
size tip for the weld.
5. Hold the torch at an angle 60° from
the vertical, rather than the 45° angle
used for other steels.
6. Direct the tlame onto the V and, as
the edges begin to melt, dip the tip of
the filler metal into the weld pool. Be-
fore adding filler metal, ensure that
the sides of the V are thoroughly
molten to the bottom of the V. Fill in
the bottom of the V about %", with
the weld pool extending upward tO
one-half the depth of the V. While the
weld pool is still molten. swing the
torch io a semicircular motion and fill
the V. The completed bead should be
between o/s" and W' wide and project
slightly above th e surface of the
workpiece. Return the flame to the
bottom of tbe V, advance another Yl',
and again raise the bead section to
the top of the V. Continue until the
weld is finished.
7. To test the weld, c ut off several I"
strips. Grind off the surplus weld metal
so that the top of the weld (Face) is
flush with the top of the workpiece
(specimen). The gri nd marks shou ld
run lengthwise on the specimen to pre-
vent premature failure during testing.
Place the specimen in the guided bend
tester. Apply pressure to tl1e specimen.
If the weld is satisfactory, there should
be no indications of cracking or frac-
turing. Use proper eye protection when
testing each specimen.

f1~11Jif"ii[•]~~J#•1fliOI•)Y-1~1•J•1~1HIJ>i>1t•1@-
l. Why is a filler metal used in welding?
2. What detennincs the size of the filler metal that should be used'?
3. Where is the filler metal insened when depositing beads with filler meta l?
4. What happens if the tiller metal is too large for the base metal that is being welded? If it is too
small?
5. How shou ld the torch be manipulated when using Iiller metal on a bull weld'?
6. lf the metal does not melt readily, what is ihe probable cause?
7. What happens if the torch is moved forward too slowly?
8. Why should cast iron pieces be preheated before welding?
9. Why is flux necessary when welding cast iron?
I 0. What is the melting point of aluminum?
II. What type of filler metal is recommended For welding aluminum?
12. How can it be determi ned when aluminum has reached its preheating temperature?
13. How are smooth. even ripples formed in the weld bead?
14. How is the flux manipulated in order to deposit it in the weld?
15. If cast iron has been properly welded, where should the break occur when the completed weld is
tested?
16. Why should tl1e edg~ be beveled when heavy steel is W' thick or more?
17. At what angle should the torch be held when welding heavy steel?
18. How should the torch and Iiller metal be handled in backhand welding? At what angle?
19. When welding heavy steel over W' thick, why use more than one pass?
84 ~ Welding Skills
O).)•acetylene welding cannot always be done in flat position. Occasionally. workpieces must be welded
in the horizontal, vertical, or overhead positions. Welding in flat position is easier and somewhat faster
than other positions: howeve1: with practice. welding in other positions can be pe1jormed easily.

When weldi11g in horizomal. vertical. or overhead position, the main obswcle to obtaining a sound
1reld is the g raviwtional pull downward on the molten mew/.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL the weld pool to become too large. lf the
WELDING weld pool gets too big or too fluid, it

I
U .fl' 11 .tNnidrt·ulllr
could get out of control and run down
When welding in horizontal or verti- torch mtn•emtlll ftir
the face of the weld. lf the weld gets too lrmi:.omal. l'el1iclll. and
cal position. a jig or positioner may be fluid. pull the flame away slightly so that m·erlretul "'eldin~.
used to hold the workpieces in posi- it does not play directly on the weld pool.
tion. A sem ici rcular torch movemen t
Figure 7·1. Uflhill wl!ltii.n& i.'i fX!r·
should be used for horizonta l and ver- formetf w,.th tm 11piiUI pn•gr.-ssinn.
tical welding. Maintaining a consistent On 1101 t1llow tire wdd fHII' I w get
wo lor~ t'.
size weld pool helps control the weld
and preven t sagging.
As welding progresses in horizontal
welding, metal has a tendency to build
up much more on the edge of the bot-
tom workpiece. To overcome this ten-
dency, direct the flame longer on the
edge of the bottom workpiece without
allowing the weld pool to drop. Hold the
torch so the tip fonm an ru1gle of 45o LO
the workpiece and to the line of the weld.
Point the filler metal toward the welding In lwri:omnJ weld·
tip at an angle of approximately 30° to illg. dire('t tl1e jlome
more on the etlge of
the line of the weld and 15° to 20° to the the lower workpiecl'.
horizontal workpiece. Direct the flame
evenly over both workpieces. To prevent
undercutting. add li ller metal nearer the
OVERHEAD WELDING
top workpiece.
Vertical welding is performed uphill Overhead welding is more di fficult to
or downhill. Uphill welding is welding perform than horizonta l o r vertical
performed with an uphill progression. welding because of the unusual work-
See Figure 7-1. Downhill welding is weld- ing position and the skill needed to keep
ing perfonned with a downhill progres- the molten weld pool from dropping off
sion. When vertical welding. do not allow the workpieces.

85
 Overhead welding is possible beause drops and falling off. Sec Figure 7-2.
molten metal has cohesive (sticky) lf the weld pool becomes too fluid and
qualities. as long as the weld pool does starts to run, move the torch slightly
not get too large. Molten metal does not away from the joint.
fall from the weld if the weld pool is
not allowed to fom1 in complete drops.
The amoum of heat directed on the
joint must be carefully regulated, since
excessive heat increases the flow of the
molten metal.
Use the same semicircular motion
of the torch for overhead welding as
~
Ou overhead weltl\',
mm'e thefiller meta/ for other weld ing positions. Move the
@j_ .tlo wly in a circular filler metal s lowly in a circular or
or swinging motion.
swinging motion to help keep the weld
pool shallow. The movement of the
Figure 7-2. Tit~ filler mt ttllmovts olttod of the
filler metal distributes the molten weld torch ottd di.Jtribuus lit~ molten wtld pool os ;, is
pOOl and prevents it from fonning large mow:d.

1. Use a semicircular torch movement for horizontal. vertical, and overhead welding.
2. To maintain cont·rol and prevent sagging, do not allow the weld pool to become too large.
3. If the weld pool becomes too fluid, raise the flame slightly away from the workpieces.
4. In horizontal welding, direct the flame more on the edge of the lower workpiece.
5. On overhead welds. move the filler metal slowly in a circular or swinging motion.

~ Exercises
Welding a Butt Joint in
Horizontal Position
•••• ••••• •••• ••••• ••
l. Obtain two pieces of 1/t6" or lh" mild steel.
2. Form a butt joint. with a root opening for expansion,
exercise

••••
and tack together.
3. Position workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal
position.
4. Start welding at the right edge if right-handed (or the
left if left-handed). using a semicircular torch motion.
As welding progresses, gravity can cause metal to
build up oo the bottom workpiece. To O'lercome this
tendency, direct the flame longer on the edge of the
bollom workpiece and keep the tip of the filler metal
nearer to the top workpiece.

86 ~ IVeldiug Skills
Welding a T-Joint in Horizontal Position
• • • ••••••••••••
e~x~e~rur.~i&~e~---~·
1. Obtain two pieces of Vt6" or 1..1!" mild steel.
2. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90° ang le and tack
together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal
position.
4. Start welding at the right edge if right-banded (or the left,
if left-handed), using a semicircular torch movement.
5. Hold the torch so the tip fotms a 45° angle to the bottom workpiece. and a 45° angle pointing to
the end of tbe weld.
6. Point the fi ller metal toward the welding tip at an angle of approximately 30° to the joint root
and 15° to 20° to the bottom workpiece.
7. Direct the flame evenly over the workpiece. To prevent undercu tting, add filler metal nearer to
the vertical workpiece.

FILLER METAL

FILLER METAL
TOP VIEW END VIEW

Welding a B.utt Joint in Vertical Position

••••••••••••••
l. Obtain two pieces of Vt6" or W' mild steel.
2. Form a butt joint, with a root opening for expan-
sion, and tack together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in verti-
cal position.
4. Hold the torch and filler metal at the same angle as
in flat position. As welding progresses, vary the torch
angle as necessary to control the weld pool.
5. Weld uphi ll. Start the weld at the bottom edge and
work upward, using a semicircular torch motion. Do
not allow the weld pool to become too large or it
will run down the face of the weld.
6. To prevent the weld pool from becoming too fluid,
direct more of the flame on the filler metal. If the weld
pool becomes too fluid, pull the flame away slightly.

OAW-Other Po.,·itions ~ 87
 Welding a Butt Joint in
Overhead Position
••• .............A~~xe:uoc..;i~se~~~•~,..,
... ..

1. Obtain two pieces of lf1G" or lfs" mild steel.

2. Fom1 a buu joint. with a root opening for expansion.
and tack together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in overhead
position. The weld joint should allow clearance for
manipulating the torch.
4. Use the same semicircular motion of the torch as
other welding positions. Move the filler metal s lowly
in a circular or swinging motion to help keep the
weld pool shallow. l11e movement of the filler metal
also distributes the molten weld pool to prevent it
from forming large drops and falling off.
5. If the weld pool has a tendency to run, pull the torch slightly away from the surface.

fl!!ltJ}iit•1Wf'1t•1iJiiiJ•)W+1~1•J•1f'-®!Oiit•1~-

I. What can be done to prevent the weld pool from sagging when weld ing in vert ical posi tion?
2. At what angle should the torch be held for horizontal welding?
3. How should the torch be moved for vertical, horizontal, and overhead welding?
4. In horizontal welding of a bull joint, why should the flame be directed more on the edge of the
lower workpiece?
5. What should be done when welding in vertical position to prevent the weld pool from becom-
ing too fluid?
6. Why is overhead welding more difficu lt to perfonn than borizontal or verLieal welding?
7. How can the weld pool be prevented from dropping off in overhead welding?
8. How should the filler metal be manipulated in overhead welding?
9. What can be done to prevent undercutting of the weld when welding a horizontal T -joint?
I 0. What can be done to maintain a shallow weld pool when welding in the overhead position'?

88 ~ Welding Skills
section . th re e Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). sometimes referred to as stick welding. is used in the fabrica tion of
many products. including ships, pressure vessels. ranks. automobiles. and appliances. SMAW welding
machines are used to weld light- and heavy-gauge metals of all kinds.

A consram-current welding machine is used .for SMAW. Power to produce a welding arc ccm be static.
such as is supplied by a trans.formet; transformer-rectifier; or inverter: or engine-driven. The power
source design is selected based on the requiremems of the welding task.

Proper personal protective equipme111 must be used during welding to protect the welder from injury and
to prevem damage 10 1he m(l(erials or strucwres being welded.

ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES ohms. An ohm is the basic unit of mea-

When welding using SMAW, an elec-
trical c ircuit is created. AJl electrical
circuil is a path taken by electric cur-
rem !lowing from one te rm inal of the
welding mac hine, through a conduc-
tor, and to the other terminal. Curren/
is the amount of e lectron flow through
an e lectrical circui t.
A conduc/Or is any material through
which e lectricity flows easily. Conduc-
tors can be found in the form of wire.
cab le. or busbars. A person can also
act as a conductor of electric ity. When
welding using the SMAW process. the
weldi ng leads serve as conductors in
the circuit. Resistance is the opposi-
tion of the material in a conductor to
the passage of electric current, causing
the electrical energy to be transfonned
into heat. Resistance is measured in
surement of resistance. One ohm is the
result of I volt applied across a resis-
tance tha t a llows 1 ampere to flow
through it.
Welding Current
When electrical currem moves through
a wire. heat is generated by the resis-
tance of the wire to the flow of elec-
tricity. TI1e greater the current flow. the
greater the heat ge nerated. The heat Tire heat used for
generated during the SMAW process SMA IV is )lenerated
comes from an m·c that develops when from an arc thm de-
\'elop.s wlwu electric·
e lect ric it y jumps across an air/gas l1y jumps ti('IYM'S nn
gap between the end of an electrode airlgtlS RUP between
and the base metal. The air/gas gap the end ofthe elet:tnxfe
and the base metal.
produces a high resistance to the flow nre mrlga.< gap pm-
of current. This resistance generates ciLu.:e.r high re~i~u"r.ce
intense heat that can range from to curtelll jlou; gener-
ating imense heat.
6000°F (3300°C) tO 10,000°F (5500°C).

89

Figure 8· 1. Dirur cu"tmt flow.f
in ont clireclhm o11/y. Altenwling
t•urrcnt ha:r tWSiti~·e 1'0/llt!,,. a,d
m!Rativt' valm•.f: currem flow.f ill
mrr tUrulimr. rhtll 1·e~·erus tmd
for lltr St!COntl lwlf·cyde flows in
rfur oppmritt dirt!t:li()ll.
90 ~ Welding Skills
Welding current can be direct curren t
(DC) or alternating current (AC). Cur-
rent has the most effect on the depth
of penetration into lhe ba~e metal.
D;rect current (DC) is an electrical
current that flows in one direction only.
This means that there is no change in
the direction of current flow. Alternat-
ing wrrent (AC) is an electrical current
that has alternat ing positive and
negative values. Tn tlle first (positive)
half-cycle. the current flows in one
direction; the current then reverses and
for the second (negative) half-cycle flows
in the opposite direction. See Figure 8-1.
Current
Figure 8- 1
CURRENT _ CURRENT + c ircui t, polarity must be selected for
FLOW~/ FLOWY/
ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
DIRECT CURRENT
o· 270' 360'
NEGATIVE(-)
1-- -1 CYCLE=
VALUES
~SEC
ALTERNATING CURRENT
--1
The rate of change is referred to as
frequency. Frequency is the number of
cycles per second in an AC sine wave.
Frequency is indicated as 25, 40, 50,
or 60 cycles per second. Frequency lis
measured in hett2 (Hz). Hertz (Hz) is
th e international uni t of frequency
equal to I cyc le per second. Ln th e
United States, alternating current is 60
cycles per second (60 Hz).
An ampere (amp, or A) is a unit of
measure for electricity that expresses
the quantity, or number, of electrons
flowing through a conductor per unit
of time. Amperage is the quantity of
electricity measured. An ammeter is an
instrumen t that measures amperage
(amperes).
The primary voltage (input) to a
welding machine may be 120 V, 230 V,
460 V, or 600 V. The weldin,g machine
frame (chassis) must be well grounded
since primary voltages can be very
dangerous.
Polarity. Polarity is the posi tive (+) or
negative (-) state of an object. Polar-
ity determ ines the direction of current
flow in a DC circuit. Since current
moves in one d irect ion only in a DC
some weldi ng operations. DC current
used for welding can be either direct
current electrode negative (DCEN) or
d irect c urre nt elec trode positive
(DCEP). See Figure 8-2. The tcnninol-
ogy DCEN and DCEP replaces the for-
merly used terms straig ht po larity
(DCEN) and reverse polari ty (DCEP).
Polarity is changed by con necting
the e lectrode lead to either the posi-
tive or negative terminal. When the
electrode lead is connected to the
negative terminal of the welding ma-
chine and the workpiece le.ad is con-
nected to the positive terminal , the
polarity is DCEN. When the electrode
lead is connected to the positive ter-
minal of the welding machine and the
workpiece lead is connected to the
negative terminal, the circuit is DCEP.
On some machine.~. polarity is changed
by moving a switch or lever on the
welding machine to DCEN (-) or
DCEP (+). Polarity is of no consequence
in AC welding machines because cur-
rent is constantly changing direction.
0 17u• 1V>I111ge tmd cun-e111 owp111 ofa weld·
ing machine should /u• regularly r.s1ed 10
ensure 1/Jar 1/1~ proper levels .are {1\'(li/·
llble for welding.

Polarity
Figure 8·2
WELDING
MACHINE ELECTROOE
+-
DIRECTION OF
CURRENT FlOW
DIRECT CURRENT
ELECTRODE NEGATIVE (DCEN)
-+
DIRECTION OF
CURRENT FLOW
DIRECT CURRENT
ELECTRODE POSITIVE (DCEP)
t1~ture S-2.. Whn '':ddinz wuh DC n'",."'· pi)/ariry
wn /w rhong<d jr>m DCEN w DCtP to ronrro/ th~
omount #Jf h~at iirutcd to tht ltt~.st mtwl.
Polarity determines the location of
heat concentration in a welding circuit
With DCEN, more heat is located in
the workpiece. With DCEP. more heat
is directed to the electrode. The type
of welding to be performed and the
electrode used determine the polarity.
Electrodes nre designed for usc with n
specific polarity.
Voltage
·nte force (dectromolive force, or em!)
or pressure that causel> current to flow
in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is
the amount of electrical pressure in a
circuit. Voltage does not flow. only
current flows. Voltage is measured us-
ini a vo ltmeter. Voltai!e and current
values are com mon ly shown with a
digital display on the front of a weld-
ing machine. See Figure 8-3.
figure 8-3. Voltn.tt" ..n.J ,.,,,~,.,
wlus C'an IN shO'M-, ,. u drRrtal
drspiUl' on tM fr(HII f( e1 '14-t'ldm(
ma~hm~.
Voltage (force) is similar to the pres-
sure used to make water flow in pipes.
In a water system, a pump provides
the pressure to make the water flow,
whereas in an elecuica.l circui t a power
supply produces the force (voltage) that
pushes the current through the wires.
Voltage has the most effect on the
height and width of the weld deposit.
VoltaRe drop is the voltage decrease
across a component due to resistance
to the flow of current. Ju.~t as the pres-
sure in a water system drops as the dis-
tance from the water pump increases.
Polarill• af!i•<'t.< tltt
so does voltage lessen as the distance mm)tmt of /rt+(tl tJi.·
from the generator increases. Whe n rected to '''l" u:orJ..-
there is too great a drop, the welding piece. B.~' chtm.~ing
polanty. l~r11 etUI bt
machine cannot supply e nough current cont:m/I'Uitd h lu>~ il
for welding. A voltage drop problem is mostn«J~,/
is usually associated with using weld-
ing cables that are too long or that have
been damaged.
Open-circuit voltage is the volt age
produced when the machine is ON and
no welding is being done. Open-circu it
voltage varies from 50 V to 100 V. An:·
voltage (working voltage) is the volt-
age present after an arc is struck and
maintained. Arc voltage is generally
between 18 V and 36 V. See Figure 8-4.
An adjustmenl is provided to vary the
open-circuit voltage so that welding
can he rlnne in rlifferenl pnsitinns Arc
voltage is measured as close to the
welding arc a' possible and to measure
voltage loss in the circuiL
SMA IV - Equipment ~ 91
Fi~ure 8-4. Optm-circttit voltage.•
( IISUtlll)' between 50 V mul /(}() V)
;s I"OIItlge pr(){/,a d when rht weld-
illk uuuchinr it ON: tm: \'Oita~e i.f
rltt wt~rkhl$ w>lltlf:.(' (u:wol(v be-
twtt:·n IR V mu/ 36 V) tiftrr fm arr
is s1ruck.

OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE

ARC VOLTAGE

92 €l: Welding Skills

 The actual voltage used! lO provide weld- WELDING MACHINE OUTPUT
ing current is low ( 18 V to 36 V). whereas
Welding machine output can be alter-
high current is necessary lo produce ll1c
nat ing current (AC). direct current
heal required for welding. The low voll-
(DC). or alternating current/direct cur-
age and high current used for welding
rent (AC/DC), depending on the weld-
are not particular! y dangerous if proper
ing task. See Figure 8-6. The e lectrode
ground ing und insulation are used.
used must match the cu rrcnt produced
by the welding machine.
Circuits
The electrical circuit used for welding
starts at the negative uerminal of the
welding machine where curTent is pro- Fip.ure ~-6. Wtltllug c,·urr~m it
Welding Machine Output prtwulrd by AC. DC. or ACIDC
duced. moves through the wire or Figure 8 ·6 llltiJJitl.
cable to the e lect rode, through the
work. and then returns Lo the positive
terminal of the weldi ng machine. See
Figure 8-5. Welding machines used for
SMAW provide the current and voltage
required for the specific welding task.

DC

figure 8·5. OCEN curr~ut. ill tt·hit·l, ('/~t·trit· t'u"tttl

jlows from 1/tt ntgotivl' termitlfll of lht' wcldlng mo-
rlline, nwvt•s 11/tmg lhl" wirr or cable tn tlw clrt··
trr)(/(', throttj:/t the whrk tmtlth<m r~tunu ll> the tHMi·
th•e ltntlhwl, ;,.,. commolll)' ~,sed for SMA \V.

0 All welding equipmelll tntlSI be muimaiued

QJl{/ sen ricet/. n1e welder is resf)Onsib/e
for checking thefluid IIN<!ls (ll<ller. oil.juel)
m• u/1 fuel-operelted machines. £lectmdc
leads mul holtlers shwld be cheded regu·
/arly 10 emmre a rig/11 romreclion and for
pmper gJrnmding. Loose cmUJeclions gen- AC/DC
erale /teat tmtl bum fetid~~ and C(>nnecticm.s.

SMAW- tiptipment ~ 93
 Alternating Current (AC)
AC current output provides a constantly
alternating current that can be used for
SMAW welding. AC c urrent allows a
welder to easily maintain an arc during
welding. Other features of AC current
include low operating and mainte-
nance costs. and high overall electrical
efficiency. AC welding machines
typically operate on single-phase
( 19) primary power.
Direct Current (DC)
DC cuTTCnt output for SMAW may use
si ngle- phase (1$) or three-phase (3cp)
primary electrical power. The most
stable DC welding is provided by
welding machines that provide 3$
transformers and full-wave rectifiers.
DC output usually has polarity
sw itches with both positive and nega-
tive term inals.
Alternating Current/Direct
Current (AC/ DC)
AC/DC current output is available on
constant-current welding machines that
oper.ttc using a I~ or 3~ primary power
source. The main difference between
AC and AC/DC output for SMAW is
that AC/DC contains a rectifier. Recti-
lied 1~ welding power is not as stable
a.~ rectified Jcp DC welding power. ACI
DC welding machines are commonly
used for SMAW. See Figure 8-7.
Figur• 8-7. "" "CIOC output
..... ,.[Jint mudtwt' '' amtmnnl\
ocsrd ftJ' SMIIIV
.,,,,"u~"".,"""'«'""''~c...,...,
94 @: We/di11g Skills
CONSTANT-CURRENT WELDING
MACHINES
Constant-current welding machines are
designed primarily for SMAW. A
constant-current ll'eldinR machine is
a welding machine in which a steady
suppl y of current is produced over a
wide range of welding voltages caused
by change~ in arc length. All welding
machines used for SMAW arc constant-
current. Constant-current welding ma-
chines have a severe negative volt-amp
curve with a limited maximum s hort
circuit current. See Figure 8-8.
Constant Current
Figure 8-8
STEEP SLOPE
--+
CURRENT
fiRUrf: 8~8. A t'omtant-currrnt -..tldtng m.acltrn~
has a Jlup/tt 1/t~pm~ w'IHIM.P <,n,. It~> ctttttrvlth~
ore and tt·t'ldm~ '""'
A volt-amp curve is a curve that
shows how the voltage varies in its re-
lationship to current between the open
circuit (where there i~ static electrical
potential but no current is nowing) and
short circuit (where the electrode
touches the workpiece).
When using a constant-current
welding machine under normal weld ing
conditions. the open-ci rcuit vol tage is
between 50 V and 100 V but the out-
put arc welding vollage is bet ween
 18 V and 36 V. By having a high open-
circuit voltage, arc starting is easier.
As welding progresses, the high volt-
age drops to the arc (working) volt-
age. Regardless of the arc length
caused by raising or lowering the
electrode, the cu rrent output does not
tluctuate appreciab ly. The actual arc
voltage var ies, depending on the
length of the arc.
To strike an arc, the electrode must
be shorted to the workpiece. At the
moment of contact (shon circuit), the
current increases while the voltage
drops. As the electrode moves away
fJom the workpiece, the voltage rises
to mai ntain the arc while the current
drops to the required wQrking level. If
the arc length increases, the arc vol t-
age increases. Conversely, if the arc
length decreases, the arc voltage de-
creases. The welder can vary the arc
voltage by lengthen ing. or shortening
the arc.
During SMAW, whether using AC
or DC current. it may be difficult to
maintain a consistent arc length. How-
ever, with a constant-current machi ne,
there are relative ly small changes in
cmTent with any changes in arc length.
The resu lt is that the welding heat and
burn-off rate of the electrode are af-
fected very little, permitting the welder
to maintain good control of the weld
pool.
STATIC POWER SOURCES
Static power sources used in a weld-
ing mach ine have no internal moving
parts . They convert power from a
ut ility line to the power needed for
welding. Utility line power is typically
supplied by a local uti lity company.
Common static power sources include
transformers, transformer- recti l'ie rs,
and inverters.
Based on the we ld ing task, the
welding leads are plugged into· the
terminals on the front of the weld ing
machine to supply the desired welding
current output. See Figure 8-9. De-
pending on how the leads are plugged
in, electrode positive or electrode nega-
tive current is supplied.
Figure 8-9. Based on the we/diug
wsk. the weldin.t: Jetuls are plugged
imo 'lite Terminals Q ll Ihe front of
the Wl•fdiug nuwhine to supply the
desir:ed weltUtJg CUI'r'(!lll Qltlput.
Transformers
A transformer is an e lecu·ical device
that changes vo ltage from one level to
another. A transformer produces AC
current. A transformer takes power di-
rectly from a power supply line and
transfonns it to the voltage required for
welding.
Some transformers also have an arc
booster switch that supplies an increase
in current for easy 1u·c starting as soon
as the electrode comes in contact with
the work. After the arc is struck, the
current automatically returns to the
level set for the job.
Transformer-Rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device con-
tained within a transfo rmer we lding
machine that changes AC current into
DC current. A transformer-rectifier
power source is sometimes preferable
because it is usually more electrically
efficient than an engine-driven power
source, and provides quiet opeJation.
Current is controlled by a switching
SMAW - Equipmem ~ 95
 arrangemen t where one switch sets lhe
desired current r ange and a second
switch is for fine adjustment before or
during welding. Some small rectifiers
are I$, but a I$ rectifier does not pro-
vide as smooth an arc as a 3$ rectifier.
See Figure 8-10.
A half-wave rec tifier produces an
unbalanceu sine wave by allowing
only the positive half of lhe sine wave
to pass. Current does not flow during
the negative half of the cycle, result-
ing in an erratic curren t output that is
usually unsuitable for welding.

FiJ:ure 8·10. A trtwsforuu!Y•

rec:tifirr power smtrc-e ctm bt>
Transformer-Rectifiers
t.ultiJ)fed flJr a mrit'l)' of weldiug
Figure 8·1 0
tlpplicatitms.

RANGE SWITCH

~ F'OV~ER SWITCH

CURRENT ADJUSTMENT
CONTROL

TERMINAL

+0 +0 C\ Q
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
u
I+AC

+0
FULL·WAVE RECTIFIER

+0 +0 1\ L\ _D.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
3~AC

+0 -
FULL- WAVE RECTIFIER
INPUT OUTPUT

96 ~ Welding Skills
 A full-wave rectifier, which uses four
diodes in lhe circuit. produces a sine wave
!hat is smoother than a half-wave recti-
tier. Additional diodes can be used to pro-
duce a smoother output, depending on
the requirements of lhe welding job.
Inverters
An inverter is an e lectrical device that
changes DC current into AC current.
An inverter power source uses transis-
tors to convert DC cu rrent into high-
frequency AC current. An inverter can
be designed to produce variable fre-
quency to provide fine-tuned adjustment
of the welding arc. See Figure 8-11.
Variable Frequency
Figure 8·11
FREQUENCY
(60Hz)
+
0 --
LOWER FREQUENCY
(40Hz)
0 usually constant-current, dual-con-
HIGHER FREQUENCY
(70Hz)
1-lgure 8 .. IJ. lttw:t'tcr.t nm Jlft!tlun~ WlriaiJ/e ju ~
QIU!IIC)' 1t1 pMvillr fitre •/uued t1djtt#me, of lilt•
welding orl'.
Inverters were developed as a more
compact alternative to other portable
welding machines. S ince the size of
the transformer is inversely propor-
tional to the app lied frequency, an
inverter can be as much as 75%
smaller than conventional welding
machines. inverters require less elec-
tricity than conventional welding
machines and have a faster response
time. Also. the aluminum windings of
conventional welding machines have
been replaced by copper. making the
inverter smaller and more compact.
but also more expensive.
ENGINE-DRIVEN POWER
SOURCES
Engine-driven power source designs
use gaso li ne. diesel fuel. or propane
to run the engine and an alternator or
genera to r to provide th e power fo r
welding. Gasol ine- and diesel-powered
welding mach ines arc typ ica lly used
in the field where e lectricity is no t
avai lable. See Figure 8- 12. When us-
ing an engine-driven power source.
make sure there is oil. water. and the
correct fuel in the machine.
Figure ~ 12. G1glnr-dri\'('IP fKIU'~r
sources nwke wt'lding po$Sible in
ltrt•tu wht'rt' elt!clridt)' i'i 1101
tn'tlilt~ble .
Generators used for SMA W arc
trol. With a dual control, the current
is adjusted by two controls. One con-
trol provides an app ro xi mate, or
coarse, current sell ing. The second
control is usually a rheostat that pro-
vides a fine adjustment of the weld-
ing current to increase or decrease the
heat. Some generators provide a
choice between low voltage and high
open-circuit voltage. A high open-cir-
cuit voltage wi th a drooping voltage
characteristic is used for SMAW.
On dua l-control generators, the
slope of the output current can be
varied 10 produce a soft or harsh arc.
By flauening the volt-amp curve
(increasing current). a digging arc can
be obtained for deeper penetration.
With a steeper curve (reduced current
SMAW - Eq11ipmenr ~ 97
 in relation to voltage), a soft or quiet rated load without exceeding the tem-
arc results, which is useful for weld- perature limits of the insu lation of tbe
ing light -gauge metals. A generator component parts. See Figure 8-13.
with dual control allows greater flex-
ibility for welding metals of different
thicknesses.
300
200
WELDING MACHINE RATINGS 200

Welding machines are rated (sized) f3150

a:
according to their current at a voltage w
Q.
:;;too
output at 60% duty cycle, such as <
150 A, 200 A, 250 A, 300 A , 400 A, 15
DC
500 A. or 600 A. The rating is the cur-
50
rent output at the working terminal. 0
10 IS .. 50 6070
Thus, a machine rated at 150 A can be DUTY CYCLE•
adjusted to produce a range of power "In petCenl
FOR EXAMPLE.
up to 150 A. The welding machine rat-
WHEN WELDING WITH SMAW
ing requ ired is determined by the type ON A MACHINE WITH A 20% DUTY CYCLE
of welding performed. A genera l RATED AMPS AIRE:
DC~ 150A@ 25VDC
guide to welding machine rating (size) AC 225A @25VAC =
and service is as follows:
• 150 A to 200 A. Light- to medium-
duty welding. Excellent for all fab-
rication purposes, and rugged 2 MIN WELDING 8 MIN RESTING
enough for conti nuou s operation
on light or medium production 20'% DUTY CYClE
work.
Figur~ 8-13. DuiJ cyr·le is tilt' timP tluriug 11 spl'ci·
• 250 A to 300 A. Average welding fit d test ptriod thtll a weltliltg 1/Uit:ltitte ctm /J~ ft~r·
requirements. Used in plants for uted lit it,'i rtllt•d load wilJmut ovc,·h,.tltins.

production, maintenance, toolroom

111~ Natim10/ Electri-
cal Matwfacturers
llsstN:itlliOII (NEMA)
IIlls set a storulardfor
duty cycle lxL<eil ()II a
10 mill period. The
duty<yde sratrdordex-
presses tire aC'tuaf op·
eration time tltat a
lvt!l<ling mflc/line may
be used m it.r tYJted
/()(t(/ witlllntl exceeding
the 11!111/Jemtu re limirs
ofrhe insularion oflhe
componem 1xms.
98 ~ Welding Skills
work. and genera l shop welding.
400 A to 600 A. Large-capacity,
heavy-duty welding. Used exten-
sively in heavy structural work, fab-
ricating heavy machine parts,
heavy pipe and tank welding. cut-
ting scrap and cast iron, and for a
wide range of welding applications.
Duty Cycle
Dmy cycle is the percentage of time
during a specified period that a weld-
ing machine can be operated at its rated
load without overheating. The National
Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) has set a standard based on a
10 min period. The 10 min period ex-
presses the actual operation time that
a welding machine may be used at its
A welding machine rated at 300 A
at 32 V. 60% duty cycle can put out the
rated current at the rated voltage for
6 min out of every 10 min. The ma-
chine must idle and cool the other 4 min
of every 10 min. Some welding ma-
chines used for automatic welding are
rated at I 00% duty cycle and can be
run continuously without overheating.
WELDING EQUIPMENT
Welding equi,pment used for SMAW
must be kept in good repair. Tools
should be regularly inspected for
signs of wear or damage. Required
welding equipment includes welding
cables, electrode holders, and work
c lamps/leads. See Figure 8-14.

Welding Equipment
Figure 8-14
WORKPIECE
CONNECTION
AND LEAD
WELDING LEADS
Removable
WORKPIECE CONNECTIONS
Welding leads
Welding leads conduct current to and
from the work. One lead nms from the
weld ing machine to the electrode
holder and the other is auached to the
workpiece or the workbench. The lead
connected to the electrode holder is
ca lled the e lectrode lead. The lead
connected to the workpiece is called
the workp iece lead or, incorrectly,
the ground.
When U1e welding machine is ON
and the electrode in the electrode
holder comes in contact with the
workpiece. a circuit is formed. a llow-
ing e lectrici ty to flow.
The correct diameter weld ing lead
for tbe length of cable specified for
the welding machine output must be
used. lf welding leads are too small
for the current, they overheat and
power is lost. Larger leads are
needed to carry the required current
long distances from the welding ma-
chine; otherwise. there wi II be an
Figure 8·14. Proper weldi11g re·
quires u:e/diiJg equipmem such as
wcldittg leads. electrode holders.
and workpiece "·omle<-·lions.
ELECTRODE HOLDER
Clamped
excessive voltage drop. Witb smaller
~
Use r>roped y sized
diameter we lding leads, the recom- welding leads to pre ..
mended length must not be exceeded ~
- \ 1(#1/ vo/1age dmp.
because voltage d rop across the leads
lowers the efficiency of the welding.
Check w ith th e welding machine
manufacturer for the proper welding
lead sizes, and for specific lengths and
usage.
All welding lead connections should
be tight because loose connections Keep welding leads
cause the lug, lead, or clamp to over- (lrderly to 11revenr
themf rom becomitJg
heat. A loose connection may also pro- fl ha ~ard. Fasten
duce arcing at the connection. Weld - the welding leads
in g leads should be kept clean and overlrettd whene\•er
f>Ossible. Never kink
should be handled so as to avoid dam- the welding leads.
age to the insulation.
Electrode Holders
An electrode holder is a handle-like
too l that hol<ls the e lectrode du ring
welding. The electrode ho lder is at-
tached to the electrode lead during
welding. A properly designed e lectrode
holder is essential to good wel ding.
SMAW - Equipment ~ 99

Ust' lm l'lt'clrode
[I
-
holtlt>r lhlll i.\ com·
plrtrl\' insuliirtd.
I
lfw•ldmg nrttrotlou
IHJri.t--n. .\CitiJl Ut'Jd·
- in~ Urttl'n.<r so th~
IJTC: d~.f IJOI htzrm
\\.-,rlJI'f IU'tltb).
\\~It/ tml~
I-
in all!a.s
u·lftrtt tlrl'l't' is ad~-
qmut ''l'lllilaliofL
100 ~ \Vdtfing Skills
The jaws of the electrode holder must
be properly insulated. Laying an elec-
trodc holder with uninsulated jaws on
the workbench while the machine
is running may cause a flash. A well-
designed electrode holder can be ideo-
tificd by the following features:
• h is reasonably light. to reduce ex-
ccssivc fatigue while welding.
• It docs not heat too rapidly.
• It is well balanced.
It secures and releases electrodes
ea~ily.
• h is properly insulated.
Workpiece Connections
The workpiece (."'nneclion must be fas-
tencd to the w<lli;picce or Lhe workbench
to provide a complete path for Lhe elec-
trical circuit. A workpiece connection is
auached 10 the workpiece lead to com-
plete lhe circuit. ll1is type of workpiece
connection is removable, making it easier
for a welder to change locations. A
workpiece lead can be attached or welded
to the workbench using the lug on the
end of the lead. Connections should be
made a.\ ciO'.C to the welding location as
possible.
SHOP TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Shop equipment, such as C-clamps.
electrode ovens, tools, welding screens.
and venti lution systems are required
for a $afe work area. See Figure 8-15.
When welding workpicces that arc too
large to lit in a vise, C-clamps hold the
workpieees in the proper position.
Many ei(.'Cirodes must be stored at high
temperature~ 10 protect them from hu-
midity. Electrode ovens maintain the
required temperature and protect elcc-
trodes from damage. Floors should be
conMructed of fire-resistant materials
and '>hould be kept dry at all times 10
prevent possible shock.
6 \\'t'1r~ flfl!ll.f. u:u/kways. lndtlers.. Nc. IIIIlS/
IJt kr/lf drttr of obsmtcliOIIS. 1Yeldi11g
equiflmt!lll ,\hm1ld Ill)( be f>OSitiom!tl wltert!
lt obJtmtt'f 1.-t~fbl'ff)'S ar tHher h'O'* artUS.
Tools
To produce a ~trong weld. the surface
of the base metal must be free of for-
eign mauer such as rust. oil. and paint.
A ''ire brush (hand- or tool-powered)
is used to clean metal surfaces.
Aller a bead is deposited on the metal.
the slag that covers the weld is removed
with a chipping hammer. The chipping
operation is followed by additional wire
brushing. Complete removal of slag is
especially important when sever'dl passes
must be made over a joint If n01 removed,
slag becomes trapped in the weld, and
may form gas holes in the bead Lh:ll re-
suh in porosity. which weakens Lhe weld.
Welding Screen
Whenever welding is done in areas
where OLher people may be working, Lhe
welding operation should be enclosed
with screens so the ullr'Jviolet rays can-
not injure nearby workers. Welding
screen~ cun be easily constructed from
lirc-rcsislanl canvas painted with black
or gray ultraviolet-protective paint.
When welding i~ done in a permanent
location, a booLh is desirable. A perma-
nen1 welding booth provides the items
needed 10 \afely complete welding.
Ventilation System
Electrodes used for SMAW may emil a
great deal of ~moke and fumes. which
should not be inhaled. The smoke and
fumes arc not hannful if the welding area
is pmperly vcnli luted. There should be a
suction fan or other adequate source of
air circulation.
Pennanent welding booths should be
equipped with a sheet-metal hood with
an exten,ion arm mounted directly
above the welding !able and an exhau!.t
system to dmw out the smoke and fumes.
SMAW ~hould not be performed wilh-
out $Ufficiem movemem of air through
the room. TI1e gcneml recommendation
for adequate vcmilation is a minimum
of 2000 cu fl of air now per minute per
welding machine. If individual movable
exhaust hoods can be placed near the
work. the r.ue of air llow toward lhe hood
 Figu rc 8-15. Shop wols and
Shop Tools and Equipment eqrtitJmeut CIS;td$1 the wdtler iu
Figure 8·1 5 mttintahting 11 sti}C. work ttll'irmr-
melll oll{/fJtOdu!·in8 qualify wt!ldr.

Chipping Hammers/
Hand Grinder Wire Brushes

Ball Peen Hammer Positioner

TOOLS

WELDING SCREEN VENTI LATION SYSTEM

C-CLAMP ELECTRODE OVEN

SMA\¥ - Equipment @: I 0 I
 should be approximately 100 linear feet be turned down or eliminated and
Ne"er look at a weld-
ing mv.: without k-'ellf ·
per minute i.n the welding :wne. The ex- pockets removed to prevent molten
ing a we/ding helmet. haust hood should never be placed in a metal from catching in the clothes.
manner that draws the gas and fumes Sleeves and collars should be kept
across the face or the welder. buttoned. Pant legs and shirt sleeves
should be short enough that they do
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE not bunch around the ankles or wrists.
EQUIPMENT The head and eyes must be pro-
tected from metal pieces or sparks that
An electric arc not only produces a bril-
may be projected from a welding sur-
liant light, but also gives off invisible
face. Helmets with shaded lenses are
ultraviolet and infrared rays that are
required when performing any weld-
extremely dangerous to the eyes and
ing operations. Safety glasses should
skin. Additionally, extreme heat is gen-
be worn under face shields, hoods, and
erated by welding, as are slag and spat-
helmets, and at a II Limes when work-
ter, which may pop from the weld and
ing in the shop. See Figure 8- I7.
strike a welder. Welders are required
to wear personal protective equipment Eye Protection
to prevent injury. Figure 8 - 17
Approved work c lothes, such as
Silfety gla.« e.r should those made of leather, wool, or flanle-
be worn under ftlce resistant cotton: a headcap; safety
.\·ltic/d.r, lwntls, anti
h elmets. tmtl til t1/l glasses; approved work boots; and
times wlren working gloves are required for all welding and
iu the shop. cutting operations. Light-duty welding
requ ires cloth or leather gloves and a
welding helmet with proper shading.
Heavy-duty welding requires a leather
jacket. leather gauntlet-type g loves, a
leather apron, and a bel met with proper
shad ing. See Figure 8-16.

Figure 8·16. !'roper prorutlw:

rlothinx must ~ "'fl"' 10 pro1u t
tht! u+t 1
'<lu from ultmvioll!t and
infmrei ra.vs.. ami y/og produu d
during ~~·r/(/i11g. FACE SHIELD

Coveralls or work clothing should

prevent exposure of the skin to infra-
SAFETY GLASSES
red and ultraviolet rays. Synthetic
materials such as po lyester should
never be worn. Cuffs on pants should
102 §: Welding Skills
 I . The heat used for SMAW is generated from an arc that develops when electricity jumps
across ao air/gas gap between the end of an electrode and the base metal. The air/gas gap
produces high resistance to the current flow, generating intense heat.
2. Polarity affects the amount of heat directed to the workpiece. By changing polarity, heat can
be concentrated where it is most needed.
3 . The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has set a standard for duty cycle
based on a lO nlin period. The duty cycle standard expresses the actual operation time that a
welding machine may be used at its rated load without exceeding the temperature limits of
the insulation of the component parts.
4. Use properly sized welding leads to prevent voltage drop.
5. Keep welding leads orderly to prevent them from becoming a hazard. Fasten the welding
leads overhead whenever possible. Never kink the welding ~cads.
6. Use an electrode holder that is completely insulated.
7. When welding near other workers, set up welding screens so the arc does not hann workers nearby.
8. Weld only in areas where there is adequate ventilation.
9. Never look at a weldiJlg arc without wearing a welding helmet.
I0. Safety glasses should be worn under face shields, hoods, and helmets, and at all times when
working in the shop.

I . What is an electrical ci rcuit?

2. What is the difference between AC current and DC current?
3. What is polarity?
4. What determines whether the polarity of a welding machine is set for DCEN or DCEP?
5. What is voltage? What instrument is used to measure voltage?
6. What effect does welding polarity have on where heat is directed?
7. What is voltage drop? What effect does it have on welding current?
8 . What is meant by open-circuit voltage and arc vo ltage?
9. What is meant by a constant-current welding machine?
lO. What is a volt-amp curve?
I I . Why is a transfonner-rectitier often preferred for SMAW?
12. How are weld ing machines rated?
13. What is duty cycle when specifying welding machine ratings?
14. What are some of the requirements of an electrode holder?
15. Why is it important to weld on ly where there is adequate ventilation?

SMAW - &1uipmen1 ~ 103

104 :0 Welding Skills
There are many different types and sizes of electrodes. and the correct one must be selecied to ensure a
quality weld. In general, electrodes are class!fied into .five types: mild steel, high-carbon steel. alloy steel,
cast iron, and nonferrous. Most arc welding is done with electrodes in the mild .wee/ group.
ELECTRODES
An elecTrode is a component of the
welding c ircu it that conducts electrical
current to the weld area. When current
from a welding mach ine flows through
the ci rcu it to the electrode, an a rc is
formed between the end of the elec-
trode and the work. The arc melts the
electrode coati ng, e lect rode metal, and
the base metal. The molten metal of the
electrode flows into the crater and forms
a solidified bond between the two
pieces of metal being joined. As the
weld solidifies, it forms a slag that slows
the cooling rate of the deposited metal.
See Figure 9- 1.
DIRECTION
ELECTRODE
OF WELDING
COATING
ARC
L ~·OIIDIF III'DMETAL MOLTEN
AND ELECTRODE METAL
Figure 9-1. Moltc-Jt mew/ ji·om tlu! elrr trode flows
i1110 the cmuN: forming u :-.tJiidified btJnd benv('fll the
MO picc't>~· of 1/1(•{(1/. Slag is formed «s 1he mew! Col1/.t.
E lectrodes are manufactured to
weld different metals, and are also Some electrotles C<m
only/)(' used with DC
designed spec ifi cally for DC or AC weltling moc:hines
welding machines. A few elec trodes anti others can only
be used with AC
work equally well on either DC or AC.
welding mtu:hiues.
Electrode usage also depends on the
welding position. Some electrodes are
best suited fo1· tlat position welding and
horizonta l fi llet welding, while other
types may be used in any position.
Mi ld steel elec trod es are of two
types: sh ielded or bare. Shielded elec-
trodes have heavy coatings of various
substances such as cellulose sodium,
cellu lose potassium, titania sodium, ti-
tania potasshrm, iron oxide. and iron
powder, as well as several other ingre-
d ients. Each of the substances in the
coating is intended to serve a particu- Use the cm-re<·ttype
of etel'lmtle for the
lar function in the welding process, we/cling 10 he done.
sucb as the following :
• act as a clean ing and deoxidizing
agent in the molten crater
• release carbon dioxide to protect
the molteo metal from atmospheric
oxides and nitrides
• exclude oxygen and nitrogen be-
cause these co ntaminants weaken
a weld if they come in contact with
molten meta l
• form a slag over the deposited
metal. thaD further protects the weld
until the metal cools sufficiently
to where it is no longer affected by
105
 atmospheric contamination. The
slag also slows the cooling rate of
deposited metaL perm iuing the for-
mation of a more ductile weld
provide easier arc starting, stabi lize
the arc, and reduce spatter
• permit better penetration and im-
prove the X-ray quality of the weld
Originally, bare e lectrodes were
uncoated metal rods; today they are
made with a coating. Bare electrodes
are rarel y used for welding because
they are difficult to weld with and they
produce brittle welds with low
strcngtl1. Practically all welding is done
with shielded e lectrodes.
The coating of some electrodes con-
tains powdered iron, which conve rts
to steel and becomes a part of the weld
deposit. The powdered iron also he! ps
to increase the $peed of weld ing and
improve the weld appearance.
Low - hydrogen e lectrodes have
coatings that are high in limestone and
other ingredients with a low hydrogen
content. such as calcium lluoride. cal-
cium carbonate, magnesium-aluminum
si li cate. and ferrou s alloys. Low-
hydrogen electrodes are used to weld
high -s ulfur and medium- or hi g h-
carbon steels that have a great affinity
for hydrogen. Low- hydrogen e lec-
trodes must be used because these
steels react with hydrogen. caus ing
underbead cracki ng in welds in the
hem-affected zone ( HAZ) adjacent to
the we ld.
Identifying Electrodes
Electrodes are referred to by manufac-
turer trad e nam e and by Am erica n
We lding Soc iety (AWS) classification.
These class ifications were set up by
AWS to establish requirement~ for elec-
trodes and to ensure unifonnity among
manufacturers. Electrodes from differ-
ent manufacturers. if they are in the
106 :@ We/di11g Skills
same AWS classification. shou ld have
sim ilar welding characteristics. Most
electrodes manufactured in the Uni ted
States are imprinted with an AWS sym-
bol. See F igure 9-2.
fi'iAure 9-2. Tltr ;\merktm Welding S(u·iny (AWS)
mtmerical ~lettrfHic clas:rification idt,uifieo: 11t~ char·
nct~ristics and ust~ge (if the d~c1rode.
AWS classifications assign each type
of electrode a speci lie symbol. such as
E-60 J0, E-60 12, or E-70 18. The prefix
E identifies an elecmxle for electric arc
welding. The first two digits in the sym-
bol designate the minimum allowable
tensile streng th of the deposited weld
metal in thousands of pounds per square
inch (psi). For example. the 60 series
e lect rodes have a min imum tens ile
(pull) strength or 60.000 psi; the 70 se-
ries. a streng[h of 70.000 psi.
The third digit of the symbol indi-
cates possible welding positions. The
welding position is indicated by either
a number I or a number 2. Number I
is for an electrode that can be used for
welding in a ny position, and number
2 represents an electrode restricted to
welding in Oat position and horizontal
position fillel welds only.
The founh di git of the sy mbol
s hows speci a! characteristics of the
electrode, suc h as type of coating. weld
quality. type of arc. or amount of pen-
etration. The fourth digit may be any
digit between 0 and 8. Because the
welding position depends on the
manufacturer characteristics of the
electrode coating. the third and fourth
digits are often viewed together. The
fourth-digit va lues in the AWS elec-
trode classification system are:
E-XXXO. DCEP. Produces high-quality
deposits with deep penetration and
flat or concave beads. Cellulose
sodium coating.
E-X.XXl. DCEP or AC. Produces high-
quality deposits with deep penetration
and flat to s lightly concave beads.
Cellu lose potassium coating.
E-XXX2. DCEN or AC. Med ium-
quality deposits, medium arc, medium
penetration, and convex beads. Titania
sodium coating.
E-XXX3. OCEP, OCEN, or AC. Medium-
to hi gh -quality deposits, soft arc,
shallow penetration, and s lightly con-
vex beads. Titania potassium coating.
E-XXX4. DCEP, DCEN, or AC. Fast
deposition rate; deep-groove, fillet,
and lap welds; medium penetration;
easy s lag removal. Iron powder, tita-
nia coating.
E-XXXS. DCEP. High-quality depos-
its, soft arc, moderate penetration, 11at
to sl ightly convex bead, low hydrogen
content in weld deposit~. Low-hydrogen
sod ium coating.
E-7018 H4 -R
JJ
ARC~~f£~g]
TENSILE STRENGTH
WELDING POSITION
TYPE OF COATING
AND CURRENT
HYDROGEN: H4: LESS THAN 4 mV100
H8: LESS THAN 8 mV100
MEETS REQUIREMENTS OF
ABSORBED MOISTURE TEST
E-XXX6. DCEP or AC. High-quality
deposits, soft arc, moderate penetra-
tion, flat to slightly convex bead, low
hydrogen content in we ld deposits.
Low-hydrogen potassium coating.
E-XXX7. DCEN or AC. Fast till. fast
depos ition rate, med ium penetration,
low spatter, flat beads. I ron powder,
iron oxide.
E-XXXS. DCEP or AC. Fill-freeze,
shallow to medium penetration, nigh
deposition, easy slag removal. convex
beads. Iron powder. low-hydrogen.
An additional letter-number combi-
nation may also come after the four-digit
classification uumber. An H4 indicates a
hydrogen level of less than 4 mV I OOg
of electrode. H8 indicates a hydrogen
leve l of less than 8 mill OOg of elec-
trode. The letter R may follow the hy-
drogen level if the elecu·ode meets the
requirements of the absorbed moisture
test. See Figure 9-3.
For mild steel, the complete classi-
fication number E-6010 would signify
an electrode that (a) has a minimum
tensile strength of 60,000 ps i for the
as-welded deposited weld metal, (b) is
usable in aU welding positions, and (c)
can be used with DCEP only. Similarly,
E-7024 design ates an electrode that (a)
has a m inimum tensile st rength of
Figure 9-3. The clutrode idem·
tification uses a leiter ami lltufl ·
b ers t'<Jmbhwti(Jn w hlemify tlte
e-lectrode t:lttlr(I(;Wri:rtic.t.
SMAW - Selecting Electrodes ~ l(Y7
 70.000 psi. (b) is usable for welding
in nat position and horizontal position
fillet welds only. and (c) operates on
DCEP. DCEN, or AC and has an iron
powder coating. The fourth digit can-
not be considered individually; it must
be associated with the third digit since
together, the third and fourth the dig-
its identify the polarity and position of
the electrode. See Figure 9-4.
In the past, some electrodes were
identified using a color code estab-
lished by the National Electrical Manu-
facturers Association (NEMA). This
identification code is no longer used
except for some surfacing e lectrodes.
Selecting Correct Electrodes
The ideal electrode is one that provides
good arc stability, a smooth weld bead.
fast deposition. minimum spa11er.
maximum weld strength, and easy
slag removal. To ach ieve these char-
acteristics. seven factors should be
considered in selecting an electrode-
base metal properties, electrode diam-
eter, joint design and fit-up. welding
position, welding current <rnd polarity,
production efficiency, and service con-
di tions.
Base Metal Properties. A weld should
be at least as strong as the base metal.
The electrode used must produce a weld
metal with approximately the same me-
chanical properties as the base metal.
Electrodes are available for weld-
ing different classilications of metal.
Some electrodes are designed to weld
carbon steels, others are best suited for
low-alloy steels. and some are in -
tended specifically for special purpose
alloy steels such as chrome- moly.
Therefore. before any welding opera-
tion , the first consideration is to
check the chemical analysi s of the
meta I and then select an electrode that
is recommended for that metal. Never
weld on an u11identilied metal.

DCEP

Deep penetration, flat or

EXX 11 ALL DCEP.AC
Titania
EXX 12 ALL Medium penetration, convex beads DCEN, AC
SOdium

EXX 13 ALL Shallow penetration, convex beads

Iron powder
Medium penetration. fast deposit litania
Low·hydrogen
EXX15 ALL Moderate penetration. convex beads DCEP
sodium

EXX16 ALL Moderate penetration. convex beads DCEP,AC

EXX27 FLAt. HURLLONTAL Medium penetration. nat beads

Shallow to medium penetration.

convex beads DCEP, AC
• 31'0 ru1lbet d AW$ c:QS1ib'-On
I 4u• nurrber ol AWS dass•hcatiQn

fi'igure 9-:l. Tire tlunl tmd fourtlt dif[its m tlu: elt't.'trod~ rlussifkmio~r ;demify tltt' proper ....-~ltllng position wtd till Wt!ld clw nu:tl!ristin t>ftlte
dt•t'lrtult:.

108 ~ \Veldillg Skills

Elect rode Diameter. Genera II y. the
diameter of the electrode should not be
larger than the thicknes~ of the metal to
be welded. Some welders prefer larger
e lectrodes because they perm it faste r
travel along the joint and thus speed up
the welding operation. but this requires
considerable skill.
It takes approximately half the time
to deposit a quantity of weld metal
from 1/.t" coated mild steel electrodes
than 3f•G" mild steel electrodes. The
larger sizes not only make higher cur-
ren t usc poss ib le, but rc qu i rc fewe r
stops to c hange the e lec trode. Fo r
economy, the largest possible electrode
diameter should be used that b practi-
cal for the work at hand.
When making vertical or overhead
welds, o/16" is tbe largest diameter elec-
trode that should be used regard less
of the base me tal thickness. Large r
electrodes make it too di!Ticult to con-
trol the depos ited metal. Ord inarily. a
fast-freeze electrode is best for verti-
cal and overhead welding.
The diameter of the electrode is
also influenced by joint dc~ign. On
thick metal wi th a narrow root. a small-
diameter e lectrode is used to deposit
the root bead to ensure thorough pen-
etration at the root of the we ld. Suc-
cessive passes are then made with
larger diameter electrode'>. if neces-
sary.
Joint Design and Fit- Up. Joint~ with
im.ufficiently beveled edges require
deep-pene trati ng, fas t-freeze elec-
trodes. T his type of e lectrode has a dig-
ging characterist ic and may req ui re
more skillful electrode manipulation by
the welder. Joints with open gaps need
a mild. penetrating. fill-frcc1.e electrode
that rapidly bridges gaps.
Welding Position. The position of the
weld joint must be considered when se-
lecting an electrode. Some electrodes pro-
duce better results when welding is done
in Oat position. Other electrode~ are de-
signed for vertical. hori1.ontal, and
overhead welding. See Figure 9-5.
foigurY 9-5. Tiff! t'IN·tm(/t• ff'l~·tM
nun:t b,. malt:lrc-d Itt llu: JHt.\ itwn
Uj th~ HY[c/ j<1i111-
Welding Current and Polarity. Elec-
trodes arc specified for DCEP. DCEN, If wt•lding ;,, to be
done"" a J)C \1'1'/d-
o r AC cu rren t, altho ugh some e lec- iug machbw, du:d:
trodes work wi th AC or DC curren t. 1\'hetha l>Ct.N or
To minimit.e polarity confusion, DCEP ;, need<'dfor
tile partiml11r elec-
manufacturers now designate straight
tnNI~ to In: uH•tl.
polarity elect r odes as DCEN and re-
verse polarity electrodes as DCEP.
Production Efficiency. Deposition rate
is important in prod ucti on work. The
faste r a weld ca n be made. the lower
the cost. Noc all electrodes have a
high-speed. h igh-current rating with
the ability to produce smooth. even
bead ripples. Unless electrodes arc
noted for a fast deposition rate. they
may prove very d ifficult to hand le
w hen used at high-speed travel.
Service Conditions. The service rc-
qu i rements of the part be ing welded
may demand special weld deposit~. For
example. high corrosion resistance.
ductility, or high strength may be im-
ponant factors. In such cases, electrodes
must be selected that will produce these
spcci (ic ~:haracteristics.
Conserving and Storing
Electrodes
Most electrodes are costly: therefore.
Useanelectnxle rmrll
I
consume as much of the electrode as tXlS·
tht• stub i.\ no /mrgt•r
sible. Do not d iscard stub ends until they 1han I $2H to 2H.
are clown to I W' to 2" long. See Figure 9-6.
Store electrodes in a dty place. at nom1al
room tcmpcr.uure. with a SQ<'ro maximum
relative humidity. When exposed to mois-
ture. the coating tends to disintegrate.
SMA\V Se/ecti11g Electrmle\ 0 109
"Figure ~. Ute t4ectrodcs lUifll the electrodes shou ld be stored separately
stubs lwwt bc·~n COIM'fllll(>~/ tlown to
/'11" to 2"' Jong.
from other types of e lect rodes. When
s toring any type of electrode, do not
bump, bend, or step on the electrodes.

.!
-· ....
Damaged or chipped e lectrodes are
useless and must be discarded.

Srore eleNrodes in 11
dry ploce wlrere tire
coating camrot be
dtmwged.
/.'I
" ..
Low-hydrogen elect rodes are espe-
cially vu lnerable to moi s ture. Low-
hydrogen electrodes, such as E-70 18,
afte r bei ng removed from their
moistureproof coma iner, should be
stored in heated drying ovens at
250°F to 300°F. Stationary and por-
tab le drying ovens are often used for
storing e lect rodes at specified hold-
ing temperatures. Low - hydrogen
ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
Electrodes can be classified by type
as mild steel, iron powder, and low-
hydrogen. See Figure 9-7. Electrodes
arc commonly grouped as fast-free;;e,
fill-freeze, and fast-fi ll.
A fast freeze electrode is an electrode
that produces a snappy, deep-penetrating
arc and fast-freez ing deposit. Fast-
freeze electrodes produce little s lag
and flat beads. They are used for
all-position welding for fabrication and
repair work. They are preferred for
vertical and overhead posit ion.

AU Fast-freeze

OCEN Shallow penetration,

E-6012
AC ALL good bead contour,
Fill-freeze
minimum spatter,
E-6013 DCEP. DCEN, AC
for poor
DCEP High deposition,
E·6020 DCEN FLAT, HORIZONTAL deep groove single· Fast-fill
welds
High deposition,
E·6027 DCEN FLAT, HORIZONTAL deep penetration Fast-fill
AC

DCEP Low penetration,

E-7014 DCEN ALL high speed Fill-freeze
AC
DCEP High deposition,
E-7024 OCEN FLAT, HORIZONTAL single and Fast-fill
AC
DCEP
E-7016 ALL Welding of high-sulfur
AC
and high-carbon steels Fill-freeze
DCEP
E-7018 ALL that tend to develop
AC
porosity and crack
OCEP under weld bead
E·7028 FLAT, HORIZONTAL Fast-fill
AC
OCEP-<Iirect c:utrent etectrodo posl!lwt
OCEf'+..$et:t current cloeltOde n09<1.tive
AC~Iternatang current

Figure 9-7. AWS dtusn of ch."t:lnKJes ctm be further rllll'gorized by type. such ll~t milt! steel, irou puwdtr. and low-hydrogen, cm:lt including
se~·e,.ttl /!WS classifkmions tmtl httvinf: ctrtai11 welding (:hamtteri.~tic.f.

110 ~ Welding Skills

 Figurt 9-8. Mild ftul ~lrrtMtl,.f
A jillfree~e electrode is an electrode MILD STEEL ELECTRODE ur~und fur morn- xrone~l ~ t'IJT
that has a moderately forceful arc and CURRENT SETTINGS m.f( OfJ~rations. u,J Ctfrft'nt ft't·
tm.~s ,·ary dttf~ltdmR thr 'ri:t
deposit rate. The arc and deposit rates till
af tlrt t'lecuodt.
arc between those of the fast-freeze and
¥... 60-90
fast-fill electrodes. Fill-freeze elec- ~ 80 -120
trodes have complete s lag coverage ¥.12 110 -160
and weld beads with disti net, even E·6010 o/i• 150-200
ripple~. They are a general-purpose 'h> 175-250
electrode for production shops and arc v. 225-300
250-450
panicularly useful for repair work and
joints with poor fit-up. They can be
""'¥.12
~
50-90
60-130
used in all positions, though they are E-6011 ¥.12 120-180
:y,. 140-220
not recommended for vertical and
~ 170-250
overhead welding. v. 225-325
A fast-jill electrode is an iron pow- ¥... 40-90
der electrode that has a soft arc and ~ 80- 120
fast deposit rate. These electrodes have E-6012 ¥.12 120-190
¥.. 140-240
a heavy slag and produce exception- 9.12 180-315
ally smooth weld beads. They arc gen- y, 225-350
erally used for production welding Yta 20-40
where all work can be performed m %. 25-50
¥... 30-80
flat posi tion.
~ 80 - 120
E-6013
¥.12 120-190

___ _
Mild Steel Electrodes :y,. 140-240
~ 225-300
The most commonly used mild steel
electrode is E-60 I 0. because of itS pen-
........._ y.
... 50 350

etration and fast-freeze capabilities.

The current settings for mi ld steel elec-
trodes arc determined by the size of
the electrode. Commonly used mild
steel electrodes include e 60 I 0. E 60 II,
E-6012. and E-6013. See Figure 9-8.
E-60 I 0. The E-60 I0 electrode is an
all-position, fast-freeze electrode. ft is
suitable only with DCEP. and is de-
signed primarily for welding mild and
low-alloy steels. It shou ld be used only
where there is good fit-up. The E-6010
electrode has wide applications in ship
construction. buildings. bridges. tanks.
and piping.
E-60 II. The E-60 II electrode is simi-
lar to the E-60 I0 except that it can also
be used on AC weld ing machines. Al-
though the electrode can be used with
DCEP, it does not work quite as well
as the E-6010. Its current selling is
slightly lower than for the E-6010.
E-6012. The E-6012 electrode is a
fill -freeze eleCII·ode that may be used
on either DC or AC welding machines.
When it is used on DC welding ma-
chines, the current must be set for elec-
trode negative. An E-60 12 electrode
provides med um penetration. a quiet
arc, slight spaucr, and dense slag. Al-
though it is considered an all-position
electrode, it is more commonly used
for flat and horizontal position welds.
This electrode is especially useful for
bridging gaps on work with poor
fit-up. Higher currents can be used
with the E-6012 electrodes than with
any other type of all-position electrode.
E-6013. The t:l-6013 electrode is simi-
lar to the 6 -60 12, wi th a few cxccp
tions. With the E-60 13, slag is removed
easily and the arc can be maintained
more easily. especially with small -
diameter electrodes. permitting bellcr

SMA IV - Selecti11g Electrodrf ~ Ill

 operation with lower open-circuit volt·
age. The bead deposited is noticeably
nauer and &moolhcr but has shallower
penetration than the E-6012 electrode.
Although the E-60 13 electrode is used
panicularly for welding sheet metal. it
ha' many other applications. It works
well in all positions and it functions
best with AC welding machines.
When u~ed with DC welding ma-
chllles. electrode po~itive or electrode
negative rna} be used.

Iron Powder Electrodes

l ron powder electrodes are those that
contain a high iron powder content.
Iron powder electrodes are designed
for welding mild steel where high speed .., ..
1 range~ nwy varv depOndlng on mlt'lt.ltaclurOf
and fast deposition rate are required.
Figure 9-9. lmn fton<tll'r t'lt't'lrotlt:\ lun ·~ \'llrnmJ
The three principal types of iron pow- t•urrtlll stUitrJ:.~. tltptmii"R m1 ''.:r, muf arr nmt·
der electrodes are E-6027. E-70 14. nwufy UMd for jollll-\ rl'quirfu~r: hi~-th h'l'ld Mtt•ngtlt.

and E- 7024. a ll of which produce

low ~patter with easy s lag removal.
Typical applications inc lude railroad
cars; earth-moving equipment; posi-
tioned welds in pressure vessels: pip-
ing: and ships. The E-7014 and E-7024
arc often used where higher strength
joints are nece~sary. See Figure 9-9.
1/t.obcur V.tiJrn
Elt•ctrrwlt•f till' tlt·~i!~m!tlto mrN tlrtllll:t' ~{\t't/tliii8IU'et/,,·. &letJiou $/umld bt based 011
tlw t'lltll"fli"ll'l'i'ilic.t (iftlw uwtul to br wt•ldrtl.
112 ~ Weldin~: SW/.1
E-6027. The IZ-6027 clcctrod(! produces
h igh-qua lity w(!lds for high -spe(!d
deposi1ion of \1.1'' and 6/16" hori zonta l
fillets: for groove and fillet welds in
lhe nat position: and for cover passes
o n groove welds where complete
coverage a1\d good bead appearance
are required. DCEN or AC may be
u~ed. A drag welding technique b rec-
ommended to l.cep the cover over both
legs of fillet welds.
E-7014. The E-7014 electrode is a fa.t-fill
or fast-freet.e electrode u-.ed when high
speed is neces~:tl'} . E-7014 electrodes
may be used in all po'>itiOO'> with OCEP.
DCEN. or AC. The E-7014 electrode
deposits much more metal than an
E-6012 or E·6013 type. It j, particularly
effective in downhill welding.
E-7024. The E· 7024 electrode is a
fast-fill electrode that i' exceptionally
economy for single- or multiple-pass
welds. It is also excellent for buildup
applications because of its high depo-
sition rate amd easy s lag removal. The
E-7024 is recommended only for flat
and horizontal positions. but can be
used with DCEP, DCEN. or AC.
Low-Hydrogen Electrodes
Low-hydrogen elecuodes arc de~igned
for welding high-sulfur and medium-
or high-carbon steels. When such steels
:u'C welded, they tend to develop cracks
under the weld bead because of hydro-
gen absorption from arc atmospheres.
Low-hydrogen electrode~ were devel-
oped to prevent the introduction of hy-
drogen into the weld and liAZ adjacent
to the weld. Basic low-hydrogen elec-
trode~ are E- 7016. E-70 18, and
E-7028. The most common ly used
low-hydrogen elecuotlc is E-70 18 be-
cause of its fast-fill capabi lity. reduced
cracking on heavy section~. good ap- ts.lB ..~.. I. c........ t>r.........
pearance. and ability to be ul>Cd to weld ~f«1111g Ill~ f'rrli><'T ~~~ctrr><k ('IISIIT~S /lull II </lUI{II\ 11~/d can /1(' prr><ltu t•tf

high carbon ~teels. See Figure 9-10.

E-7018. The E-7018 electrode i' a
E-7016. The E-7016 electrode is an low-hydrogen electrode. but it abo
all-position electrode suit:lhle for AC contains iron powder. It is a high ·
or DCEP. It is especially recommended :;peed, fa~t -deposition-rate e lectrode
for wcldi ng bardenable steels where no designed to pass the most severe X-ray
preheat is used. and where stress re- requirements when applied in all weld-
lieving nonnally would be required but ing positions, using either AC or DCEP.
cannot be performed. Its weld pool Ouidity penniL\ gases to
escape when the lowest current~ arc
used for out-of-position welding.
LOW-HYDROGEN ELECTRODE E-7028. The E-7028 e lectrode is a
CURRENT SETTINGS low-hydrogen electrode with a heavy
iron powder covering. The E-7028 is
~ E~~ considered the counterpart of the
~ 75- t05
E-7018, but it is recommended for Oat
Mo 100-150
¥.R 140- 190 and horizontal positions only.
E-7016
:v.. 190-250
~ 250-300
v. 300-375 VARIABLES OF SELECTING
%z 70-120 ELECTRODES
Mo 100- 150
¥.R 120- 200 Variables nom1ally associated with moM
E-7018
¥.o 200-275 types of welding include deposition r.ue;
'h. 275-350 depth of penetration: appeamnce and
v. 300-400
undercutting; soundness. ductility. and
~ 175-250
:v.. 250-325 low-impact strength of the weld.
E-7028
'h> 300-400 degree of spatter; quality of fit-U[> re-
v. 375-475 quired; welder appeal: and degree of
slag removal. Additionally. the type of
metal to be welded, such a~ thin metal.
•~i~ure 9-10. fAw... hyd.rog~n tll'omdt\ 11U r~t:om· heavy ~teel. or high-sulfur or off•
tffftn~lt·d fiJr ftuls -..cuh high·sulfur and higltrturfxM
analy&is Mecl. is a detenninant in the type
(('"'''"1- Cuf'l'~nt s~mngs dttwnd un 1hc si~ ofJitt
tltc troclt of elecuodc to use. See Figure 9-11.
SMAIV St'lecti11g Electmdl's ~ 113
Groove butl welds, nat ( < I"') 5 5 3 8 to 9 9 7 9 tO 10

Groove butt welds, all positions(< I"') 10 9 5 8 (b) 6 (b) 7 6 (b) (b)

Fillet welds, flat or horizontal 2 3 8 7 9 9 10 5 9 9 10

Fillet welds, all positions 10 9 6 7 (b) 7 (b) 8 6 (b) (b)

Curre<tt (C)' DCEP DCEP DCEN DC DC DC DC DCEP DCEP DCEP DC

AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC
Thin material ( I"') 5 7 8 9 (b) 8 7 2 2 (b) (b)

Heavy plate or highly restrained joint 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 10 9 9 8

High·sullur or OH·analysis steel (b) (b) 5 3 (b) 3 5 9 9 9 (b)

Deposition mte 4 4 5 5 10 6 10 4 6 8 6

Depth of penetrallon 10 9 6 5 8 6 4 7 7 7 8
Appearance, undercutting 6 6 8 9 tO 9 tO 7 10 10 9

Soundness 6 6 3 5 9 7 8 10 9 9 9

Ductility 6 7 4 5 10 6 5 10 10 tO 10

Low-temperature impact strength 8 8 4 5 9 8 9 10 10 tO 8

Low spatter foss 2 6 7 10 9 10 6 8 9 9

Poorfit·up 6 7 10 8 (b) 9 8 4 4 4 (b)

Welder appeal 7 6 8 9 10 10 10 6 8 9 9
Slag removal 9 8 6 8 9 8 9 4 7 8 9
• Ra~ Is on o CQmPIJt"&INe be$1S ol same-s1ze efeclrOdes wtlh to as lhe ~ w h..e. Aalings may change With sb:a
lAWS
' OCE,~ c:urront ~rode posi!M:: OC£H-d•rec1 curroot e4edtode noga~MY. AC--altemaling curmnt, DC-<flfeCI curreol, eilhef po&arily
(b) Not rocommenclod

Figure 9-11. Electrodes ure r01etl based 011 llrt.ir suiwbility 10 lht different CO!tdilions to '~·hich they will be subj~cud.

Although there are a variety of elec-
trode classification charts that list the
basic characteristics or differences in
electrodes. many of the variables
encountered in production often require
testing to detemune the suitability of an
electrode for a specific application. By
first analyzing the variables in terms
of their importance in a weld.ing sit-
uation, considerable time and effort can
be saved. The suitabi lity of an electrode
for use with cenain types of joints, such
as groove bull welds and fi llct welds,
ca n be rated to help determine the
proper e lectrode to use.
114 ~ Welding Skills
The variables have a relative rating
ranging from I to I 0, with I 0 as Lbe
highest value and I the lowest. These
variables and their corresponding rat-
ings arc based on experience and are
intended primarily as an aid in the elec-
trode selection process. For example.
if high-sulfur steel is tO be welded,
either E-70 16 or E-70 18 electrodes
should be used.
ff poor fit-up is the problem. elec-
trode E-60 12 is considered the best
e lectrode. If the deposition rate is the
primary factor, then e ither E-6027 or
E-7024 is the most suitable.
Special Electrodes
Special electrodes are used for specific
appUcations. on specific materials, to
obtain particular surface characteris-
tics. or for health and envirol!llDent rea-
sons. For example, some electrodes are
environmentally safe and eiiJlit no ra-
diation or radioactive gases; release
no contamination to the atmosphere;
and produce no contamination dur-
ing grind ing or machining. Some
special electrodes require very litLle
heat input.
Special electrodes are used to allow
welding of certain materials. 10 improve
welding time and quality in specific
applications such as underwater, cx-
tre me heat, extreme cold, or where
the surface to be welded cannot be
completely cleaned of dirt, paint, or
other material. Welding operations
such as surfa.cing and gouging are pos-
sible using special electrodes.
A variety of special electrodes are
available to nneet the particular welding
requirements of metals such as aluminwn.
cast iron, nickel, copper. magnesium.
titanium, alloy metals, and tool steels.
Special e lectrodes prevent c racking
and embrittlemenl and may all ow dis-
similar metals to be welded.
Special electrodes can be used to
build up a base metal surface to allow
machining. or to harden the weld for
grinding. Special electrodes can also
add corrosion resistance to a weld and
allow a weld to be galvanized.

[~lil•ll~iftC•Ji~3~14~!:13i-

I. Use the correct type of electrode for the weld ing to be done.
2. Some electrodes can only be used when welding with DC currem: others are only used with
AC current.
3. Lf welding is to be done using DC current, determ ine whether DCEN or DCEP is needed for
tbe particular elecrr<Ode to be used.
4. Select an electrode with a diameter that is about one-half the thickness of the metal to be
we lded.
5. Use an electrode unti.l the stub is no longer than I 'h'' to 2".
6. Store electrodes in a dry place where the coating cannot be damaged.

SMAW - Selecting Elecllvdes o@: HS

 I. What is: the difference between bare and shielded elect1·odes?
2. Why are bare e lectrodes rarely used?
3. What are the functions of the heavy coating on shielded elecn·odes?
4. What has been done to ensure uniformity of e lectrode spccilleations'l
5. What symbols have been adopted to ident ify differem types of e leen·odes?
6. Explain the identifying symbols of the electrode classification E-6010.
7. What is an all-position e lectrode?
8. How C<'l n the c urrent and polarity an e lectrode is designed for be determ ined?
9. What factors should be taken into consideratiOii when selecting a1i electrode for a job?
I 0. Why are smaller diameter electrodes used for overhead welding?
I I. What precautions must be taken in storing e lectrodes?
12. What is the specific feature of electrodes with coatings containing powdered iron?
13. Why are low-hydrogen electrodes used?
14 . What are some of the specific characteristics of electrodes designated as fast-freeze?
15. Some e lectrodes are classiJied as fill-freeze. What does th is mean?
J 6. For what types of welding are fast-till e lectrodes intended?
17. What is the function of slag in the welding process?
18. How does joint design affect the diameter of the electrode used?
19. What organization is responsible for establishing a standard numerical electrode classifie<1tion?
20. Which e lectrodes provide deep penetration?

116 ~ We/di11g Skills

 - Striking

SMAW requires maste1y of a specific series of operations through practice. Once these skills have been
acquired. they can be applied on any welding job. The first basic SMAW operation is leaming to strike an
arc and deposit a straight bead.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF duces an unstable welding arc. re-

SUSTAINING A WELDING ARC duces penetration. increases spat-
ter, causes nat and wide beads. and
The success of any welding operation prevents the gas shield from pro-
depends upon a stable arc. See Figure tecting th e molten pool from at-
I 0-l. To sustain a stable arc, four basic mospheric co ntamination. If too
e lements are necessary: short an arc is used, the arc does
• Machine sell in g. Th e welding not create enough heat to melt the
machine must be adjusted to the base metal. the e lectrode has a ten-
required cu rrent setting. Current is dency ro stick, penetration is poor.
the now of electricity (electrons) and uneven beads with irregular
and is regulated by a control on ripples result.
the welding machine. The current
• Travel speed . Travel speed is the
used depends on the size and type
rdte at which the electrode is moved
of electrode used. ihe position of
the weld. and the base metal. The along the weld joint. Factors such
machine setting also depends on as s ize and type of e lectrode, cur-
rent , weld position, and base metal
the design of the welding machine.
affect the speed of travel necessary
• Electrode angle. Electrode angle is for completing a sound weld.
the angle at which the electrode is
held during the welding process.
Using the correct electrode angle
ensures proper penetration and
bead formation. As different positions
and we ld joints become necessary,
the e lectrode angle becomes in -
creasingly important in obtaining
a satisfactory weld.
Arc length. A proper arc length, of
approximately 1/s", between the
electrode and the work is essential
to generate the heat needed for "'""£'"'""'""·'-""•"·-··
welding. An arc that is too long pro.. A smble lJrt is maimainetl tlurillK welding w eu.~ure the recJuired weltl clwn~ereri.ttics.

117
Figure 10.1. ProJJtr 111in:lu'm! $el·
ti11gs, electrode tmglt!, arr leflglh,
Sustaining a Welding Arc
ond lrtl'-'t'l .wec•tl nre "ete...stJry in Figure 10-1
order IIJ susWill tm ntc during
wl'ldi1tg.

Millni-J,.,·u~Mn~~"ftKturlNt ~

G) SET MACHINE TO PROPER SETIINGS ® USE PROPER ELECTRODE ANGLE

Inspect tfu~ equ;t,·

mem before stc11ing
to welt/.

® MAINTAIN CORRECT ARC LENGTH 0 MAI)ITAIN PROPER TRAVEL SPEED

Chec king and Adjusting I . Lnspect the lead connections to

~
Set the polarityswitch
IQ tire rccom~trended
Equipment make certain they are tight.
~- position.
Equ ipment for SMAW includes a weld- 2. Make sure the bench top and base
ing machine, electrode. electrode holder, metal to be welded are dry and free
electrode lead, workpiece lead, and from dirt, rust, and grease.
workpiece connection. See Figure 10-2. 3. Select the proper polarity.
Equipment must be checked regularly 4. Adjust the welding mach ine con-
to ensure quality welding. To start the trol unit for the current needed for
welding opemtion, follow the procedure: the selected electrode.
118 ~ Welding Skills
 Figure I 0-2. Et111ipm<11t for SMA\V
SMAW Equipment inc/udc>J a w~ldU1g mnchi"~· ~~~C·
Figure 10-2 trode. t!l~ctrod~ lrolllu. ~Jt>ctrnde
lttNI. "YJriqli«e lead. curd workpiece
t•om•~ctiou.

WELDING MACHIIIE

ELECTRODE
LEAD

ELECTRODE
HOLDER

WORKPIECE WORKPIECE
CONNECTION LEAD
ELECTRODE

Do twl iay the eiec-

Gripping the Electrode
Place the bare end of the electrode in
the electrode holder. See Figure 10-3.
By gripping the electrode near the
end, most of the coated portion can be
used. Keep the jaws of the electrode
holder clean 1.0 ensure good electrical
contact w ith the elec1rode.
Do not touch the welding bench
mxle /wider on the
with an uninsulated electrode holder, benclr while curreiJI
as this causes a flash. When not in use. is flowing.
hano0 the electrode holder in the place
provided for it. Grip the electrode
holder lightly in the band. If the elec-
trode holder is held too tightly, the
hand and arm will tire quickly.

Adjusting the Current Reiett.<e lire e/ec-

The recommended current setting

specified for tbe electrode is only ap-
I lrodP if it slicks to
the workpiece.

proximate. Final adjustment of lhe

current value is made after beginning
the welding operation. For example,
the current range for the e lectrode
may be 90 A to 100 A. Before start-
ing to weld. set the current control mid-
A CAUTION 1
way between the two limits, which in
this case is 95 A. Once the welder is Keep combuslible
materials away from the
able to strike an arc and run short weld welding area. o.s Oying
beads, the welding current should be spaNs nnd spatter may
ignile nammable
figu~ 10-3. Plt1c~ the bare ell(/ (lj tht eleclrotle ;n
varied to see how it affects the welding m:nerials.
tf1e elcctmde holder. heat.
SMA IV - Striking att Arc :@: 1'19
 Turn the current down about 5 A No specific rules can be given for
Swn willttlle recom·
mended current
and check for any differences when the final current setting because many
l'llllKt' atu/ adjtL~Itfle depos iting a bead. Then turn it down factors are involved. such as the ski ll
,·urrenl as neces· a nother 5 A and aga in try to run a of the welde-r, welding position, type
Sttry <ifter wt~lding
bead. As the current is reduced. it be- of metal. and nature of the welding job.
befiills.
comes apparent that there is inS\Iffi- The abili ty to make the final adjust-
cient heat to melt the base metal. men t comes with experience.
Fu rthermore, as the electrode burns
off, it does not fuse with the base
metal but lies on the surface as spat-
ter, which eas ily scrapes off afte r

I
Alwavs shr.a OFF
rhe '~;elding ma~
chine when let,ving
the weltling bench.
welding.
Reverse the process by gradually
raising the cu rrent. Turn the machi ne
0 Arc weltling equipmem must be instttlled
and groundcc/, with the 11ct.:essary discon..
up 5 A in several steps and each time nects, fuses. and incoming power line.t. in
nm short beads. As the current is in - accortlauce with requirements of ANSI/
NFPA 70, the National Eleclrica) Code•.
creased, the arc gets hotter and the anll rele~'Ont local C{)(/es.
electrode melts faster.

u~lil•''~.,.,,.,i~3l'113®' ~'*-
I. Inspect the equipment before starting to weld.
2. Set ihe polarity switch lo ibe recommended position.
3. Do not lay the elecu·ode holder on the bench wh ile current is nowing.
4. Release the electrode if it sticks to the workpiece.
5. Start with the recommended current mnge and adjust tbe current as
necessary after welding begins.
6. Always shut OFF the weldi og machine when leaving the welding bench.

120 @: Welding Skills

~Exercises

Striking the Arc exercise

•••••• •••••••••••••••

I . Obtain a piece of W' mild steel.

2. Posiuon the workpiece in flat position.

3. Use Vs" or %2"; E-6012, E-6013, or E-7024 electrode. Insert the electrode in the e lectrode
holder and set the welding machine for the correct current.

4. Two methods can be used to s trike the arc- the tapping me thod and the scratching method.
The tapping method is preferred by experienced welders; however, the scratc hing method is
easier.
Ln the tapping method , the electrode is brought straight down to contact the workpiece and is
withdrawn instantly. With the scratching melhod. lhe electrode is moved at an angle in contact
wi th the workpiece in a scratching motion, much like striking a match. Regardless of the mo-
tion used, upon contact with the workpiece, promptly raise the electrode a distance equal to the
diameter of the electrode; otherwise, the electrode will stick to the workpiece. 1f aiJowed to
stick with the current flowing,
the e lectrode becomes red hot.
Should the electrode weld fast
to the workpiece, break it
loose by quickly twisting or
bending the electrode holder.
If it should fail to dislodge.
disengage the electrode by re-
leas in g it from the electrode
holder. TAPPING
DIRECTION
OF WELDING
S. Practice striking an arc until
the ope rati on can be per-
formed quickly and easily.

SCRATCHING

SMAW - Striking on Arc ~ 121

 Depositing Short Weld Beads exA~llrc:i~se~~~~•~IJ
••••• •• •• •• •• •• ••¥
I. Obtain a piece of mild steel.
2. With a soapstone, draw a se-
ries of lines on the WORK ANGLE
workpiece, each line ap-
proximately 2" in length and
%" apart.
3. Position the workpiece so the
lines are in flat position.
4. Deposit a continuous bead END VIEW
over each line, moving the
15" TO 25'
electrode from left to right. TRAVEL ANGLE
Hold lhe elecrrode in a verti-
cal position and angle the
electrode holder slightly to-
ward the end of the weld.

-
DIRECTION
This is lhe travel angle. .,
OF WELDING

5. Move the electrode just rap- -.._-.__

idl y enoug h so depos ited
SIDE VIEW
meta l has t ime to penetrate
inw the workpiece. If the
curren t is set properly and
the arc is maintained at lhe correct length. there will be a conrinuous crackling or frying noise.
A n arc that is too long makes a humming sound. Too short of an arc makes a popping _sound.
Notice lhe action of the molten weld pool and how the rrailing edge of the weld pool solidifies
as the electrode travels forward.
The appearance of the weld pool is an indication of how well a weld is being made. If lhe
molten metal is clear and bright, it means that no molten slag is mixing with the weld pool.
Slag is brinle and when it nows in the molten metal the weld is weakened. Normally. if the
edges of the weld bead have a dull, irregular appearance, it means that slag is being rrappcd in
the weld pool.

I. How does arc length affect a weld?

2. Why must the current be adjusted for a particu lar welding operation?
3. What equipment checks are made before proceeding to weld?
4. Why should the elecrrode be clamped at its extreme end?
5. Why shou ld the electrode holder never be placed on the workbench while the current is ON?
6. What two methods may be used in striking an arc?
7. When striking an arc, why should the electrode be withdrawn instantly?
8. What should be done if the elecn·ode welds fast to the plate?
9. The arc should be maintained at approx imately what length?

122 ~ We/di11g Skills

To produce a quality weld, a welder must be able to manipulate the electrode and rmderstand certain
weld characteristics. A welder must be knowledgeable about factors that colllribute to good quality
and poor quality welds. Quality welds are produced by using the correct welding procedures, properly
cleaning the weld, mul preveming contamination of the weld.

ESSENTIALS OF ARC WELDING Figure 11·1. Heat from tltt! art'

mdts lite bilSt! mcltJI. farming a
The characteristics of the electrode cratu ;,ro wlli('/r molttll base
mew/ allil fillu metal t'OJt flow m
must be known to ensure that the creott (I quali(v butd.
proper elecu·ode is selected for each
welding operation. The electrode must
also be able to maintain its metal prop-
erties after deposition. Without the
proper electrode. it is almost impos-
sible to achieve the desired results, re-
gardless of the welding technique used.
As welding is performed, the heat
from the arc mclls the base metal,
forming a crater into which the mol-
ten base metal and filler metal flow.
As welding proceeds. the molten
metal solidifies and a layer of slag 0 17te condition ofelectrode holders musr be
considered when sefting arc welding vari~
forms on top of the weld. See Figure ables. Elecuooe holders ar11 exposed ro ex-
Il-l. The following factors allow for tremely high hem <m a n•gularbasis. which
a quality weld with the proper penetra- <'Wtses rhem to dereriomte rapidly. Elec-
rrrxle holders should 1~ checked regularly
tion: electrode selection, arc length. Jo tmsure tlmtthey have uoz worn ow <mti
current, travel speed. and electrode that <:<trre/11 flows freely ro rite elecrmde.
ang le.

~
Use rhe proper elec-
Electrode Selection Arc Length trodefor elicit weld-
Electrode selection must take into ac- Lf the arc length is too long, the metal ~- ing operation.

count the position of the weld, the
propenies of the base metal, the diam-
eter of the electrode, the type of joint,
and the current. Different electrodes
are manufactured to meet various
welding requirements.
melts off the electrode in large globule.~
that wobble as the arc wavers. These
large globules produce a wide, spanerecl
and irregular bead with insufficient fu-
sion between the base metal and the
deposited metal. An arc length that is

123

The urr lcnglh
<lum/J be upproxi-
mut~l.v tMdi•urtel~r
<{lilt' •l•cln>ik.
Mttinwin a travel
SJH!t''' tllot is )llJ'tfast
~liuu~lr to produce
t•wwlySfN.U·edripples.
fo'IAurt 11·2. Ctlfft'<'l vrc lmgth
I.\ ,t'tt'Hm'l· fur fiWfH'r Mad for-
"'"''""
UM! tlw cmnct ('liT·
rt'lll for a JKt11icular
t~lt•cfmtlt·.
124 @o \\'t-ltli11g Skills
too shon fail\ to gener.ue enough heat
to mel! the base metal properly. produc-
ing high. uneven beads with irregular
ripples. Depositing welds using roo
shon an arc length also increases the
possibility of the electrode sticking to
the workpiece.
The arc length required depends on
the size of e lectrode used and the
welding ta;.k. Small-diameter elec-
trodes require a ~honer arc length than
large-diameter electrodes. For beuer
conrrol of the weld pool. the arc length
should typically be approximately the
diameter of the electrode. For example.
an electrode 1/s"' in diameter should
have an arc length of about 1/s". A
shorter arc length b typically used for
horimntnl. vcnicnl. and overhead weld-
ing because it gives beuer control of
the weld pool.
The proper arc lengt h also prevents
impu rities from enteri ng a weld. A cor-
rect weld bead has the proper height
and width and uniform ly spaced
ripples . A long arc length allows the
atmosphere to now into the weld area,
permiuing impurities of nitrides and
oxide.~ to form. Additionally. when the
arc length is too long. heat from the
arc stream is dissipated too rapidly,
cau,;ing considemble metal spatter. Sec
Figure 11 -2. If the arc length is too
short. the bead will have a narrow
width and exces~ive height.
Arc length Effects
Ftgure 11 -2
CORRECT
ARC LENGTH TOO SHORT
Current Selection
For the de.,ircd weld chamcteristics. the
correct current (AC. DCEP. OCEN) for
a panicular electrode must be used. If
the current is too high. the electrode
melt~ too fnst and the weld pool is hu·gc,
irregular. and hard to conrrol. Excessive
spauer may also occur. When the weld-
ing current is too low. there is not
enough heat to melt the base metal and
the weld pool will be too small. The re-
sult is poor fw.. ton. beads that pile up
on the b:t~ metal and are irregular in
shape. and the electrode can stick to the
metal. Too low a current setting also
causes the arc to continually break.
Travel Speed
If the tmvel ~peed is too fast. the weld
pool docs nor 1~1 long enough and im-
purities are locked in the weld. The re-
sulting bead is narrow, with pointed
ripples. If the r.mvcl speed is too slow. the
meta l piles up excessively on the base
metal and the bead is high and wide, with
straight ripple<. The correct tr.1vel speed
produces a \tnooth weld bead with
evenly spaced ripples. See Figure I 1-3.
Bead Characteristics
Figure 11 -3
CURRENT TOO HIGH
TRAVEL SPEED TOO FAST
fW UM•I'hr /!h1n. GIIIII/JUfl)
Fig u ~ 11·3. l 1tof1N ht'mlformaticm i.f dtJ1rtrdtllt
m(mV t.'llfwhJr,, h/litll IIIUJI IN' l'OIIIfVIIrd fllfJI't·
()fl
l't'lll (I fHJOr·(itW/;1\• .~ad.
Electrode Angle
The electrode angle affects the weld
bead shape. particularly io fillet and
deep groove welds. The electrode
ang lc is detennined by the travel angle
and the work angle. Travel angle is an
angle less than 90° between the elee-
trode axis and a line perpendicular ro
the weld axis and in a plane detennined
by the e lectrode axis and the weld axis.
The travel angle i~ <llong the weld <~xis
and. varies from 5" to 30° from the ver-
tical. depending on welder preference
and conditions. Work angle is an angle
less than 90° in a line perpendicular to
the workpiece and in a plane detenuined
by \he electrode axis and the weld axis.
For example, the work angle nom1ally
is 90° when making a groove weld in
flal position.
Ordinari ly. a slight <UJgle of the elec-
trade in either direction from the work
angle does not affect weld appearance
or qua lity. However, when undercuts
Electrode Angles
Figure 11-4
\ _WELD AXIS GROOVE WELDS
First Pass Second Pass
MULTIPLE-PASS FILLET WELDS
occur in the vertica l plate of a fi Ilet
~
weld. the angle of the arc should be The deplh of pen-
erration should be
lowered and the arc directed more
toward the vertical plate. Work angle
- o11e-1hird 1n o11e-ha/f
Jbe Jo/a/Jiric!Jres.v of
rlre we/(/ becul.
is especially important in multiple-pass
fillet welds. See Figure 11 -4.
CRATER FORMATION
As tbe arc comes in contact with the
base metal, a, crater is formed. A ,.,-a-
ter is a depression (pool or pocket) in
lhe molten base metal made by the arc.
The size and! depth of a crater deter-
mine the amount of penetration. In
general, the depth of penetration should
be one-third to one-half the total thick-
ness of the bead. depending on the size
of the e lectrode. See Figure 11-5.
To obtain a sound weld, the metal
i-
deposited from the electrode must fuse Be sure tire mnlt/!11
mel(l/ fmm tire el«-
completely with the base metal. Fusion JmdejiL'ii!Sl'OiryJietdy
results onl y when the base metal has wilh tire lx1se mew/.
been heated to a molten stare and the
Fi2urc 11 ·4. The corret't dec··
trt){/c CIJI/:1(' ;~ rcquirt•d 1u makl: a
fJrO(Jf!f Wt•fd.
WORK ANGLE
LESS THAN
90" FROM
HORIZONTAL
Third Pass
SMAW - Depo>ilill~ a Comimw11s /Jead ~ 125
 molten metal from the e lectrode
readily flows into it. If the arc length is
too short, there is insufficient heat to
form the correct size crater. When the
arc length is too long, the heat is not
centralized or intense enough to form
the desi red crater.
Figure 11·5. nu~ tlep1h of 111~ tm~
tt r imli<'alts 1/re amomu of pelt· DIRECTION
e/mlit>ll ;, 1/ur weld. OF TRAVEL
ELECTRODE
Re.rwnthe electrode
'l2q from lhe front
edge afthe t>reviously
made craleY. mm,e
the arc ll<lck through
PENETRATION
the crater to remelt (~TO ~BEAD
rhe weld pool. and METAL
conlimtl! weltling.
Controlling Craters
An improperly filled crater does not
produce the required weld strength
and may cause a weld to fail when a
load is appl ied. Occasionally, the cra-
ter gets too hot and the molten metal
has a tendency to run. When this hap-
pens. the electrode should be lifted
slightly and quickly shjfted to the side
or ahead of the crater. Such a move-
ment reduces ll1e heat, allows the crater
to soli di fy, and stops the deposit of
metal from the e lectrode. The elec-
trode is then quickly returned to the
crater and the arc shortened.
Another method used by welders
to control the temperatu re of the mol-
len weld pool js a whipping motion of
the electrode. The whipping-motion
technique is used with E -60 I 0 and
E-60 I I electrodes and is espec ially
helpfu I when welding pieces tha t
have poor fit-up (large openings be-
tween workpieces). It is a lso used in
overhead and vertical welding to bet-
ter control the weld pool.
l U ~ Welding Skills
In a whipping motion, the electrode
is struck and held momentarily. It is
then moved forward about %" or %".
Just as the weld pool begins to freeze.
the electrode is moved back into the
center of the weld pool and the se-
quence is repeated. The electrode is
moved by pivoting the wrist and not
moving the am1 whjle making the pass.
Remelting C1·aters. When starting an
electrode, there is a tendency for a
large globule of metal to fa ll on the
surface of the plate, resu lting in little
or no penetration . This is particularly
a problem when restru1ing an electrode
at the crater from a previously depos-
ited weld. To ~ill the existing crater and
obtain proper fusion, strike the arc ap-
proximately V2" in front of the crater
and move the arc back through the cra-
ter. See Figure 11-6. At the back edge
of ll1e crater, dip the electrode into the
weld pool and continue welding. com-
pletely fill ing the crater and ensuring
proper penetration of the weld.
17\STRIKE ARC W' AHEAO OF EXISTING
'-!/CRATER
f.>\ MOVE ARC THROUGH EXISTING WELD
\6/SEAD ANO CRATER
('::;\WELD BEAD WITH PROPER FUSION
\:V AND NO VOIDS FROM RESTART
Figure 1J.6. 7h comimtc " beat!, .t trik~ lhe· r1rt· ~,.,.
j l'om Ihe fmnr crlge of rite pret•iou.s/y tMposited n·eltl
beat/ ami nu) l'C 1/u.r elecmHie back uw•r i/Jc• t:rnler. AI
1hr fxu:k edge of the crote1: dip the clt-c:trode w rtme/1
and l"tmtimu! wilh welding, f'I'Opl!rly flllil11; lite croter.
 Completely remove flux from the
crater before restarting the arc or
di scontinui6es may re~ull with possible
porosi ty or slag inclusions.
Und ercutting a nd O verhli>ping. Uu-
derculliug 'is c reating a groove in the
base metal that is not co•nplctely ti Ued
by weld metal during the welding pro-
cess. Undercutting is the re.~ult of weld-
ing with excessive current. Excessive
current leaves a groove in the base metal
along both sides of the bead. which
greatly reduces the strength of a weld.
Sec Figure t l-7. Underculling may also
occur when there is insufficient depo-
sition of metal on a vertical plate. Un-
dercuning can be corrected by slightly
changing the electrode angle.
UndercuHing
Figure 11 -7
UNDERCUT
EXCESSIVE CURRENT
UNDERCUT
BEAD
INSUFFICIENT DEPOSITION
Fi~ure 11·7. UnducunitJR is ,-out~tl h~ ~xcusil-·t!
rurrt'nl amllor i~r.sufficitnl mttul tlf'fJQJiticm.
Overlapping is extending the weld
metal beyond the weld toes. Overlap-
ping occur s when the c urrent is set
too low. In this instance. the mo lten
meta l is depos ited without actually
fusing into the base metal, creating a
poor quality weld. See Figure 11 -8.
Figure 11 -8. lll-ldm~ • 11h ""' low
Overlapping curr~nt u.ndts m JHWr pt-nttro·
Figure 11·8 1;011 011d C'OU.S~S m·~r/Of'ping,
PENETRATION
CORRECT
INCORRECT
Arc Blow
AI'(' blow is a deflection of the weldi ng
arc by magnetic forces that occur due
to electron now. When DC current is
used , it produces a magneti c field
around the electrode. The uneven
movement or the current causes the arc
to dell cct from the weld area. Extreme
hea t can a lso cause arc blow.
Arc blow is a common problem
when welding with DC current. Cur-
rent in a DC welding machine flows in
one direction, which produces a strong
magnetism in the metal being welded.
This magnet ism causes the arc to de-
flect from the weld area. Arc blow also
breaks the continu ity of the deposi ted
metal, making it necessary to refi ll the
crater. The process of refi ll ing the cra-
Avoid wult'rculling
ter slows down the welding and often a11tfm·~rlupf>illg o{1/r~
leaves weak spots in the weld. Usi ng u·~kfpmtiJy 1<ri11.~ tile
the proper current setting corrects or correct rurulll am/
t'/t'C'/rOdt WIJd<'.
prevents arc blow.
Arc blow typically occurs in steel
and meta ls that contain iron, but may
be encountere d in other metals as well.
It is also mo•·e common in corners and
near the ends of the workpiece when
the work lead is connected on only one
side of the metal.
SMAW - De[W.<itiug a C<mtimwus Bead ~ 127

Prt~·em arc blow
tlw·ing W(•/diug IJy
usinJ.: AC rather
thllil DC "" jnbs
where tire blow may
be a pmblem.
Figure 11-9. Arc blow t.~ causrJ
b)1 tile: IIUI/:1/t!li,\'t~f (U'(}(/iu·e,) J>y (f
DC welding madrinl' tlwl nmsl!.\'
lilt' (lr(' U.l tle'/lt:ft jr(lm 1/rtt
oreu.
128 >€>< Weldi11g Skills
Arc blow usually occurs forward or
backward along the joint but may oc-
casionally occur to the sides. See Fig-
urell-9.
Arc blow may result when welding
toward the workpiece con nection near
the end of a joint or in a corner. Arc
blow can also occur anywhere near an
end or a corner, and can continue to the
end of the joint. As the weld pool nears
the end of a workpiece. it becomes
more packed and arc blow i ncreases.
Arc blow resu lts in incomplete fu-
sion and excessive spatter. If arc blow
is severe enough, a satisfactory weld
cannot be made. The easiest method
to reduce or prevent arc blow is to use
AC rather than DC on jobs where arc
blow may be a problem. Arc blow can
also be prevented by clamping the
Arc Blow
Figure 11-9
»"f.'ltl
WORKPIECE
CONNECTION
0
+
WORKPIECE
CONNECTION
workpiece connection to the end of the
workpiece. rather than one side. Addi-
tional measures that may be taken to
prevent i\tc blow include the following:
welding away from the workpiece
con nection
reducing the welding currem
• using the backstep welding teclmiquc
• using the shortest possib le arc to
overcome the magnetic tield
6 All electrical ctmductOrs ('rtatc a magnetic
ji{!ld when curl'eut ls flowing. whit'll can
interfen, wilh weltling by creating arc.: blnw.
AC currem is nnt affected by arc blow be·
cause tht- currelll is CQitstamly changing
tlirectio11. The n:versals hr cr-rrem in an
AC circuit cmnllemct the effects of the
mognrtic force on 1he ba~le metal.
MAGNETIC
FIELD
FORCE
ON ARC
Cleaning Welds Cleaning Welds Fig:ure 11 -10. Strike tlte weld wit/1
a dripping lwmmer. tmd tllttt rub
Figure 11-10
The layer of slag that covers a deposited with tt wirl' brush lo rtmow~ .tlag.
bead must be removed after welding. If
a multiple-pass weld is required. the
slag must be removed between each
pass. Slag allowed to enter the weld
metal wiU weaken the weld. Addition-
al ly. finishing procedures, such as
painting, should not be perfom1ed until
all slag is removed. See Figure Il -l 0.
To remove slag from a weld:
A WARNING
I. Strike the weld area with a chip- Alwny~ wear s a:Ct)'
{ . \ STRIKE WELD AREA WITH CHIPPING
ping hammer. Hammer the bead so '-.:.J HAMMER g latose.~
und rct(1Jired
personal prolcclivc
the chipping is directed away from cquipmenl when chip-
the eyes, the face. and the body. ping slag,.
Do not pound the bead too hard
as the structure of the weld may
be damaged. After the slag is loos-
ened, drag th e point end of th e
chipping hammer al ong the weld
whe re it joi ns the workpiece to Wht•n l'lelNtiug slag
loosen any remaini ng particles of from a weld. direct
chipping tnt.'tl)' j ivm
slag. rile body. rile eyes,
mul till' face.
2. After the chipping hammer, use a {;;\ REMOVE REMAINING SLAG WITH
\V WIRE BRUSH
stiff wire brush to remove residual
s lag particles.

[ilil•ll~if>j(•J·~~~~~~~~]@j-

I. Usc the proper e lectrode for each welding operation.

2. The arc length should be approximately the diameter of the electrode.
3. Usc the correct current for a particular electrode.
4. Maintain a travel speed that is just fast enough to produce evenly spaced ripples.
5. The depth of penetration should be one-third to one-half the total thickness of the weld bead.
6. Be sure the molten metal from the electrode fuses completely with the base metal.
7. Restart the e lectrode V2" from the front edge of the previously made crater, move the arc
back through the crater to remelt the weld pool, and continue welding.
8. Avoid undercutting and overlapping of the weld joint by using the correct current and
electrode angle.
9. Pre\'ent arc blow during welding by using AC rather than DC on jobs where arc blow may
be a problem.
I 0. Wh~n cleaning slag from a weld. direct chipping away from the body. the eyes. and the face.

SMAW- Depositi11g a Continuous Bead :€) 129

~ Exercises

Depositing a Continuous Bead exercise

•••••••••••••••
l . Obtain a piece of V.." mild steel, 4" wide by 6" long.
2. Position the workpiece in flat position.
3. With a soapstone, draw a series of lines approxi-
mately %" apart and the length of the workpiece.
4. Use%''; E-6010. E-6011. E-6012. or E-6013 elec-
trode. Deposit continuous beads along the lines.
Start from the left edge and work to the right.
5. After each line has been ftlled. remove the slag and
ex ami oe the weld beads.

Moving the Electrode in

Several Directions
•••••••••••••••••••••
exercise
•
•

l . Obtain a piece of 1A" mild steel.

2. Position the workpiece in flat position.
3. With a soapstone, draw a series of tines to form
rectangles on the workpiece.
4. Deposit a continuous bead, moving the electrode
from left to right. bottom to top, right to left, and
top to bottom.
5. Maintain correct arc length, travel angle, and travel
speed 10 control bead formation.

130 ~ Welding Skills

 Restarting the Arc
••• ..................... exercise •
..

I. Obtain a piece of W' mild steel.

BREAK ARC
2. Position the workpiece in flat position. AND RESTART

3. With a soapstone, draw a series o f straight lines,

divided into 2" sections.
4. Deposit a bead over the first 2" section, then break
the arc.
5. Deposit a bead for another 2"; then repeat !he prac-
tice of breaking the arc and refilling the crater.

I. What factors allow for a quality weld with the proper penetration?
2. Wbat factors must be considered when selecting an electrode?
3. How is a crater affected when the arc length is too long? What happens when the arc length
is too short?
4. When the arc length is too long, what happe ns to the metal as it melts from the electrode?
5. How is it possible to identify a weld that has: been made wi th too long an arc length?
6 . What is likely to happen to the electrode when the arc le ngth is too short?
7. What are some c haracteristics of a weld made with too sho1t an arc length?
8. What are some factors that must be considered when deterrnin ing arc length?
9. l n what way does the amount of current affect a weld?
I0. What determines the travel speed at whic h a n electrode should be moved?
I I . What is a crater?
12. What should be the depth of penetration?
13. What shou ld be done when the crater gets too hot and the metal has a tendency to run over
the surface?
L4. How shou ld an electrode be restarted to fill a crater left from a previously deposited weld?
15 . What causes undercutting? How can undercutting be prevented'?
16. List six ways to prevent arc blow.
17. How shou ld slag f rom a weld be removed from a workpiece?

SMAW- Depositing a Cominuous Bead ~ 131

132 ~ Welding Skills
The easiesl position in which to weld is injla1 position. When welding in .flat posirion, 1/ze welding speed
can be increased, molten metal has less tendency to run, betrer penetration of the base metal is possible,
and the welding operation is less tiring for the welde1: ~/'possible, structures should be positioned so that
they can be welded in the easier and more efficiem jlcu position.
WELD PASSES
Some welds requ ire more than one
pass. In a multiple-pass weld, the fi rst
pass is the root pass. Add itionally.
intermediate weld pass(es) and a cover
pass arc used for multiple-pass weld-
ing. Some welding operations requi re
the workpiece.~ to be tack welded. A tack
weld is used to hold the workpieces in
proper alignment un til the final welds
are made. Tack welds are spaced along
the joint a·nd must be consumed into
the joint during welding. Once the joint
is tacked, the necessary weld passes
are made. See Figure 12- 1.
Root Pass
A root pass is the initial weld pass that
provides complete penetration through
the thickne,~s of the joint member. The
root pass (bead) is the first weld pass
made and is deposited in the bottom
of the root. The root bead is made by
moving a small-diameter elec trode
straight down into the groove without
any weav ing mOlion. The purpose of
the root bead is to join the two
workpieces and lill the root opening.
The root bead serves as the base
for subsequent passes, and it must pro-
d uce comp lete penetration. Complete
penetration its ensured if the root bead
penetrates the bottom surface of the
groove and consumes all tack welds
previous ly made. Penetration of the
root bead should not exceed fabrica-
Ta,·k welds m-. used
tion code cri teria or, if not given, 111s" ro keep workpieces in
beyond the bottom surface of the joint. position. '1'11ey must
be COII.\'UJ1U'tf into the
Thoroughl y remove slag from the root jtJim <lun'rrg weltling.
bead before Ia yi ng the nex t pass.
Fi~u rc 12· l. Welt! JUI.t~'cs u~etl
fin· nmlliplt:~pfi.'4,V wc:/dittg a r~ the
root pass. imermedillft weld
pass(esl. tmll tl1t' <·over pass.
COVER
PASS
ROOT PASS
Intermediate Weld Pass
An intermediate weld pass is a s ingle
progress ion of welding subsequent to
the roo t pass and before the cover
pass. Intermediate weld pass replaces Whnr dcpn.flting 11
term inology for both the hot pass and roo/ beat/. odl'(mce
the filler pass. The fi rst intermediate a small- diameter
e/ecuvtle along 1/te
weld pass may be used after the root g roove with no
pass to couect undercut o r overlap. weaving motion.
The first intermediate weld pass uses
133
 a high current setting and a fast travel
An imenneditue u:elll speed to blow out any .-emaining slag
/)ass may be used to
1·emo"·r slt1g inclu- or inclusions and to create a quality
sions or other tkfects weld surface for addi lional passes. The
from lire ro01 betui. first intermediate weld pass deposits a
small amount of filler meta) and, when
completed. should form a concave
bead. The first intem1ediate weld pass
must be thoroughly cleaned before de-
positing additional weld passes.
Additional imem1ediate weld passel\
may be needed to fill the groove.
depending on the thickness of the metal.
When depositing intermediate weld
passes, a sl ight weaving motion is
generally used to ensure proper fusion
with the previously deposited beads and
the sides of the groove joint. When
multiple passes are used, the beads
should slightly overlap to ensure a
smooth surface. Each pass must be
thoroughly cleaned of slag before
additional passes are made. lntcnncdiatc
weld passes must completely bond to
th e previous passes, but should not
~ Uu a o~lightwetnring
motion when depoJ;~
penetrate 100 deeply to prevent remelting
~- iting intcnm•tliote
wtld passe.s.
previous passes and weakening the weld.
Cover Pass
A cover pass is the final weld pass
deposited. The cover pass prov ides
additional reinforcement to a multiple
pass weld and provides a good ap-
pearance. The cover pass shou ld not
extend beyond the fabrication code
criteria or, if not given, more than Yts"
above the base metal surface. A weav-
ing motion is used on llhe cover pass
to obtain the necessary weld width
when covering the filler passes.
JOINTS WELDED IN FLAT
When welding 11 POSITION
j(Jint with b(lse
metals of differem Flat position is the mosn efficient posi·
tlricknes.tes. keep til<' tion for welding any joint. However,
/rear CQiu·emrated
even in flat position. some joints re-
on tire thickerm~ral.
quire special techniques. For example,
when a joint consists of two pieces of
metal having different thicknesses. the
work angle of the electrode should be
134 ~ Welding Skills
adjusted so that the heat is concentrated
on the thicker metal. See Figure 12-2.
Joints commonly welded in tlat position
include lap. T, butt, and comer joims.
WO~v~
HEAT .OIRECTEO
~ TOWARD
, THICKER PLATE
~ w
..1
..lgu.rc 12·2. When wt'ltlitJg bast' mcwf.,• tif cliffertmt
thidm'.S:Sf~·. direct mtJr~ lte~~t Ill tilt! lhit:kt•r mt•llll.
Lap Joints
The lap joint is one of th.e most fre-
quently used joints in flat position
welding. It is a relatively simple joint.
since no beveling or machining is nec-
essary. Surfaces to be welded must be
clean and evenly aligned. A lap joint
consists of lapping one workpiece over
another and joining. The amount the
workpieces should overlap depends on
the tJ1ickness of the meta I and the
strength required. A fillet weld is used
to join the two workpieces. Usually the
thicker the metal, the greater the
amount of overlap needed. When the
structure is subjected to heavy bending
stresses, it is best to deposit welds on
both sides of the joint. See Figure 12-3.
Lap Joints
Figure 12-3
ELECTRODE
WELDON BOTH
SIDES FOR
GREATER
STRENGll-1
fi~ure 12·3. A lap joint typically dtJCS not require
t!dgt~preparatio11 IH!forc wdcling. Wehling b(Jih sidrs
of the /(1p joint providt!s grt-(1/c>r stre11gtlt.
 A lap joint is adaptable for a vari- T·Jolnts figure 1_2..4, 1'1u- ~ttYIIj;th (If u T
ety of new construction work as well Figure t2·4 joint d~p~1td$ 011 prnt'rr Jit·up.
I he dirt!ction }rom "·hrth "forct
as for many types of repairs. For ex- is applied. muJ whe-ther u smgle
amp le. a lap joint can be used when or doublt! fillet joim It tt\'t!tl.
join ing a series of metal plates to- FORCE
get her or when re inforci ng another
structural member. Since a lap joint FORCEFR07 WELDON
stiffens the structure where the metals OPPOSITE SIDE ONE SIDE
MAVCAUSE
are lapped. it is used a great deal in FAILURE
ship building.
When an exceptionally strong lap
joint is required, especially on workpieces SINGLE FILLET
%" thick o r more, a multiple-pass fi l-
let weld is recommended. This weld
has two or more layers of beads along
the seam, with each l>ead l:tpping over
the other.
WELDON
BOTH SIDES
\Vhm w~ltfi11g 11 /of1
T·Joints or T-jomt. weltltlte
joim 1111 lwtlt .1ide; if
A T-joint is frequently used in fabricat- the ,\'tnwturt• is to be
DOUBLE FILLET subjeNed w ltea11y
ing st ra ig ht a nd ro lled ~hapcs . T he
SII'('S.\'l'.\',
strength of the joint depends on a close
fit-up of the joint edges. A T-joint should
not be used on structures subjected to
heavy stresses from the opposite side The edges of an open butt joint are
of the welded joint. This weakness can spaced s lightly apart, usually 3/32" to
be partially overcome by using a \18'', to allow for penetration of the Iiller
double fillet weld. Sec Figure 12-4. metal and expansion of the base metal.
When welding thick metal, or when ex- Genera ll y, a backing bar or block of
tra strength is required, a larger fillet is scrap steel is placed under an open butt
necessary. Fillet welds can be made joint. Sec Figure 12-6. A backing bar
larger by depositing several passes. prevents the bottom edges from burn-
ing through.

Butt Joints Butt Joints Figure J2-5. A butt jointmm- IN

dosed. opetr. (lr h~•.:t•ltll ·
Figure 12-5
A butt joint may be closed, open, or
prepared, such as beveled. See Figure "' .# ,. T
12-5. On a closed bull joint. the edges
of the two workpiece.~ are in direct con- CLOSED
tact with each other. A closed butt joint
is su.itable for welding steel that gener-
ally docs not exceed :Yt6" thick. Thicker
metal can be welded, but only if the
weld ing machine has sufficient current OPEN
Tlte edgt'.< tiftm Of)e/1
capacity and if larger d iameter elec- bwt jl>illl .<ltrmld IH'
trodes are used. On th icker metal, mul- spaci'li tthmrt '!!.IH to
~,.. atJlll't for pen-
tiple passes are required because it is
BEVELED etration aut/ joilll
difficult to achieve enough penetration e..rpansitm.
to produce a strong weld with one pass.

SMAW - Flat Position 0 135


Cmutruulou equitfmt•nt nWIIIIOII/.\' ,,.,n \Wjadng ,,·eft/.\' with Slt1A\Vfor building up
wom f)(lr/J umltnrl(/tKmR u hmrlt•trl'll .wiftrt't'.
.Fis:urt 12·6. A b41c httJ.: htu
prne'lll\ thtr lwuom f'll!(rt
fmm hurm11g thrtm1(11 m•
OfiCII /11111 jt~flll ,
~ I
\\-11r11 wt-Mmk a hu11
)01111 '"' IIWIUI mmY
~- ''"'" ~.~'"" /... l>r• r/J
th~ n/g~' lt~tti1CtJIIIII."'
pmpt!r Pf1K'tmrum
136 ~ Welding Skill.,
,....
~ ,,.,.,,,.,..J. htr
OPEN
BUn JOINT
BACKING
BAR
When the thi ckness of the metal
cxccc(h 11.!". the edges of a bun joint
~hould be beveled. Beveling the edges
en~urc' better penetration. requires
le\\ weld metal. and equalizes contrac-
tion forces. Beveling can be done by
cutting the edges with a flame torch or
by grinding on a grinder. The groove
angle should not exceed 60° to limit
the amount of contractjon that usual ly
resuhs when the metal cools. The
edges may be prepared in several
ways. such as a ~ingle- V, single-V wi1h
mot face. or double-V with root face.
Sec Figure 12-7. The lhickness of !he
workpicccs determi nes !he edge
prcpanu ion required. For example. on
metal %" !hick or more. the edges are
beveled on bolh s ides.
When welding thin stock wilh a
single pass. ~ in a clo~cd or open bun
joint. move !he electrode along !he
join! wilhout any weaving molion.
Move the eleclrode ~lowly enough lo
allow !he arc ~ut fictcnt tunc 10 melt
the metal. Using too slow a travel
speed can cau<>e the arc to burn
through the metal.
When a multiplc-pu~\ weld i\ to be
made in a beveled joint. move the
electrode dO\\ n in the groove \0 that
il almoM !ouches bolh \ides of the
joint while dcpo~iting !he root bead.
Move the e leclrode fast enough Hl
keep the slag flowing back on the
finished weld. If the e lectrode is nol
moved rapidly enough. \lag may
become !rapped in !he bouom of !he
weld. preventing proper fusion. Aflcr
comp leting the root bead. proceed
with the necessary irttermediale weld
passes. Comph:le the we ld wilh a
cover pass.
Butt Joint Edge Preparation
Figure t2-7
,,.. OR OVER
1
SINGLE-V
T
ROOT FACE Yo OR OVER
v..- ro~·
' ROOT FACE
SINGLE-V WITH ROOT FACE
ROOT FACE
~·OR OVER
"""TO v.·
I
DOUBLE-V WITH ROOT FACE
Figure 12,..7, 11r~ rdxt·.-; of u lmtt J<'"" ffl't' prepurttl
;, <liffrreut 11"(1.\'J, depi'mlmg mr tiff' tfric'Am•.'J\ of tilt
mrwl.
 A bull joint is often used when
joined structural pieces must have a
flat surface, such as in tanks. boilers,
and a variety of machine parts. See
Figure 12-8.
WATERTUBE BOILER DRUM
LONGITUDINAL
BUTT JOINTS
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
BUTT JOINTS
FIRETUBE BOILER SHELL
Fitturt 12...8. Bull joims urt oJ)tfl IHt!d j(Jr
SIUit (1\boiftr.{.
Corner Joints
An outside corner joint may be used
when constructing rectangular objects
such as tanks , metal furni ture, a nd
other machine section:s where the out-
side corner must have a smooth radius.
A single pass is usually sufficient for
welding corner joints.
( ) A worn pari is ground tlo'"''' or maclriued
111 allow for rwo layery of.lllrfocillgto be
det>osired 011 the fJa/"1. TIIC' fir.<t faye•· of
dt•posited uwwlteJU/s to becomt' tliluted
tmd loses some of it.~ 111i1Jyi11g pmpenies
w!Je11mi.<ed with tire btr.re mew/. Addi-
tiollal layers of sur[ad11g prm•ide tile
required wear profN11ies while ltlllillraininJ:
tire part thick11ess.
SURFACING
J\/W(IH rtft111H' slm:
Swfacing is the application of a layer complet~h tt{tu
or layers of material to a surface to ob- l!itclt ptl«. Siflg p•ar-
tain desired properties or dimensions. tides ttll1mnlto ff·
main W(•aken tl1e
Surfacing is commonly performed in weld.
llat pos ition ;md is used to repair worn
surfaces of shafts, whee ls. and other
machine parts. The worn base metal ha~
a surfacing weld applied. which i~ then
machined to specifications. A lllrfac·
ing weld i' a weld applied to a ~urface,
as opposed to a joint to obtain desired
properties or dimensions. The operation
consists of depositing several layers of
welds, one on top of the other, to in-
crease the dimensions of a part. See
Figure 12-9.
Figur-e 12-9. Surfann.~ u·t'lll.f "~
Surfacing Welds 11.t t"d to lncr,.mr tilt" tliml'n,imu
Figure 12·9 f"lj pant.
G) BASE METAL
® SURFACE WELD APPLIED
'itnt~tures
®MACHINED TO SPECIFICATIONS
Surfacing is performed by deposit-
ing successive weld beads. Additional
tiller metal can be added by weaving.
Weaving is a welding technique in which
the energy source is moved tr.mwersely
as it progresses along the weld joint.
Weaving increases the bead width.
Three weave patterns commonly used
arc the c rescent, figure eight, and ro-
tary motion , depending on the position
and joint. See Figure 12-l 0. Weaving
is also used to provide a smooth weld
fmisb on multiple pass weld~.
SMA IV - Ffttl f>mllion :@o 137
F i ~u re 1 2~ 10.
u·l'llvl' JHIIU:m.~.
Tltrt•t ('Qimmm
nrsccmt. figure
eight. lmd nmtry, (lTV IIS('d to in
('rcastt the ln(/th tmd t•fJium~
tlu 1\'t-lcl ht'ml
Remc>t~)' welding prol,.
ltwtrquick/ywhenper..
f()rmillg SMA IV i11 jim
position tn prevr.mt
wenlme-S.J' orfailure of
lht! we/(/,
1311 ~ Welding Skills
Weave Patterns SMAW FLAT POSffiON PROBLEMS
Figure 12·10
of
When welding in tlal position, gravity
helps direct the flow of molten weld
metal. Welding is normally best per-
formed in fla t posi tion, but many
welding tasks require other positions.
Problems that occur during weld ing
can result in joint weakness and/or fail-
CRESCENT ure. Conunon SMAW flat position prob-
lems can be remedied by analyzing the
specific problem and determining the
cause.
Some of the problems that may be
encountered when using SMAW in
flat position include instability of the
arc, poor penetration, a loud crackling
FIGURE EIGHT
noise when welding, difficulty strik-
ing an arc, weakness of the weld, and
arcing at the workpiece connection. See
Figure 12- l l.
Problems that occur dur ing SMAW
are often the result of improper set·
tings on the weldi ng machine. Adjust·
iog the c urre nt, chang ing polar ity, or
ROTARY
correcting a poor ground shou ld solve
the problem .
SMAW WELDING PROBLEMS
~~·---.;;F:u
•• .. .......·~· f-4
i!l',!~"''
Ji'
........
1 - · - · · -·-
,..-'
- ·~·
'
- - --
... ITO
• f-
0 _,:;:·~.7~-:
•
__ , • '
-:: •;
·~ -: . .:::\·!.".-~~·~..!:;..:.:..i. '•( ·-: -~
Unstable arc. Arc goes out,
•
Arc loolong
' Shorten arc
spatters over work
Poor or no penetralion. Not enough currenl for size of Increase current.
Arc goes out often electrode. Wrong eleclrode Use proper electrode
Loud crackling from arc. Too much currenl for electrode. Decrease wrrent
Flux melts too rapidly. Wiele May be moisture in electrode
bead, spatter in large drops cover
DiffiCulty in striking arc. Wrong polarity. Change polarity.
Poor penetration Too little current Or, Increase current
Weak weld. Arc hard to Dirty work Clean work. Remove slag
start. Arc keeps breaking from previous weld
Arcing at ground clamp Poor ground Properly ground wort
fi ~ure 12·ll. J\ •••eftl~r :~lloultl be a/en ro any signs ofa problem tlurilrg welding. sut.·l• llS instobiliry of the
rtl'(" (~,. pm>r Jlt'llt:lrlllion, tmtl remedy tile :ritulllimt quit·kl)•.
I. Tack welds are used to keep workpieces in position. They must be consumed into the
joint during welding.
2. When depositing a root bead, advance a small-diameter electrode straight aloog the groove
with no weaving motion.
3. An intem1ediate weld pass may be used to remove slag inclusions or other defects from the
root bead.
4. Use a slight weaving motion when making intermediate weld pass(es).
5. When welding a joint with base metals of different thicknesses, keep the heat concentrated
on the thicker metal.
6. When welding a lap or T-joint. weld the joint on both sides if the structure is to be subjected
to heavy stresses.
7. The edges of an open butt joint should be spaced about %2' to lh" apart for penetration and
joint expansion.
8. When welding a butt joint on metal more than 811s" thick, bevel the edges to obtain the
proper penetration.
9. Always remove slag completely after each pass. Slag particles allowed to remain weaken
the weld.
I 0. Remedy welding problems quickly when performing SMAW in flat position lO prevent
weakness or failure of the weld.

SMAW - F/111 Position :0 139

~ Exerc ises
Welding a Single-Pass Lap
Joint in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••
exerCise.
•
I. Obtain two pieces of 3/16"
or lf4" mild steel.
2. Form a lap joint and tack
together.
3 . Position the workpiece
so the weld joint is in flat
- 30" ;;1" TRAVEL ANGLE
position.
4 . Use a '/8" electrode and o
Ii DIRECTION
adjust the welding ma- ,w OF WELDING
chine for the correct
current. f..i •

5. Hold the electrode at a

45° angle and deposit a CORRECT
1;." fillet weld along the (PROPERLY FORMED FILLET)
joint.
FRONT VIEW
6 . Weave the electrode
slightly, maintaining the

~
WO R K
arc for a slightly longer ANGLE
time on the bottom
workpiece . <45'~ 1 ----.45~ INCORRECT

7. Make sure that fusion is

complete at the joint root
and prevent overlapping
on the top workpiece. A
.. .. . / (CONCAVE FILLET)

weld made with a con-

cave fillet is usually too
weak because it lacks suf- INCORRECT
ficient reinforcing metal. (CONVEX FILLET)
A weld with a convex FIREBRICK
bead has too much waste
metal , which adds no ENDVIEW
strength to the weld.

140 ~ Welding Skills

Welding a Multiple-Pass Fillet
Lap Joint in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••
exerCise.
•
I . Obtain two pieces of lfl' mild steel.
2 . Form a lap j oint and tack together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position.
4. Deposit the root bead by moving the electrode straight
down the joint withou t weaving.
S . Clean the weld carefully with a chip hammer and wire
brush and deposit the second pass over the root bead. FIRST PASS
6 . While welding the second pa ss , weave the el ec - PAUSE AT TOP
OF WEAVE
trode, pausing for an instant at the top of the weav e
to depo sit e xtr a metal on the surface of the upper
plate .
7 . Maintain a consi stent bead width along the joint.

SECOND PASS

Welding a Single-Pass Fillet

T-Joint in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••
exerCise
• .

1. Obtain two pieces of 3/16" or %" mild steel.

2 . For m a T-joint with the piec es at a 90° angle and
tack together.
3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position.
4 . Hold the electrode at a work angle of 4SO and a travel
angle of 30° and advance it in a straight line without
any weaving motion. Deposit a %" fillet weld.
S. Maintain travel speed to stay ahead of the weld pool.
Concentrate the arc more on the bottom workpi ece FIREBRICK
to prevent undercuttin g the top workpiece. Watch
~ T R AV E L
the crater clo sely to ensure that it form s a properly
- 30')1 ANGLE
co ntoure d bead. I

%
~ ~~

DIRECTIO N OF WELD ING

SMAW - Flat Position § 141

 Welding a Multiple-Pass Fillet
T-Joint in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••
exe rCise
•.

I. Obtain two pieces of 3/16" or \4" mild steel.

2. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90° angle and tack together.
3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position .
4. Deposit the root bead by moving the electrode straight down the joint without weaving .
Remove slag completely.
5 . Hold the electrode at a work angle of 70° and a travel angl e of 30°. Depo sit the first
intermediate weld pass to partiall y cover the root bead. Remove slag compl etely.
6 . Hold the e lectrode at a 30° work angle and a 30° trav el angle. Deposit the second
intermediate weld pass to cover the root bead and partia lly cover the second pass.
7. If more or less weld meta l is requ ired, make add itional passes using different bead
configurations .
8. Additional weld metal can be depo sited on a multiple-pass fillet T-joint by weaving the
e lec tro de.

FIREBRICK

FIRST PASS SECOND PASS THIRD PASS

3 PASS T-FILLET 6 PASS T-FILLET

142 ~ Welding Ski lls

Welding a Butt Joint in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••
exercise
• .

I . Obtain two pieces of 0/16" or lj.{' mild steel.

2. Form a butt jo int, with a root opening for expansion
and tack toget her. /

3 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position.

4. Hol d the e lec trode at a work ang le of 90 ° and a
travel angle of 15° to 30°. Deposit a bead along the
butt jo int.
WORK ANGLE
5 . Let the workpiece cool and then repeat the procedure
on the reverse side .

TRAVEL ANGLE

Welding an Outside Corner

Joint in Flat Position

1. Obtain two pieces of '}I,6"

•••••••••••••••••
or lj.{' mild steel.
exerCise
• .

2. Form a comer join t with the pieces at a 90° angle and tack together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position .
4 . Hold the electrode at a work angle of 45° and a trave l angle of 30°. Deposit a bead
along the outside of the jo int.
5. For most corner joints, one bead is sufficie nt. Thick metals may require additional
passes to fill the corner.

7
1i~-7
45' '''"
...--- TRAVEL

WORK
~"
CO RRECT
FORM

END VIEW FRONT VIEW END VIEW

(FINISHED WELD)

SMAW - Flat Position § 143

 Welding Round Stock in
Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••
exercise
•
.

I. Obtain two piece s of round stock.

2. Form a butt joint with the beveled edges ground to the
same groove angle.
3 . Position the workpiece in a vise or section of angle
iron so the weld joint is in flat position.
4. Deposit a small bead on one side. Then deposit a simi-
lar bead on the opposite side to prevent the shaft from
warp ong .
5 . Use a slight weaving motion on the last pass.

Weaving the Electrode

• • • • • • • • • • • •exercise
••••• •
.'

1. Obtain a piece of '14" mild steel. 4" wide and 6" long.
ST RA IGHT
2. Draw a series of straight lines on the plate. BEA D

3 . Position the workpiece in flat position. WEAVING

MOTION

4 . Deposit co ntinuous beads a long the guide lines.

Remove slag complete ly.
5 . Practice weaving by depositing a we ld back and
forth between the first pair of continuous beads.
6 . Use a different weave motion to fill each section.
Ensure that the short beads are fused into the long,
straight bead s.
7 . Continue to practice weaving on several plates until
a satisfactory plate is comp leted.

144 €1 We/dill !: Skills

Surfacing
•••••••••••••••••
exercise
•
.

I . Ob tai n a pie ce of mild

steel. 1/4" thick or more. 3"
wide. and 5" loog.
2 . Position the workpiece in
nat position.
3. Deposit a layer of straight
beads to completely cover
the wo rkpiece s urface .
Remove slag co mpletely.
4. Deposit a second layer of
weaved bead s about '12"
wide at right angles to the
first layer. Re mo ve slag
com plete ly.
5 . De posit a third layer of
stra ig ht be ad s at right
ALTERN ATE
angles to the second layer. WELD DIRECTION
Rem ove slag co mplete ly.
6 . Depos it a fourth and fifth
layer. in the same manner- each layer at right angles to the previous
layer. with slag thoro ughly removed before the subsequent layer is
add ed .

SMAW - Flat Position § 145

 I. What is an adva ntage of welding in flat position rather than in other positions?
2. How are tack welds used in welding?
3. What is the function of a root pass?
4. What is a cover pass and why is it used?
5. What procedures are foll ow ed whe n welding plates of di fferent thickn esses?
6. When ma king a lap weld, what de termines how much the workpieces should overlap?
7. How ca n undercutting be avoided when welding a lap joint?
8. Why should a double fillet be used on a lap joint ?
9. When should mult iple passes be used on a lap joint?
10 . When welding a Tsjoint, why shou ld the arc be directed more to ward the bottom
work piece?
I I. What is the difference between an open and a closed butt joint ?
12 . When is a butt joint used in welding?
13. When should the edges of butt joints be beveled ?
14 . What determines the edge preparation required for weldin g a butt joint?
15 . Wh at are some co mmon ap plicat ion s of outside corn er welds?
16. How ma ny passes should be made o n an outside corn er weld?
17. How sho uld the edges of rou nd stock be prepared for weldin g?
18. What work angle is used to weld a lap j oint in flat position ?
19. What wor k and travel angles are used when welding a butt joint in flat position ?
20 . What welding technique is recommended when makin g a root bead?
2 1. What work angles are used to weld a multiple-pass fillet T-joint we ld?
22. What is the purp ose of surfacing?
23. What is meant by weav ing?
24. Whe n is a weav ing motion used?

146 ~ Welding Skills

 .;.. -:~ ;Sh;.::i.:.
eld ed Meta l Arc Welding (SMAW)

On many j obs. welding cannot be performed in flat position. Occasionally. the welding ope ration must
be don e while the work is in horizontal position. Welds performed in horizontal position must ha ve a
uniform. consistent bead. A fi ll-free ze or fast-freeze electrode should be used.

HORIZONTAL POSITION cause ove rlapping . An overlap occurs

WELDING
A weld is in horizon tal po sitio n when
the workp iece is in a vertica l position
and the we ld j o int is ap prox im ate ly
horizonta l. See Fig ure 13- 1. The we ld
bead mu st suppo rt the we ld pool dur-
in g we lding to e nsure su ff ic ie n t
buildup of the weld .
whe n the we ld pool run s down to the
lower side of the bead and so lid ifies
o n the surface w ithout actually pe n-
etrating the base metal. A saggi ng we ld
Do not allow th e
pool usua lly leaves an undercu t on the molten weld pool to
top side of the we ld scam a nd an im- sal-:lind cause m 'er -
properl y shaped bead. See Figure 13-2. laps and undercuts .
Ove rlaps and undercuts can weaken a
we ld .

-
Figure 13- 2. Using a short tire
length m i"i m i ;:l'.\" the tendency of
the weld p ool to sag and ,'a u.lt'
o verlapping. Sagging weld pools
usuatty leave {/II u nde rcu t arra
01 1 the top side of the seam.

UNDERCUT

OVERLAP

Figure 13-1. 11/ horizontal weld ing, the weld joillf is CORRECT INCORRECT
\
in horizontal position.

To we ld in horizon tal po sition, a Wilt'llwelding ill hori-

short arc length should be used , with a
slight reduction in current from th at
o Welding in horizontal position has a high
f ailure rate on weld inspection. Mati)' weld-
tontol position: li se a
lour r U r iding <1t1Tt'1lt
ers thin k ho rizontal position welding is easy und shnnemrc lenKth
used for welding in flat posit ion . The than when welding in
and they don ', pay close enough attention
sho rt a rc le ng th minimi zes the te n- to the placem ent ofthe weld. flat po sition .
dency of the weld pool to sag and

147
 Welding Procedure A till- freeze or fast-freeze etectrode
When welding in
horizontal position,
sho uld he used for hori zontal we ld-
When welding a butt joint in hori zon-
hold the electrode at ing. As the elec trode is mo ved in and
a work angle of 5° to
tal pos itio n, hold the e lec tro de at a
out of the crater, pau se slig htly ea ch
10 ° and a tra vel work ang le of 50 to 100 and a tra vel
lingle of 20°,
tim e it is returned to the crater. Thi s
ang le of 20 0 • See Fig ure 13-3.
keeps the crater small and the bead IS
less likely to sag .
Ftg u re D -3, Wilen weldin g in _ . _ ~ • • •: •
ho rl:.tmltll position. I/Oid the elec- _
trode at tI wort: anKh' of 5° to /0 0
III1tI a tra vel angle of 20 °.

WORK I. 7 1
ANGLE ~
.L-~ -\ I
~5' T0 1 0'
~r
\
\ DIRECTION
OF WELDING

~,
/
20 ' \ - /
TRAVEL . /
ANGLE J

SIDEVIEW TOP VIEW

When dep os it in g th e bead , use a

U.H' a sli,;ht weaving
motion when welding
narrow weavin g moti on . Wea ving the
F igu re 13 -4. Use II s li~ h / weaving motion wh en
inhorirantalposition. electrode distributes heat mor e evenly, welding in hori~OI1I{/II/(/,\'i ri(!n /0 distribute hear mOfe
furth er redu cin g any tendency for the evenly,
we ld po ol to sag. See Fig ure 13-4.
Kee p the arc length as short as pos- o In horizontal position welding , the pos ition
of the electrode is changed for each pass.
sible. If the force of the arc has a ten- The number of passes required depends
dency to undercut the workpiece at the Ofl the stet'! thickness as \1'£'11 as the diam -

top of the bead , slig htly tilt the elec- eter of the electrode. Sufficient penetration
into each adjacent pass is necessary for
trode upward to increa se the up wa rd complete fusion of the weld.
a ngle.

1. When welding in hor izon tal pos itio n, use a lower welding curre nt and shorter arc length
tha n when welding in flat position .
2 . Do not allow the molten weld poo l to sag, which ca n result in overlaps and undercut s.
3. When welding in horizontal posi tion, hold the electrode at a work angle of 50 to 100 and
a travel angle of 20 0 •
4 . Use a slight weav ing motion whe n we lding in horizont al posit ion .

148 ~ Wel d inK Ski lls

tl Exercises

Depositing Straight Beads in

Horizontal Position
•••••••••••••••••
exerCise
•
.

I. Obtain a piece of 1/." mild steel.

2. Draw a series of guide lines Vi' apart and the length
of the workpiece.
3 . Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in hori-
zontal position. The workpiece may be clamp ed onto
a pos itio ner, if avai lable, or tack welded to another
workpiece or the workbench .
4 . Adjust the welding machine to the correct current and,
GUIDE
L1NES ~
~--~
G
j

-
-
PASS 2
PASS a

with a slight weav ing motion, deposit beads between

the guide lines. Start at the left edge of the first guide
line and depo sit a bead , working to the right edge .
5 . Move to the next guide line and reverse the direction of travel for the second bead.
6. Conti nue making beads in reverse directions until uniform beads ca n be made with -
out overlap ping and undercutting.

Welding a Single-Pass Lap Joint

in Horizontal Position
•••••••••••••••••
exerCise
•
.

WORK
I , Obtain two pieces of V." mild steel. ANGLE

2. Form a lap jo int and tack together.

3 , Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in hori-
zontal posi tion . USE
WEAVING
4. Use a 45° work angle and deposit a single bead along
MOTION
\
the edge with a slight weaving motion . Watch the 45 '

formation of the bead closely for any undercutting.

.~

SMAW - Horizontat Position :@: 149

 Welding a Multiple-Pass
T-Joint in Horizontal Position eXerCiSe
••••••••••••••••• •.

I . Obtain two pieces of ';4" mild steel.

2. Form a T-joint with the workpieces at a 90° ang le
and tack together.
PASS 3
3 . Position the work piece so the weld joint is in hori-
zontal position. />'3Q'
4. Angle the electrode to 45° and deposit a root pass
alo ng the joint without any weaving motio n. Re-
move slag comp letely to ensure proper penetration.
5. Angle the electrode to 70° and deposit an interme-
diate weld pass. Use a slight weaving motion to con-
trol heat input, and make sure to penetrate the root
bead and the base meta l. A slight weav ing motion
shou ld be used for the second pass. Remove slag
comple tely.
6 . Angle the electrode to 30° and deposit a third bead,
usin g a slig ht weav ing mot io n. T he third be ad
should penetrate into the first and second beads, as
well as the base metal. Co mplete penetration of the
wel d passes mu st be obtained, ot herw ise a weak
weld results and the layers may separate.

150 0 WeldillK Skills

 Welding a Multiple-Pass Butt
Joint in Horizontal Position
•••••••••••••••••
exercise
•
.

1. Obtain two pieces of I;."

mild stee l and be vel the
edge of one piece.
2 . Form a butt jo int, allowing ¥16" ROOT ROOT BEAD
a l/16" ro o t openi ng , and OPENING
tack together. I_ I

3. Position the workpiece so t

the weld joint is in horizon-
tal position with the beveled
piece on top and the piece
that is not beve led on the
bottom .
The flat edge of the non-
beveled workpiece serves
as a she lf, helping to pre-
vent the we ld poo l fro m
running out of the join t.
4 . Deposit the root pass deep
into the joi nt. Remove slag
"-- PASS 2
PASS 2
r
co mplete ly.
5 . Depos it the inte rmediate
we ld pass(es) , c lean ing
slag from weld after each
pass . Each be ad sho uld
penetrate the ba se me tal r PASS 3 \,
and each previous pas s. ~ O· T0 1 5·
PASS 3
On some welding jobs, both r
edges of the joint are beveled to /
form a 6(P groove angle. This is
PASS 3
a sing le- V but t join t. Si nce a
single-V butt joint does not pro-
End View End View
vide a retain ing shelf for the
SINGLE BEVEL BUn JOINT SINGLE·V Bun JOINT
bead, as does a single bevel butt
joint, more skill is required to
produce a satisfactory weld.
On a wide joint, the weld is commonly finished with a cover pass to produce a smooth finish. A wide
weaving motion that covers the entire area of the deposited beads is used to make the cover pass.

SMAW - Horizontal Position ::@: 151

 I. Why must a low current and a short arc length be used when welding in horizontal position?
2. What can be done to prevent overlaps on hori zontal welds?
3. In what position sho uld the electrode be held for welding horizont al bead s?
4. Why should a weaving motion be used when making horizontal weld s?
5. What determines the numb er of passes that should be made on a weld ?
6. What groove angle is used when beveling the edges for a butt joint?
7. When is a cover pass used?
8. What work angles ar c required for each pas s of a multip le-pass fillet T-joinl weld in
horizontal po sition?
9 . What must be done between passes of a multiple-pass fillet T-joint to ensure proper penetration?

152 ~ Weldill g Skills

Weldillg ill vertical position is freq uently used for the fabrication of structures such as steel buildings,
bridg es, tanks, pipelines, ships, and machinery.

Whell welding ill vertical position, gravity tends to pull down the molten metal f rom the weld pool. To
p revent this fro m happenin g, fas t-freeze or jill-freeze elec trodes should be used. Weld pool con trol call
also be ach ieved with prop er electrode manipulation. vertical weldin g is done by depo siting beads using
one of two methods, down hill welding or uphill welding.

DOWNHILL WELDING Figure . 4- 1. M aintain tI Iran"

angle of 15° to .10°[or dow nhill
weldin g.
A vertical weld is a weld with the axis
of th e we ld approx ima te ly vertica l.
Downh il l welding is we ldi ng with a
dow nward progress ion . Do w nhill
welding is commonly used for we ld-
ing li g ht-ga uge metal because pen-
etration is shallow. Downhill weld ing
can be performed rapidl y, which is im- When w eldin g
portant in prod uct io n work . Although light -gauge meta l
ill vertical position,
ge ne ra lly reco mme nded for we ld ing
downhill welding is
light -gau ge material s because it doe s used to control pen-
DOWNHILL WELDING
not ca use melt -th rou gh , do wnh ill etration.
we ld ing ean a lso be used for ot her
metal thicknesses. UPHILL WELDING
In downhill welding, maintain a travel Uphill welding is weld ing with an up-
an gle of 15° to 300. See Figu re 14- 1. ward progression . Uph ill we lding is
Start at the top of the joint and mov e commo nly used on metal more than
dow nward with litt le or no weaving '/.' th ick becau se deeper penetrat ion
motion . [f a slight weave is necessary, ca n be obtained. Uphill we lding a lso
ma nipu late the electrode so the cres- makes it possi ble to create a shelf for
ce nt of the we ave is at th e to p. On success ive layers of bea ds.
metal \4" thick or more, uphill welding For up hill we ld ing, sta rt with the
IS more common . e lec trode at a righ t a ng le to the
o When .....elding in vertical position. molten
weld mew ! has a tende ncy 10 nm out of
wo rkpi ec e. Pos itio n the e lectrode
ho lder unti l the electrode form s a
On metal Y-iHrhick or
more. uphill welding
the weld pool. Using a small diameter travel an gle of 10° to 15°, pointing is a Jl1l1l101l1y used 10
electrode reduces this tendency by reduc- obtain the required
ing the weld pool size.
away from the direction of we ld ing. penetration.
See Fig ure 14 -2.

153
Figure 14-2. Mai ntai n a tra vel
an gle of /0 0 to 15 ° f o r uphill
we ld ing.
0" grooved joints.
deposit the mOl pass
deep into the roo t
opening.
154 ~ Weldinll Skills
t
UPHILL WELDING
Uphill Welding with a Whipping
Motion
Uphill welding commonly uses fast-
freeze electrodes with a whipping mo-
tion . Whippin g is a manual welding
technique in which the arc is moved
quick ly backward and forward as it
progresses along the weld joi nt.
When whipping the electrode , do
not break the arc, but simply pivot it
with a wrist movement so that the arc
is moved up ahead o f the weld long
eno ugh for the weld pool in the crater
to solidify.
Uphill Welding with a Weaving
Motion
Weld joint width varie s depending on
the metal thickne ss and edge prepara-
tion. The weld bead width must be ad-
j usted to co mplete ly fill the required
joint width. The width of the weld bead
can be controlled using a weaving mo-
tion , such as the fig ure eight, rotary
motion, or crescent. Each weaving mo-
tion produces a bead approximate ly
twice the diameter of the electrode .
Wh en using lo w- hyd ro ge n elec-
trodes a nd a weavin g motion, the
width of the weave pattern should not
exceed 2'/2 time s the diameter of the
electrode.
The electrode is moved 10 allow
penetration at the bottom of the stroke,
and the upward motion momentarily
remov es the heat until the weld meta l
can solidify. See Figure 14-3.
WEAVING
MOTION S
Figure 14·3. A fi gure eight, rotary, or crescent weal'-
ing motion is used with uphill welding 10 control the
width of the weld bead.
The welder should pause at the toes
of the weld. Pausing at the toes allows
for complete fusion of the weld metal
into the joint. The electrode should be
moved quickly across the center of the
weld to prevent excessive heat buildup.
E-7018 ELECTRODE WELDING
TECHNIQUE
Although vert ical welding tech niques
are generally applicable to all types of
electrodes, a slight modification in
pro cedure is ad visabl e when usin g
E-70 18 electrodes.
In downh ill welding, drag the elec-
trode lightly, using a short arc . Do not
use a long arc since the weld depend s
on the molten slag for shie ld ing. A
single, narrow bead or small weave is
preferred to wide weav e pas ses . Use
lower curren t when weld ing with DC
than with AC. Point the electrode di-
rectly into the joint and tip it forward
a few degrees in the direction of travel.
With uphill welding, a triangular
weaving motion often produces bet-
ter results. Do not use a whippin g
motion or take the electrode out of the
molten weld pool. Point the electrode
directly into the joint and increase the
trave l angle slightly to permit the arc
force to assist in controlling the weld
pool. Current should be set toward the
lower end of the recommended range.
 I . When we ld ing light-gauge metal in vertica l positi on . downhill welding is used to co ntrol
pe ne tra tio n.
2. O n metal !j." thic k or more. uphill wel din g is co mmo nly used to o bta in the required
pe net ra tio n.
3 . On grooved joints. deposit the root pass deep into the root opening.

Ok Exercises
Depositing Beads in Vertical
Position (Downhill)
•• •••••••••••• •••
'
•
exe"iJrC_i"S.tAL...:---:,--J
O

I . Obtain a piece of W' mild steel.

2. Draw a series of straight guide lines the length of the DIRECTION
workpi ece. OF WE LDING

3. Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in ver-

tical position.
4 . Use E-60 12 or E-60 13 electrodes .
!
5 . Start at the top of the workpiece with the electrode
pointed upward at about a 15° to 30° angle. Keep
the arc short and move the electrode downward to
form the bead.
6. Maint ain a travel speed that is ju st fast e nough to NO WEAVING MOTION
prevent the molten weld pool and slag from running
ahead of the crater. Do not use any weaving motion
at the start.
DIRECTION
7 . Once straight. single beads can be deposited, weave OF WELDING

!
the electrode slightly, with the crest at the top of the
crater.

". I
~ 15' T0 30'

SLIGHT WEAVING MOTION

SMAW - Vertical Position @: 155

 Depositing Beads in Vertical
Position (Uphill)
•••••••••••••••••
exe rCise
•.

1. Obtain a piece of Vi' mild steel.

2. Draw a series of straight guide lines the length of the
wo rk piece .
3 . Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in verti-
cal position.
4 . Use E-60 10 or E-60 11 electrodes for the necessary
fast-freeze characteristics. GUIDE
LINES
5. Start at the bottom of the workpiece with the elec-
WHIPPING
trode at a 10° to 15° aogle. Move the electrode up- MOTION
ward using a Whipping motion .
6 . Return the electrode to the crater and repeat the op-
eration, work ing up along the drawn gu ide line to

t
the top of the workpiece .
7 . Do not break the arc while movin g the e lectro de
upward. Withdraw it j ust long enough to permit the DIRECTION
OF WELDING
deposited metal to solidify and form a shelf so ad-
ditional metal can be depo sited.

Welding a Lap Joint in Vertical

Position (Uphill)
•••••••••••••••••
exerCise
• .

1. Obtain two pieces of Vi' mild steel.

2. Form a lap joint and tack together.
3 . Position the workpiece so the weld jo int is in vertical position.
4. Start at the bottom of
the wor kpiece a nd
deposit a small root
pass wi tho ut any
weav ing motion .
5. Start at the bottom of
the workpiece aga in
and deposit a cover WEAVING
pass, usi ng a weav - MOTIONS

ing motion, from the

bottom to the top.
6. Ensure that the cover
pass completely pen-
ctrates the root bead.

156 §o Weldinli Skills

Welding a Butt Joint in Vertical
Position (Uphill)
•••••••••••••••••
exerCi s e .
•
I. Obtain two pieces of '/.1' mild steel and bevel the edges
to form a 60 0 groove angle.
PASS 1
2. Form a butt joint, with a 'A6" root opening, and tack ROOT BEAD

together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertical PASS 2
FILLER PASS
position.
4. Start at the bottom of the workpiece and deposit a
PASS 3
root pass. Remove slag completely. COVER PASS

5. Start at the bottom of the workpiece again and de-

posit an intermediate weld pass(es) as necessary to
fill the root opening. Remove slag completely.
6. Finish the weld with a cover pass. Remove slag
completely.

Welding aT-Joint in Vertical

Position (Uphill)
•••••••••••••••••
exerCi s e .
•
I . Obtain two pieces of Vl' mild steel.
2. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 0 angle and tack
together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertical
position.
4 . Start at the bottom of the workpiece and deposit a
narrow root pass. Remove slag completely.
5 . Start at the bottom of the workpiece again and, using
a weaving motion, deposit an intermediate weld pass.
Remove slag completely.
6 . On the opposite side , start at the bottom of the
workpiece and deposit a narrow root pass . Remove
slag completely.
7 . Deposit an intermediate weld pass on the second side.
Remove slag completely.
8. Check for complete penetration of each pass. Deposit
a cover pass on each side. Remove slag completely.

SMAW - Vertical Position €l' 157

 I. In vertical weldin g, what can be done to prevent the weld pool from sagg ing?
2. Why is downhill weldin g more applicable to light-gauge metal?
3. In what position should the electrode be held in downhill weldin g?
4. What motions should be used in downhill weldin g?
5. How should the electrod e be held when making an uphill weld?
6. What is the advantage of using a whippin g motion on a vertical weld ?
7. How can the width of a bead be increased on an uphill weld?
8. What direction of tra vel provides the most penetrati on when weldin g in vertical pos ition?
9. What types of electrodes are com monly used in vertical weldin g?
10 . What kind of weaving motion is used when welding uphill using an E-70 18 electrode'!
I I. Which is faster, uphill weldin g or downhill weldin g?
12 . What determin es if a weld is in vertical position?
13 . What types of elec trodes can be used with a Whipping motion?
14. What is the advantage of using a weavin g motion when weldin g in vertical position?

158 ~ Welding Skill s

Welding in overhead position is one of the most difficult welding operations to master. Although over-
head welding is similar to fla t position welding in technique. overhead welding is done from (//1 awkward
position and is greatly affected by gravity. In overhead position the weld pool has a tendency to drop.
making it harder to secure a uniform bead and correct penetration. With practice it is possible to secure
welds with the same quality as those made in other positions.

OVERHEAD WELDING When overhead welding, personal

protecti ve clothin g and equipment
When overhead weldin g, the welder
must be worn to protect against falling
mu st be su re th at th e weld passe s
molten metal , slag, and sparks. A
properly fill the weld j oint. Molten
headcap, welding hood. and leather
metal can eas ily drop from the weld
jacket or leather apron and leather
pool, causing uneven, inconsistent weld
sleeves should be worn to prevent slag

I
Wllt'll welding ill over-
beads and incomplete penetration . .~ head position, keep the
and sparks from burning the skin. See
Keep the arc length as short as possible
Figure 15-2. Shirtsleeves should be .= un: length (IS sho rt (IS
when weldin g in overhead position to pos sible.
rolled down and buttoned .
prevent molten metal from falling out
of the weld pool. Beginning welders
should practice welding beads in over-
head position until a consistent bead can
be laid rep eatedl y. When practi cing
welding in ove rhead positi on, a posi-
tion er is co mmo nly used to sec ure
workpieces. The positioner allow s the
we lde r to se t th e wor kpiece to any
height or position. See Figure 15-1.

Figur e 15-2. Proper personal protective equipment

Figure IS-I. A positioner allows work to be ad - must be worn when pnformillK ove rhead weldi ng to
iusted to (Illy heigtn or position. prevent injury.

159
 Overhead Welding Procedure Gri p the el ectrode holder so the
A travelangle of UjO

IJ
.ilE!!!E. to J50shou ld be used
•~ [oroverheadwelding.
Wh en we ld ing in overhead posilion •
use a fa st -freeze e lectrode . To start
we lding. hol d the electrode at a right
knuckles of the hand are up and the
palm is down. Thi s prevents particles
of molten meta l from being caug ht in
the palm of the glove and allows spatter
angle to the joint. Hold the electrode
to mil off the glove. The electrode holder
at a work ang le of 90 ° and a trave l
can be he ld in one hand; however.
angle of 10° to 15°. See Figure 15-3.
sometimes welding is easier if it is held
G rip the electrode
with both hand s. See Figure 15-4. To
ttolderso tileknuckles avoid hot meta l spatter. stand to the
(!(rfU'hand are upand side rather than directly underne ath the
the !Ut/III is down.
arc. The weight of the electrode lead can
be minimized by draping it over a shoul-
der if welding in a standing position. or
over a knee if in a sitting position.

ENDVIEW

Wilen we/ding in
overhrud position.
stand to the side to
avoi d injury f rom
hot me tal spatter:
--i~
"~
I
...,\-10' TO 15'

FRONT VIEW

Figure 15-3. For overhead welding, the electrode

Drape the electrode should ht' held at (/ work angle of 90 ° and a trave l
lead ova the shoul- W I M' £' of 10 ° 10 15 °,

der if welding in (/
standing position. A WARNING I
or 01'('1' (l knee if ill
a sitting position.
Molten metal can fall from the weld when
welding in overhead position. Be sure sleeves
are rolled down and a protective garme nt with
a light-fitting collar is zipped or buttoned up
to the neck . Wear a headcap and hea vy-du ty
shoes, Figure 15-4. A welder may 11.1'£' both hands to hoM
the electrod e ~"" /l'1l welding in overhead position,

1. When welding in overhead position. keep the arc length as short as possible.
2. A travel ang le of 10° to 15° shou ld be used for overhead welding.
3. Grip the electrode holder so the knuck les of the hand are up and the palm is down .
4. When welding in overhead position stand to the side to avoid injury from hot metal spatter.
5. Drape the electrode lead over the shoulder if welding in a standing position. or over a
knee if in a sitting position .

160 ~ Weldinli Skills

~ Exe rc ises

Depositing Beads in
Overhead Position
••••••••••••••••••••••
eXerCiSe.
•
I. Obtain a piece of %" mild steel.
2 . Draw a series of guide lines on the workpiece, each
line approximately '/2" apart.
3. Position the workpiece so the guide lines are in over-
head position.
4. Set current as recommended for overhead welding.
Strike an arc and form a weld pool as in flat position
WEAVE BETWEEN
welding. Move the electrode along the weld joint, BEADS
keeping the arc as short as possible.
5. Deposit a series of straight beads with no weaving
motion . If necessary to prevent the weld pool from
dropping, reduce the current slightly.
6 . Practice depositing beads in one direction, then re-
verse and practice in the opposite direction.
WEAVING MOTIONS
7. Deposit beads using a weaving motion to fill in the
space between the beads.

Welding a Multiple-Pass Single-V

Butt Joint in Overhead Position exerCise.
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
I . Obtain two pieces of ,;." mild steel and bevel the
edges.
2. Form a butt joint, with a V16" root opening for expan-
sion, and tack weld.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in over-
head position.
4 . Deposit a root pass in the root of the joint. Remove
slag completely.
S. Deposit an intermediate weld pass(es) to cover the
groove faces of the joint. Remove slag completely
between passes.

SMAW - Overhead Position ~ 161

 Welding a Multiple-Pass Lap
Joint in Overhead Position
•••••••••••••••••
eXerCiSe
• .

I . Obta in two pieces of '14" mild steel.

2 . Form a lap joint and tack together.
3. Posit ion the workpiece so the weld jo int is in ove r-
head posi tion.
4. Hold the electrode with a 45 0 work angle and a IS"
trave l angle.
5 . Deposit a root pass in the root of the joint. Remove
slag completely.
6. Deposit an intermediate weld pass, maki ng sure the
weld pene tra tes int o the root bead and the bott om
piece . Re move slag completely.
WQRKANGLE
7 . Deposit the cover pass, mak ing sure the weld pen-
etrates into the root bead and the top piece. Remove ENDVIEW
slag complete ly.

Welding a Multiple-Pass
T-Joint in Overhead Position
•••••••••••••••••
exerC ise
•.
I. Obtain two pieces of V.' mild steel.
PASS 1
2 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 0 angle and tack
together.
3. Position the workpiece so the weld joi nt is in over-
head pos itio n.
4 . Deposit a root pass in the root of the jo int. Remove
slag com ple tely.
5 . Deposit an intermediate weld pass and a cover pass .
Remove slag completely between passes. Adjust the
work angle of the electrode for each pass to ensure
complete penetration.

I. Why is welding in over head positio n more difficult than welding in other positions?
2. What is the recommended travel angle for over head welding?
3. Why sho uld the electrode holder be grasped so that the palm is facing down?
4. What should he done to prevent the weld pool from dropping?

162 ~ Welding Skills

section f0 ur Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
e

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) requires alternating current (AC) or dire ct current (DC). The choice
of AC or DC current depends on the metal and weld requirements. Direct current electrode negative
(DCEN) welding is commonly used for ferrous metals. AC high-frequency (ACHF) weldin g is com -
monly used for aluminum and nonferrous metals.

The GTAW process was developed in the late 1930s primarily for welding aluminum and magnesium in the
aircraft industry. A breakthrough in GIf\W occurred during World War II when ACHF was found to pro-
duce high-quality welds on aluminum . At one time, helium was used as a shielding gas, but was later
replaced by the less expensive argon.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

WORKPIE CE
CONNE CTION
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an
arc welding process in which a shield-
FILLER METAL
ing gas protects the arc between a non-
consumable (does not become part of
the weld) tun gsten electrode and the TORCH
weld area. See Figure 16-1. The GTAW
process is also referred to as TIG (tung-
sten inert gas) welding.
Spec ially designed GTAW welding
machines equipped with the necessary
controls and attachments to provide the
required cur rent are available. The
SHIELDING GAS
welding machine used for GTAW can WORKPIE CE
PROTE CTS
provide either AC or DC current. GTAW WEL D AREA

requires preci se current cont rol, espe-

ciall y in the low range, to maintain a
stab le arc, particularly for welding NONCONSUMABLE
TUN GSTEN ELECTRODE
ligh t-gauge metals.

o Gas tungsten arc welding (G TAW) can weld

more types ofmetal and metal alloys than
any other welding process.
Figu re 16-1. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) can
be used without fille r metal, although fille r metal
may be added to thick metal or to reinforce the joi nt
on thin met als.

163
 GTAW CURRENT SELECTION
A weldin g machine
tI
.e
•e::::::
originailydesignedfor
IH(' with SMA lV must
be dera ted to protect it
f rom thr effeCIJ of ;11-
Welding machines used for arc weld-
ing are classilied by the output charac -
teri stics of voltage and current. Some
temal Imuing tha t oc-
meta ls are joined more ea sily with AC,
curs durin g CTA W
whi le with other metals. beuer resu lts
Dam;ng is ( 11 /)' nee·
essory when using AC are obtai ned wit h DC. T he c ho ice of
GTAI¥.
using AC or DC current depends on the
metal to be welded. See Figure 16-2.
Alternating Current
GTAW with AC current is used to we ld
alum in um a nd magnesium alloys . A
clean ing action occurs with AC current
because o f a bombardment of positive
charged gas ions that are attracted to the
negati ve charged workpiece. Gas ion s.
as they strike the workpiece . break the
oxide film and dislodge it from the sur-
face. Ge nerally speaking. better results
are obtai ned when using AC current to
weld aluminum and magnesi um. No
other metals require a cleaning action.
GTAW CURRENT SELECTION
Metal
Magn esium up to lfi3" th ick
Magne sium over ¥ 16" thick
Magnesium Castings
Aluminum
Aluminum Castings
Stainless Steel up to .050"
Sta inless Stee l .050" or more
Brass Alloys
Silver
Nickel Alloys
Silver Cladding
Hardfacing
Cast Iron
Low-Carbon Steel .015- to .030-
Low-Carbon Steel .030" to .125"
High-Carbon Steel .015 - to .030"
High -Carbon Steel .030'" or more
Deo xidi zed Copper up to .090
H
Key :
1. Excellent operanon-eest recommendation
2. Good operano n-secood recommendation
NR- not recom mended
Figure 16-2. 11,e choice of using A C
164 ~ WeldillM Skills
Weld in g machine s s pe c if ic a ll y
designated for GTAW do not have to
be derated. Derating is a lowering of
the current output level of an AC weld -
in g machine when being used for
GTAW. I n form a t io n re gard ing the
weld ing processes a particu lar ma-
chine is rated for can be found on
the we lding mac hine nameplate or in
the prod uct literatu re.
AC we lding machines not specifi-
cally designed for GTAW mu st have
their output current le ve ls derated
when used for GTAW. A weld ing ma-
chine ori ginally designed for use wi th
SMAW mu st be derated to protect it
from th e effect s o f internal heating
that oc curs durin g GTAW. De rating
is o n ly nece ssary when using AC
GTAW. Methods used to de -rate an
AC we lding machine are to lower the
ra ted output current . lower the duty
cycle, or bo th.
AC Current DC Current
with Electrode
High Frequency Electrode
Negative Positive
Stabilization
1 NR 2
1 NR NR
1 NR 2
1 NR 2
1 NR NR
1 2 NR
2 1 NR
2 1 NR
2 1 NR
2 1 NR
1 NR NR
1 2 NR
2 1 NR
2 1 NR
NR 1 NR
2 1 NR
2 1 NR
NR 1 NR
(II' DC ClIrrellf depend s oil the metal to be welde d.
1. Lower the rated output current.
Derate the welding machine by
30% from its rated current. For
example, a welding machine for
SMAW is rated at 200 A, 60% duty
cycle . For GTAW, the rated output
current is lowered 30% (200 A X
.30 = 60 A; 200 - 60 = 140 A). The
derated current output is 140 A.
With this method, the duty cycle for
GTAW is the same as for SMAW.
2. Lower the duty cycle. See Figure
16-3 . Find the duty cycle rating
of the welding machine (found on
the welding machine nameplate),
multiply the rated duty cycle by
the predetermined rated amps per-
centage to find 100% duty cycle
for non-GTAW applications ; mul-
tiply the non-GTAW rating by 70%
to de-rate the amps to 100% duty
cycle fur GTAW.
flow of current in the DCEP half of the
cycle . If no current flowed in the elec -
trode positive direction during weld-
ing, the partial or complete stoppage
of current flow (rectification) would
cause the arc to be unstable and possi-
bly extinguish. Alternating current high-
ACH F pro vides a
frequency (ACHF) welding uses a combination of the
rapid alternation of electrode negative penetrating qualitie s
and electrode positive. The faster al- of LJCEN and the
cleaning action of
ternation of electrode negative and ocer.
electrode positive during ACHF per-
mits the arc to be maintained without
interruption . See Figure 16-4.

Alternating Current High-Frequency.

AC provides a combination of the
penetrating qualities of DC EN and the
cleaning action of DCEP. Half of the
complete AC cycle is electrode nega-
tive and the other half is electrode posi-
tive. However, when welding using AC
current, oxides, scale, and moisture on Milia tJe{'lric M"nu};,,'mnll ~ CO"'!""',l

the workpiece tend to prevent the full Current selectlanjor GTAW is based Ofl the type of metal to be welded.

Figure 16-3. AC welding rna-

chines can he derated 10 pro -
vid e a 1000/0 du tv cycl e when
using GTAU.-:

60% 75% 100% 70% 100%

50% 70% 100% 70% 100%
40% 55% 100% 70% 100%
30% 50% 100% 70% 100%
20% 45% 100% 70% 100%
Find the duty cycle rating of the welding mach ine in use (found on the welding machine nameplate). Multiply
the rated amps by the predetermined percentage to find 100% duty cycle for non-GTAW applications. Multiply
by 70% to derate the amps to the 100% duty cycle for GTAW,

For example , what is the 100% derated duty cycle for a 200 A, 60% duty cycle welding machine used for
non-GTAW applications? Used for AC GTAW applications?

200 x .75 == 150 A (100% duty cycle for non-GTAW applications)

150 x .70 == 105 A (100% duty cycle for AC GTAWapplications)

GTAW-Equipment @o 165
Figure 16-4 . In AC, half of the
complete A C cycle is electrode
negative and half is electrode posi-
tive . Alternating current, high -
. - .'
freque ncy (ACHF) combines the
beneficial qualities of DCEN
and lJ CE/~ + + + ONE
1-- - CO MPLET E CVC LE - -

</J
0..
f DCEN
"-c
0 0
TIME </J

• 0..

"< PRIMARY CURRENT

I TIME WAVE FORM

•
DC AC

+ PRIMARY CURRENT
WAVE FORM (60 Hz)
[

~O~~
"
~-~-~-~-~-~-( .. I

'"
I
HIGH FREOUENCY
WAVE FORM (16.000 Hz)
SUPER IMPOSED ON AC
ACHF

+
'V_
ACHF COMBINES

o
'6
o
j
°0 ,:.
CONCENTRATED HEAT
(DCEN) WITH CLEANING
ACTION (DCEP)
DEEP PENETRATION.
NORMAL WIDTH
[
L,ii-"~
", •
S':I*;t0Y ; ~ + ; ,. il
GTAW PROCESS WELD CHARACTERISTICS

Direct Current Figure 16-5. The term DCEN replaces

Direct current (DC) is an electrical cur-
rent that flows in one direction only. Di-
rect current must be electrode negative
(DCEN) or electrod e positive (DCEP) .
With DCEN , electron flow from the
electrode to the workpiece creates heat
at the workpiece. With DCEP, electron
flo w from the workpiece to the elec-
trode creates heat at the electrode. See
166 o@ Weldin g Skills
the term straight polarity. The term DCEP
replaces the term reverse polarity.
o To p reve nt confus ion ab out termina l
con nect ions on the weldin g machine
when using DC curr en t, remembe r the
abbreviat ions for tw o words, se nator
(SEN-Straight Electrode Negativ e) and
representati ve (REP-Reverse Electrode
Positive).
 Figure 16-5. With DCEN, elec-
tron flow from the electrode to the
ELECTRON Vi6" ELECTRODE
o workpiece creates more heat at
WELDING FLOW \ the workpiece. With DeEp, elec-
MACHINE ....l.+ tron flow from the workpiece to
the electrode creates more heat
at the ele ctrode.

c~
E L E CT RO N
GAS ION 1#rt-;
FLOW ~ \.:!:J o FLOW

+ G
G o HEAT CREATED
I ~ILEC TRON AT WORKPIECE
~LOW

DeEN

HEAT CREATED
ELECTRON AT ELECTRODE
o FLOW ~
WELDING
MACHINE

o~
E L ECT R O N

G o FLOW
+ GAS ION ~
FLOW
r,.,
'.:!:J

r ~,L ECTRON
G o
4 LOW

DeEP

Direct Current Electrode Negative Direct Current Electrode Positive

(DCEN). Most ferrous metals are welded
using direct current electrode negative
(DCEN). Nonferrous metals, except alu-
minum and magnesium, can als o be
welded with DCEN. DCEN is used for
weld ing most metal s because it pro -
duces deep penetration into the metal.
When the welding machine is set for
DCEN, electron flow is from the elec-
trode to the workpiece, creating con -
siderable conc en trated heat in the
workpiece. Additionally, welding is more
rapid, there is less distortion of the base
metal, and the weld pool is deeper and
narrower than with DCEP. Since more
heat is directed at the workpiece, smaller
diameter electrodes can be used.
i n the GTAW pro -
(DCEP). When the welding machine
is se t for direct c urr e nt el e ctrode
posit ive (DCEP), the flow of elect rons
l.§
.=
cess, DCEN is used
[or welding most
ferrous metals be -
cause it produces
is from the workpiece to the e lec- deep penetrationinto
trode, causing a greater concentration the metal.
of heat at the electrode. The int en se
heat at the electrode with DCEP re-
quires a larger diamete r electrode
than DCEN . Fo r example, a 1/ 16" di -
am eter tungst en electro de normally
can co nduct approximately 125 A in
a DC EN ci rcu it. However, if DCEP
is used with 125 A, th e tip of th e
electrode melts off. When welding
using DCEP, a v." diameter electrode
is required to conduct 125 A of weld-
ing current.
GTAW-Equipment @o 167
 The typ e of DC current use d for
[)CEP is rarely used
in crAW except in
welding affects the shape of the weld.
sprcia! a luminu m DC EN results in a narrow, deep pen-
and m ag n e sium etrating we ld whereas DCE P res ults
applications.
in a wide a nd sha llow pen etratin g
we ld. See Figurc 16-6. For this rea -
son DCEP is rare ly used in GTAW
except in specia l aluminum and mag-
nesium application s.
Aluminum and magnesium form an
ox ide layer when exposed to the at-
mosphere. The oxide layer that forms
on aluminum has a much higher melt-
ing poi nt than the a lu minum to be
weld ed and mus t be rem oved before
welding can begin. The oxide layer can
be removed with a chemical cleaner,
by filing, or with a wire brush. DCEP
has a cleaning action that more readily
removes the oxi de layer. The positive
charged ions flowin g from the elec-
tro de to th e workpiece strike th e
workpiece with enough force to break
up the oxide layer.
CONSTANT-CURRENT WELDING
MACHINES
A con stant-current welding machine
main tain s a nearl y constant current
flow in the weld circuit, no matter how
the voltage va ries. See Figure 16-7.
Generally, the welding current remains
the same throu ghout the welding pro-
cess; however, as the arc voltage de-
cre as es, th e c urre nt may in cr ease
slightly.
INVERTER WELDING MACHINES
In vert er we ld ing machine s a re
smaller and lighter than conv enti onal
welding machin es. An inverter weld-
ing mach ine rectifi es AC current to
DC current and switches it to a high-
freq uency AC curre nt, which is then
output as DC current. The AC high-
frequency current is rec tified to pro-
vide smooth DC curre nt output at the
set current and voltage valu es,

FiJ:UIT 16-6. The type of DC cur-

relit affects Ihl' .{Iwt,e of IIU' weld.
lJCE N pr oduces (I /la rrow, deep
weld whereas DCEP [arms tI wide
and shallow weld.

OXIDE
LAYER

L..--'-....". . . .""""--~ +
DCEN PRODUCES DEEP PENETRATION
THROUGH CONCENTRATED HEAT DEEP PENETRATION-NARROW WELD

DCEN

+
OXIDE LAYER
BREAKS UP .
1
~.. ..;

DCEP PRODUC ES GOOD CLEANING

ACTION BUT SHALLOW PENETR ATION SHALLOW PENETRATION-WIDE WELD

DCEP

168 €l' W"'ding suus


Miller Electric Man uf ncruring Comfilim
Figure 16-7. A cons tant-currellt welding machine
maint ains a nearly cons tant current flow during
welding .
Inverter welding machines have a
faster reaction time than transformer!
rectifier constant-current welding ma-
chines because there are no transform-
ers or inductors in the inverter to slow
reaction time. Constant-current weld -
ing machines operate at 50 hertz (Hz)
or 60 Hz, requiring one or two cycles
to react.
GTAW EQUIPMENT
To make a quality weld, the proper
GTAW equipment must be used. A
tungsten electrode directs the arc es -
tabli shed between the welding ma-
chine and the workpiece. When
GTAW is properly performed, the
tungsten electrode does not melt. The
workpiece at the arc melts , forming a
molten weld pool.
Shielding gas, usually argon, pro-
tects the weld area against contamina-
tion from nitrogen and oxygen in the
atmosphere . The GTAW process can
be used to weld with or without filler
metal. Thick metals typically require
that filler metal be added to fill the
joint. Normally, filler metal is not re-
quired for thin metals; however, filler
metal may be added to thin metals
when joint reinforcement is required.
GTAW welding machines also include
controls for shielding gas and cooling
water flow. GTAW equipment typically
includes a torch, a tungsten electrode,
and shielding gas. See Figure 16-8.
Torch
A GTAW torch is designed to hold the
tungsten electrode, direct the shield-
ing gas to the weld, and allow easy
positioning of the torch. Torches can
be either air-cooled or water-cooled.
Air-cooled torches are designed for
welding at low operator duty cycles
on light-gauge metals when low cur-
rent value s are used . Air-cooled
torches are generally used for welding
up to 200 A.
A water -cooled torch uses a stream
of water circulating around the torch
to prevent overheating. A water c ir-
culator on water-cooled torches pro -
vide s the flow of cooling water to and
from the torch to maintain a safe torch
operating temperature . The water cir -
culator consists of a tank, pump, feed
supply line , and return line. The flow
rate of cooling water required de -
pends on the welding operation . Torch
manufacturers provide recommended
A water-cooled torch
is recommended when
settings for s hie ld ing gas flow and using currents OFer
cool ing water flow . Water-cooled 200A. Ensure coo ling
water is flowing be-
torches are recommended when weld- fore welding.
ing requires currents over 200 A.
Welding cables conduct welding
current and direct the shielding ga s
to the torch. The welding cable on a
water-cooled torch also tran sports
cooling water.
A control switch controls the flow
of both cur rent and shielding ga s. A
timer that maintains gas flow after the
weld current is stopped (postflow) is
used to protect the weld area from at-
mospheric contamination . Dependin g
on the equipment, control of current
and shielding ga s is controlled by
finger, hand , or foot. By gradually
d ecrea sing the c ur re nt , it is pos-
sible to fill the crater and control heat
more effectively.
GTAW-Equipm enl § 169
Figure J6-K. EqllilJl Ilt'lIt requi red
for C TAW typ ica lly includes a
torch, tungs ten electro de. ~. hie ld -
ing gas, fille r metal. water circu-
lator. and fl owmete r. ill add ition
10 tile lI'eMill!: machine.
r= I
.~
GOo' nozzles tha t are
too small fo r the
.= welding tusk may
overheat. c rack. o r
deteriorate rapidly.
170 ~ We/ding Skills
WATER
CIRCULATOR
FLOWMETE R
SHIELDING GAS
WELD ING
MACHINE
The tungsten electrod e that supplies
the welding current is held rigidly in
th e to rch by me an s of a co lle t that
screws into the torch. The collet is con-
tained within a collet body that screws
into the torch body. A variety of collet
sizes arc available so different diameter
e lectrodes can be used . The diameter
of the tun gsten e lectrode used deter-
mine s the size of the collet and collet
body required . A gas nozzle is screwed
into th e torch head or snapped into
place. A properly sized gas no zzle
should be used to ensure the correct
shielding gas stream. The gas nozzle
directs the shielding gas to the weld
zone. See Figure 16-9.
COO LING
WATER LINES
(FOR WATER·COO LED
TORCH)
FILLER
METAL
.> WORKPiECE
" LEAD
, WORKPiECE
" CONNECTION
REMOTE
FOOT CONTROL
Gas nozzle s var y in size and are
interchan geabl e to accom moda te a
variety of gas flow rates. The required
size (orifice diameter) depends on the
type and size of the torch and the diam-
eter of the electrode. See Figure 16-10.
Some gas nozzles are equipped with
a gas lens to eliminate turbulence in the
gas stream. which tends to pull in air and
cause weld contamination. Gas lenses
hav e a perm eable barrier of concentric
fine-mesh stainless steel screens that fit
into the gas nozzle. See Figure 16-11.
o Tungsten electrode lengths are determined
by the welding application and the type of
torch used. Standa rd tungste n electrode
length s are 3 ~ 6': 7': /2 ': /8 "', and 24'~
 · . ..
TAIL
WELD POWER

TORC H BODY

SHIELDING GAS

TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE

GAS NOZZ LE
AIR-COOLED

GAS NOZZLE
WATER-COOLED

Figure 16-9 . All air-cooled torch is used for weld ing liX/It-gauge metal s. A wate r-coated torch prevents overheating when welding req uires
current above 200 A.

GAS NOZZLE SIZES Tungsten Electrode

-

Tungsten Gas Nozzle Electrodes used for GTAW are made

Metal Electrode Orifice
Thickness of tung sten . Tungsten , which has the
Diameter* Diameter'
highest meltin g point of all metals, is
1/16 1/16 %- % virtuall y noncon sumabl e when correct
Va ¥J2 % -7116 welding procedures are followed. The
0/" ¥J2 7116 - 'h electrode is used only to create the are,
'I. %2 or lh lh - ;'. it is not consumed in the weld. See Fig-
" In In . ure 16-12. Incorrect current , diameter,
Figure 16-10 . The req uired orifice diamete~ f or a e xc ess ive current , and/o r el ectrode
geH nozzle depends on the typ e ami size of the torch
selected f or the metal thickness, and tile diameter of
contamination can result in meltin g or
tile electrode . deformat ion of the tungsten electrode.
GTAW-Equipmellt ~ 171
Fjg ure 16-11 . A 8(1.\ lens ill the
nozite eliminates turbulenc e
1.:( 1.'1
ill the .{hieldi"X gas stream.
Figure 16-12. III G TAly' a
electrode is use d to provide
.\ I C'' '
the arc for welding: it is 1/ot con-
sumed ill the weld.
172 ~ Weld ing Skills
TAIL~
NO GAS
LENS
COLLET BODY
TURBULENT INSIDE GAS
SHIELDING NOZZLE
GA S STREAM ~
WITHOUT LENS
GAS LENS
IN NOZZLE
DIRECTED
SHIELDING
GAS STREAM--------...
WITH LENS
f// lIg- Tungs te n e lec tro de d iame ters are
sized by decimal (.0 10". .020", .040")
or by fract ion ( '116". 3132", 'Is ", and
5/ 32) . The di ameter of the elec trode
selec te d for a weldin g operat io n is
determined by the required welding
c u rre nt. S ma ll- d ia me te r tun g st en
electrodes may be used with low cur-
rent. Lar ge- d iamete r tu ngsten e lec -
trodes are req uire d whe n using high
current. See Appe ndix.
Electrodes can be composed of pure
tun gsten or alloyed tungsten . Pure
tungsten electrodes are the least expen-
sive and are identi fied with a gree n
marking. Pure tungsten e lect rodes are
commonly used to weld aluminum and
magne sium and are designed for use
with AC curr ent.
 Alloyed tun gsten electrodes usually
contain I% or 2% thorium or zirconium
and are co mmonly used o n mild stee l
and stainless stee l. One perc ent tho ria
tungs ten elect rodes are identified with
a ye llow marking. Two percent thori a
tungsten ele ctrodes are identified with
a red marking. Thori ated tungsten elec-
trod es can g ive o ff hazardous fume s.
Always ensure proper vent ilation dur-
ing welding .
Thoriated tungsten electrodes conduct
higher currents, provide a more stable
arc than a pure tungsten electrode, keep
the tip cooler at a give n current le vel ,
minimi ze movement o f the arc around
the electrode tip, permit easier arc start-
ing, and prevent contamination of the
elec trode through acc ide ntal contact
with the workpiece. Thoriated tungsten
elec tro des are d esi gn ed for use with
DCE N.
A 2 % thoria elec trode is used pri -
marily for critical sheet metal weldments
in the aircraft and aero space indu stries.
Although 2% thoria electrodes normally
maintain a formed point longer than
the I % type , they have little advantage
ove r the 1% thoria elec trode for most
stee l we lds.
Electrode Shape, To produce a qual -
ity we ld , th e tun gsten e lectrode is
pre pa re d t o th e co rrec t s h a pe . A
poin te d -en d el ectrode is used with
DCE N c urre nt and a he mispherical-
tip elec trode is used w ith AC current.
See Figure 16- I3. The prepared end is
COLLET
APPROXIMATELY
2'12 TIMES
DIAMETER
OF ELECTRODE \
b g~
POINTE D· END HEM ISPHE RICAL-TI P
DC
opposite to the end with the color mark-
n it! diameter of the
ing to allow for future identification of
the electrode . The electrode must also
be kept straight to prevent the gas now
from bein g off-ce nter from the arc.
tI
_§
.=
electrode selected
fora welding opera-
tion is det ermined by
the required welding
current.
Stickout. Sti ck out for GTAW is th e
len gth of tun gsten e lectrode th at ex -
tend s beyond th e e nd o f the g as
nozzle. The tun gsten electrode stickout
must be properly adjusted when weld- Before starting 10
ing with GTAW and is determined by weld, ensure thut the
the type of weld joint and the position tungsten eh>('tltklelUIS
the prop er stickout
of welding. Typi cally the tung sten beyond the end ojthr
electrode should extend \18" to 3/16 ' be- gas nozzle.
yo nd the end of th e gas no zzl e for
groo ve weld s on butt joints and 1// ' to
0/8" for fillet welds. Current must be shut
OFF when adjusting electrode stickout.
Shielding Gas
The primary con sideration in any weld-
ing operation is to produ ce a weld that
has the same properties as the base
metal. Such a weld can only be made if
the molten weld pool is completely pro-
tected from the atmosphere during the
welding process. Shielding gas prevents
nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere
from entering and co ntam inating th e
weld pool. This res ults in we lds that The type and amo/lnl
ar c stro nge r, more du ct ile, and more of shielding go.'i used
is determined hv
corros ion-resis tant than weld s made by current.rype ofweld.
mo st o ther welding processes . S ince ba se metal, and
the filler metal is not coated with nu x, welding conditions.
tra ce s of flu x do not nced to be re -
movcd from the we ld.
Figure 16-U. Weld inK with IJC
('//'Tell( requires an electrode with
II poin t ed tip, Wel d inx with AC
('/lITem requires a hem i,lpherif'lIl -
til' electrode.
AC
CTAW-Equipment ~ 173
 Shielding gas is required before, dur-
A r,ROtI is the m ost
ing, and after the welding uperation.
commonly used
shielding gas, and Before welding, shielding gas is directed
is regulated by a to the weld area to displace the air in the
jlowmeter. weld area. During welding, shielding gas
flow continues to protect the weld from
atmospheric contamination. After weld-
ing, a postflow timer controls the time
shielding gas flows after the arc is stopped
to protect the weld until it is no longer
subject to contamination.
Shielding gases used for GTAW are
inert gases such as argon or hel ium ,
or a mixture of argon and helium. See
Figure 16-14. An inert gas is a gas that
does not read ily combine with other
elements. T he type and amo unt of
shielding gas used is determ ined by
current, type of weld , base metal, and
welding condition s.
Argon is the most commonly used
shielding gas. Argon is heavier than air,
which facilitates efficient coverage of
the weld area so less gas is required,
which makes it more economical than
helium . Argon gas is easier to control
in drafty conditions and it is eas ier to
establish an arc at lower current setting.

Better arc starting, cleaning action , and weld quality;

Argon
lower gas consumption
Aluminum Manual Welding
Helium Higher welding speed possible
Machine Welding Argo n-Helium Better weld quality, lower gas flow than required with straight helium
To V16" Helium Controlled penet ration
Magn esium
Over V16" Argon Excellent cleaning, ease of manipulation, low ga s flow
To Va" Argon Ease of manipulation, freedom from overheating
Over Va" Argon Produces high quality welds
Generally preferred for longer electrode life
Mild Stee l Argon
Better weld nugget contour
Spot Welding
Ease of starting, lower gas flow
Argon-Helium
Helium addition improves penetration on heavy-gauge metal
Manual Welding Argon Better weld pool control, especially for position welding
Permits controlled penetration on light-gauge material
Argon
(up to 14 gauge)
Higher heat input, high er welding speed possible on
Arqon-Heliurn
Sta inless Steel Machine Welding heavier gauge metal
f----,----,-,----,-----+=-""='--".:=c.::..::=-- ,-----,--------,------,---,-----,----- - ,---------J
Argon-Hydrogen Prevents undercutting, produces desirable weld contour at low
(95%-5 %) current level, requires less gas flow
Helium Provides highest heat input and deepe st penetration
Ease in controlling weld pool , and ensuring adequate
Argon
Co pper & Nickel penetration and bead contour on light-gauge metal
and thier Alloys Argon-Helium Higher heat input to offset high heat conductivity of heavier gauges
Helium Highest heat input for high welding speed on heavy metal sections
Low gas flow rate minimiz es turbul ence and air contamination of weld;
Tit anium Arg on
improved metal transfer ; improved HAZ
Better penetration for manual welding of thick sections (inert gas
Helium
backing required to shield back of weld against contamination)
Silicon Bronze Argon Reduces cracking tendency on cooling ("hot shortness")
Aluminum Bron ze Argon Less penetration of base metal

Figure 16- 14. Arwm or a mixture of argon-helium may be used as shielding gases for CTAW

174 ~ Welding Skills

 Argon is supplied in steel cylinders
containing approximately 330 cu ft at
a pres sure of 2000 psi . A single- or
two-stage pre ssure regulator or a spe-
cially designed regulator containing
a flowmeter is used to control the gas
flow. The flowmeter is calibrated to
show the flow of gas in either cubic feet
per hour (cfh) or liters per minute (lpm).
The flow of argon to the torch is con-
trolled by turning the adjusting screw
on the flowmeter. See Figure 16-15. The
rate of flow required depends on the
weld appl icat ion . A s th e adjusting
screw is turned counterclockwise, the
gas flow increases and raises a visible
stainless steel ball. The flow rate scale
on the flowmeter is properly read at
the bottom of the ball.
Figure 16-15. A pressure reg ulator and flowmeter
control the flow of shielding gas to the torch.
Straig ht helium is les s commonly
used as a shielding gas bec ause of its
higher cost compared to argon. Estab-
lishing an arc with helium is also more
difficult than with argon. Hel ium pro-
duces deeper weld pen etration, but is
lighter than air, requiring more gas to
be used for adequate shie lding. When
welding metal that requires a higher heat
input, a mixture of argon and helium
may be used. Different percentages of
argon and helium are used to obtain re-
quired penetration at the lowest cost.
o When welding austenitic stainless steel us-
ing GTAl¥, hydrogen can be added to the
shielding gas to reduce oxide [ormation.
Nitrogen can be adde d to the shielding gas
to increase mechanical properties and re-
duce pitting in supe r-austenitic and dup lex
stainless steels.
GTAW FILLER METALS
Normally, tiller metal is not necessary
on light-gauge metals. Occasionally,
filler metal is added on thin metal s
when it is es sential to reinforce th e
joint. When using the GTAW process
for thick metal s, fill er metal is re -
quired. For jo ints where addi tion al
weld metal is needed, filler metal is fed
into the weld pool in a manner similar
to welding with the oxyacetylene flame
process , melting the wire with the weld
pool , not with the heat of the arc .
Filler metal mus t be of the same
composition as the bas e metal. Thus, lffi ller metal is to he
used. it must be ofthe
triple deoxidized mild steel filler metal
samecomposition as
is used to weld low-carbon steel, alu- the base metal.
minum tiller metal is used for welding
aluminum, copper filler metal is used
for joining coppe r, and so on . Strips of
the base metal can also be us ed as a
filler metal, if necessar y.
Filler metals for GTAW are similar
in c las sificatio n to th e fill er me tals
used for GMAW. Se e App endix.
Copper-coated mild steel filler metal s
used for oxyacetylene welding are not
recommended for GTAW si nce th ey
tend to contaminate the tungsten elec-
trode . GTAW fill er metal s co ntain
deoxidizers that produce less spatter in
the weld and a sound weld joint. In gen-
eral , the diameter of th e fill er met al
should be about the same as the thick-
ness of the metal to be welded.
GTAW-Equipment ~ 175
 I . A welding machine originally desi gned for use with SMAW must be derated to prote ct it
from the effects of internal heati ng that occurs during GTAW. Deratin g is only necessary
when using AC GTAW.
2. ACHF provides a combination of the penetrating qualities of DCEN and the cleaning action
of DCEP.
3. In the GTAW process, DCEN is used for weld ing most ferrou s metals because it produces
deep penetration into the metal.
4 . DCEP is rarely used in GTAW except in special aluminum and magnesium applications.
5 . A water-co oled tor ch is recommended when using currents over 200 A. Ensure coo ling
water is flowing before welding.
6 . Gas nozzle s that are too small for the welding task may overheat, crack, or deteriorate
rap idly.
7. The diame ter of the electrode selected for a welding operation is determined by the required
weld ing current.
8. Before starting to weld, ensure that the tungsten electrode has the proper stickout beyond
the end of the gas nozzle.
9 . The type and amount of shielding gas used is determined by current, type of weld , base
metal , and we lding conditions.
10. Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas, and is regulated by a flowmeter.
I I. If filler metal is to be used, it must be of the same composition as the base metal.

I. In GTAW. what type of weldin g machines may be used?

2. Why should an AC welding machine be of the high-frequency type?
3. What polarity is commonly used in GTAW?
4. When DCEP or DCEN current is used in GTAW, what results can be expected with respect
to heat distribution ?
5. What determines whether an air-cooled or water-cooled torch is used ?
6. What precauti on(s) should be observed when using a water-cooled torch?
7. Why is it important to use the correct size gas nozzle?
8. What determines the size of the tungsten electrode to be used for welding?
9. What is the recomm ended shape of the tungsten electrode for DC and AC weld ing?
10. What is the function of a flowmeter in a gas regulator assembl y?
I I. When using filler metal, how should it be manipulated?
12. When is filler metal used in GTAW?

176 ~ Welding Skills

 ;.. ~ ..:.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

GTAW can be performed in all pos itions and produces a minimum of weld "flatter. Weld "flatter is greatly
reduced or eliminated because no metal passes through the arc. Since GTAW produces a smooth weld
surface and little or no metal fini shing is required, there can be a sav ings in production cost. In addition,
there is less distortion (if the metal near the weld. However. production cost savings may be offset by lo w
productivity and training fo r the additional skills necessary to perform GTAW.

GTAW CONSIDERATIONS In the me ch a nized process , the

GTAW proc edures must co nside r the
base metal, weld joint, weld type, and
welding position . Adjustm ents required
for GTAW operations include selecting
cur rent typ e and level , se lec ting the
tun gsten e lectrode , adju sting eoo ling-
water flow, selecting the shielding gas,
adju sting shielding gas flow rate, and
adj usting electrode extension.
GTAW can be applied by four basic
proce sse s: manual, se miauto matic .
mech ani zed , and auto matic. In the
man ual process, the operatio n is done
by hand. GTAW, similar to OFW, can be
performed in either forehand or back-
hand direction. In the semiautomatic pro-
cess, the operator controls the speed and
direction of travel, while the tiller metal
is automatically fed into the weld pool.
o AlVS A5. /2/A 5. / 2M, Specification for
Tungsten and Tungsten A lloy Electrodes
forArc Welding and Cutting, specifies the'
elec trode's that may he used with
t U flf,tS (('fl
GTAW Com monly used tungsten electrodes
an' J% or 2% thoriated electrodes. Tho-
riumoxideenhanceselectronemission and
provides a higher current-carrying capac-
it)' to the electrode.
fi lle r met al fee d, we ld s ize , we ld
length, rate of travel, and starting and
stopping are controlled by equipment
under the ob servation and contro l of
the we ld ing o perator. Th e automatic
process performs all we lding o pe ra-
tio ns w itho ut co nstant ob servation
and adj ustment of the contro ls by an
op er ator.
In GTAW welding, a shield of inert
gas displaces air from the welding area
to prevent oxidatiun of the filler metal,
weld pool , and surro und ing HAZ ,
When GTAW is properl y performed. a
smooth appearance is prod uced. Since
the shie ld ing gas a rou nd th e ar c is
tran sparent, a we lder ca n cle arl y ob-
serve the weld as it is being made, Ad-
GTAW ca1l he used
dition ally, the completed weld is clean .~ [or joining mall }'
a nd free of th e defect s ofte n e n- .=
; metals and alloys in
cou ntere d in SM AW. vario us thickness es
and for vario us
Joint Preparation
types 0Ijo;1I1"'.
Regardless of the typ e of joint used ,
proper cleaning of the metal is esse n-
tial. All oxid at ion , sca le, oil, grea se,
dirt, and other fore ign matter must be
removed by phy sica l or c hemica l
mean s since there are no flu xi ng

177
 agent s a s with SMAW to eliminate
contami nants. Ideal j oint preparation
is obtained using c utt ing tools suc h
a s a lathe for round o r cylindrica l
joints or a mi llin g machine for longi-
tudinal preparation s . Probl ems that
a rise during GTAW are th e re sult of
using improper jo int pr ep aration
methods. Man y of the se problems are
the direct result of improper grind ing
of th e metal.
Grinding wheels designed for specific
met al types sho uld be used to e nsure
proper me tal preparation prior to weld-
ing . Micro-sized abrasive particles can
permeate soft metals such as alum inum,
and unless rem oved, result in excessive
porosity. Grinding wheels must be thor-
oughly cl eaned before each use . Joint
de sign s used with GTAW include the
butt joint, lap joint, T-joint, comer joint,
and edge joint. See Figure 17-1.

. o
Fteure 17-1. Joint de siens used
wilh GTAW include the but t joint,
. '_ • . _. _
lap joint, Tzjoint, comer joint, and
edge j O;II1.

Square

\ 60')
Open
LJ
ROOT FAC E
l;8'" TO W'
Single-V

ROOT FACE ( 60'/

1 Ctosed
rI - 50~

'( 60~~ ROOT FACE

Double-V _I
BUTT T
APPROX W'

BEVEL EDGE S ON
M ETAL OV ER y.N

Beveled
LAP CORNER

T-JOINT EDGE

178 ~ Welding Skills

 Butt .Joints. For thin metals, the square
butt joint is the easiest to prepare and
can be welded with or without filler
metal. If the weld is to be made with-
out filler metal, extreme care must be
taken to prevent melt-through.
To ens ure complete joint penetra-
tion, the single-V butt joint is used on
metal ranging in thickness from 3/s" to
\/2". The groove angle of the joint root
should be approximately 60°, with a
root face of about 'Is" to '/l'.
When the thickness of the metal
exceeds Yz" and the joint design is such
that the weld can be made on both sides,
a doubl e-V butt joint is used . With a
doubl e-V butt joint th er e is gre ater
ass urance of complete penetration of
the weld.
Lap .Joints. The only spec ial require-
ment for making a good lap weld is to
have the pieces in close contact along
the entire length of the joint. The weld
ca n be made with or without filler
metal. As a rule , a lap joint is not rcc-
ommended for mat erial more than
'/4" thick
T-.Joints. Filler metal must be used to
weld T-joints regardl ess of the thick-
ness of the metal. Generally, the weld
should be mad e on both sides of the
T-joint. The number of passes required
depends on the thickness of the metal
and the size of the weld to be made.
Corner .Joints. When welding a cor-
ner j oint on thin met al s up to 'Is"
thick , no filler metal is required. With
thi ck metal s, filler metal should be
used. If the metal ex cee ds 'll', one
edge of the joint should be beveled.
The number of passe s required for a
co rner joint dep end s on th e size of
the groove an gl e a nd th e thi ckne ss
of the metal.
Edge .Joints. An edge joint is suitable
only on very light metal. No filler metal
is needed to weld an edge joint. Edge
jo ints are used to join parallel or nearly
parallel workpi eces,
Weld Backing
Many welding jobs require the use of
so me s uita b le backin g . On li ght -
ga uge me tals, backing bars are used
to pr event me lt-thro ugh and pro tect
re:::::
•~
I
Whell welding light.
gauge metals. backing
the underside of the weld from atmo- .= bars can be "sed to
preventmelt-through,
sph eric c o nta m inatio n. On thi c k
metal, backin g bars draw some of the
heat generated by the intense arc away
from the weld .
The type of metal used as a back-
ing bar depends on the metal to be
welded . Copper bars are suitable for
sta inless steel. When welding alumi -
num or magn esium, stee l or stainless
s tee l backin g bars a re needed . A
backing bar should be positioned so
it does not touch the weld zone. See
Figure 17- 2.
Figure 17-2. A backillK bar should
be positioned so that it does 110 1
touch the weld zone.
i
L WELD ZONE
I, ~ r
BACKING BAR /
WITH RECESS
Many weld backings are consumed
into the weld. Weld backing should be
composed of the same material as the
base metal.
o When welding using the GTAW process,
copper is commonly used as a backing ma -
terial becau se it does not fus e to thin metals.
Copper also provides fast cooling. which
helps 10 contro l heat input.
GTAW - Procedures ~ 179
 GlAW PROCEDURES
The GTAW procedure is similar to the
OFW procedu re. Th e torch is manipu-
lated to distribute the heat evenly in
the weld area. Filler metal. if required,
is add ed to the we ld pool with an
in-and-out motion. The travel angle used
depends on the size and type of metal
welded. When welding with ACHF cur-
rent, the electrode must not touch the
weld pool a, the electrode could become
con taminated. Before start ing to weld
w ith GTAW, fo llow the procedure:
I . Check all electrical circuit connec-
When usill~ a wafer- tions to make sure they arc tight.
cooled torch. ell. \"II r e
that the water is ON 2 . Check for the proper electrode di-
before welding . ameter and gas nozzle size. (Follow
manufacturer recommendations.)
I I
ELECTRODE STICKOUT
EXTENSION
- ' ,,-lh'" TO 0/16'" MAX
BUTT JOINT T-JOINT
Ftaure 17-3. Adjust the electrode extension 10 ensure the prof'a stickout [o r the particular j oint being welded.
180 ~ WeldillR Skills
3 . Adjust for the proper electrode ex-
ten sion. Stickout of the electrode
should be 1/ 8" to 3/ 16" beyond the
end of the gas nozzle for a butt
j oint , \4" to 3fs" for a T-joint, and
l/ S" for a come r joint. See Figure
17- 3 .
4 . Chec k the elec trode to be ce rtain
that it is firm ly held in the co llet.
If the electrode is loose, tighten the
collet holder or gas nozzle. Do not
overtight en as ove rtightening can
strip the threads .
5 . Set the we ldi ng machine fo r the
correct current. See Appendi x.
6 . If a wat er- cool ed torch is to be
used , turn the water ON .
7 . Set the inert gas to the correct flow.
Set the postflow timer.
CORNER JO INT
Starling the Arc
To start an arc. set the welding current
and hold the torch in a horizontal posi-
tion abo ut 2" abo ve the workpiece .
When using DC current. lower the torch
until the electrode touches the workpiece.
Once the arc is started, withdraw the
electrode so it is about 1/ 8" abov e the
workpiece. See Figure 17-4.
When using ACHF, angle the torch
so the end of the electrode is Ys" above
the workpiece. The high-frequency cur-
rent will jump the gap between the elec-
trode and the workpiece, es tablishing
When starting an arc using DC current, the
- - -.
electrode is lowered until it touches the plate.
Whe n sta rting the arc using AC. angle lorch so
electrode is lAINabove workp iece. Current will jump
gap and establish an arc.
Figure 17-4. WI,ell starting WI lire. the proper a rc
length mu st ht.. maintained to produ ce a qualify weld.
the arc. The electrod e should not touch
the workp iece to start the arc. Rapidl y
make the downward mot ion to begin
we ld ing to provid e th e ma ximum
amount of gas prot ecti on to the weld
zone.
Many DC welding machines have a
high-frequency start feature. If so, strike
the arc in the manner de scribed for
ACHF.
To stop the arc during welding, swing
the electrode back to the horizontal po-
sition without touching the weld area .
Some machines are equipped with a foot
pedal to permit a gradual decrea se of
current for filling the crater completely
and preventing crater cracks.
Welding Butt Joints. Preheat the start- A CAUTION
ing point of the weld by moving the If usi ng a water-cooled
torch in small circles to develop a weld torch . do nOI allow it to
contac t the workpi ece wh en
pool. As soon as the we ld po ol be- the current is ON . Hot
comes fl uid . mov e the tor ch s lo wly welding sases may cause
the arc to ju mp from the
and steadily along the joint to deposit a electrode to the ga s nozz le
uniform bead. See Figure 17-5. To add instead of In the workpi ece.
filler metal to a butt joint, follow the
procedure:
I. With the arc at the rear of the weld
pool . add filler metal to the lead-
ing edge of the weld pool while
maint ainin g a 150 push angle be-
tween the filler metal and the sur-
face of the work.
2. Remo ve the filler metal from the
weld area.
3 . Advance the torch to the leading
edge of the weld pool.
Repeat this sequence for the entire
length of the seam .
Welding Lap Joints or T-Joints. To
weld a lap j oint , the workpieces must
be in close contact. On metal V4" thick
or less. the weld can be made with or
without tiller metal. Lap joints are typi-
cally not used for metal more than Yi'
thick. Fill er metal is required wh en
welding T-j oint s, regardl ess o f th e
thickn ess of the metal.
To begin welding, fonn a weld pool
o n th e bott om workpiece . A fte r the
weld pool is formed. shorten the arc to
GTAIV - Procedures ~ 181
Figur e 17-5. Filler metal is added
Tothe It'all ing edge of the weld
pool.
_0"-' - _.
CD
® REMOVE FILLER METAL
® WELD POOL
Figure 17-6. Ad vance the torch
so that the notch ill tilt' wel d head
continues 10 fo rm ah ead of the
torch.
182 ~ Weldillg Sk ills
_
about V16", then rotate the torch directly
over the joi nt until the workpieces are
jo ined. After welding is started, no fur-
~
A D D FI LL E R
METAL
ther torch rotat ion is necessary. Move
the torch along the joi nt with the end
I,, TORCH AT
of the filler metal ju st above the edge
~ REAROF of the top workpiece .
WELD
POOL
When welding a lap j oint, the weld
pool forms a V shape . Inside the weld
ADD FILLER METAL
pool a notch is formed. The speed at
which this notch progresses determines
how fast the torch should be moved.
Do not adva nce the torch ahead of the
notch . The notch must be completely
filled for the entire length of the joint;
otherwise, incomplete fusion and pen-
etration of the weld results. See Figure
17-6. Dip the end of the filler metal in
and out of the weld pool abo ut every
114" of tr ave l. Avoid depositing filler
metal on co ld, unm olten base met al.
ADVANCE TORC H TO LEADING EDGE OF
Addi ng a co nsiste nt amo unt of filler
meta l ensures that a uniform bead is
pro duced .
. . . '-
--- DIRECTI ON
OF WELDING
CD NOTCH FORMED AHEAD OFTORCH
DIP FILLER
METALINTO
L
WELD POOL
'- MOVE FILLER METAL IN AND OUT
RAPIDLY ABOUT EVERY v.-OF TRAVEL
® FILL ER METAL ADD ED
Horizontal Welding Procedure Ftgu ..e 17·8. The p rop er angle s
must be maintained when perform-
ing downhill and uphill welding.
For horizontal GTAW, start the arc about
'12" from the edge of the joint. Once the
arc is started, move the torch to the edge
of the joint and begin welding. Hold the
DIRECTION1
torch at a work angle of 15° and a travel OF WELDING FILLER
METAL
angle of 15°. Dip the filler metal into
the front of the weld pool and on the
high side of the crater as the torch is
advanced along the joint to help pre -
Using downhill
vent undercutting. See Figure 17-7. DOWNHILL CTAW on thin
metal produces an
adequate weld with.
no melt-through.

FILLER
METAL

--- DIRECTION
OF WELDING At .~
TORCH
I
30 '

UPHILL

Figure 17-7. Dip the filler metal into the high side at
the front of the weld pool when welding a horizontal
butt joint. Overhead Welding Procedure
When welding with GTAW in over-
While the filler metal is dipped into head position, the current should be re-
the weld pool, withdraw the torch slightly duced 5% to 10% from what is normally
to allow the molten metal to solidify, nsed for flat position. A reduced current
which prevents the weld pool from sag- provides better control of the weld pool.
ging . Arc length should be approxi- Both the torch and filler metal should
mately the same size as the filler metal be held similar to nat position welding.
diameter. A work angle of 15° and a travel angle
of 15° to 20° should be maintained.
See Figure 17-9.
Vertical Welding Procedure
Figure 17-9. The tra vel a ng le
and work an gl e of the to rch in
Vertical GTAW on thin metal is usually o verhead posit ion is similar to
performed downhill to achieve an ad- f la t position.
equate weld without melt-through.
When filler metal is used, it should be
added from the bottom, or leading, edge
of the weld pool. On thick metals, up-
hill welding is preferred since deeper
penetration can be achieved. Uphill When using GTAW in
welding generally requires filler metal. ~ 15' V
overh ead position .
reduce thecurrent5%
The proper work angle and travel angle
must be maintained for both downhill ~WORK to J0% from what is
used for flat position.
FILLER ANGLE
and uphill welding. See Figure 17-8. METAL

GTAW- Procedures ~ 183

 Dip the filler metal in and out of the
weld pool as in ot her we ld ing posi-
tio ns. A small we ld bead is adv isable
s ince it is less affected by gra vity. If
th e weld pool ge ts too lar ge, it wi ll
drop out of the joint and compl ete pen-
etra tion cannot occur.
HOT WIRE WELDING
H OI wire welding is a gas tungsten arc
weldi ng proce ss in whic h the fill er
metal is preheated as it enters the weld
pool. Hot wire welding produces qual-
ity welds at about the same speed as is
possible with GMA W. In hot wire weld-
ing systems, the filler metal is automati-
cally fed from a wire feeder that runs
to a hot-wire torch mounted behind the
GTAW torch. A wire feeder is a weld-
ing mach ine acce sso ry th at holds a
filler metal spoo l and allows it to be
fed to the hot- w ire torc h as we lding
pro gre sses. Fill er metal is melt ed by
an AC current that passes from an AC
we ld ing ma chin e through th e fill er
mctal. Th e we lding machine is regu-
lated so the filler metal reaches its melt-
ing point as it enters the weld pool.
By attachin g thc hot-wire torch be-
hind the GTAW welding torch, the op-
erator is given an unobstructed view of
the weld. By preheating the filler metal,
weld poro sity is eliminated. Welds are
made with greater quality and speed.
Hot wire weldin g is a rapid and ef-
ficient welding process in many fabri-
catio n situations.
PULSED GTAW (GTAW-P)
Pulsed GTAW (GTAW-P) is a gas tung-
sten welding arc process in which the
welding current is pulsed. The high and
lo w le vel pul sat ing current produ ces
overlapping spot welds. See Figure 17-
10. The spo t wel d s are forme d by
high -level curre nt.
184 ~ Welding Skills
CONTINUOUS SEAM
TOP VIEW
OVERLAPPING
SPOT WELDS
CONTINUOUS SEAM / "
SECTION VIEW
Figure 17-10. The pulsed GTAW p rocess p roduces
overtopping spot welds that form a continuous seam.
When the current switches to a low
level, the welds are allowed to cool and
partiall y solidify between deposition of
eac h spot weld . The welding co ntrols
are set so the spot welds overlap to pro-
duce a co ntinuo us weld.
Pulsed GTAW can be manual or au-
tomatic and can be used with or with-
out fi lle r met al. T he process ca n be
used for we ldi ng ve ry thin met al s
where critical cont rol of metallurgical
factors is necessary. A pul sed cur rent
permits mo re tolerance of cdge mi s-
alignment, grea ter variations in back-
ing bar use and fixturing, bett er root
penetr ation , and less distortion.
With other we ld ing tec hni q ues, a
change in current or travel speed must
be mad e w he n cha ng ing po siti on s
around curved edges to ensure uniform
weld appearancc. Pul sed GTAW is
more flexibl e when used in different
welding position s and, when we lding
curved seams or pipes, allows continu-
ous we lding without having to vary
trave l speed, vo ltage , or cu rrent.
 I . GTAW ca n be used for joining man y metals and alloys in various th icknesses and types of
j oint s.
2 . When we lding light -gau ge me tals. backing bar s ca n be used to preven t melt -th rou gh .
3. When using a wa ter-cooled torch , e nsure that the water is O N before wel di ng .
4. Usin g downhill GTAW on thin metal produces an adequate weld with no melt -th rou gh .
5. Dip the fill er metal into the high side at the front edg e o f the weld pool when weld ing a
hori zontal bu tt joint.
6 . When using GTAW in overhead position. redu ce the current 5% to 10% from what is used
for flat position.

~ Exe rc ises
Depositing Beads on Mild Steel
in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••
exercise
•
.

I . Obtain a 3/32", 1% thoriatcd tun gsten electrode and

prepare a pointcd tip . ~ -I
2 . Insert the electrode in the torch and adj ust the stickout 90 ' I
'Is" to 3A6" beyond the end of the gas nozzle.
3. Set th e we ld ing mac h ine o utput to DC EN. If the
weld ing machine has a high -frequ enc y start feature.
( J
set the hi gh freq ue ncy for start o nly. Weld c ur re nt Z 12 GAUGE
MILD STEEL
rem ote sho uld be OFF and co ntac to r co ntrol shou ld WORK ANGLE
be ON .
4 . Set the shield ing gas (a rgo n) at 20 c ubic feet per
minute (cfm) with a postfl ow time of 15 sec.
5. Set the curre nt at 50 A to 60 A.
6 . Obtain a piece of 12 gauge mild stee l, 4" wide and
6" lon g.
DIRECTION
7 . Positi on the workpiece in flat positi on . OF WELDING

S. Start c urrent flow by pushing the foot pedal or turn - •

PUSH ANGLE
ing the switch at the torch .
9 . Positi on the torc h at a 45° wo rk angle with the elect rode 'Is" from thc wor kpiece.
10 . Once the arc is started. raise the torch to a 90° work angle and a 20° push ang le.
II . Maintain the arc size wi th a we ld pool a pproxima te ly '18" wid e. For m a co nsiste nt bead
across th e work piece.
12. Deposit a se ries of stra ight, co ns istent beads on the workpiece approximatel y 3jg" apa rt.

GTAW - Procedures ~ 185

 Depositing Beads with Filler
Metal on Mild Steel in Flat Position exercise
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
.

I. Complete equip ment se tup and adj ust me nt as in

Exerc ise I.
2. Obtain a piece of 12 gauge mild steel, 4" wide and
6" long.
3. Position the workpiece in flat position.
4 . Obtain the recommended filler metal for mild steel.
5. Position the torch at a 45° work angle with the elec-
trode 1/8 " from the workpiece.
6. Once the arc is started, establish a weld pool and raise
the torch to a 90° work angle and a 20° push angle.
Using an in-and-out motion, dip the filler metal into
the leading edge of the weld pool. Do not touch the
filler metal to the tungsten electrode.
7. Use a small circular motion with the torch. Form a
consistent bead, approximately 3/16" wide, and main-
tain across the workp iece.
DIRECT ION
OF WELDING
8. Deposit a series of straight, consistent beads approxi-
~
mately o/'s" apart.

Welding a Butt Joint on Mild

Steel in Flat Position...
•••••••••••••••••••
eXerCiSe
•
.

I. Complete eq uipme nt set up and adjustmen t as in

Exerc ise I.
~-I
90' I
( ~
2. Obtain two pieces of 12 gauge mild steel, Ph" wide
and 6" long.
3 . Form a butt joint with no root opening, and tack together.
4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat WORK ANGLE
position.
5. Obtain the recommended filler metal for mild steel.
6 . Position the torch at a 45° work angle with the elec-
trode 1/ 8" from the workpiece.

DIRECTION
OF WELDING
~
PUSH ANGLE

186 ~ Welding Skill"

...Welding a Butt Joint on Mild
Steel in Flat Position
••••••••••••••••
exercise
•
.

7. Once the arc is started, establish a weld pool and raise the torch to a 90° work angle
and a 20° push angle . Using an in-and-out motion, dip the filler metal into the leading
edge of the weld pool. Do not touch the filler metal to the tungsten electrode.
8 . Use a small circular motion with the torch. Form a consiste nt bead, approximately 0/16"
wide, and deposit the bead across the workpiece, using the weld joint as the center of
the weld .
9 . The resulting weld should have complete penetration with a 0/,6" bead width .

Welding a Lap Joint on Mild

Steel in Horizontal Position
••••••••••••••••
exercise
•
.

I. Complete equipment setup a nd adjustment as in

Exercise I.
2. Obtain two pieces of 12 gauge mild steel, Ph " wide
and 6" long.
/'
80 '-85' \

L~=r==
3. Form a lap join t and tack together.
4. Po sition the workpiece so th e weld joint is in
hori zontal po sition.
WORK ANGLE
5 . Obtain the recommended filler metal for mild steel.
6. Hold the torch at an 80 0 to 850 work angle and a JS"
to 20 0 push ang le. Position the filler metal at a 20 0
angle .
7. Melt the top edge of the workpiece and add filler
metal using an in-and-out motion to the leading edge 20'

of the weld pool.

DIRECTIO N
8. Maintain a con sistent bead across the workpiece. OF WELDING

•
PUSH ANGLE

GTAW - Procedures ~ 187

 Welding aT-Joint on Mild Steel in
Horizontal Position exerCise
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
.

I . Comp lete eq uipment setup and adj ustment as in

Exercise I.
2. Obtain two pieces of 12 gauge mild steel, 2" wide
and 6" long.
3 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90 ° ang le and
tack toge ther.
4 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in hori- WORK ANGLE
zontal position. PUSHANGLE \
- 15 "

,------------+-,nt '
5. Obta in the recommended filler metal for mild steel.
6 . Hold the torc h at a 45° work angle and a 15° push
angle. Position the filler metal at a 20° angle fro m
the bottom plate.
20'
7. Establish a weld pool. Weave the torch slightly and,
usi ng an in-a nd-out motio n, add filler meta l to the
leading edge of the weld pool. DIRECTION
OF WELDING
8 . Avo id excessive heat buil du p on the vertical
workpiece.
•
PUSH ANGLE

Welding aT-Joint on Mild Steel in

Vertical Position
••••••••••••••••
exerCise
•
.

I . Complete equipme nt setup and adjustme nt as in

Exerc ise I.
2. Obtain two pieces of 12 gauge mild steel, 2" wide
and 6" long .
3. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90° ang le and
tack together.
4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in verti-
ca l posi tion .
5 . Ob tain the recommended filler metal for mild steel.
6. Weld uphill. Start at the bottom of the joint. Hold
the torch at a 45° work angle and a 20° push angle.
Position the filler metal at a 20° angle, cente red on DIRECTION
the joint. Use an in-and-out motion and add filler OF WELDING
metal to the leading edge of the weld pool.

188 0 WeidillN Skills

Depositing Beads on Aluminum
in Flat Position exe r C i s e .
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1. Obtain a % 2" , pure tungsten electro de a nd in sert the elec tro de in the to rch . Adj us t the
sticko ut Vs" to 31ts" beyond the end of the gas nozzle and prepare a spherical tip. To shape
the tip, set the weldin g machine to DCEP. Position the torch at a 90 ° angle and strike an arc
on a piece of co pper. A small ball will form on the e nd of the electrode .
2 . Set the we lding machine output to AC. High frequency should be set for continuo us. Weld
current remote and contactor control should be ON.
3 . Set the shield ing gas (argon) 10 20 cfm with a postflow time of 15 sec .
4. Set the currenl at 140 A to 150 A.
5 . Obtain a piece o f Vs" aluminum, 4" wide and 6" long.
6 . Clean the aluminum with a clean stainless steel wire bru sh .
7 . Positi on the work piece in flat position .
S. Start the we lding arc , us ing the foot control to vary the curre nt.
9 . Hold the lorch at a 90° work a ngle and a 20 ° push angle.
10 . Melt the aluminum to form a 1/.' wid e bead weld pool. Use an in-and -out motion and add
filler metal to the leading edge of the we ld pool. A slight weaving motion can be used .
I I . Fill the crat er at the end of the weld by reducing current with the foot cont rol and cont inu-
ing to add filler metal.
12 . Deposit a se ries of straight, cons iste nt beads on the workpiece appro ximately 'Ya" apart.

Welding Joints on Aluminum in

Flat Position eo
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
e xercise

I . Complete equipme nt setup and adj ustme nt as in Exercise 7.

2 . Obtain six pieces of Vs" aluminum.
3. Positi on the aluminum in flat positi on .
4 . Use the procedures for welding mild steel to co mplete a butt jo int, a lap joint, and a T-joi nt on
alum inum .

GTAW - Procedures ~ 189

 I. What does GTAW stand for?
2. What are some of the advantages of GTAW compared to other weldin g processes?
3. How is the arc started and stopped in GTAW?
4. What is the proper torch angle for welding a butt jo int?
5. What is hot wire weldin g?
6. How are welds produced by the pulsed GTAW process?
7. What kind of meta l(s) can be welded with the GTAW process?
8. Why is joint cleanlin ess more important with GTAW compared to SMAW?

190 @o Weld ing Sk ills

GTAW is used where accurate control ofweld penetration and weld purity are critical, and deposited weld
metal must be free of spatte r; allowing metal finishing without cleaning or extensive preparation. Common
applications of welding using GTAWare on aluminum, stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, nUigne-
sium. carbon steels, and other metals that cannot be welded satisfactorily using other welding processes.

The GTAW welding technique for metals such as aluminum, stainless steel, copper, magnesium, and
carbon steel is virtually the some for each Ope of metal. In general, these metals can be welded with
GTAW more easily and with better results than by OAW or SMAW. Filler metal used fo r oxyacetylene
welding is not suitable fo r use with GTAW.

GTAW is commonly used for joining metals in the aerospace and aircraft industries. The low heat input
of GTAW permits welding on very thin metal with minimal distortion and/or alteration of base metal
properties. GTAW is also used when welding pressure vessels and critical piping systems, such as systems
in nuclear power plants, because of its weld penetration and purity.

ALUMINUM Welding can be performed in an y

Alu minum is a nonferrou s metal ,
which means that it contains no iron.
Man y type s of pure and alloyed
aluminums are available and each has
spec ific properti es for spec ific end
uses. With advan cement s and im-
provements in weldin g equipment ,
weldin g of aluminum has become a
more common joining process used in
industry.
Nonheat-treatable wrou ght alumi-
num alloys in th e 1000 , 3000 , and
5000 ser ies a re readil y weldabl e .
Heat-treatable alloys in the 2000, 6000,
a nd 7000 series ca n be welded , but
higher welding temperatures and weld-
ing speeds are required. Weld cracking
in a lloys can be e liminated by using
position ; however, welding is easier 1.§"=I
When welding light-
gauge meta ls. u Cop-
and the qualit y of the completed weld .= pe r backing bar is
is increased if weldin g is done in flat usually required.
position. Copper backing bar s should
be used whenever possible to minimize
di stortion, espec ia lly on light-gau ge
metal '/8 " thick or less. In most cases,
the torch should be moved in a straight
line without a weaving motion . Best
results are obtained by using ACHF
current with argon as a shielding gas.
Welding parameters such as current,
electrode diameter, argo n flow rat e.
and filler metal diameter. should be set
based on the thickness of the alumi-
num. See Figure 18-1.
o To preventmoistureabsorption. which can
ca use porosity in welds 011 aluminum. nm
arc on a scrap of metal after a long
( 1II

shutdown (overnight) 10 clea r condense-

filler metal that has a higher alloy con- tionfrom the shieldinggas lines.
tent than that of the base metal.

191
 GTAW-ALUMINUM
- - --
AC currentt Argon Flow* Filler
Metal Joint Electrode ' Metal
Thickness' Type Flat Horizontal Overhead Diameter Ipm cfh
& Vertical Diameter *
Butt 60- 80 60 - 80 60 - 80 ¥<> 7 15 - 20 ¥<>
V,6
Lap 70 - 90 55- 75 60- 80 ¥<> 7 15 -20 ¥<>
Corner 60- 80 60 - 80 60 - 80 ¥<> 7 15 -20 ¥<>
Fillet 70- 90 70 - 90 70 - 90 ¥<> 7 15 - 20 ¥<>
Butt 125 -145 115 -1 35 120 -1 40 Ii> 8 17-20 Ii>
Lap 120 - 130 125 - 145 120 - 130 Ii> 8 17 -20 Ii>
Ii> 17- 20
Corner 125 -145 115 -1 35 120 - 130 Ii> 8 Ii>
Fillet 120 - 130 115 -1 35 120 - 130 Ii> 8 17 - 20 Ii>
Butt 160 - 180 160 - 180 160 - 170 ¥<> 10 20 ¥<>
Lap 170 - 180 160 - 180 160 - 170 ¥<> 10 20 ¥<>
¥"
Corner 160 - 180 160 - 180 160 - 170 ¥<> 10 20 ¥<>
Fillet 170- 180 160 - 180 160 - 170 ¥<> 10 20 0/32
Butt 220 - 240 210 - 230 200- 220 :y" 12 25 :y"
Lap 230 - 250 210 - 230 200- 220 ¥" 12 25 ¥"
V.
Corner 23 0 - 250 210-230 200 - 220 ¥" 12 25 ¥"
Fillet 230 - 250 210 - 230 200 - 220 ¥" 12 25 ¥"
• in in.
t amps
I 20 psi (in ioehes per minute (ipm) or cubic !eel per hour (cfh)]
Figure Ill-I. Weldi" g parameters .{JIlI,,!d be Jet based on aluminum thickness.

STAINLESS STEEL for we ldi ng the se meta ls. However,

Ensure that there is
~(HK! ventilation when
welding . Fumes from
metalsare highly toxic.
192 ~ welding Skills
Stainless stee ls, especially those in the
300 series, are easy to weld with GTAW
Eithe r DCEN or AC HF ca n be used.
GTAW is part icu la rly adaptable fo r
welding light-gau ge stainless steel and
high -pressure stain less steel piping.
The procedure for welding all types
of stainless steels is the sa me . Fill er
metals for welding sta inless stee ls are
alloye d to prevent crack ing prob lems .
When we ldi ng without filler metals,
care must be taken to prevent cracking.
T he dan ger of cracking is reduced if
the metal is preheated to a temperature
of 300°F ( 148 °C) to SOO°F (2600C) .
Welding parameters such as proper cur-
rent, electrode diameter, argon now rate,
and filler metal diameter, should be set
based on the thickne ss of the stainless
steel. See Figure 18-2.
COPPER AND COPPER ALLOY
Deox idized co pper is the type of cop-
per most wide ly used for GTAW Cop-
per alloys such as brass and bronze and
coppe r alloys of nickel, aluminum, sili-
con , and beryllium are read ily welded
with GTAW DC EN is ge nerally used
ACHF or DCEP is often recommended
for ber yllium copper or for cop per al-
loys less than .040" thick. Metal more
tha n V<" thick should be preheated to
approx imate ly 3()()OF (148°C) to S()()OF
(260°C) prior to we lding . A forehand
welding technique usually produce s the
best results. Weldi ng parameters such
as prop er current , electrode diam eter,
argon now rate, and filler metal diam-
eter, should be set based on the thick-
ness of the copper or copper alloy. See
Figure 18-3 and Figure 18-4.
A high-veloci ty ventilating sys tem
should be used whe o welding co pper
or copper alloys. The fumes from these
metals are toxic.
MAGNESIUM
Th e welding characteristics of mag-
ne s ium are co mparab le to th o se of
al um i num . Bo t h ha ve hi gh he at
co nduct ivity, low melting point , high
therma l ex pa nsion , a nd rapid oxi -
dizatio n. With GTAW, several current
var iation s arc po ssible . Using DCEP
with helium as a shiel di ng gas pro -
duces wide weld deposits, higher heat,
a large HAZ, and shallow penetration.
 GTAW-STAINLESS STEEL
AC Current! Argon Flow* Filler
Metal Joint Electrode'
Thickness' Type Horizontal Diameter Metal
Flat & Vertical Overhead Ipm cfh Diameter'
Bu« 80 -100 70 - 90 70- 90 VI6 5 15 VI6

Y,6 Lap 100 -1 20 80 - 100 80 - 100 Vl6 5 15 1fJ6

Co rner 80 -100 70 - 90 70- 90 V I6 5 15 V I6

Fillet 90- 110 80- 100 80 - 100 Y16 5 15 1fl6

Bu« 100 - 120 90- 110 90 - 110 Y16 5 15 Vl6

Lap 110 - 130 100 -1 20 100 - 120 V I6 5 15 Y 16

¥"
Corner 100 - 120 90 - 110 90 - 110 Y16 5 15 V.6
Fillet 110 -130 100 -1 20 100- 120 Y 16 5 15 V'6
Butt 120 - 140 110 -1 30 105 - 125 ¥" 5 15 ¥"
iii Lap 130 - 150 120 -140 120 - 140 ¥" 5 15 ¥"
Co rner 120 - 140 110 -1 30 115 -1 35 ¥" 5 15 ¥"
Fillet 130 - 150 115 -1 35 120 - 140 ¥" 5 15 ¥"
Bu« 200 - 250 150 - 200 150 - 200 ¥" 6 20 iii
Lap 225- 275 175 - 225 175 - 225 ¥" 6 20 iii
0/is iii
Corner 200- 250 150 - 200 150 - 200 ¥" 6 20
Fillet 225- 275 175 - 225 175 - 225 ¥" 6 20 iii
Bu« 275- 350 200 - 250 200- 250 iii 6 20 0/,.
Lap 300- 375 225 - 275 22 5- 275 % 6 20 0/,.
V. 0/,.
Corne r 275 - 350 200 - 250 200 - 250 Va 6 20
Fillet 300 - 375 225 - 275 225 - 275 % 6 20 0/,.
• in in.
t amps
f 20 psi li n inche s per minut e (ipm) or cubic feet per hour (cf h))

Figu re 18-2. W('It/iIlK parameters should he set based (/11 ,I'/a ;l1/e,1"S steelthickness.

-GTAW-DEOXIDIZED COPPER
DCEN! Argon Flow* Filler
Metal Joint Electrode'
Thickness' Type Diameter Metal
Flat Posit ion Ipm cfh Diameter*

Bu« 110 -/ 40 V'6 7 15 1f16

lft6
Lap 130 - 150 Y1 6 7 15 V.6
Co rner 110 - 140 V16 7 15 1fl6
Fillet 130 -1 50 V,6 7 15 1fl6
175 - 225 ¥" 7 15 ¥"
Bu«
Lap 200- 250 ¥" 7 15 ¥"
iii 7 15
Corner 175 - 225 ¥" ¥"
Fillet 200- 250 ¥" 7 15 ¥"
Bu« 250 - 300 iii 7 15 Va
0/"
Lap 275 - 325 % 7 15 %
Corner 250 - 300 iii 7 15 %
Fillet 275- 325 % 7 15 Va
Bu« 300- 350 !k 7 15 !k
Lap 325- 375 !k 7 15 %
V.
Co rner 300- 350 !k 7 15 %
Fillet 325- 375 % 7 15 %
In In .
ta mps
t 20 psi (in inche s per minut e (/pm) or cubic feel pe r hour (clh)]

Figu re 18-3. Weld i" g parameters should be set based 0/1 coppa 1II1' ckl1e.I'.\'.

GTAW - Applica lio/lS @o 193

 =.
MlP--'
. .
'l- ~~

Butt
,~
-~._-~:"".-,.,
-~ ,~ .0
~r~r~, ""~~;"'~
100 - 120
",I
--
GTAW-COPPER ALLOYS
~ ~'>1Tf""~''''~~==
--::T1~_i0~~ liLli,. ~r~ r@tt~J'.
'"
90-110 90-110
• _.

J, ~.,})",
V,6 6 13
"''''~:·I*')-t

V 16
+ /'

V.6 Lap 110 -130 100 -120 100 -120 V 16 6 13 Y16

Corner 100 -1 30 90 - 110 90 - 110 V'6 6 13 Y16

Fillet 110 - 130 100 - 120 100 -1 20 V 16 6 13 Yt6

Butt 130 -150 120 - 140 120 -140 1116 7 15 %2

Lap 140 - 160 130 - 150 130 - 150 Y16,%2 7 15 %2
V.
Corner 130 - 150 120 - 140 120 - 140 1;16 7 15 ¥"
Fillet 140 - 160 130- 150 130- 150 ¥.!2
Y16, 7 15 %2
Butt 150 - 200 - - %2 8 17 V.
¥.. Lap 175 -225 - - %2 8 17 V.
Corner 150 - 200 - - %2 8 17 V.
Fillet 175- 225 - - ¥" 8 17 V.
Butt 150 -200 - - 'I" 9 19 Va , ~ 6

V.
Lap 250- 300 - - V. 9 19 Ya,¥. 6
Corner 175 - 225 - - %2 9 19 Vs,¥.6
Fillet 175 -225 - - %2 9 19 %,¥.6
• in in .
t amps
1 20 psi lin Inches per minute (ipm) or cubic!eet per hour(cfhl]

Figure 18-t. Welding parameters should be set bas ed on copper a /ltl)' thickness .

ACHF. used with helium, argon, or a
Filler me tal co n-
ta ining deosidi zers
mixtu re of shielding ga ses, can join
should be used metals from approximately .20" to V. '
when welding with thick. Both DCEP and AC current pro-
GTAW to prev en t
vide excellent cleaning action of the
porosity in the weld.
base metal surface . Using DCEN with
helium as a shielding ga s produces a
deep pe netrating arc but no surface
Medium- and high-
cleaning . DC EN with helium is used
carbonsteels require for mechanized butt welding of metal
prehea t G il d p o st- up to v." thick without beveling. Weld-
heat ing 10 avoid
ing parameters such as proper current,
10.'15 of toughness
and ductility. e lectrode di ameter, argon flow rate ,
and backing requirements, should be
set based on the thickness of the mag-
nesium. See Figur e 18-5.
CARBON STEEL
Carbon steel can be welded using a va-
riety of welding processes. GTAW can
be used for welding low- and medium-
carbon and low-a lloy stee ls whe n
greater protection of the weld from at-
mospheric contam inat ion is required.
GTAW is typically limited to metals
less than '!4" thick. Wh en GTAW is
used on carbon stee ls wit ho ut filler
194 @o Weldi ng Skill s
metal, there may be some pitting (po-
rosity) in the we ld. Porosity can be
e lim ina ted by li ghtly bru shin g th e
jo int with a mixture of aluminum pow-
der and methyl alcohol before weld -
ing . When fi ller metal is used , it
should cont ain deoxidi zers to prevent
porosit y.
Medium - and high-carbon steels are
weldable, but preheat, special welding
tech niq ue s, and po stheating are reo
quired . Unle ss these prec autions are
taken, the welded area loses toughness
and ductility.
GTAW is rarely used to weld high-
carbon steels because the welding tern-
perature requ ired with GTAW tends to
de stroy the mechanical properti es of
th e carbon stee l. Common practice
wh e n repairing broken parts mad e
with high-carbon steels is to use a braz-
ing process where the heat is not suffi-
cient to affect metallurgical structure.
Weld ing parameters suc h as proper
current, electrode diameter, argon flow
rate, and backing requirements, should
be set based on the thickness of the
carbon steel. See Figure 18-6.
 Butt V'6 ¥."
.040 Butt Y,6 ¥."
No backing
Fillet V,S ¥."
Butt V,6 ¥." Backing bar
.064 Butt , Corner 1116 ¥."
No backing
Fillet 1116 ¥."
Butt 1116
Y" Backing bar
Butt, Corne r,
.081 50 1;16 6 13 Y"
Edge No backing
Fillet 80 V 16 6 13 Y"
Butt 100 ¥." 9 19 V- Backing bar
Butt, Co rner, 70 9 19
.10 2 Y" V-
Edge No backing
Fillet 100 ¥." 9 19 V-
Butt 115 ¥." 9 19 V- Backing bar
.128 Butt, Co rner ,
85 ¥." 9 19 V-
Edge No backing
Fillet 115 ¥." 9 19 V-
Butt 120 V- 9 19 V- 1 pass
¥.. Butt 75 V- 9 19 2 passes
V-
Butt 130 V- 9 19 ¥.. 1 pass
V,
Butt 85 V- 9 19 Y.. 2 pas se s
• in in.
t amps (non-dera ted current levels)
t 15 psi lin inches per minute (ipm) or cubic feel per ho ur (cf h))

Ftgure 18-5. Welding parameters should be set based 01 1 magnesium thickness.

.035 100 8 - 10 1116

.049 100 -1 25 8 -10
.060 125 - 140 8 - 10
.089 140 - 170 8 - 10
• in in.
t amps
t 20 psi (in inches per minute (ipm) or cubic feet per hour (cfh )]

Flgure 18-6. Weld ing parameters should be set based (It! carbon steel thickne ss.

GTAW - Applications ~ 195

 I . When welding light-gauge meta ls, a cop per backin g bar is usuall y required.
2 . Ensure that there is goo d ventilation when welding copper or copper alloys. Fu mes of these
metal s are highl y toxic.
3. Fi ller meta l contai ning deox idizers should be used whe n we lding with GTAW to preven t
poros ity in the weld.
4. Medi um- and high-carbon steels require pre hea t and postheating to avo id loss of toughness
and ductilit y.

I. How can weld cracking in alloys be elimi nated?

2. What preheat temperature should bc used on stainless steel to reduce the danger of cracking?
3. What preheat temperature sho uld be used on cop per workpieces more than l/l'thick?
4. What are some of the properti es of magnesium?
5. What are the benefits of DeEP and ACHF when welding magnesium?
6. What defect may occur when GTAW is used on carbon steels without filler metal?

196 ~ Weldin g Sk ills

section fiv e Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
e
~~~~.~ -

The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process was first used in the early 1920s to increase weld purity and
production efficiency. During the early I950s, it was discovered that carbon dioxide could be used as a
shielding gas. This discovery, and the development of more versatile continuous consumable wire elec-
trodes (welding wire), increased the popularity of GMAW

GMAW equipment consists of a welding gun , wire feeder, and shielding gas. Oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen adversely affect the weld, consequently they must be excluded from the weld area during weld-
ing. Inert gases , such as argon and helium, do not react readily with other elements, making them useful
as shielding gases for arc welding. A GMAW weld can be applied by the semiautomatic, mechanized, or
automatic processes.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING GMAW CURRENT SELECTION

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an
arc welding process that uses an arc
between a continuous wire electrode
and the weld pool. The continuous wire
electrode (welding wire) is fed through
the welding gun at a preset, controlled
speed. A shielding gas , supplied from
an external source, is also fed through
the welding gun . The shielding gas
completely covers and protects the
weld pool. The GMAW process , also
called MIG welding, does not require
a flux covering to provide shielding
of the weld area. The weld area is pro-
tected by the shielding gas.
When semiautomatic welding is
used, the wire feed speed, power set-
ting , and gas flow are preset, but the
welding gun is manually operated. The
welder directs the welding gun along
the weld joint to complete the weld.
o A constant-voltag e welding machine with
dir ect current electrode positive is most
commonly used whenwelding with GMAW
The most common current selected
for GMA W welding is DCEP. DCEP
is the most efficient since the hear is
concentrated at the weld pool , pro-
viding deep penetration . DCEP also
provides greater surface cleaning,
which is important when welding
mctals that can develop an oxide
layer.
A wide range of current values can
be used for GMAW. Current is se-
lected based on metal thickness. One
wire size can weld various metal
thicknes ses , which permits welding
without having to change welding
wire diameter. The correct current to
use for a particular joint must often
be determined by trial and error. The D e EP p rovides
Jee p pe netratio n
current selected should b c high and excellent clean-
enough to allow the desired penetra- ing action.
tion without cold lapping but low
enough to prevent undercutting and
melt-through . See Appendix. Once the
current is selected, it will be main -
tained at a constant lev el.

197
 DC EN sho u ld no t be used for
GMAW because we ld pe netration is
shallow and wide ; there is excessive
spatter; a nd no surface cleani ng oc -
curs. DCEN is also ineffective because
meta l transfer is erratic and globular.
See Figure 19- 1. AC current should
not be used with GMAW since
burn -offs are une qua l on each hal f-
c ycle.
Welding cu rrent has a grea t effect
on the weld deposited usi ng GMAW.
The welding cur rent lim its the wire
feed speed to a definite range. How -
ever, it is poss ible to adjust the wire
feed speed within the range. For a spe-
cific current setting, a high wire feed
speed results in a short arc. A low wire
fee d spee d contributes to a lo ng arc.
A lower feed speed must be used for
welding in overhead position than for
welding in flat position to prevent the
weld pool from ru nn in g out of the
weld area. See Appendix.
GMAW WELDING MACHINES
Welding machines used for GMAW
should supply DC current up to 250 A
to cover most welding tasks . During
welding, heat is generated by the flow
of curre nt acro ss the gap between the
end of the welding wire and the work-
piece (arc length). The voltage across the
gap varies with the length of the arc. To
produce a uniform weld, the welding
voltage and arc length must remain con-
stant. This can be accompli shed by (a)
feeding welding wire into the weld zone
at the same rate at which it melts, or (b)
melting welding wire at the same rate at
which it is fed into the weld zone.

Figure 19·1. DCEP sho uld be

u sed fo r GM AW us il provides IJeI-
ter pene tration. DCEN results in
low penetration and excessive
spatter.

WELDING ~
WIRE
+
+ ~~ t----FINE SPRAY
d',i•...-----
d 6 66 b
TRANSFER
~6(l' tb

WORK DEEP PENETRATION

DeEP

WELDING
WIRE

ERRATIC GLOBULAR
TRANSFER

+ ~
i SPATTER SHALLOW
BEAD

WORK~ LOW PENETRATION

DeEN

198 ~ Welding Skills

Constant-Voltage Welding
Machines
Constant-voltage (constant-potential)
welding machines are commonly used
for GMAW. Potential is synonymous
with voltage. Constant potential is the
generation of a stable voltage regard-
less of the current output produced
by the welding machine . A constant-
voltage welding machine has a nearly
flat volt-ampere characteristic. See Fig-
ure 19-2. This means that the preset volt-
age level can be held constant during
welding . Although its static electrical
potential at open circuit is lower than a
welding machine with a drooping
characteristic, a constant-voltage weld-
ing machine maintains approximately
the same voltage regardless of the
amount of current drawn. Accordingly,
there is unlimited current to melt the
welding wire.
Constant-Voltage Welding
Machine
Figure 19·2
There are only two basic controls on
a constant-voltage welding machine: a
rheostat on the welding machine to
regulate the voltage, and a rheostat on
the wire feeder to control the speed of
the wire feed motor. There is no current
control on a constant-voltage welding
machine: the welding current output is
determined by the wire feed speed.
A constant-voltage welding ma -
chine is self-correcti ng with respect to
arc length and provides the necessary
current required by the load imposed
upon it. When welding wire is fed into
the arc at a specific rate, a proportion-
ate amount of current is automatically
drawn. The operator can change the For GMAW, a
constant- voltage
wire feed speed over a considerable
weddin g mach ine
range without affecting stubbing or with a nearly fl at
bum -back of the wire. In other words, volt-ampere cha r-
acteristic main -
the arc length can be set on the weld-
tains a const ant,
ing machine and any variations in preset voltage le vel
nozzle-to-work distance will not pro- durin g welding.
duce changes in the arc length. For ex-
ample, if the arc length becomes
shorter than the preselected value,
there is an automatic increase of CUf-
rent and the wire speed automatically

~ 20
25 t - - - ,,- - - - - - __ adjusts itself to maintain a constant arc
length. Similarly, if the arc becomes
if)
~ 15 VOLTAGE REMAINS
NEARLY CONSTANT too long, the current decreases and the
g 10
welding wire feeds faster.
5
100 200 Slope Control. Slope is the shape of
CURRENT (I) the volt-amp curve on a GMAW weld-
ing machine. By altering the flat shape
of the V/A current, it is possible to con-
trol the pinch force on the welding
wire, which is particularly important
when using short circuiting transfer.
With better control of the short circuit-
ing transfer mode, the weld pool can
be kept more fluid. Slope control also
helps to decrease the sudden current
Miller E[l'ct~i<." Manufi"."lUr;nR Compm l)'
surge that occurs when the electrode
Figure 19-2. A constant-voltage welding machine
initially contacts the workpiece. By
has a nearly flat volt -ampere cur ve. slowing the rate of current rise, spatter
can be reduced. Some older model
Many constant-voltage welding machines welding machines designed for GMAW
used for GMAW have an average, "fixed " have a slope control. Newer models
amount of slope built into the circuit to have either a fixed slope or a slope re-
allow for good short circuiting transfer.
actor control built in.
GMAW - Equipment § 199
 Constant-Current Welding
Machines
A co ns tant-c urre nt we lding machine
prod uces a curr ent that remains con -
stant ove r a range of welding voltages.
Th e cu rre nt has a stee p s lo pe and a
drooping vo lt-a mpere c ha rac teris tic.
See Figure 19- 3.
A constant-current welding machine
is rarely used for GMAW; however, if it
is used, the wire feed speed must be care-
fully set to prevent the welding wire from
burnin g back to the nozzle or plunging
into the workpiece.
Figure 19-]. A constant-current
welding machine produ ces a COII -
Constant-Current Welding
staru CIITTenl OI'eT a ra"ge of weld - Machine
ing voltages. Figure 19·3
80 +-- - __
~ 60
<f) 40
!:;
g 20
L-_-.---_ -.----_ __\_
50 100 150
CURRENT (I)
GMAW EQUIPMENT
GMAW equipment must feed the weld-
ing wire at a pre set , controlled speed
and provide shielding gas at a consis-
tent rate throu gh the welding gun. The
s hie lding ga s co mplete ly cove rs the
we ld pool.
A GM AW weld can be applied by
the semiautomatic, mech ani zed, or au-
tom ati c proce sse s. When se mia uto-
mati c welding is used , the wire feed
speed, powe r setting, and gas flow are
200 §o WeldillN S kills
preset, but the welding gun is manually
operated. The welde r directs the weld-
ing gun along the weld joint, maintain-
ing the proper st icko ut and tr a vel
speed .
In addi tion to a we lding machine,
GMAW equipment consists of a weld-
ing gun, wire feeder, and shielding gas.
See Figure 19-4. Additi onal equipment
may be added to autom ate the system.
Welding Guns
A we lding gun conducts the welding
wire, shielding gas, and we lding cur-
rent to the weld area. For we lding to
occu r, the welding gun must maintain
electrical contact with the welding wire.
A copper-base alloy contact tip within
the welding gun con duc ts the welding
current to the welding wire. Current is
routed through the welding leads to the
contac t tip in the we ldi ng gun. Con-
tact tips arc availabl e with different hole
sizes, depending on the diameter of the
weldin g wire. The welding wire is also
fed through the el ectrode lead . The
welding leads should be kept as straight
as possible to prevent kink ing or flat-
tening of the wire roll guides, and to
prev ent stubbing and bird nesting of
he wire in the feed er.
Shieldi ng gas is transported through
a separate hose within the welding lead.
A shielding gas conn ection and nozzle
on the g un direct the shieldi ng gas to
the arc and the weld pool. Cooling of
the welding gun is required to prevent
o verheating. Cooling is provided by
the shielding gas or by water circulat-
ing through the gun, or both. The weld-
ing lead s must not become kink ed or
damaged , as restri cted flow of weld-
ing wire or shielding gas may occur.
Welding g un par ts include the
handl e, co ntact tip , gas nozzle, and
trigger. Th e hand le allows easy posi-
tioning of the gun by the operator. The
contact tip conducts electricity from the
welding lead to the welding wire as the
welding wire leav es the we lding gun.
 Figure 19·4 . G MA W e q u ip me n t

· - .,
COlLI-is/.\' of (J welding machine,
wi re feeder, welding 1;UII, and (I
.l"hieldin1; gm s up" ly.

FLOWMETER
,I ;-
~
SHIELDING
GAS

SHIELDING
GAS
WELD ING REGUL ATOR
MACHINE ~

WELDING
GUN

NDZZL E

WELD ING CABLE

(SUPPLIES WELDING WIRE
AND SHIELDING GAS)

-
Th e gas nozzle directs the flow of Figure 19·5 . Weld ing guns use d
in G MA W are available with
shielding gas to the weld . Ga s nozzle stra ight or curved no zzles de-
size and shape may vary. Welding guns signed for C(lSY (I('e('.I'.\' to the weld
area ,
are available witb curved or straig ht
nozzles. See Figure 19-5. Th e trigger
on the weldin g g un starts and stops
welding . When the trigger is pulled ,
the current, shielding gas flow, and
wire feed are activated. CURVED
T he regulator delivers a steady pre- Mil/a Elntri" Monu}i/Cwrillg C"",I'''''Y
se t flow of shield ing ga s to the weld
area . The flowmeter indicates the rate
o f flo w (pres sure) of shie ld ing g as
from the tank to the pressure required
by the welding operation . The work-
ing pre ssure is c o nve rted into gas
flow, which is express ed in cubic feet
per hour (cfh) , The amount of shield- STRAIGHT
ing ga s required is determined by th e
type of welding gun , weld joint, bas e /lem",,1 netding E,!"i,>menl C,,"'pIlIlY

metal, and conditions of the weld area .

GMAW - Equ ipment €l' 201
 For example, welding pe rformed in
windy conditions req uires more
shielding gas flowi ng to the weld than
weld ing perfor med in a weld shop .
Semiautomatic Welding Guns. A semi-
automatic we ld ing gu n a llows the
welder to manually control and direct
welding wire to the joint. Semiauto-
matic welding guns are manufactured
in many shapes and sizes. Many fac-
tor s determine the correc t semiauto-
matic welding gun to use for a particular
we ld ing task. T he we lding gun and
electrode lead are part of the basic weld-
ing e lectrical circuit. A weldi ng gun
capab le of providing suffic ient curre nt
for the welding task must be selected.
Sem iauto matic welding guns are rated
to operate between 150 A and 750 A.
A hand-held semiautomatic weld-
ing gun commonly has a curved
nozz le. The curved nozzle is used for
most wel ding positions and provi des
easy access to intricate joints a nd
difficult -to-weld pattern s. Nozzles are
common ly made of copper because
copper can cond uct away the intense
heat that builds up near the arc. Nozzles
are available wit h orifice d iameters
from 'VB" to 7/B", depending on the size
of the weld pool, the gas shielding re-
quired , and the weld joint design.
li
Ensure that the wire
feed speed is set for A semia uto matic welding gun at-
~
- the current to he
used for we/ding .
taches to the weldi ng cab le, whic h
contains the electrode lead, liner, and
shielding gas and/or water hoses .
Welding wire is fed to the we ld ing
gun through a liner. The liner allows
the smooth now of we ld ing wire
through the we ldi ng ca ble. Semiauto-
matic welding guns can be air-cooled
or water-cooled. The shielding gas and!
or water hoses that run through the
welding cable prov ide shieldi ng gas
and cooling to the weld area.
T he trigger on a se m ia uto ma tic
welding gun controls the welding wire
feed sta rt, the arc, and the shie lding
gas flow. The machine contro ls are set
and control the actual feed speed. When
202 ~ Welding Ski ll"
the trigger is released, the wire feed, arc,
and shielding gas flow stop immedi-
ately. A timer is included on some
equipme nt to permit the shielding gas
to continue to flow for a predetermined
time after the arc is stopped to protect
the weld as it solidifies. A water-cooled
welding gun has two additional connec-
tions for Water In and Water Out to con-
trol water flow.
Automatic Welding Guns. Automatic
welding guns have a design similar to
sem iautomatic welding gu ns, but the
gun is usually mounted to a fixture
directly below the wire feeder. The fix-
ture may move the welding gun, the
worktable, or both. An automatic weld-
ing gun does not usually have a trig-
ger; rather, the we lding gun is ener-
gize d from a control pane l or remote
pendant. Automatic welding guns may
be rated up to 1200 A. An air-cooled
welding gun is used for welding at low
currents, while a water-cooled welding
gun is used for welding at high cur-
re nts. Automat ic wel ding gu ns are
typicall y water-cooled because of the
high currents and duty cycles at which
they ope rate.
Wire Feeder
A wire feeder automatically advances
the welding wire from the wire spool
to the welding gu n and the arc. The
wire feed control panel can be adjusted
to vary the wire feed speed. In addi-
tion, the control panel usually includes
a welding power contact tip and a sole-
noid to energize the gas flow. The wire
feeder can be mounted on the welding
mach ine, or positioned elsewhere for
conve nience. See Figure 19-6.
The wire feeder must be selected to
match the power source used for the
GMAW app lica tio n. Constant-speed
wire feeders are typically used with
constant-voltage welding mac hines.
When using pulsed spray transfer, a con-
trollable wire feeder may be preferahle.

WIRE SPOOL
Figure 19-6. The wi re f eeder ran he mounted 0 11
the we/ding machine, o r pos itioned elsewhere fo r
convenie nce.
A wire feeder consists of an elec-
tric motor connected to a gearbox with
drive rolls in it. Some systems have four
drive roll s; man y systems have only
two. In a four-roll system, the lower two
rolls drive the wire and have a circum-
ferential V-groove. The upper rolls arc
either smooth, knurled , or have a V-
groove in them, depending on the size
and type of wire used. The wire feeder
may be portable, mounted on the weld-
ing machine , or mounted elsewhere to
facilitat e weldin g in a large area.
The drive rolls and the liner must be
properl y sized, based on the welding
wire size . The liner must be ali gned
closely with the groove in the drive roll,
without touching. See Figure 19-7. If
the liner and the groove are misaligned,
bird nesting can occur. Bird nest ing is
the tangling of welding wire in the drive
roll as a res ult of misa lig nmen t be-
tween the drive roll and the liner or a
restrict ion at the gun end.
The wire feeder feed s the welding
wire through the liner to the welding
gun at a specified rate. The wire feeder
can be a push, pull, or push-pull type,
depending on the location of the drive
rollers. In the push type, the welding
wire is threaded through the drive roll-
er s and pushed through the weldin g
wire lead to the welding gun.
Figure 19-7. The d rive rolls and
O LINER liner in the wire f eeder m U.fl be
Y IN WELDING
CABLE
l'rtll,er /y aligned to ensure (I con-
sis tent we lding wi re fen! without
bird nesting.
Milia f:l...·/ri,· M<I"lif a<:turi,,1!. C" mf'<"'Y
In the pull type , the weldin g wire
is fed through the liner and pulled by
dri ve rollers located on the weldin g
gun. The push-pull type has drive roll-
ers located before and after the liner.
The type of wire feeder used is deter-
mined by the ch aracteristics of the
we ld ing wire . Sma ll-diameter, so ft
a lumi num weldin g wire mu st be
pull ed th ro ug h the electrod e lead.
Large-dia meter e lectrode s often re-
quire the push -p ull type feeder for
consistent flow of wire . In all type s
of wire feeders, the drive rollers in-
crease or decrease speed as adjusted
by the welder. The rate of wire speed
is express ed in inche s per minute
(ipm). An inch button allows the welder
to advance or retract the welding wire
at a slow speed when changing spools
or if a welding wire feeding prob lem
occurs.
Push Type. The most common wire
feeder for stee l is the push type wire
feeder. A push type wire feeder consists
of drive rolls that guide the welding wire
through the wire feeder and then push
it through the liner to the welding gun.
The the liner can be up to approximately
12' for steel wire or 6' for aluminum wire.
The push type wire feeder can handle
large-di ameter weldin g wire and hard
wire such as carbon and stainless steel
in welding conditions where current IS
over 250 A.
GMA IV - Equipment 0 203
 Pull Type. A pull type wi re feed er is
often used fo r mech ani zed a nd auto-
matic we lding. The drive rolls are built
into the we lding gun and pull the weld -
ing w ire from the wire feed er. A pull
type wire feeder works best with sma ll-
diamete r w e ld ing wire (up to abuut
.045 " in diamet er) a nd so ft w elding
w ire. A pull type wire feeder can be
used with any hand-held welding g un.
Push-Pull Type. The pu sh -pull ty pe
wi re feeder is used fo r driving we ld-
ing wire lon g di stan ces and w ith low-
stre ng th welding wires. Th e pu sh-pull
w ire fe eder has sy nc h ro n o us dri ve
motors that push the welding wire from
the wire feeder through the liner, and
pull it through the welding gun.
Stickout. Sti ckout for GMAW is the
Stickout is lilt, dis- distance the welding wire projects from
tall ce tile welding the end of the gas nozzle. St ickout in-
wire projects f rom
the end oftile nod e flu en ces th e we ld ing curre nt since it
of tile welding gun. changes the preheating of the welding
wire. As stickout increases , a higher re-
sista nce value occurs on the len gth of
welding wire beyond the contact tip.
Th e lon ger th e weld ing wire that is
unmelt ed , the more preheating occurs.
Lon ge r stie kout lengths require le ss
we ld ing current to melt the e lec tro de
Tile proper nozzle- at a co nstant wire feed speed . S ince the
to -wo rk distan ce we ldi ng ma chin e is self- reg u la ting.
must be maintained th e c u rre nt output is automati c all y
to ensure adequate
shielding ga .\' ('(IV -
decrea sed. Con versely, if s t ic ko u t
erage. de creases, the welding machine must
furni sh more c urre nt to burn off the
welding wire at the required rate. Sec
Figu re 19-8 .
Figure 19-8. Correct wire stickout
is necessurv to control the char-
~
IJn
acseris tics of the welding wire in
the weld pool.
CONTACT
GAS
NOZZLE TIP
WELDING AVERAGE ARC
WIRE
I
NOZZLE·TQ·WORK
----. LENGTH
STICKOUT
DISTANCE J-Jl- - - -l-
I trogen , a nd hydrog en. O xyg en is a
204 €l' Welding Skill"
For mo st G MAW appli c ati on s.
stickou t should measure from 3/8" to %".
Excessive stic kout resu lts in increa sed
wire pr eheating . w hic h tends to in-
cre ase the depositi on rate. Ex cessive
stic kout may al so produce a ropy ap-
pearance in the weld bead. Too little
stic ko ut cau ses th e welding wire to
fu se to the c o n tac t tip , which d e-
c reases the life of the tip . As stic kout
incr ease s, it may bec ome di fficult to
foll ow th e we ld se a m , p art icul arl y
w it h s ma ll - d ia me te r w ire . Wh en
working with s ma ll -d ia me te r w ire ,
the co nta ct tip sho uld be Ilush w ith
th e g a s nozzl e or rece s sed in the
noz zl e .
Th e wire , in a near-plastic state be-
tween the c ontact tip and the arc ,
tends to whip a ro und in a so mew hat
circ ular pa ttern . Decre asing the stick-
ou t and straightening the welding wire
h elp d ecrea se th e a m o u n t of w ire
whip .
Shielding Gas
Th e sh ie ld ing gas u sed has a g re at
e f fe c t on the properties of the weld
d epo sit. The a ir in th e weld a re a is
di spl aced by the shie lding ga s to pre-
ve nt it f ro m co n tac t ing the w e ld
pool. The arc is then starte d under a
blanket of sh ie ld ing g as a nd w eld-
ing ca n occur. Since the weld pool is
exposed only to th e sh ie lding gas, it
is n ot contaminat ed , and st ro ng.
dense we ld deposits are obtained . The
nozzl e-to-work di st ance of the weld -
ing gu n must be maintain ed to ensure
an ade q ua te shie ldi ng gas cover.
Air is made up of 2 1% oxyge n, 78%
nitrogen , .94% argon, and .04% other
gases (primarily c arbon dioxide). The
atmosphere will al so contain a certain
amount of water depending on its hu-
midity. T he elements of air that cause
difficulties for welding are oxygen, ni-
highl y reacti ve e le me nt a nd re ad ily
combines with other elements in a metal
or alloy to form ox ides and gases. The
oxide-forming characteristic of oxygen
ca n be ove rco me by usin g deo xidi z-
ers in the weld metal.
Th e effec ts of oxyge n, nit ro gen ,
and hydrogen on the weld make it es-
sential that they be excluded from the
weld area during welding. If deoxidi z-
ers are not provided, oxygen combin es
with the iron and form s a compound
that can lead to inclusions in the weld,
harming the mechanical properties of
the metal. As a weld solidifies. the free
oxygen in the arc area combines with
the carbon of the alloy material, form-
ing ca rbo n mon oxid e. If the carbo n
mono xide gas is trapped in the weld,
it collects in pockets, causing pores or
hollo w spaces in the weld . Deo xidi z-
e rs s uch a s man gane se and s ilico n
combine with oxygen and form a light
slag that floats to the top of the weld
pool, removing oxygen from the weld.
Ni troge n that is in tro du ced into
the we ld pool ca use s the most se ri-
ou s pr obl em s when weldin g s te e l.
When iron is molt en, it is capabl e of
taki ng in a relati vel y lar ge am ount
of nitrogen . At room temperature, the
solubility of nit rogen in iron is very
low. During coo ling, the nitrogen pre-
cipita tes or comes out of the iron as
nit rides. Nitr ide s increa se hardn ess
in the iron, but also cause a decrease
in d uctilit y a nd impact re si st an ce .
T he los s of duct ility o fte n lead s to
cracking in and near the weld. In ex-
ce ss ive amount s. nitrogen c an also
lead to porosity in the we ld.
Hydro ge n is ha rmfu l to we ld ing
bec ause sma ll amo unt s of hyd rogen
in the at mo sp here can ca use a n er-
ratic arc if a llowed to en ter the weld
poo l. Hydrogen alsu has an effect on
the prop erties of the we ld . Iron ca n
hold a relat ively large amuunt of hy-
dro gen when it is mo lte n, but when
the iron cools, it can no longer hold
d issol ved h ydrogen . As th e we ld
metal solidi fies, the hydrogen comes
out of so lutio n. Hydroge n tha t be-
co mes e ntr app ed in th e so lid ify ing
met al and heat -affected zo ne . These
pressures lead to minute crack s in the
weld metal that can develop into large
crack s. Hydrogen also causes defect s
kn o wn as fi she ye s a nd underbead
cra cking.
Atmospheric gases can be excluded
using an inert gas for shielding. Inert
gases consist of atom s that are stable
and do not react re adil y with ot her
mate r ia ls, ma king them usefu l as
shielding gas for arc welding. Only six
el ements, helium, neon, argon, kryp-
ton, xenon, and radon, possess the sta-
bility required for use as a shie lding
gas. Of the six, only argon and helium
are available in suflicient quantit ies for
weldin g at an economi cal pri ce. See
Figure 19-9.
Alth ough it is not an inert gas, car-
bon dioxide gas can also be used for
shie lding the we ld are a if compe n-
sation is made fo r its oxid iz ing ten -
den ci es. Ca rbon dioxide, argo n, and
helium ca n be used in their pure form
or mi xed for a spec ific applicat ion .
Carbon Dioxide, Unlike argon or he-
lium ga se s, w hic h are mad e up o f
s ingle atoms , carbon dio xi de gas is 7111! lise of COl as
a shielding gas is
made up of molecules. Each molecule most effe ctive and
con tai ns one carbo n atom and tw o least ex pens ive
oxy ge n ato ms. The chemica l formu la whrn welding steel.
for th e ca rbo n di o xide molecul e is
CO,. Often, carbon dioxide is referred
to simply as "C-O-TWO."
Carbon dioxid e is found in most
plan ts in flue gases that are given o ff
by the burning of natural gas, fuel oil,
or cok e. It is a lso obta ined as a by-
prod uc t o f calc ini ng o pe ra tio ns o f
lime kil ns, from the man ufac tur ing of
ammonia , and fro m the ferment ation
of alco hol. The CO , given off by the
manufacturing of ammon ia and th e
ferm ent ation of a lco ho l is alm o st
100% pure.
The purity of CO, can vary consid-
era bly, depending on the process used
to manufacture it. Standards have been
established for CO, purity suitable for
arc welding. Th e purity specified for
GMAW - Equipment ~ 205
 weldin g-grade CO, is a minimum dew
point of -40°F. Gas of this purity con-
tains approximately .0066% moistu re
by weight. Ma nufacturers co mmo nly
produce CO, with a dew point as low
as _70°F.
At normal temperatures, CO, is es-
sentially an inert gas. However, when
subjec ted to high temper atures, CO,
dissoci ates into carbon monoxide and
oxygen . In the hi gh temperature o f
welding, this dissociation takes place
to the extent that 20% to 30% of the
gas in the arc area is oxygen (0 ,) . Be-
cause of the oxidizing characteristic of
CO, gas , the welding wire used with
CO , must contai n de oxid izin g cle-
ments. The deoxidizing elements have
a great affinity for and readily combine
with oxygen, prevent ing the oxygen
atom s from combining with carbon or
iron in the weld metal and produ cin g
low-quality welds. The most comm on
deoxidizers used in welding wire are
manganese, si licon . a lumi num, tita-
nium, and vanad ium.
Ca rbon dioxide may be used for
GMAW because it eliminates many of
the undesirable characteristics of argon
used as a shielding gas . With CO, a
broad , deep pen etrati on is obtai ned,
making it eas ie r for th e op erator to
elimina te weld defects such as lack of
penet ration and lack of fusion . Bead
contour with CO, is good and there is
no tendency toward undercuttin g. An-
oth er adva ntage is its rel ati vel y low
cost compared to other shielding gases.
o lVhi/e manufacturers generally use color
codes to identify gas cylinde rs. colors may
not be consistent between suppliers. AI·
WllYS check the cylinder for contents be-
fore attaching and using a gas cylinder.

Aluminum Alloys Argon With DeEP, removes oxide surface on workpiece

Magnesium Aluminum Alloys 75% He Greater heat inputreduces porosity tendencies. Also cleans
25%Ar oxide surface
Argon + 1% 0 2 Oxygen eliminates undercutting when DeEP reverse polarity is used
Stainless Steels
Argon + 5% 0 2 When DCEN, is used. 5% O2 improves arc stability
Magnesium Argon With DCEN, removes oxide surlace on workpiece
75% He . 25% Ar Good wetting and increased heat input to counteract high thermal
Coppe r (deoxidized)
(Argon) conduct ivity. Ught-gauge metals
Low-Carbon Steel
Argon + 2% 0 2 Oxygen eliminates undercutting tendencies; also removes oxidation
(Mild Steei)
Low-Carbon Steel 80% Argon min.
High-quality, low-current, out-of-position welding , low spatter
(Mild Steel) (spray transfer)

Nickel Argon Good wetting, decreases fluidity of weld metal

Monel® Argon Good wetting. decreases fluidity of weld metal

Inconel® Argon Good wetting, decreases fluidity of weld metal

Titanium Argon Reduces heat-affected zone, improves metal transfer

Silicon Bronze Argon Reduces crack sensitivity

Less penetration of base metal. Commonly used as a surfacing

Aluminum Bronze Argon material
NOTE: ( ) '" seccoc Choice

Figure 19-9. Iller' K lI ,W' ,f .m ell (I.\' a rgo" and helium a re stable gases that d o 1101 readily rC(lCI with o ther Oftmu, "'lIki,,!: them suitable (I.{ shielding
gases for GMAlY.

206 ~ We/dilll: sun.

 A drawbac k of CO, gas is the ten-
de ncy for the arc to be somewhat vio-
lent. Thi s can lead to spatter problem s
when welding thin metals where appear-
ance is important. For most application s,
spatter is not a major problem and the
ad vantage s of CO , as a sh ield ing gas
outwe igh its di sad vantages; howev er,
w he n preventing spatte r is importan t,
an anti-spau er spray ca n be used . Anti-
spalter sprays can be used with GMAW
to pre vent spatte r from stic king to the
nozzle, gas c up, and base metal. Car-
bon dio xide is used primarily for mild
stee l we lding, alth ough it may be used
in other shielding gas mixt ures .
o Many GMAW welding guns may be used
at JOO% duty cycle with CO ] as the shield-
ing gas at a particular current setting;
however, " sing the same welding gun with
argon as the shielding gas. a lower cur-
rent setting must typically be used for a
100% duty cycle.
Argon, Argon has been used for many
year s as a sh ielding gas. Argon is ob-
tained throu gh the liquefaction and dis-
till at ion of air. To manu facture argo n,
ai r is pu t un de r in ten se pressure a nd
refri gerated to a very low temperature.
Th e temperature is then raised until the
various elements in the air are boil ed
off. Argon boils off at a te mpe rature
of -302 .4°F (-I 85.9°C). T he res ulting
purity of the argo n used for welding is
appro ximately 99 .995%. When grea ter
puri ty is required , th e g as can be
c he m ica lly clea ne d to a purit y o f
99. 999 %.
Ar gon has a re lative ly lo w ioni za-
tion pot enti al , w hic h mean s th at the
weld ing arc te nds to be more stable
when argon is used as the shie lding gas .
Argo n is oft en mixed with other gases
to im prove their sta b ility. A rgo n re -
du ces spa tte r, producing a quiet a rc .
Since argon has a low ioni zation po-
tential, the arc vo ltage is reduced when
an argon mix ture is used as a shie ld-
ing gas. This result s in lower power in
th e a rc a nd lower pen e tration of the
we ld . The com bi na tio n of lo wer
pen etration and redu ced spatter mak es
the use of argo n desirable whe n we ld-
ing sheet metal.
Straight argon is seldo m used as a
shie ld ing gas excep t wh en weldin g
m et al s s uc h as a lu m in u m , copper,
ni ckel , a nd titani u m . W he n weld ing
steel, the use of straight argon leads to
undercutting a nd poor bead co ntou r.
Additionally, penetrati on with straight
argon is shall ow at the bead ed ges and
deep at the center of the weld, wh ic h
can lead to lac k of fusion at the root of
the we ld .
Helium. Helium is deri ved from natu -
ral gas. The process by whic h it is ob-
tained is similar to that of argon . First,
th e natural gas is co mp ressed a nd
cooled . Helium distills from natural gas
at a temperature of --452 °F (-269°C).
Helium is lighter than air and has high
th ermal co nd uctiv ity. T he helium arc
plasma will expand under heat (therma l
ioni zation), reducing the arc den sity.
With helium there is a simultaneo us
c hange in arc vo ltage wh ere the vo lt-
age gradie nt of the arc len gth is in-
c rease d by the d isc ha rge of heat fro m
tI
Argoll, or II mixture
the arc strea m or core. This means that .~ ofargon and oxygen;
more arc energy is lost in the arc itself .= produces tnc most ef-
fective results when
and is not transmitted to the work. The wel ding aluminum
result is that, with helium , th er e will and stainless steel.
be a broader we ld bead than with a r-
go n, with re latively sha llow pen etra-
tion. (For GTAW, the op posit e is true.)
Th e energy lost in the arc also accounts
for the higher load voltage for the same
arc length that is obtained with helium
as opposed to a rgo n.
Helium a t tim es has been in short
su pp ly d ue to governme ntal restric-
tion s and, therefore , has not been used
for welding as much as it might hav e
been. Because of its high cost, helium
is used primarily for spe cial welding
tasks a nd for non ferro us me ta ls suc h
as aluminum, magnes ium, and copper.
It is a lso used in combination w ith
ot he r shie lding gases .
GMAW - Equipment §o 207
 Argon-Oxygen. To reduce th e poor
bead co ntou r and penetrati on obt ain ed
with argon when welding on mild steel,
o xygen is added to the shielding gas ,
A sma ll amount of ox yge n added 10
arg o n produce s s ig nifican t chan ges.
Normally, oxygen is added in amounts
of 1%, 2%, or 5%. Using GMAW weld-
ing wire, the amount of oxygen that
ca n be used is limit ed to 5 %. Adding
oxyge n in amounts g re ater than 5 %
may lead to poro sity in the we ld.
O xygen imp ro ve s penetrati on by
broadening the d eep pen etration fin -
ger at the center of the weld bead . It
also improves bead contour and elimi-
nates the undercutting at the edge of
the weld that occurs with pure argon.
Argon-o xygen mi xtures are common
for we ld ing alloy stee l, carbo n steel ,
and stainless stee l.
Argon-CO,. For some mild steel weld-
ing appli cations, welding-grade C O,
doe s not provide the required arc char-
acteristics. This is usually evident in the
form of spatter in the weld area . Using
Fo r most wel d ing. an ar gon-C0 2 mi xture can usually
the gas flow rate is
appmximatl'l.v 20 (')11 elim inate the problem . Some welding
to 35 e}1J. professionals beli ev e that the mixture
sho uld not exceed 25 % C O,; o the rs
feel that mixtures with up 10 80% CO,
are acc eptable .
l nfomunion 0 11 II gll.~ cylinder label typically includes the 1)1)(> oj gtH or mixtu re of gw
contained, (l ilt! the manufacturer or supplier lit/me .
208 §o weldin g Skills
Premi xed argon-CO , costs the same
as pure argo n, whereas th e price of
CO, is approx ima tely 15% tha t of ar-
gon, making it more eco nomical to buy
the CO, separately and mix it at the job
site o r shop. Mi xture percentages for
each gas cylinder are regulated usin g
flow meters. Using sep arate gas cyl -
inders e lim inates th e gas se paratio n
that may occur in premi xed cy linde rs.
An argo n-C O, shie ld ing gas mi xture
is used for w eld in g mild s tee l,
lo w-all o y stee l, and. in so me cases.
sta inless stee ls.
Argon-Helium.CO,. An argon-helium-
CO , shield ing ga s mi xture is used for
welding au stenitic, martensitic , and
ferritic stainless steels. The combin ation
of gases provides a uniqu e characteris-
tic to the weld . It is possible to make a
weld with very little buildup of the top
bead pr o fil e . An argon-helium -Co ,
mixture is used for applications where
a high-crowned weld is detrimental.
Gas Flow Rates. For most welding, the
gas flow rate is appro ximately 20 cfh
to 35 cfh . Th e flo w rate ma y be in-
creased o r decreased . depending on
th e typ e and thi ckness o f met al and
the particul ar we lding application. See
Appendi x.
Flow rate settings are not abs olut e.
but a starting point in making se ttings.
Final adju stments must often be made
on a trial-and-error basi s. The correc t
sett ings a re determin ed by th e typ e
and Ihickness of metal to be welded ;
the posit ion o f th e weld; th e shie ld-
ing gas used ; the elec trode di am eter ;
and the type of joint.
Prope r g as sh ie ld ing usuall y reo
sults in a rapid, crac kling or sizz ling
arc so und . Inadequat e ga s shi elding
produ ces a poppin g arc so u nd and
re sults in a di scolored weld, pores-
ity, and spatte r.
Gas drift may occ ur with high travel
speeds or in unusuall y drafty or windy
job site cond it io ns aro und th e we ld
area. Gas drift commonl y result s in
inadequ a te gas sh ie ld ing. T he gas
no zzl e sho uld be adj us te d fo r pro pe r
shielding and outside influ ences should
be e liminated by usin g proper wi nd -
breaks or shields. See Figure 19-10 .
T he d ista nce from the work to the
gas nozzle is determi ned by the nature
of the wel d. T he gas nozzle is usually
p la ce d up to 2" fro m th e wo rk . Too
m uch space bet ween the g as no zzle
and the work red uces the effective ness
of the gas shield, while too lillie space
may re su lt in excess ive we ld spat ter ,
whi ch co lle cts on the gas nozzle a nd
shorte ns its life.
DIRECTION
OF WIND
• carbon stee l a nd med iu m -thic kn ess,
WINDY CONDITIONS CAUSE
SHIELDING GASTO DRIFT
DIRECTION
OF WIND
WINDBREAK ........- .
WINDBREAK AND NOZZLE
ADJUSTMENT PREVENT DRIFT
Figure 19-10. High travel sp eeds und windy condi-
tions can cause the shieldin g gas to drift awa y from
the arc. wi ndbreaks or movin g the l/o:.: le closer 10
the weld CCIII help control drift.
GMAWWELDING WIRE
Wel di ng w ire fo r GMAW sho u ld be
simi lar in co mposition to the base metal.
Weldi ng wire design at ion s cor respond
to th e we ld in g a pp lic a tio n. Wel d ing
wire designa tion s are based on AWS
classifi cations . For mi ld steel we ld ing
wire, the E identifies it as an electrode
and an R identifies it as a rod. The sec-
ond and third di gits sho w the te nsile
strength in psi per thousand, the S ind i-
cat es a so lid ba re w ire, and the fin al
sy mbo ls specify a part icular c1assifica-
tiun based on che mica l co mposi tion of
the welding wire . See Figure 19-11.
Basi c w e ldin g w ir e d iam eters in-
clude .020", .030", .035", .045", .052",
'/ 16", and VB". Ge nerally, we lding wire
of .0 20 " , .0 30 ", o r .03 5" is best fo r nil' correct diameter
we lding th in met al , a lt ho ug h it ca n wire IIIl1sl be usn/ to
en sure I I quality
be used to we ld lo w- a nd medium -
weld. Check the wire
manuj actu reI" rccom -
high -stren gth/l ow-all oy (HSLA) stee l. mendations fo r cor-
T('('/ wire diometer.....
Me d iu m-thic kness met al normall y re-
qui res .04 5" or 1/ 16" diam e ter wel din g
w ire. For thick metal, '/H" welding wire
is usu a lly recom mended . See Fig ure
19 - 12. The w eld in g po sit ion to be
used is a fact or that mu st be co ns id-
ered wh en se lec ting weld ing wire. For
ve rtical or overhead we ldi ng , sma ll-
diamet er wires are mor e acceptab le
th an large- di a met er wires .
~lI1lrr 1:1"'-"1<: M,muf'h-,..ri"K C._I""'.f
Weldill!: wire is selected to match the composition of tile metal to he welded. Welt/ing wire
de.5;/:1I01;0 1l.{ a re blued on A\VS classifica tions.
GMAW - Equipment @o 209
 WELDING WIRE FOR GMAW
~.
Silicon deoxidized wire for low- and medium-carbon stee ls. Can be used with eithe r CO2.
ER-60S-1
argon, or argon-C02 mix tures. Perfor ms best on kille d stee ls

Prem ium quality wire containing AI. Zr, and Ti in addition to silicon and manganese deoxi dizers. Can
ER-60S-2 be used with CO 2• argon-C02. or ar90n-02. Reco mmended for pipe welding and heavy vessel
construction
Used for high-quality we lding either with CO2. ar90n -02, or argon-C0 2mixtures. Prod uce s
ER-60S-3
medium-quality welds in rimmed steels and high-qu ality welds in se mi-killed stee ls

ER-70S-1B Low-alloy wire for carbon steel s, low-alloy steels. and high-strength. low-alloy steels

General-purpose welding of low- to medium-carbon steels. Has a silicon co ntent high enough to
ER-70S-3
permit its use in either C02 argon·02 mixtures, or a mixtu re of the two
I

Co ntai ns higher ma nganese and silicon levels and has more powerful deo xidizing characteristic s for
ER-70S-6
weld ing over rust and scale or where stringent cleaning prac tices cannot be followed

ER-70S-5 Contains alu minum and is desig ned for sing le or multiple pass we lding of rimmed, semi-killed , or
killed mild steel s. Suitable to weld stee ls having rusty or dirty surfaces. Normally used with CO2 gases
, ,. , -..-
";,.
.1f7'~lMlf1;' ;.~'~;~ ":{:l:~ ;'+-~J:' : ;+~~) ~f; f:-~ rt:{" 'i"r ~&:ari~<~
M

alj~ nr:h.;{~ia~i'J~~ ; ,.t':~~·',s.1:1::'~",~",L~'}f..","l.::~:: ,

" ,.
. ',. •, '."
, .
.. ~-
-..
::
/,
,.
.
• <'~,,!
~. ~

..... . ,,'
,
,
'.
.~

ER-l l 00 Weld aluminum of similar composition

ER-4043
ER-5183
ER-5554 , 5556
ER-5654

ER-308L For weld ing type s 304 , 308, 32 1, 347

ER-308L· Si For welding typ es 301, 304

For we lding ty pes 309 and straight chromium grades when heat treat ment is not possible
ER-309
Also for 304-c lad
ER-310 For weldin g types 310, 304-e lad, and hard enable stee ls
ER-316 For weldin g 3 16
ER-347 For we lding types 321 and 347 whe re maximum co rrosion res istance is required

op~~ a n

ECuSi (Silicon Bronze) Special wires for weld ing copper and copper-based alloys
ECu AI·A 1 (Al umi num
Bronze)
ECu (Deo xidized
Copper)
ECuAI·A2 (Aluminum
Bronze)
ECuAI·B (Aluminum
Bronze)

Ffg u re 19-1 1. Weldi,,!: wire should be of a similar ma terial to the base metal and mU.{1 be chosen deIJe1ldi n!: 011 Ihe I),/'e of weld ing 10 be
perfo rmed,

210 ~ Weidillil Skills

 ·025 .030 30- 50 15 - 20 15 - 20
.03 1 .030 40- 60 15 - 20 18 - 22
.037 .035 65- 85 15 - 20 35 -40
.050 .035 80 - 100 15 -20 35-40
.062 .035 90 - 110 20 -25 30 -35
.078 .035 110-1 30 20 - 25 25-30
.125 .035 140 -160 20 -25 20- 25
.125 .045 180 -200 20 - 25 27-32
.187 .035 140 -1 60 25 -30 14 -1 9
.187 .045 180-200 25 -30 18 - 22
.250 .045 140 -1 60 30-35 10 - 15
.250 .052 180 - 200 30 -35 12 - 18
NOTE : Gas flow rate s will vary from values shown bas ed on the type 01metal we lded
Shielding gas CO 2 • welding grade
Wire slickoul_V. to ~it
H

• in in.
t in cu bic feel per ho ur (cfh)
fin in./mi n

Figure 19-12. The requi red weld ing wire diameter is based 0 11 the type of meta l to be welded as well as the
position of welding.

I . DCEP provides deep penetrat ion and excelle nt cleaning action .

2. For GMAW, a con stant -voltage welding machi ne with a nearly flat volt-ampere characteristic
maint ains a constant, preset voltage leve l during we ldin g.
3. Ensure that the wire feed speed is set for the current that is to be used for welding.
4. Stickout is the distance the welding wire proj ects from the end of the nozzle of the welding
g un .
5 . The prop er nozzle-Io-wo rk distanc e must be maintained to ensure an adequate shielding gas
cover.
6. The use of CO, as a shielding gas is most effective and least ex pensive when welding stee l.
7. Argon, or a mixture of argon and oxygen , produ ces the most effect ive results when we lding
aluminum and stainless stee l.
8. For most weldin g, the gas flow rate is approximately 20 cfh to 35 cfh.
9. The correct diamet er wire must be used to ensure a qualit y weld. Check the wire manufacturer
recom mendations for correct wire dia meters.

GMAIV - Equipment ~ 211

 I. What are some of the specific advantages of GMAW?
2. Why is DCEP current used for GMAW?
3. What results can be expected if DCEN current is used?
4. How do es a cons tant-v oltage welding machine differ from a constant -current welding
machin e ?
5. What is the advantage of using a constant-voltage welding machine for GMAW ?
6. Wh at is meant by slope control?
7. What are the clements that make up air ?
8. Why is oxygen generally a harmful element in welding?
9. Why do es nitrogen cause the most serious problems in welding?
10. When is argon or an argon -a, mixture cons idered the ideal gas for shielding?
I I. When is CO 2 better for shielding than an inert gas?
12 . How is it possible to determine the proper gas flow for shielding?
13 . What happens if the gas flow is allow ed to drift from the weld area?
14. What factors must be taken into consideration in selecting the correct diam eter (size)
welding wire?
15. How is the weldin g wire fed to the weld ing gun?
16. What determines the rate at which the wire feed should be set?
17 . Why is the correct sticko ut important?

212 €l' WeldinK Skills

GMAW is a relatively fast welding process with higher deposition rates than SMA W. Many welding appli-
cations that were once only performed with SMAWare now being completed with the GMAW process.
Pipelines. railroad cars. automobiles. and heavy equipment manuf acturing are industries that use GMAW
more commonly than SMAW for many welding jo bs. When performing GMAW welding outdoo rs. wind
protection may be needed to protect the shielding gases fro m being blown away from the weld area. Since
GMAW has deep penetrating characteristics. narrower beveled j oint designs can be used.

GMAWPROCEDURES • No starting and stopping to change

GMAW was developed to increase the
spee d at whic h weld metal could he
deposited . Alt houg h GM AW ca n be
fu lly automated, it is mo st ofte n
se mia utomated. When the semiauto-
matic process is used , the wire feed ,
power setting. and gas flow are preset,
but thc welding gun is manually oper-
ated . Th e op erator pro vid e s manual
travel and guida nce of the we ld ing
gun, directs the welding gun over the
weld sea m, and maint ains the correct
wire stickout di stan ce and s pee d .
GMAW has the following advantages
over other welding procedures:
• No flux or slag and little spatter are
produced, minimizing cleanup time
and resultin g in a savings in total
welding cost,
• Less time is required to train an op-
erator. Weld ers who are proficient
in other welding processes can eas-
ily mas te r G MAW. T he pri mar y
duty is to monitor the angle of the
welding gun, the trave l speed, and
the wire stickout.
e le ctrodes is required , reduc ing
welding time and e liminating a
co mmon cause of weld failures.
Weld ing that sta rts and sto ps fre-
quently, such as SMAW, commonly
results in slag inclusions, cold lap-
ping, and crater cracking.
• Better metallurgical benefits are im-
parted to the weld area because of
the high travel speed. A faster travel
speed results in a narrower HAZ.
There is also less grain growth, less
heat transfer in the base metal, and
reduced distortion .
• G MAW is more e conomica l for
weldin g light-gauge mctal whe n
short circuiting transfer is used,
• A narrow beveled joi nt can be used
becau se of th e deep pen etra ting
ca pabili ties of GM AW, red uci ng
the size of fillet welds.
o The GMAlV process was developed during
WorldWar11. when a cost-effective and effi-
GMAW is a f aster
welding p rocess than
cient method ofwelding thick metals , such a s
SMAlV and is eas y to
learn.
found on ships and tanks. was needed.

213

Mill.., EI....,ric MtJllufaclWring Comp'lIly
CMA W is I I versatile welding process that allo ws fast deposition (m different metal
thicknesses.
Joint Preparation
Groove joints used
fi"CMAWhm'esmall Joint preparation is recommended to
rootfaces, small root
openings. and a nar-
aid in penetration of the weld and weld
row g ron ve aIJKIt~, all reinforcement control. For GMAW,
of which redu ce the beveling the edges is usually desirable
joint arm, requiring
less weld metal.
for butt joints thicker than \f.{' if com-
plete root penetration is desired. For
thin metals, a square bott jo int is best.
Generally. the joint design recom-
mended for other arc welding processes
can be osed for GMAW. However, some
joint modifications may be reqoired to
compensate for the operating charac-
teristics of GMAW. These modifications
produce a narrower, more penetrating
arc than SMAW. Se e Figure 20-1.
Ff gure 20-1. GMA W produces a
na rrower weld bead and deeper
penetration than SMA1¥, requir-
ing a smalle r nmt fa ce and root
op ening.
SMAW
,,," DIAMETER--I
SMAW
214 0 Welding Skills
Con sequently, groove JOint s formed
with GMAW have smaller root faces
and root openin gs.
Butt Joints. A butt joint typically re-
quires more welding skill than other
joints. When makin g butt joints. dis-
tortion and residual stress must be pre-
vented by using the proper fit-up and
joint edge preparation. Butt joints have
very good mechanical strength if prop-
erl y prepared .
Lap Joints. A lap joint is commonly
used for man y welding application s.
In a lap joint, the surfaces of the met-
als to be joined overla p one another.
The degree of ove rlap is determined
by the thickness of the metal. Lap joints
are usuall y we lded with fillet welds,
which results in a weld with good me-
ch ani cal properties, especially when
welded on both sides.
T-Joints. T-joint s generally require
little. if any, edge preparation . Edges
of a T-joint may be left square or may
be prepared by grinding or machining.
A T-joint typically requires a fillet weld.
Edge Joints. Edge j o int s are com-
monly used when the finished weld will
no t be e xposed to ex cess load s or
heavy impact. The edges of the metal
to be welded may be left square or
beveled by grinding or machining. The
groov es c re ate d by beveling allow
prop er penetrati on of the weld metal.
-.l.. -.l..
T T
I GMAW I
BEADWtDTH
--I 1--.035" DIAMETER
l 00 A
.------.:._ II
GMAW
PENETRATION
Corner Joints . Corner joints also re-
qui re littl e , if any, edge prepa ration.
After a corner jo int is welded, the edges
are ground smoot h to impart an attrac-
tive appearance to the finished weld .
Weld Backing
When using GMAW, we ld backing is
hel pful to obtain a sound weld at the
rool. Backin g is used when co mplete
weld penetr ation is req uired. Back ing
conducts heat away from the joint and
for ms a mold or da m to prevent the
molten metal from running through the
joi nt being welded. There are several
types of mat eri al used for bac king :
steel or copper blocks, strips, and bars;
carbon blocks; or fired clay. The ma-
terial most common ly used for backings
with GMAW are copper or steel.
Positioning Work and
Welding Wire
Prope r positionin g of the welding gun
and the workp ieces is nece ssar y to
achieve a quali ty weld. In GMAW, the
flat pos ition is typicall y prefe rred for
most joints because it improves metal
flow and bea d co ntour, and provide s
WORK ANGLE
FtLLETWELD
WORKANGLE ~~
(90~
' -+-..-----,
GROOVE WELD
better shield ing gas protect ion . O n
ga uged metal , it is so metimes neces- Keep the weldin g
gun properly po si -
sary to weld with the work inclined 100 tioned 10 ensure a
to 20 0 • Wh en the work is inclined, uniform weld with
welding is performed downhill. Down- proper penetration.
hill welding has a tend ency to flatten
the bead and increase the trave l speed.
The welding wire must be properly
aligned in relation to the joint. The weld-
ing wire should be on the centerline of
the joint fo r most butt join ts if the
workpi eces to be jo ined are of equal
thickness. If the workpieces are unequal
in thickn ess, the welding wire may be
moved toward the thicker metal.
Correct work angle and travel ang le
ens ure correct we ld bead formation .
See Figure 20-2. The trave l angle may
be a posh angle or a drag angle depend-
ing upon the pos ition of the welding
gun. If the welding gun is angled back
towa rd the beginning of the weld, the
trave l angle is ca lled a drag ang le. A
drag angle is an angle where the elec-
trode is pointing in the direction oppo -
site of welding. If the welding gun is
pointing ahead toward the end of the
weld, the travel angle is ca lled a push
ang le. A pu sh ang le is a travel ang le
where the electrode is angle d to point
in the direction of welding.
Ffgure 20 -2. The co rrec t wo rk
a nd tra vel angie are nee-
(111.1: /1'
esso rv f or co rrec t weld hea d
[ ormation,
DIRECTION OF WELDING
•
1
-25'
TRAVEL ANGLE
DIRECTION OF WELDING
•
GMAW - Procedures €l' 215

Ensure thas the COli·
ta ct tub e a nd gas
no zzle orifices a re
clean to prevent
clogg ing. which re-
stricts wire feed and
shielding gas flow:
Ftgu r e 20- .'. Pullill g th e we ld
(d rag ang le] is preferred for weld-
ing thick me tals, while Illl.\'lIill1-:
IIIl' weld (push angle] is used for
Jigill -g a ugl' metals,
216 0 Welding Ski lls
When the welding gun is ahead of
the weld. it is referred to as pulling the
we ld metal. I f the welding gun is be-
hind the weld. it is said to be pushing
the weld metal. Generally, the penetra-
tion of bead s de posi ted by pulling the
we lding gun is greater than by push-
ing the welding gun. In addition. since
the welder can see the weld crater more
eas ily by pulling the weld, high qual-
ity we lds ca n be prod uced more con-
sistently. Pushing the weld permits the
use of higher welding speeds and pro-
du ce s le ss pen etrati on and w ide r
welds. See Figure 20-3 .
DRAG ANGLE
<,
PULLING
•
- PUSH ANG LE
<,
4 Sta rti ng the arc becom es increas-
PUSHING
GMAW SETUP PROCEDURES
Before starting to weld . the following
must be checked:
• Ensure that all electric power co n-
trols are in the OFF position.
• Ensure that all hose and cable co n-
nections from the welding gun to the
wire feeder are in good co ndition.
are properl y insul ated . and have
been co rrectly sec ured.
• Use the correct size gas nozzle for
the diame ter of welding wire used.
• Ens ure tha t the we ldi ng w ire is
pro pe rly threade d th rou gh the
weld ing gun.
Ensure that the contact tube and gas
nozzle or ifices are clean. Blow out
the welding gun occasionally since
with use it becomes clogged with
du st, restri ct ing the wire feed and
shie lding gas flow.
• Se t the pred etermined w ire fee d
speed on the wire feeder co ntro l.
• E nsu re tha t sh ie ld ing gas a nd
wate r coolant so urces are on and
adj usted on the feeder co ntro l.
• Check for wear on contact tip. With
use. tips wear out and must be re-
pl aced.
During any welding ope ration. cer-
tain we ldi ng co ndi tions may hav e to
be changed. Welders should be fami l-
iar with common welding variables and
the required changes that must be made
dur ing welding. See Figure 20-4.
Starting the Arc
St arting the arc for we ldi ng involves
three fact or s: e lec trica l co ntac t. arc
voltage, and time. To ens ure a good
arc start, the welding wire must make
elec trical contac t with the work. The
we ld ing w ire mu st exert s u ff ic ient
fo rce on the work piece to pe ne trate
im purit ies. See Figure 20-5.
ingly diffi cult as stic ko ut increases.
A reasonab le bala nce of vo ltage and
current must be maintained to ensure
the proper arc and to deposit the weld
metal at the best wire-melting rate. Once
the arc is started. the we lding gun is
hel d at th e co rrec t wo rk and travel
an gles and moved at a uniform speed.
o Stickout can be adjusted to alter the Cllr-
rent and voltage conducted to the arc. A
sho rter sticko ut creat es a hotter arc; a
longer sticko ut reduces penetration 011
thin metals.
 WELDING VARIABLES
Electrode
Change Arc Welding Travel Tr avel W ire Gas
Extension!
Required Voltage Current' Speed Angle Size Type
Stickout
Deeper Drag
Increase (1) Decrease (2) Smallerl (5) CO, (4)
Penetration max. 25·
Shallow
Penetration Decrease (1) Push (3) Increase (2) Largerl (5) MCO,

Larg er
Increase (1) Decrease (2) Increasel (3)
Bead

Bead Smaller
Decrease (1) Increase (2) Decreaset (3)
Height Bead
and
Higher.
Bead
Narrower Decrease (1) Drag (2) Increase (3)
Width
Bead
Flatter,
90' or
Wider Increase (1) Decrease (3)
Bead Push (2)

Faster
Increase (1) Increasel (2) Smaller (5)
Deposition rate

Slower Decrease (1) Decreasel (2) Larger (5)

Deposition rate
Key: (1) First choice. (2) seccoc crcce. (3) Third choice. (4) Fourth choice . (5) Fifth choice
• sa me adjustment IS required for wire teed speed
t When these variables are changed. the wire Iced speed must be adjusted so that the welding current remains consta nt

Figure 20-4 . Wl'ldil1 f{ conditions mllY change during welding, H'C/U; ,.;,,}; adjusnnents 10 Il'd dinK variables.

I . Set the vo ltag e , wire feed , and

Fig ure 20-5. Electri cal contact
(/II arc.
Welding a Joint
7 ln general. the GMAW welding pro-
cedure foll ows a definite sequence re-
gardless o f the type of welding that is
bei ng done . For welding a j o int with
GMAW, fo llow the pro cedu re:
shield ing gas flow to the standard
conditions for the required type of
welding.
2 . Adjust the welding wire to the proper
sti ckout.
3. Stan the arc and move the weldin g
gun at a uniform speed, maintain -
ing the proper work ang le. If the
arc is not started properly, th e
welding wire may stick or free ze
to the work. If the welding wire
sticks or freezes, shut OFF the ma-
chine and remove the welding wire
from the joint.
is necessary 10 start
4 . Move th e welding g un alo ng the
joint usin g the pushing or pulling
techniqu e. As th e welding gun is
moved, keep the welding wire at
the leading edge of the weld pool.
Be sure the welding wire is cen-
tered in the shielding gas to ensure
adequ ate shielding. A slight wea v-
in g m oti on is helpf ul to ens u re
compl ete penetrati on .
GMA IV - Procedu res ~ 217
 5. Re lease the tr igge r at the en d of
Do not remove the
tI
.~
.=
welding gunfrom the
weld a rea until the
weld pool hils solidi-
f ied. The shielding
the weld to stop the wire feed and
interrupt the we lding cur rent. Al-
ways kee p the we lding gun ove r
gas prevents cracks th e we ld until th e shie ld ing gas
f rom dev el oping in stops !lowing to protect the weld
the molten weld pool. pool until it solidifies.
6 . Prop erly shut do wn the we lding
mach in e wh en we ld ing is com-
plet ed:
a. Turn OFF wire speed co ntro l.
b. Shut OFF shielding gas !low at
cy linde rs .
c . Squeeze we lding gun trigger to
bleed the lines.
d . Shut OFF welding mach ine.
e . Han g up welding gun.
METAL TRANSFER MODES
The shiel ding gas type and weld iog
wire size affect the metal transfer mode
used . Metal transfer modes in GM AW
arc short circuiting transfer, spray trans-
fer, pul sed spray transfer, and globu-
lar tran sfer. The type of metal tran sfer
that occurs dep end s on welding wire
size, shie lding ga s, arc voltage, and
weldin g current. As current increases,
the transfer mode changes from sho rt
c ircuiting to glo bular and then (with
80% argon) to spray.
Although origina lly GTAW was con-
sidered more practical for welding thin
sheet metal because of its lower current,
the deve lopment of the short circuiting
transfe r techn ique makes it possible to
weld thin stock equally as effectively and
more economically with GMA W.
Short Circuiting Transfer
1"8I
~
Short circuiting tram -
fe r is best for welding Short circuiting transfer allows thin sec-
.= light-gauge metals. tions of metal to be welded more eas-
ily. Short circuiting transfer is a meta l
tran sfer mode in which molten metal
from co nsumable welding wire is de -
pos ited dur ing repeated short circuits.
Short circuiting tran sfer is the easi est,
most common transfer mode used. It is
218 €l' Welding Skills
practical fo r welding in all pOSitIOnS,
especially for vertical , hori zontal, and
overhead welding where control of the
weld pool is more difficult . Short cir-
cuiting tran sfer produces shallow weld
penetration. Short circuiting tran sfer is
co mmo nly used at cu rre nt level s be-
low 200 A and with we lding wire di-
ameters of .045" or less. Thin welding
wire produces a weld pool that remains
re latively s mall and easily mana ged,
makin g all-pos ition weldin g possible.
At the start of the cycle, the welding
wire melts into a small glo hule . An
e lectro mag netic pin ch force squeezes
the drop from the welding wire. Pinch
force is a squeezing power common to
all cur rent ca rr iers . Th e amount and
suddenness of the pin ch is co ntro lled
by the welding machine . As the mol-
ten weld ing wire is transferred to the
weld, the drop touches the weld pool
before it has broken away from the ad-
vancing weldin g wire and the circuit is
shorted, extingui shing the arc. Once the
drop of molten wire breaks contact with
the unmelted welding wire, the arc reig-
nites. Sho rting of the arc pinpoints the
effective heat. Shortin g occurs fr om
20 to 200 times a second ac cording
to preset controls. The result is a small,
relati vely cool weld pool that reduces
melt-through. Intricate welds are possible
in most positions. See Figure 20-6.
In short circuiting transfer, the shield-
ing gas mixture consists of 75% argon,
to control spatter, and 25% car bon di-
oxid e, both of which provide increased
heat for hi gher speeds . How ever,
straight CO , is also used whe re bead
contour is not particularly important
but good penetration is essential.
Spray Transfer
Spray transf er is a metal transfer mode
in which molten welding wire is pro-
pelled axially across the arc in small
dropl ets. Very fine droplets or particles
of we lding wi re are rapidly proj ected
through the arc to the workpiece in the
direction in which the we lding gun is
po inted . Th e droplets are eq ua l to or
smaller than the diameter of the weld-
ing wire. While in the process of trans-
ferrin g th rou gh the we ld ing ar e , the
metal particles do not interrupt the flow
o f current and there is a nearly con-
stant spmy of metal.
Spray tra nsfe r requires a high cur-
re nt den sity. S pray tr an sfer o ccurs
aro und 250 A and may requi re 300 A
to 400 A. With the higher current, the
arc becomes a steady, quiet column with
a we ll- defi ned, narro w, incandescent ,
cone-shape d core within whic h metal
tran sfer tak es plac e. See Figure 20-7.
The use of argo n or a mixture of argon
and oxygen (minimum 80% argon) is
With high heat input, thi ck wel d-
ing wire melt s readil y and dee p we ld
pe net rat io n becomes possible. Since
indi vidual d rop lets are small, the arc
is stable a nd ca n be directed where
re q uired .
Figure 20-7. Spray transfer nc-
curs when \'to'y fin e drop lets of
welding wire tire projected through
the a rc to the workpiece.
ARC
0"--
0
WELDING WIRE

also necessar y as a shie ld ing gas for '" g .....- SPRAY

BRIGHT g/ WELD High current is used
spray transfer. Argo n produces a pinch- INNER CONE \ § wi th spray transfer
ing effect on the molten tip of the elec- g 10 produce a steady:
trode, permi tting only small dro plets to quiet orc with a
we ll- defined core
form and tran sfer during the we ld ing within which metal
proce ss. Sp ray tran sfer is particul arl y SPRAY TRANSFER transfer takes place.
useful for welding heav y-gau ge metal.

Electromag netic pinch force

G) Welding wire melts ® squeezesdrop from wire

f3' Droptouches weld pool, f4\ D~op ,~reaks contact,

\::V short-circuiting the arc \!J reigniting the arc

Figu re 20-6. Short circuiting transfer is practical for all welding pos itions. especially where contro l of the
weld pool is difficult.

GMAW - Procedures ~ 219

 It is part icul arl y appro pria te fo r
welding heavy-gau ge metal. It is not
practical for welding light-gauge metal
becau se it results in melt-through .
Using a longer stickout with spray
tran sfer allo ws for higher dep ositi on
rate s. T he welding wire has a longer
preheat time before entering the arc so
there is less amperage needed to melt
the wire, and fas ter travel speeds are
possible. If sticko ut is excessive. re-
duced pen etration may occur. Travel
s pee d a nd pe ne tr a ti o n ra tes mu st
be mo nito red to ensure th at proper
pe netration is takin g place.
Globular Transfer
Globular tran sf er is th e tran sfer of
molten metal in lar ge droplets from
th e weldin g wire to th e workpiece
acro ss an arc . Globul ar tran sfer oc-
curs when the welding cu rrent is low
or is below the tran sition current. The
transition current range ex tends from
the minimum value where th e heat
melts the weldin g wire to the point
where the high curre nt valu e induces
spray tran sfer. Only a few drops are
transferred per seco nd at low current
values , whereas many small drops are
tran sferred when high current values
are used .
In g lo bu lar tr an s fer. th e molten
ball at th e tip o f th e we lding wire
g rows unti l its di am et er is two or
three times the diameter of the welding
wire before it sepa rates and tran sfers
across the arc to the wo rkpiece. See
Figu re 20-8 .
As the globule moves across the arc,
it ass umes an irregular shape and a ro-
tar y mo tio n because of th e ph ysi cal
forces of the arc. This frequently causes
the globule to reconnect with the weld-
ing w ire and the wo rkpiece. caus ing
the arc to extinguish and then reignite .
The result is poor arc stability. poor pen-
etration , a nd excess ive spatte r. As a
re sult, gl obul ar transfer is not very
effective for most GMAW operations.
220 ~ Welding Skills
Its use is genera lly restricted to where
low heat input is desired and to weld-
ing thin sections of metal.
" - WELDING WIRE
ARC" " ' - GLOBULE
GLOBULAR TRANSFER
Figure 20-101. 1/1 /{ Iolm lar transfer. the molt en drop
grows to two or three times the diameter (~r the weld-
ing wire before scparuting lind transferring to the
workpiece.
Pulsed Spray Transfer
Pulsed spray transfer is a spray trans-
fer mod e in whi ch current is cy cled
from low to high , at which point spray
transfer occurs . High level we lding
c urre nt e ns ures pen etration of th e
met al and lo w le vel we lding cur rent
permits pul se s o f hi gh curre nt. No
metal transfer occu rs at the lo w level.
Metal tran sfer is produced by direc-
t ion al force th at is stronge r th a n
gravity, making it effec tive for out-of-
positi on welding.
Pul sed spray transfe r is suitable
for all-pos ition we lding and is des ir-
able in applicat ions in wh ic h a low
heat inpu t is needed to minimize dis-
torti on and to main tain the weld pool.
Pul sed spray tran sfer requires a spe-
cial inverter welding machin e. Pulsed
spray tran sfer is an ex tension of spray
tran sfer weldin g and all ow s c urrent
and voltage le vel s mu ch lower than
those required fo r co ntinuo us spray
transfer. A pulsing current typically has
a peak current in the spray transfer cur-
rent range and a minimum CUITe n t value
in the globular transfer current range .
Current values lower than the tran-
sition level arc needed when welding
under heat tran sfer co nditions that are
inadequate fo r spray tran sfer.
For example, when performin g out-
of-position welding, high current results
in a weld pool that ca nnot be retain ed
in pos it io n unl e ss the me ta l bein g
we lded has ade q uate thermal conduc-
t ivit y, and uses the proper j oint and
plate thickn ess.
Pulsed spray transfer is achieved by
pulsing the current back and forth be-
tween the spray tran sfer and globular
transfer c urrent rang es. See Figure
20-9. For example. welding machine
A put s out a current in the globular
transfer range and welding machine B
puts out a current in the spray transfer
ran ge. Th e two outputs are combined
to produce a simple pul sed output by
e lectrically switching back and forth
between the two currents.
WELDING
MACHINE A
....
Z
TRANSITION
CURRENT
w
a:
a:
::::l WELDING
o MACHINE B
PULSED CURRENT
SWITCHES
BETWEEN A AND B
CURRENT LEVELS
TIME
Fi gu re 20-9. t' utsed .f/'m y t ransfer occ urs as 'he
cll rre ll1 is pulsed hack and [ar th between the spray
transfer and the X/fllm/ar tran sfe r ellrre", ranges.
Tran sfer o n ly occurs durin g th e
spray mode. Globular tran sfer is sup-
pr essed becau se in suffici ent tim e is
allowe d for globular tran sfer to occur.
Co nverse ly, at the peak cur rent level,
spray tran sfer is ensured by allowin g
more than sufficient time for tran sfer
to occur.
For the given welding wire deposited
by pulsed spray tran sfer, all the advan-
tage s of spray transfer are available at
average current levels that range from
the minimum level possible with con-
tinuous spray tran sfer down to lev els
low in the globular tran sfer ran ge.
Pul sed spray tr an s fer pro vide s
many feature s not pr e vi ou sl y avail-
able with othe r we lding processes:
• The heat input ran ge br idges the
gap between and laps over into the
heat input ranges available from the
sPI1lY transfer and short circuiting arc
processes. Into its lower heat input
ran ge , the pul sed spray tr ansfer
process brin gs the ad vantage s of
the continuou s spray transfer pro -
cess. In addition. due to lower heat
input , the use of spray transfer is
e xtended g reat ly into poor heat
transfer ar eas, mainl y related to
welding out -of-position and on
thinner materials.
• The area of overlap with the spray
transfer proc ess occur s because a
larger di amet er electro de, having
a high er tran sition current, lea ves
the continuou s spra y and ente rs
the pulsed spray ran ge at a higher
cur re nt than a sma ller electrode .
Further, the usc of a lar ger diam-
e te r e lect ro de can be continu ed
do wn to a current va lue co nsider-
ably bel ow the tran sition curre nt
associate d wi th usin g a s ma ller
diam eter electrode.
• Th e pul sed spray tran sfer process
prod uces a higher ratio of heat in-
put to metal deposi tion. perm its the
use of a co mpletely inert gas shield
where necessar y, and is essentially
free from spatter.
• Th e pul sed spray tran sfer proce ss
is characteri zed by a uniformity of
root penetration that is co mparable
to GTAW; becau se of thi s feature,
the process ma y permit om ission
of weld backin g in some cases.
GMAW - Procedu res §o 221
 • The pu lsed spray tran sfer proc ess
will not displace the short circuiting
transfer process in those areas where
the short circuitin g transfer process
is applicable and more economical.
Pulsed Spray Transfer Welding Ma-
chines. The welding mach ine used for
pul sed spr ay tran sfe r is a co ns tant -
vo ltage mach ine that co mbines a stan-
dard, 3l1>, full -wave unit wi th a Ill>,
half-w ave un it. T he 3l1> unit is the
background unit and the Ill> unit is the
pul s ing uni t. T he se uni ts are co n-
ne cted in parall e l but commutate
(fo rm a unidirecti onal curre nt) in op-
eration. The waveform of the pulsing
current output determines the sequence
of metal transfer. See Figure 20-10 .
The units are made to switch back
a nd forth in opera tio n by means of
the varyi ng output voltage of the puls-
ing uni t. Th e diod e rectifiers in each
unit alternately permit or block the pas-
sage of cu rren t dep endi ng upon
whethe r there is a posit ive or negative
voltage difference across their termi -
nals. When the pulse is OFF or its volt-
age is less than th e back ground
vo lt age, th e d iode rectifi e rs of the
background unit pass the full value of
Figure 20-10. Ttie output currellt
waveform of ttie pulsed .\pra y
transfer we/din g machine det er-
mines the metal trailsfe r sequence,
u
CD ® ®
PULSE PEAK
CURRENT T RANSITION CU RRENT
I-
Z
w
a:
a:
;:)
o
TIME
222 €1 Welding Skills
the instanta neo us curre nt. Conve rsely,
when the pulse vo ltage exceeds the
back gro und vo ltage, bl ocki ng the
back ground diode rectifi ers, the pulse
diode rectifiers pass the fu ll value of
the instantaneous current.
Operation of the welding machi ne
for pulsed spray transfer is similar to
th at of co nventi onal co nstan t-voltage
we lding mac hine s. Th e pul se peak
vo ltage is determined by the welding
wire type and diameter. The wire feeder
is set at a value that produces the re-
quired current and is determi ned by the
type and diameter of welding wire. The
meters on the welding machine display
the average voltage and the average cur-
ren t. See Ap pendix .
GMAWWELD DISCONTINUITIES
GMAW, like any other fonn of welding,
must be controlled properly to produce
cons istently high quality we lds. Welds
should be analyzed to preve nt repeated
weld defect s. Common discontinuit ies,
such as cold lap, porosity, crater cracks,
insuffic ient penetration, excessive pen-
etration, and whiskers, may be encoun-
tered when using GMAW.
®
SPRAY TRANSFER
CURRENT RANG E
~~~ -_ - ~. ~~ ~ - --_ . . -
GLOBULAR TRANSFER
CURRENT RANG E
Cold Lap moisture in the shielding gas; rust, paint,
Cold UJp occurs if the
Cold lap usually occurs when the arc
do es not mel t th e ba se metal suffi-
dirt, or oil on the base metal; or an ex-
cessive tip-to-work distance. Although
porosity is categorized as surface or sub-
I]
.~
•~
arc does not melt the
basemetal sufficiently.

ciently, causing the weld pool to flow

surface, it can occur throughout th e
into unwelded base metal. See Figure
weld area. See Figure 20-12.
20-11. Often , if the weld pool is al-
lowed to become too large , cold lap
re sults. Fo r prope r fu sion , tbe arc Figure 20-12 . Porosity can oc -
cur throughout the weld area and
should be kept at the leading edge of
is categorized as surfa ce or sub -
the weld pool. Prop er arc placement su rface porosity.
prevents the weld pool from becom-
ing too large and flowing ahead of the
welding arc. To prevent cold lap, the
size of the weld pool can be reduced
by increasin g the trav el speed or re-
Check the weld for
ducing the wire feed speed.
SUBSURFACE
POROSITY
Stork Tectinimei. Inc
I
.~ surface porosity.
·= S urface poro si ty is
usually caused by im-
propergas shielding.

Figure 20-1 1. Cold lap occurs whe n the a rc does
not melt the base me/a! suffic iently.
Crater Cracks
The prim ary cause of crater cracks is
removing the welding gun and th e
shielding gas before the weld pool has
so lidified. Other po ssibl e causes of
crate r cracks are moisture in the
shielding gas ; rust, paint, dirt, or oil
on the base me tal ; and exce ssive
tip-to-work distance. See Figure 20- 13.

Figure 20 ·13. Crater cracks

Poros ity can occur if the welding Nun is
removed bef ore the weld pool
Generally, surface porosity is the direct has solidified.
res ult of atmos pheric contamination.
Atmospheric con tami nation occurs if
the shielding gas level is set either too
low or too high. If the shielding gas level
is too low, the air in the arc area is not
fully displaced; if the shielding gas flow
is too high, air turbulence is generated Stork lechnrmel. Inc.

which prevents complete shielding. On

occasion, porosity occurs if welding is
performed in a wind y area. Without a
Lack of Penetration
protective wind shield the shielding gas Lack of penetration (insufficient penetra-
envelop e may be blown away, expo s- tion) is due to a low heat input in the Do not rl~m O l'e the
ing the molt en weld pool to the con -
taminating effects of the air. Subsurface
poro sity is ca used by remo val of -the
weld area or failure to keep the arc prop-
erly located on the leading edge of the
weld pool. If the heat input is too low,
I
.~
·=
weld ing gu nfrom the
weld area until the
weld pool has solidi -
fled; otherwise, cracks
welding gun and the shielding gas be- increase the wire feed speed to achieve may develop.
for e th e weld pool ha s soli dified ; a higher current. See Figure 20-14.
GMAW - Procedures ~ 223
Ftgure 20- 14. Lack oj penetra- Whiskers
tion elm result [rom low hrat ill-
p UI 10 the weld a rea or (l failure
Whi skers are short lengths of electrode
to keep the arc located properly
Oil tile teuding edge oj the weld wire sticking through the we ld joint.
pool. Wh iske rs are caused by pu sh ing the
wire past the leading edge of the weld
pool. A small section of wire protrudes
inside the joint and becomes weld ed
to the deposited metal. To remedy this
defect . redu ce the travel speed, in-
crease the tip-to-work distance slightly,
or reduce the wire feed speed.
Excessive Penetration
Excessive penetrati on (melt-through) is
cau sed by excessive heat in the we ld
Lack of penetration

I.~
.=
or excessive pcnetra-
tion is the reSII /1 of
f ailure to controlhrat
input.
zo ne. Excessive penetration result s in
a weld bead that protrudes be low the
bott om of the joint. See Figure 20- 15.
Redu cing the wire feed spee d lo wers
the curre nt and less heat is gene rated.
eliminating excessive penetration . Ex-
cessive pe ne tratio n ca n al so be pre-
vented by increasing the travel speed.
If the root o pening in the joint is too EXCESSIVE
PENETRATION
wide, melt-throu gh may result. A wide
Stor k r ,.,-/mill/,'I, /II<.'.
root ope ning can be compen sat ed for
F ig u re 20-1 5. Red uci ng the wi re [eed speed lind
by increasing stickout and weaving the increasing the tra vel .~/,eed run preven t excessive
we lding g un. penetration.

I . GMAW is a faster weld ing process than SMAW and is easy to learn .
2 . Groove joints used with GMAW have smaller root face s, smaller root openings, and a nar-
rower included angle , all of which reduce the joint area to require less weld metal.
3 . Keep the welding gun prop erl y positioned to en sure a uniform weld with prop er penetration .
4. Ensure that the co ntact tub e and gas nozzle orifi ces are cle an to prevent clogging, which
restri cts wire feed and shielding gas flow.
5 . Do not remove the we lding gu n from the we ld area until the weld poo l has so lidified. Th e
shiel ding gas prevent s cracks from developing in the molten weld pool.
6 . Short circ uiting transfer we lding is best for welding light-gau ge metal s.
7 . High current is used with spray transfer to produce a steady, quiet arc with a well-defined core
within which metal tran sfer take s place.
S. Cold lap occur s if the arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently.
9. Check the weld for surface porosity. Surface porosity is usually caused by improper gas shielding.
10. Do not remove the welding gun from the weld area until the weld pool has solidified; other-
wise, cracks may develop.
I I. Lack of penetration or excessiv e penetration is the result of failure to co ntro l heat input.

(0
224 ~ Weldin g Skills
• Exercises
Depositing Beads on Mild
Steel in Flat Position eXerCiSe
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •.

I . Obta in a .035", E-70 S-3 welding wire.

2 . Insert the welding wire in the we lding gu n and set
wire stickout to Vl ' to 3/S".
3 . Set the welding machine outp ut for DeEP.
4 . Set the current at 100 A to 120 A; set voltage at 19 V
to 2 1 V.
5. Set the shielding gas (ca rbon dioxide) at 20 cfh.
6. Obtain a piece of mild steel 'YIo" to 1;4" thick and 4" to
6" long.
7 . Pos ition the workpiece in flat position . DRAG ANGLE
8 . Set the wire feed control so that the ammeter reads
betwee n I00 A and 120 A. To obtain the correct read-
ing, have ano ther perso n observe the current whil e
welding is being performed .
9 . Set the voltage to 26 V to 28 V using the same procedure.
I O. Position the we lding gun at a 90° work angle and a
10° to 15° drag angle.
II. Adj ust the voltage until wire feed s prope rly and the
bead is 'Yto" wide and VB' high.
12 . Deposit a series of straight, consistent beads approxi-
mate ly 3fs" apart.
WORK ANGLE

GMA W - Procedures § 225

 Depositing Buildup on Mild

••• . .. ... .. .. . . ...

Steel in Flat Position exercise ..
.~

I . Complete equipment set up and adjustme n t as in

Exercise 1.
2 . Obta in a piece of mild steel 1/ 4" thick and 4" to 6"
long .
3. Position the workp iece in flat position.
4 . Position the welding gun at a 90° work angle and a
J0 0 to 15° drag ang le to deposit a bead '1<" from the
edge of the workpiece. The bead should be 5/ 16 " wide
and VB" high.
5 . Depos it a secon d bead overlapping the first by hal f.
Use an 80° to 90° work angle and a J0 0 to 15° drag
angle .
6 . Deposit consistent , overlapping beads until th e
workpiece is covered.

Welding a Butt Joint on Mild

Steel in Flat Position exerCise
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
.

I. Complete equipment setup and adjustment as in Exercise I.

2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel :¥i6' to W' thick, I 'h" wide, and 6" long.
3. Form a butt joint, with a %2" to VB" root opening, and tack weld.
4 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position.
5 . Position the welding gun at a 90° work angle and a I0° drag angle.
6. Use a slight weaving motion to control the weld pool and a travel speed that allows
for co mplete penetration.
7 . Maintain the electrode on the leading edge of the weld pool to prevent whisker s.
8 . If excessive penetration occurs, lengthen the elec trode extension, dec rease the cur-
rent, and/or adjust the voltage for a smoo th arc.

226 ~ Welding Skills

Welding a Lap Joint on Mild
Steel in Flat Position exerCise.
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
I . Complete equipment setup and adju stment as in
Exercise I.
2 . Obtain two pieces of mild steel 3/16" to '/l' thick,
IW' wide, and 6" long.
3 . Form a lap joint and tack together.
4 . Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat
position .
5. Position the welding gun at a 45° work angle and a
10° to 15° drag angle. Use a slight weaving motion.
6. The bead face should be flat to slightly convex.

DRAG ANGLE

45'

WORK ANGLE

GMAW - Procedures @o 227

 Welding a Multiple-Pass T-Joint on
Mild Steel in Horizontal Position eXe rCiSe
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
.

I . Co mplete eq uipme nt se tup a nd adj ustme nt as in

Exe rcise I.
2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel ¥ts" to W' thick, Ph"
wide, and 6" long.
3 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90° angle and tack
toge ther.
4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal
position .
5 . Position the weld ing gun at a 45° work angle and a
10° to 15° drag angle. Deposit the first pass on both Pass 1
sides of the T-joinl.
6 . Position the weld ing gun at a 55° work angle and a
10° to 15° dra g angle. Deposit the seco nd pass on
both sides of the T-joint overlapping the first pass by
half.
7 . Position the weldin g gun at a 35° work angle aod a
10° to 15° drag angle. Deposit the third pass on both
sides of the T-joint overl appin g the first and second
passes.

Pass 2

Pass 3
WORK ANGLE

228 ~ Welding Skills

Welding aT-Joint on Mild Steel
in Vertical Position
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
exerCise.
•
I. Complete equipment setup and adjustment as in
Exercise I.
2 . Obtain two pieces of mild steel 3/16" to I;." thick, 2"
wide, and 6" long.
3 . Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90° angle and tack
together.
4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in vertical
position.
5. Position the welding gun at a 45° work angle and a
10° to 20° drag angle.
6 . Weld downhill using a slight weaving motion . Pause
at the toes of the weld to prevent undercutting .

Welding a T-Joint on Mild Steel

in Overhead Position
••••••••••••••••••
exerCise.
•
I. Complete equipment setup and adjustment as in Exercise I.
2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel 3/16" to 'Ii' thick, 2" wide, and 6" long.
3. Form a T-joint with the pieces at a 90° angle and tack together.
4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in overhead position.
5 . Position the welding gun at a 45° work angle and a 5° to 10° drag angle. Deposit the first pass
on both sides of the T-joint.
6 . Position the welding gun at a 500 work angle and a 5° to 10° drag angle . Deposit the second
pass on both sides of the T-joint using a slight weaving motion.
7 . Position the welding gun at a 40° work angle and a 5° to 10° drag angle. Deposit the third pass
on both sides of the T-joint using a slight weaving motion .

f- 40'

Pass 1 Pass 3
Pass 2
WORK ANGLE

GMAW - Procedures ~ 229

 Welding Joints on Aluminum
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
exercise
•e'
I . Obtain two pieces of aluminum, 3/16 " to \!.i" thick, 2" wide, and 6" long.
2. Form the proper joint and tack together.
3 . Position the workpi ece so the weld joint is in proper position .
4 . Set voltage, wire feed speed, and shielding gas flow. See Appendi x.
5 . Angle the welding gun to a 15° drag angle with a wire stickout of V2" to %".
6 . Use the pushin g technique. Use the procedures for weldin g mild steel to complete a butt
joint, a lap joint, and a T-joint on aluminum.

I. How does GMAW differ from GTAW?

2. At what work angle should the welding gun be held for horizontal fillet welding?
3. At what work angle should the welding gun be held for flat fillet welding?
4. What determines whether a pullin g or pushing technique should be used ?
5. What is the difference between spray transfer and globular transfer?
6. Why is globular transfer ineffecti ve for welding heavy-gauge meta ls?
7. What is meant by short circuiting transfer? For what type of welding is this most effective?
8. What is the probable cause for the formation of cold laps in a weld?
9. What should be don e to prevent surface porosity in a weld?
10. How ca n crater porosity or cracks bc prevented?
I I. What should bc done if weld penetration is insufficient?

230 €l' Weldi nK Skill.'

GMAW has become an accepted process for joining all types of meta Is. Production welding can be easily
mechanized with GMAW, substantially reducing manufacturing costs. Generally, the same type of equip-
ment and welding techniques apply to all metals when welding with GMAW.

GMAW can be used to weld carbon steel, aluminum, stainless steel, and copper. Welding parameters
such as edge preparation, electrode diameter, shielding gas flow rate, proper current, and electrode feed
speed are set based on weld requirements.

CARBON STEEL thicker than I ". See Figure 21-1. The

Carbon steels can be welded uSIng
s hort circui ting transfer and spray
transfer. Edge preparation and joint de-
sign requirements vary depending on
the thickness of the carbon steel.
Steel from .035" to 1/8 " thick can be
butt welded with no edge preparation.
When welding a square butt joint on
thin steel, a root opening of V16" or less
is recommended . For wider openings,
short circuiting transfer should be used
because relatively large gaps at the root
opening are more easily bridged with-
out excessive penetration.
A butt joint with no edge prepara-
tion and a 1116" to 3/ 32" root opening may
be used for carbon steel 3/16" to %"
thick. Two passes are generally re-
quired to ensure complete penetration
and to fill the joint.
Beveling is required on steel more
than W' thick. A single-V or double- V
bevel with a 50° to 60° groove angle
is used for carbon steel up to I" thick.
A V-groove with a root opening of V:d'
to %2" is necessary on carbon steel
sequence of bead deposits for multiple
pass welds is similar to SMAW.
Shielding gases used with GMAW
are straight CO, or an AriCO, mixture.
For short circuiting transfer on car-
bon steels and low-alloy steel s, a
75% Ar125% CO 2 mixture is preferred.
The Ar/C0 2 mixture improves arc sta-
bility and minimizes spatter. A mixture
of Argon and 5% to 10% CO 2 may also
be used, and results in deeper penetra-
tion with faster welding speeds .
Carbon steel welding with spray
transfer can be performed us ing a
95% to 98% Ar/2% to 5% 0 , mixture .
Adding oxygen to the shielding gas
mixture provides a more stable are,
minimi zes undercutting, and permits
faster travel speeds . Straight CO, may
be used for high-speed production
welding ; however, straight CO 2 doe s
not provide a true spray transfer, but
has characteristics similar to globular
transfer. Straight CO 2 is typically used
for globular transfer, allowing high
productivity rates.

231
Fteure 21-1. Prope r edge p,,{,(/rtJ-
, ,
lil " ltllulr( I(Jt('/J('llil'<~(lrefl('( ·e.H{lr)'
when welding carbon steel butt
.. .. ~ ~
•
. . ... . .
joinH using GMAW

~35' TO '4'

T
Ii- -=:=J--=:J
- -II-- v,,' -11- V,6" TO %2"
BUITJOINT BUITJOINT

, GREATER , GREATER
-LTHAN 1,4" i -THAN l '

SINGLE·V BUIT JOINT U-GROOVE BUIT JOINT

Welding parameter s such as elec- ALUMINUM

Welding pa rameters trode diameter. proper current and volt-
a re set based oil /he Joint design for aluminum is similar
thickness of the age. wire feed speed. and shielding gas
to that for steel. However. a narrow er
metal " sed. flow are set based on the carbon steel
roo t opening and lower welding cur-
thickn ess. See Figure 2 1-2 .
ren t are reco mme nded du e to the
higher fluidit y of the metal. Generally.
a luminum '/ 8 " thi ck or mor e can be
welded using GMAW. However. some
we lders may be able to we ld thinner
sectio ns.
Argo n gas is the preferred shield-
ing gas fo r GMAW on alum inum up
to I" thick becau se it provide s better
met al tran sfer and arc stability with
less spatter. In flat positio n we lding
of 1100 and 3003 aluminum. the ad-
dit ion of a small amou nt of ox yg en
to the argo n increases spray transfer
a nd improve s co alescen ce (flow of
metal s together) . Wh en welding alu-
minum bet ween 1" and 2" t hick . a
mixture of 90 % ArlI 0% He prov ides
the hi gh er heat inpu t possib le wi th
/11 the GMA \V process. a consumable win' electrode is fed into tI weld pool tha t is helium and the good clean ing action
protected by (I shielding gas that complctrlv covers ttw weld pool. ob ta ined wit h argo n.
232 @ We/ding Skills
 GMAW - CARBON STEEL (SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER)
Metal Electrode bCE:p Welding ~EPA~C Wire Feed Travel Shielding
Thickn!!SlI' Diilm!!te~: ~ ~ " Qurtentt VoItllDe ' Speed§ Speed§ Gas Flow ll
,025 ,030 30 -50 15 - 17 85 - 100 12 - 20 15 - 20

,031 ,030 40 - 60 15 - 17 90 - 130 18 - 22 15 - 20

,037 ,035 55 - 85 15 - 17 70 - 120 35 - 40 15 - 20

,050 ,035 70- 100 16 - 19 100 -160 35-40 15 - 20

,063 ,035 80 -110 17 -20 120 - 180 30 - 35 20 -25

,078 ,035 100 - 130 18 - 20 160 - 220 25 - 30 20 -25

,125 ,035 120 - 160 19 - 22 210 - 290 20 -25 20 -25

,125 ,045 180 - 200 20 -24 210 - 240 27 -32 20-25

,187 ,035 140 -1 60 19 - 22 210 - 290 14 - 19 20 -25

,187 ,045 180 -205 20 -24 210 -245 18 - 22 20 - 25

,250 ,035 140 - 160 19 - 22 240 - 290 11 - 15 20 - 25

,250 ,045 180 - 225 20 - 24 210 - 290 12 - 18 20 - 25

m.
amps
volts
inch es per minute (ipm)
cfh

Figure 21-2. Weld inJ: parameters should he set bas ed on carbon steel thickn ess.

Using short circuiti ng transfer on
alum inum produces a cold er arc
than is produced with spray transfer,
permitting the weld pool to solidify
rapidly , This action is especially useful
for vertical , overhead, and horizontal
welding, and for welding thin alumi-
num , When using GMAW in vertical
position , a downhill tec hnique is pre -
ferred , Welding parameters such as
edge preparation , electrode diameter,
argon flow, proper cur rent and voltage,
and el ectrod e feed spe ed for s ho rt
circuiting transfer should be set
ba sed on alumin um thickne ss , See
Fig ure 21 -3,
Spray transfer on aluminum is espe-
cially suitable for thick sections, With
spray transfer, more heat is produced
to melt the electrode and the base metal,
Vertical , hori zontal , and overhead
welds are typica lly more difficult with
A rgo n gas is the
spray tran sfer than with short circuit- prefe rred shielding
ing tran sfer. Welding parameters such gas for GMA W on
as edge preparation, electrode diameter, alumin um up to 1"
thick because it pro -
argon flow, proper current and voltage,
vides better metal
and electrode feed speed for spray trans- transfer and a rc
fer should be set based on alum inum stahiliry with less
spatter
thic kness, See Figure 2 1-4,
STAINLESS STEEL
Stai nless stee l was initially deve loped
to prevent rusting and corrosion that
occured wi th carbon steel, Stain les s
steel is produced to a hig her quality
level than carbon steel s and has fewer
impurit ies, making it a reliable materia l
for welding, On stainless steel l/l' thick
or more, the weld ing gun sho uld be
moved back-and-forth with a s light
side- to- side mov ement.
GMAW - Applications § 233
 GMAW - ALUMINUM (SHORT CIRCUITING TR.ANSFER)
- . . . - -- -~

Metal Edge Electrode Argon DCEP Electrode

Voltage§
Thickness ' Preparation Diameter' Flowt Current* Feed Speed ll

.040 Fillet or
.030 30 40 15 240
tight Butt
Fi llet or
.050 .030 15 50 15 290
tight Butt
Fillet or
.063 .030 15 60 15 340
tight Butt
Fillet or
.093 .030 15 90 15 410
tight Butt
lflln .
tin c1h
I in amps
§ in votls
II in Ip!Tl (approximale)

Fia u re 21-3. Weldi ,,!: parame ters for short circuiting transf er 01 1 thin 0IUIII ; II I1111 should be set base d 011 aluminu m thickness.

GMAW - ALUMINUM (SPRAY TRANSFER)

- - ~ - ~

Metal Edge Electrode Argon DCEP Voltage§

Thicknes s' PrepaCltijO!l Diameter' Flp,wt Current*
Sinqle-V butt
(60' groove angle)
sharp root face 0/. . 35 180 24
use bac king ba r
.250
Square butt with
back ing bar
%0 40 250 26
Square butt with no
0/. . 35 220 24
back ing bar
Single-Y butt
(60' groove angle)
sharp root face Y16 40 280 27
use backlnq bar
Double-Y butt
.375 (75' groove angle
V,6" root face). V,6 40 260 26
No backing bar. Back
chip after root pass

Square butt with no

V16 50 270 26
backing bar

Single-Y butt
(60' groove angle)
sha rp roo t face
Y I6 50 310 27
use backing ba r
.500
Doubl e- V butt
(75' grooveangle
Y16" root face). No V16 50 300 27
backing bar. Back chip
afte r roo t pass

'"
dh
amps
volts

Ftaure 21-4. Welding parameters fo r spray transfer 0 11 thick alumi num should be set based 01 1 alum inum thick ness.

234 ~ Weldin g Skills

 Th in stainles s steel is best welded
with a slig ht back-and-forth mot ion
along the joint. See Figure 21-5. The
forehand technique is generally used
for welding stainless steel.
- SIDE·TO·SIDE MOTION
DIRECTION
OF WELD ING
•
THICK STAINLESS STEEL
BACK·AND·FORTH
MOTION
/ and nitrogen in the air will embrittle
DIRECTION
OF WELDIN G
•
THIN STAINLESS STEEL
Figure 21-5. When usi ng GMAW to wel d stainless
steel plates, (/ slight weaving mot ion is used.
Man y of the ch aracteri stic s of
stainless steel, such as its corros ion
resistance, sensitivity to heat, and low
thermal and e lec trical conductivity,
can be controlled once a welder under-
stands how weldin g affec ts the se
characteri stics. Properl y identifying
the type of stainless steel and its par-
ticul ar characteri stics is nece ssary to
determine which characteristics to con-
tro l during welding . When using
GMAW on stainless steels, proper ven-
tilation is neces sary due to the fumes
given off by the metal.
Short circuiting transfer can be used
on thin stainless steel in overh ead or
vert ical posit ion. Welding parameters
suc h as edge preparation , elect rode
diameter, shie ld ing gas flow , proper
current and voltage, elec trode feed
speed, welding spee d, and welding
pa sse s for short circuiting transfer
should be set based on stainless steel
thickness. See Figure 21-6 .
Quality welds can be produced on
stainless steel using the spray transfer
process with a '116" diameter electrode
and high current. DCEP with Argon
and I % to 2% 0 2 may be used for
spray transfer on stainless steel. Weld-
ing parameters such as edge prepara-
tion, electrode diamet er, shieldin g gas
flow , proper curre nt, electrode feed
speed , welding spe ed, and welding
passes for spray transfer should be set
based on stainless steel thickn ess. See
Figure 21-7 .
Copper backing bars should be
used when welding stainless stee l up
to '11 6" thick. Precaution s mu st b e
taken to prevent air from reaching the
When using GMA W
on stainless steels,
undersid e of the weld while the weld proper ventilation is
necessary to remove
pool is solidifying becau se oxygen
the fu mes emitted.
the weld. To prevent air from contact-
ing the underside of the weld, an 'ar-
gon back-up gas is often used.
COPPER
Using GMAW on copper is usually re-
stricted to the deoxidized types of cop-
per. Welding electrolytic copper is not
advisable because of the potential for
embrittlement exhibited by such welds.
Argon is preferred as the shielding
gas for thin copper. For copper I" thick
or more, a mixture of 65% He/35% Ar
is recommended.
Steel backing bars are required for
Steel backing bars
welding copper '18" thick or less. Pre-
are req uired for
heating is not necessary for copper Va" welding copper %"
thick or le ss. Preheating at 400 °F thick or less.
(204°C) is advisabl e on sec tions 3/8 "
thick or mo re. Welding parameters
such as ed ge preparation, elec tro de
diameter, proper current and voltage,
electrode feed speed , and weld in g
speed should be set based on copp er
thicknes s. See Figure 21-8.
Preheating copper
o Filler metals tha t can be used to weld cop-
per are specified in ANS/IAWS A5.6. Speci-
at 400' F (204'C) is
advisable on sec-
firms :U/ ' thick or
fication s for Covered Copper and Coppe r
Alloy Arc Welding Electro des. more.
GMAW - App lica tion s ~ 235
 GMA..... - STAINLESS STEEL (SHORT CI~<::UITING TRANSFER)
- - -
Metal Edge Electrode Gas DCEP Electrode Welding Welding
Voltage§
Thickness" Preparation Diameter' Flowt Current* Feed Speed" Speed" Passes
Non-po sitioned
.063 .030 12- 30 85 15 184 18 1
fillet or lap

.063 Squa re Bun .030 12 - 30 85 15 184 20 1

Non-positioned
.078 .030 12- 30 90 15 192 14 1
fillet or lap

.078 Square Butt .030 12 - 30 90 15 192 12 1

Non -position ed
.093 .030 12 - 30 105 17 232 15 1
fillet or lap
Non -positioned
.125 .030 12 - 30 125 17 280 16 1
Iillet or lap
lOin.
t cO 2 in clh
*in amps
t in volts
II in ipm

Figure 21-6. Weldin.1: part/meters for short circu iting transfe r Oil stainless stee l ~'''oilld be set base d 0" Mail/less steel thickne ss,

GMAW - STAINLESS STEEL (SPRAY TRANSFER)

Metal Edge Electrode Gas DCEP Electrode Welding Welding
Thickness" Preparation Diameter* Flow Current* Voltage§ Feed Speed ll Speed11 Passes
Squa re butt with
.125 V16 351 200 - 250 24 110 - 150 20 1
backing

Single-V butt
.250 (60' groove angle) V,6 351 250 -300 25- 26 150 - 200 15 2
no root face

Single-V butt
.375 (60' groove angle) Y1& (1%-° 2) 275 -325 25- 26 225-250 20 2
VIS'" root face
Single-V butt
.500 (60' groove angle) (1%-0 2) 300- 350 26-27
V16'" root face "" 75 -85 5 3-4

Single-V butt
.750 (90 ' groove angle) ¥" (1%-° 2) 350 -375 25- 27 85 -95 4 5 -6
Y'6" root face
Single-V butt
1.000 (90 ' groove angle) ¥" (1%-02) 350 -375 25 -27 85 -95 2 7 -8
1/16" root face
In In.
t m cth
~ in amps
S in volts
' "",
Flg ure 21-7. WehlinK parameters f or spray transf er 0" swill/en steel should be set based on stainless steel thickness.

236 ~ Weldi llg Skills

 GMAW - COPPER .
Metal Edge Electrode DCEP Electrode Welding
Voltag,,* Feed Speed § Speed §
Th ickness" Prepa ration Diameter' currentt
Square Butt, with steel
'A. V,6 310 27 200 30
backing ba r

V. Square Butt ¥.<> 460 26 135 20

V. Squa re Butt ¥" 500 26 150 20

Doubl e bevel,
% ¥32 500 27 150 14
90 ' groove angle , 0/16" root face
Doubl e bevel , 14
% ¥" 550 27 170
90 ' groove ang le, 0/16" root face
Doub le bevel ,
Yo, ¥.<> 540 27 165 12
90 ' groove angle, Y,," root face
Yo, Dou ble beve l,
¥.<> 600 27 180 10
90' groove angle, V.." root face
In lfI .
' in amps
• in volts
t inipm
Fi~ ure 21-8. We!ditlR parameters should be set based 011 COf'PeT thickness.

I. Welding parameters are set based on the thickness of the metal used.
2. Argo n gas is the preferred shielding gas for GM AW on aluminum up to I" thick because it
provides better metal tran sfer and arc stability with less spatter.
3 . When using GMAW on sta inless stee ls, proper ve ntilation is necessary to rem ove the fumes
emitte d.
4 . Steel backin g bars are required for welding copper '/8" thick or less.
5 . Preheating cop per at 400°F (204°C) is adv isable on sect ions %" thick or more.

I. When welding ca rbon steels, what thickness range may be butt we lded with no edge prepa ration')
2. What type of joi nt is required for carbon stee l greater than I" thick?
3. What shielding gas mixture is recommended for welding carbon stee ls?
4. Why is spray transfe r preferred for welding thick sections of alumi num?
5. Which technique should be used for GMAW in vertical position ?
6. Wh at type of backin g is requi red when welding stainless steel?
7. What type of backing is required when welding co pper?
8. Wh en sho uld preh eating be used on co pper?

GMAW - Applications § 237

238 @o We/dinK Skills
sec t i o n six Other Welding Processes

The fl ux cored arc welding (FCAW) process was developed in the 1950.1'. It is an arc welding process
similar to GMAW in that it uses a continuously fe d electrode. FCAW has become more commonly used as
a result of developments and improvements in welding machines. wire feed systems, andfluxes. Welding
guns equipped with fum e extractors have also improved FCAW welding conditions. FCAW can be used
to weld carbon steels, low-alloy steels, various stainless steels. and some cast irons.

Self-shielded fl ux cored arc welding (FCAW-S) is a variation of FCAW in which the shielding gas is
provided solely by the flux materia l within the electrode. FCAW-S is commonly used on medium thick-
nesses ofmetal and can be used for all-position welding. Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G)
is an FCAW variation that produces high-quality welds at a lower cost and with less effort than SMA IV.
FCAW-G generally pro duces a deeper penetrating weld than FCAW-S.

FLUX CORED ARC WELDING of the electrode consum ed during the

(FCAW)
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is an
arc welding process that uses a tubu-
lar e lec tro de wi th flu x in it s core .
FCAW is very simila r to G MAW in
prin cipl e of operati on and equipme nt
used . In FCAW, weld metal is tran s-
ferred as in GMAW globular or spray
transfer. However, FCAW can achieve
greater we ld metal deposi tio n a nd
deeper penetration than GMAW short
circu iting transfer.
The flux cored arc welding process
was developed in the 1950 s with the
development of an "i nside- out" el ec-
tro de that co nta ine d a co re of flu x
material. However, even with the flux
cored electro de, an external shielding
gas was required. In 1959, a flux cored
elec trode was deve loped that did not
require an external shielding ga s.
Shield ing ga s co uld be ge nera ted
solely by the flux contained in the core
welding process. This reduced the cost
of the welding process by eliminati ng
the need for additional shie lding gas
an d its accompanyi ng eq ui pment.
Shield ing gas is used in the FCAW-G
proce ss for increased penetrati on and
filler metal deposition .
The two var iatio ns for app lying
FCAW are self-shielded flux cored arc
welding (FCA W-S) and gas-shie lded
flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G).
Self-shielded j7 I1X cored arc weld-
ing (FCAW-S) is an FCAW variation in
which shieldi ng gas is pro vid ed ex -
clu sively hy the flux co re within the
electrode core. The heat of the welding
arc causes the flux to melt, creat ing a Self-sh ielded fl ux
gaseous shield around the arc and the cored arc welding
weld pool. See Figure 22- 1. FCAW-S ( FC A IV-S) i s all
FCAW variation in
is also called Innershicld" in the field . which shielding gas
lnnershield" is a flux cored arc weld- is provided exclu -
ing process deve loped by the Linco ln sivetv by the fl ux
within the electrode.
Electric Manu facturing Co mpa ny.

239
Fi~ul"e 22-1. I" I:CAW-S, a tubular
electrode containing fl ux ingredi-
('flU is used to produce II gaseous
shie ld around till' wel d pool .
Gas-...hi elded flux
cored arc we ldi ng
( FCA lV· G ) is all
FCAW variation ill
which the shielding
is ohtail/edfmm both
the CO 2 gas./7owiflg
from lil t' !-il lS no zzle
an d fro m th« JIIIX
core of ti ll' electrode.
FCA lV produces a
qual it y we ld at
lower ( 'OJ' with less
effort 'han SMA ~V.
«nd is more flexible
than SAW
240 ~ Weldillg Skills
CONTACT
TIP
FLUX COR ED
ELECTRODE
FLUX CORE
GAS EOUS
SLAG
~ " ~ o equipment, the welder moves a hand -
o 0
o o
o
o o o With mechanized equipment, the o p-
SOLIDIFIED BASE MOLT EN
AND FILLER METAL METAL
Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding
( FCA W-G) is a n FCAW va r ia tio n in
wh ich the s hie ld ing is o bta ine d from
both the CO, gas flowing from the gas
no zzl e a nd from the flux core of the
electrode. FCAW-G is commonly per-
formed in flat or horizontal po sition .
With sma ll-diame ter electrodes, vertical
or ove rhea d welding ma y be possible.
Advantages of FCAW
Th e FC AW process co mb ines the be st
qualities of SMAW, SAW, and GMAW.
FC AW use s fl ux age nts th at di ssol ve
ox ides and remove detrim ental mate-
rial s fro m the weld area. The FCAW
proce ss provides the we lde r with the
capabilit y to weld c o n tin oo us ly for
lon g period s. FCAW produce s a qual-
ity weld with less effort than SMAW,
and is more flexible than SAW. Some
additional benefit s of FCAW include
the foll owing:
• re q u ires le ss precl eaning than
GM AW
• prod uces less distortion than SMAW
• p rod uce s smooth, unifo rm be ad s
wit h an ex ce lle nt weld appea ra nce
• has a high deposit ion rat e
• is ca pa ble of relativel y high tra vel
s pe e ds
• weld s a variety of steels and a wide
ran ge o f metal thi ckn esses
FCAW EQUIPMENT
Equ ip me nt for FC AW is si milar to that
used for GM AW. A we lding machine,
welding gun, wire feeder, and flux cored
elec tro de a re required . Add itio na lly,
for FCAW-G, shielding gas and a shield-
ing gas supply sys tem are required.
Th e welding equipment can be de-
sig ned for se m ia uto ma tic or mecha-
nized op eration. With se m ia uto ma tic
o
held we lding gun along the we ld joint.
e ra tor m ak e s eq u ip me nt adj us tme nts
as required while o bse rv ing the weld-
ing operatio n. See Fig ure 22-2 .
So me FCAW wires give off fluorides
which ca n bu m the skin and irritate the
nostril s a nd eyes. Re spiratory eq uip-
ment mu st be used . Stand ard sho p ven-
tilation systems may not be capable of
elimi natin g the s mo ke produ ced by
FCAW welding. A fum e extrac tion sys-
tem is used to protect workers and to
remove smoke from the wo rk area. A
fume extractor may be attached to a flex-
ible ho se arm th at ca n be mo ved near
the wo rk are a or to a separa te ve ntila-
tion sys tem within the sho p. See Figure
22 -3. Wh er e smoke an d fumes are not
a problem for other workers, the welder
may use a per son al ve ntila tion sys tem
to protect again st fumes.
Specially designed we ld ing guns
are a lso av a ila ble th at have a built-in
vent ilation sys te m to ev ac uate smo ke
from the weld area, prot ecting the weld-
in g process and providin g ma ximum
visibility. FCAW-S ma y be used in the
field und er windy cond itio ns that will
remove the smoke from the we ld area.
o FI"xcored arc welding (FCAlV) is "sed
for many of the same weldin g applica-
lion s that use gas metal arc we/din g
(GMAlV) or shielded metal arc weld-
ing (SMA IV). IVilh FCAIV, higher depo-
sition m I l'S are p ossibl e, 'here is flO
stub loss, and less time is wasted switch-
ing electrodes.
 Figure 22-2. FCAn' equipment
consists of a DC welding muvhinr.
(I wire feeder, weldin g cables, and

a weldin!: g un, Additionally. "

FLOWMET ER SHIELDING GAS flowmeter. xhj(,/ ding ga.~ regula-
(FOR FCAW·G)
REGULATOR tor, and sliiddillg gas are required
(FOR FCAW·G) for f"CAW·G.

SHIELDING GAS
(FOR FCAW·G )

L ATER,cooLANT
SYSTEM (IF REQUIRED)

WELDING
CABLE

WORKP IECE
METAL SHIELD . -.....~i@~
LEAD
FLUX CORED
ELECTRODE

Welding Machines
Weld ing machi ne s used for FCAW
mu st be ca pa ble of th e hi gh er cur-
rents and voltages requ ired co mpared A I >CCWTl'1I1, constant-
to GMAW. Ty pica lly, a DC current . voltu ge welding 1/1(/ -
co nsta nt-v oltage we lding machine is clti nc is tYl'icall.v
II ,H '" f o r FCAW-S
used for both FCAW-S and FCAW-G. and FCAW-G.
See Figure 22-4.
A co nstant-voltage we ld ing ma -
c hi ne can ma intain a co nstant arc
lengt h, delivering more current to the
wor k to melt the elec trode faster and
mo re co nsistently than othe r we lding
mach ines. When using AC current, a
c ons tant-c urrent weldin g machi ne is
commonly used.
Weld requirem ent s dete rmine the
type of welding machine selected for a
particular application. The welding ma-
chine must be able to handle the largest
size and type electrode required for the
Fi gu re 22<t Fume extrac tors are commonly installed application. Large-diameter flux cored
within (I permanent vent ilation .\)'.\'1(' 11I in a sho/,_ electrodes can require up to 650 A.
Flux Cored Arc Weld il1M (FCAW) €l' 241
Figure 22-4. The welding machine
used f or fl ux cored arc welding is
tYf)icafly a cons tant-voltage wetd -
ing machine, similar to that used
[ar GM;\\¥.
The welding gun se-
lected is determined
by the type of FCAW
process used, and the
highest current re-
quired for welding.
The flux in a flux
cored electrode in-
cludes ionizers to
s tabiliz e the ar e,
deoxidizers to purge
the deposits of gas
and slag, and other
metals to produc e
strong, ductile, and
tough weld deposits.
242 ~ WeldinK Skills
Mill er Elec tric Manufaclurin8 Comp any
Welding Gun
The welding gun selected is determined
by the FCA W process (FCAW-S or
FCAW-G) being used, and the highest
current required for welding. The weld-
ing gun must be capable of delivering
the electrode, current, and shielding gas,
to the weld area; and circulating cool-
ing water (if required) through the sys-
tem. The types of welding guns avail-
able include pistol grip, air-cooled, and
water-cooled.
Pistol grip welding guns provide for
straighter feeding of large-diameter
electrode wire than other types of weld-
ing guns. Air-cooled welding guns are
used with low current and low duty
cycles . Water-cooled welding guns are
used when welding with high current
or high duty cycles . Generally, weld-
ing applications that require greater
than 600 A require a water-cooled gun
and a water-coolant system to prevent
overheating.
A welding gun used for FCAW-S
requires a metal shield to protect the
welder from heat and spatter from the
weld metal. FCAW-S welding guns do
not have a shielding gas nozzle, allow-
ing greater access to the weld joint. See
Figure 22-5.
Some FCAW welding guns have
fume extractors to remove smoke and/
or toxic fumes caused by the welding
process. Fume extractors increase the
visibility of the weld and reduce air
pollution of the welding environment,
but also add weight and bulk to the
welding gun . Properly set fume ex-
tractors do not remove shielding gas
from the weld area. Shielding gas, if
used, is controlled by the same type
of equipment used for GMAW.
The Lincoln Eleclr;c C""' [Jany
Ftgure 22-5 . An FeA W-S weld ing gun has an in-
suiated no zzl e rip, a metal shield to pro tect the
welder f rom slag and spat/cr. and a trigger 10 start
and stop welding.
Flux Cored Electrodes
Flux cored electrodes are often referred
to as "inside-out" coated electrodes
because the flux material is contained
within the core of the electrode. Most
flux cored electrodes used for FCAW
are classified by the AWS as tubular
wire electrodes. A letter-number com-
bination (such as T-?) at the end of the
AWS classification describes the speci-
fication of flux cored electrodes for
FCAW. See Figure 22-6 .
Tubular, mild s te e l, flux cored
electrodes contain a core of flux ma-
terials that produce a gaseous shield,
deoxidizing agents, and slag . Tubu-
lar electrodes are designed for high
current densities and deposition rates
which , when combined with high duty
cycles , result in sharply increased
production rates. The gaseous shield
prevents contamination of the weld be-
fore solidification and protects the
weld from slag .
 Figure 22-6. Electrodes are etas-
COMMON CARBON STEEL FLUX CORED ELECTRODES
_.
. _.
AWS
' ~.- -
Welding
- - - Single o r
!lifted by a letter lind number com-
hination. which reflects the ideal
" Shielding conditions under which the elec-
Classification Current , MUltil1le Pass
trode should be " sed.
EXXT-l DC EP A,·CO, Multiple
EXXT-2 DCEP A,-CO, Single
EXXT-3 DCEP None Single
EXXT-4 DCEP Non e Multiple
EXXT-5 DCEPOR DCEN A,- CO, Multipl e
EXXT-6 DCEP None Multiple
EXXT-7 DCEN None Multiple
EXXT-8 DCEN None Multiple
EXXT-l 0 DCEN None Sinqle
EXXT-l 1 DCE N None Multiple
EXXT-G - - Multiale
EXXT-GS - - Single
• agreed teteeen purchaser and scppuer

Ionizers in the flux stabilize the arc.
Deoxidizers purge the weld deposit of
gas and slag. Other metals in the flux
help to produce stro ng, duc tile , and
tough weld deposits. As the flux gen-
erates the gas shield, it also produ ces
a slag cover ing that retard s the cool -
ing rate and protect s the weld deposit
from contaminants as it solidifies.
Care must be taken when welding
multiple pass welds to prevent buildup
of deoxidi zin g age nts in the we ld .
Buildup of deoxidizing age nts can re-
sult in lower ductility of the weld.
The e lectrode size and base metal
thickn ess determine weldi ng par am-
eters such as current, wire feed speed,
and shie lding gas flow required . See
Figure 22-7.
FCAW-S requires higher current
level s than othe r weld ing processes.
Proper e lectrode extens io n must be
used throu ghout welding to maintain
the requ ired current. Proper elec trode
ex tensio n allo ws the e lectro de to be
preheated as it passes through the con-
tact tip, melting the flux material and
producing the shielding gas . Proper
e lectrode e xten sion is based on the
specifica tions for a part icul ar appli ca-
tion. If imp roper electro de ex tensio n
is used , the flux will not be properl y
preheated and will not melt as it reaches
the arc. Improper elec trode extension
can also Icad ,to porosity in the weld.
, ,
A flux cored electrode can be used
with or without CO, as a shielding gas,
with DCEP or DCEN, and for single
or multiple pass welding in either flat
or horizont al positi on , de pending on
the type of electrode used. Alth ough When weld ing 111/11-
most FCAW is performed using DCEP, tiple pass welds. can'
some electrode s may be designed spe- must he taken to pre-
\' l'111 buildup ofdeox i-
cifically for use with DCEN .
dizing agents ill the
Carbon dioxide is used as a shield- weld. Bu ildu p of
ing gas for FCAW, and many electrodes deoxidizin g agen ts
elm result ;11 lower
are manufactured specifically for use
ductility ofthe weld.
with CO" If an argon shield ing gas
mixture is specified, the electrode used
must be compatible, If an electrode not
specifica lly designed for use with a
shielding gas mixture is used, deoxi-
dizers could remain in weld deposit ,
producin g an unacc ept ab le weld .
FCAW can be used to fabricate products in oil positions.

I Flux Cored A rc Weldil1K (FCA W) @o 243

 Are Wire $Ili!;ilplng
~lliIge, ~, ;I;Illltt':; , SSl!sFlo
Flux co red % 300 - 35 0 24 - 26 100 - 12 0 35 - 40 2 5 -30 1 % t0 1%
arc weld ing 3A 6 350 - 400 24 - 28 120 -1 50 35 - 40 25 -35 1 % to 1 %
of steel V. 350 - 400 24 -28 120-1 50 35 - 40 20 -30 1 % t0 1Y2
usin g 3/3 2" % 475 - 500 28 - 30 180 - 210 35 - 40 15 -20 1 % t0 1112
dia mete r elec trode \I, 25 - 28 150 - 170 35 - 40 18 - 20 2-3 % to 1Y2
400 - 4 50
(flat and hori zontal 2 -3
% 400 - 45 0 25 - 28 150 -1 70 35 - 40 14 - 18 %to 1V2
posit ion s )
% 400 - 450 25 - 28 150 - 170 35 - 40 14 - 18 5 -6 % t0 1%
Electrode Size * I , ,
Fililt Position
_~ ili_
, ,
3
: Horizontal Position 3
, ,
, Vertical Position 3
(currentrt (vo ltag e)~ . ~l5:!l!'l!"1!1~" JY2tf,!g~~ l'iJlrreril)4 (voltage)§
.045 150 - 225 22 - 27 150 - 22 5 22 - 26 125- 200 22 - 25
V16 175 - 300 24 - 29 17 5 - 275 25 - 28 150 - 200 24 -27
.068 17 5 - 32 5 24 - 26 175 - 325 24 - 26 - -
o/M 200 40 0 25 30 2 00 375 26 30 17 5 225 25 29
.072 22 5 350 23 25 175 3 15 22 24 17 5 225 23 25
11" 300 500 25 32 300 45 0 25- 30
'1M 400 - 525 26 - 33 - - -
% 450 - 650 28 - 34 - - - -
'In m
t in amps
t in ipm
§ lor FCAW-G. in cubic feet per hour (cfh)
1 lor groove and f illet welds . Material thickness also indicates Iillet si ze . Use V g roove tor W' and thicker
doubre-v for '1:/' and thicker
2 weld ing gra de CO 2
3 appl ies 10 groove, bead. o r fillet welds in posit ion s how n
4 cur re nt ra nge ca n be expanded. Higher currents can be us ed . especially w ith automat ic trav el
5 voltag e ra nge ca n be expanded. It will incre ase whe n hig he r electrode-to-work dista nc e is used

Figure 22-7 . Flux cored arc welding conditions must be properly main tained; and are determined by the electrode size and the materia l thickness.

Wire Feeder wire feeders typically hav e two drive

A CAUTION
Elec trodes se lec ted for
FCAW must be co mpa t ible
with the shie lding gas used .
Flux cored electrodes
are typically designed
to he used with CO2
and are intended for
hif.{h current densities.
The wire feeder used with FCAW is de, roll s that grasp the electrode and push
tennined by the wire feed speed and the it through the welding gun. Wh en a
size of the electrode. The wire feeder large-diameter electrode is required , a
pro vide s a constant. pre set feed speed four-drive-roll wire feeder is commonly
into the welding arc. As with GMAW. used . A four-drive-roll wire feeder pro'
the wire feed speed determines the weld, vide s smooth feedi ng of the electrode
ing current that a constant-voltage weld, by providing a straightening effect.
in g machine suppli es, Increasin g or
Shielding Gas
decreasing the wire feed speed on the
wire feeder changes the welding current. Carbon dioxid e is commonly used as a
For some applications , a con stan t, shielding gas because it yields deep pen,
current welding machin e may be used etration, has good impact properties, and
with a voltage-sen sing wire feeder that produces less smoke and fume s Ihan
varies the wire feed speed depending other gases. CO 2 is also one of the least
upon th e ar c length between the expen sive shield ing ga ses available,
unmelted electrod e and the base metal. makin g it a cos t-e ffec tive ga s for
A pu sh ty pe wire feeder is most FCAW,G . Required gas flo w rates
commonly used because of the rigid, vary dep ending on Ihe electrode type,
ity of the flu x cored electro de. The electrode exten sion , joint de si gn, air
wire feede r dri ve roll s used for flux movement around the weld, etc. Gas now
core d eleclrodes greater than '116" in rates can range from 35 cfh to 45 efb ,
diam eter are knurled to prevent slip- Shielding gas cy linders , a regul a,
page when resistance from long or bent tor and gas flowmeter, and welding
welding cables occurs. cabl e s to deliver the sh ie ld ing gas
Wire feeder s may be equipped with (and coolant if required) ar e used to
two or four drive rolls, Constant-speed deliver the shielding gas to the weld

244 €l' Welding Skills

area. A water-coolant system may be
used whe n we lding at cu rre nt lev els
above 500 A to pre vent high tempera-
tures from developin g durin g welding.
The flowmeter should be regu larly
inspected to prevent ic ing up at hig h
now rates. High volum e regulators or
heater-equipped regu lators help pre-
vent icing up as wel l. Ici ng up of the
regulator ca n allow moisture to ent er
the weld area and cause poro sity.
G as mi xture s s uc h as a n argo n-
ca rbon dioxide (Ar-CO,) mixture may
be used for FCAW. A common mixture
is 75 % Ar and 25% CO, . An Ar-CO ,
mixture may be used for out-of-position
we ldin g and when high tensi le and
yield strengths are required. An Ar-CO,
mixture provides better arc character-
istic s for out-of-position welding.
When welding on stainless steel us-
ing FCAW, a 98% Ar/2% a, shielding
gas mixture may be used. Th e ex te r-
nall y supplied shielding gas mixture
works with ga s prod uced by the nu x
cored electrode to shield the arc.
Argon and other gases are odorless.
Odorle ss gases may go undetected and
di splace oxygen in enclosed spaces .
Always check for leaks prior to use and
use proper ve nti lati o n w he n usin g
shielding gases.
FCAW APPLICATIONS
FCA W co mbines the produ cti on e f-
fici enc y of GMAW and the pen et ra-
tion and depositi on rate s of SM AW.
In additi on, FCAW is useful w he n
shielding gas is unav ailabl e. Th e most
c om mo n application of FCAW is
struc tura l fabrication . High deposition
rates achieved in a single pass mak e
FCAW popular in the railroad, ship-
building, and aut om oti ve indu stri es. \VIWflstraight CO , is
"o f used as a s!lieid-
FCAW can be used in all position s with ;118 gasfor FCAlV, Cl
th e prop er e lect rode a nd require d com mo" gas mixture
shielding gas. FCAW can be used to is 75% Ar125CJc. COy
weld carbon steels , low -alloy stee ls,
various stainless stee ls, and some cast
irons.

I . Self-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-S) is an FCAW variation in whieh shielding
gas is provided exclusively by the flu x within the electrode .
2 . Gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G) is an FCAW variation in which the shield-
ing is obtain ed from both the CO, gas flo wing from the gas no zzle and from material
cont ained within the flux core of the electrode.
3 . FCAW produces a qua lity weld at lower cost with less effort than SMAW, and is mor e
tlexibl e than SAW.
4 . A DC c urr ent, co nstant-voltage we ld ing machine is typi ca lly use d fo r FC AW-S and
FCA W-G.
5 . T he we lding gun selected is det ermined by the type of FCA W process use d. and the
highest current required for weldin g.
6 . Th e flu x in a flu x co red elec trode includes ionizers to stabilize the arc, deoxidi zers to
purge the deposits of gas and slag, and other metals to produce high strength, duct ility,
and toughness in weld deposits.
7 . Ca re must be taken to prevent buildup of deoxidizin g agent s in the weld. Buildu p of
deoxidi zing agents can result in lower ductil ity of the weld.
8 . Flux cored e lec trodes are typ ically designed to be used with CO, and are intended for
high curre nt de nsities.
9. When straight CO, is not used as a shieldi ng gas for FCAW, a common gas mixture is
75% Ar/25% CO" ~

Flux Cored A rc We/dil1 K (FCA W) ~ 245

'. Exercises .
Depositing Beads on Mild
Steel in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••••••
exercjse
••

I. Obtain a 3/d', E70T-I flux cored electrode.

2. Feed the electrode through the wire feeder to the welding gun and set the electrode
extension between 1" and llf2".
3. Set the welding machine output for DeEP.
4. Set the shielding gas (carbon dioxide) at 40 cfh,
5. Set the wire feed control so that the ammeter reads between 390 A and 410 A. To obtain
the correct reading, have another person observe the current while welding is being
performed.
6. Set the voltage to 26 V to 28 V using the same procedure as in step 5.
7. Obtain a piece of mild steel Vz" to I" thick, 4" wide, and 6" long.
8. Position the workpiece in flat position.
9. Position the welding gun at a 90° work angle and a 200 to 30° drag angle.
10. Maintain a bead that is approximately s;." wide and l/S" to II," high .
II . Deposit a series of straight, consistent beads approximately "Is" apart.

END VIEW FRONT VIEW

(WORK ANGLE) (DRAG ANGLE)

246 § Weldin!! Skills

Welding a Multiple-Pass Lap Joint
on Mild Steel in Flat Position
•••••••••••••••••
exerCise
•.

I. Complete equipment setup and adj ustment as in Exercise I.

2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel %" to I" thick, 2" wide, and 6" long.
3. Form a lap joint and tack together.
4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in flat position.
5. Position the welding gun at a 45° work angle and a 20° drag angle. Deposit the first pass
on both sides of the lap joint.
6. Use a weaving motion and depo sit the second pass on both sides of the lap jo int. Pause
at the toes of the weld to prevent undercutting.
7. Depo sit the third pass on both sides of the joint using the same procedure as for the
second pas s.

45 '

/"
i ! 1------,--------
"· · 1
END VIEW FRONT VIEW
(WORK ANGLE) (DRAG ANGLE)

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) 0 247

 Welding a Multiple-Pass T-Joint
in Horizontal Position
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
exerCise.
•
I. Complete equipment setup and adjustment as in Exercise I.
2. Obtain two pieces of mild steel %" to I" thick, 2" wide, and 6" long.
3. Form a T-joint with the workpieces at a 90 0 angle and tack together.
4. Position the workpiece so the weld joint is in horizontal position.
5. Position the welding gun at a 45° work angle and a 20° drag angle and deposit the first pass
on both sides of the T-joint.
6. Position the welding gun one electrode diameter below the bottom toe of the root bead and
deposit the second pass on both sides of the T-joint using a 50 0 to 60° work angle and a 20°
drag angle.
7. Deposit the third pass on both sides of the T-joint using a 30° to 40° work angle and a 20°
drag angle.

\
30T040'

\
Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3
ENDVIEW
(WORK ANGLE)

I. What is the basic difference between FCAW and GMAW?

2. What type of welding machine is most commonly used for FCAW?
3. How does flux protect the weld metal from contaminants?
4. Why is the push-type wire feeder used for FCAW?
5. What equipment is required for the FCAW-S process?
6. Why must buildup be prevented when using flux cored electrodes?
7. What equipment is required for the FCAW-G process?
8. Why is CO 2 preferred as a shielding gas for FCAW-G?
9. How are electrodes selected for FCAW-G?

248 ~ Welding Skills

 Other Welding Processes

Brazing and soldering differ fro m welding in that jo ining occu rs when fi ller metal is added at tempera-
tures below the melting point of the metals j oined. Soldering also uses nonf errous fi ller metals with
melting tempera tures below 840°F (450°C).

Braze welding is slightly different f rom conventional brazing. In braze welding. fill er metal is deposited
in standard weld joints. Capillary action is not afactor in distribution of the fill er metal. Braze we/ding
is adaptable for joining or repairing metals such as cast iron, malleable iron. copper; and brass. Braze
welding can also be used to join dissimilar metals such as cast iron and steel.

BRAZING A charac te ristic of brazing is that

Bra zing (B ) is a group of joining pro-
cesse s that produce a coalescence of
metals using nonferrous filler metals that
have a meltin g point below that of the
base metal. Filler metals suitable for braz-
ing are those that begin to melt, or cbange
to a liquid state, above 840°F (450 °C).
During brazing, the jo ined metals remain
in a solid state. Filler metal is distributed
between the closely lilted surfaces of the
joint by capillary action. Capillary ac-
tion is the force that distributes liquid filler
metal throu gh surface tension betwee n
the faying surfaces of the joint. The faying
.surface is the point of contact betwee n
two members to be joi ned.
Most metal s can be brazed, includ-
ing co pper and cop per alloys , stainless
stee ls. magn esiu m a lloys, alumi n um
alloys. carbon and low-alloy steels. cast
irons, titanium and titanium alloys. and
zirco nium and zirconium alloys. Braz-
ing is also used for j oining di ssimilar
met als. One excepti on is that copper
and copper alloys cannot be brazed di-
rectly to aluminum or aluminum alloys.
Most brazed jo ints have a relati vely
high ten sile strength. but they do not
possess the full strength properties pro-
du ced by other welding techniques.
the properties of the HAZ are not im-
pa ired during brazing because lower
bonding temperatures are used than in
welding. For so und bra zed joints the
followin g requirements must be met :
• Use proper joint design to allow cap-
illary action of the filler metal and
adequate surface area.
• Use proper surface preparation to
ens ure wetting of sur faces by the
filler metal.
• Use co rrec t fluxes for a co ntro lled
atm osphere and to pre vent surface
ox ida tio n.
• Use co rrect fille r met al, whic h
should meet AWS standards when
possibl e.
• Use prop er heat ing equipment to
provide spec ified brazi ng tempera-
ture and heat distribution .
Addit ion all y, for br azin g, the fol -
lowin g criteria arc necessary:
• Parts are joined without melting of
the base metal.
• Fill er me tal be gin s to melt abo ve
840 °F (45 0°C) .
• Filler metal wets the base metal and
is drawn into. or held in. the joint
by capillary act ion.

249
 Brazing filler metal must be molten
before it flows into a joint. The melting
temperature of filler metals varies de-
pending on the type of filler metal.
Filler metal must have a liquidus tem-
perature lower than the solidus tempera-
ture of the base metal. Liquidus
temperature is the temperature at which
a metal is completely molten. Solidus
temperature is the highest temperature
that a metal can reach and remain in a
solid state. The lowest effective braz-
Use the lowest effective
brazing temperatures ing temperatures possible should be
to minimize grain used to minimize the effects of heat on
growth, warpage, ami
the base metal. Excess heat on the base
hardness reduction.
metal can cause grain growth, warpage,
and hardness reduction.
Joint Design
Joint design/or bra z- Joint design is based on adhesive quali-
ing is ba sed on the
ties of the filler metal. Two joints used
adh esiv e qualities of
thefiller metal and on for brazing are the lap joint and butt
joint clearance. joint. A lap joint is commonly used be-
cause it offers a large surface area for
Ftgure 23-1. Lap joints and butt
joints are used for brazing. Edges
of the joint may be scarfed to at -
: .. .-. . •
rain higher joint strength.
LAP
Low Stress t f
BUTT
250 ~ Welding Skills
the greatest strength. For maximum
efficiency, the overlap should equal or
exceed three times the thickness of the
thinnest member. The main drawback
of a lap joint is that metal thickness at
the joint is increased. For joint design
purposes, T-joints and comer joints are
treated as butt joints.
A butt joint does not provide the
same strength as a lap joint because
its cross-sectional area is equal only
to the cross-sectional area of the thin-
nest member. Higher strengths can be
achieved by scarfing the edges; how-
ever, greater care is required to pre-
pare the joint and keep the pieces
aligned. The strength of a butt joint
can be improved using a sleeve. See
Figure 23-1.
Joint design is also based on joint
clearance. Joint clearance has a major
effect on the mechanical properties of
a brazed joint. Surfaces that fit too
tightly together hinder the flow of
molten filler metal.
t d t
SCARFED EDGE
SLEEVE
High Stress
 Surfaces that fit too loosely at the
joint prevent the full effects of capil-
lary action , lea ving voids and poor
distribution of filler metal. Adeq uate
joint clearance is in the range between
.001" and .010". Recommended joint
clearances vary with the type of filler
metal used. See Figure 23-2.
When welding dissimilar metals,
particular attention must be paid to joint
design, as all metals ha ve different
expansion rates . Vary ing expansion
rates must be considered if parts are to
be clamped , fitted to gether, or re-
strained in a jig.
Surface Preparation
Clean, oxide-free surfaces are neces-
sary to make sound brazed join ts. Uni-
form capillary action is only possi ble
when surfaces are co mpletely free of
foreign substances such as dirt, oil,
grease, and oxide. Foreign substances
can be removed by immersing a part
in a commercial-cleaning solvent or
salt bath; by pickling in acid (sulfuric,
nitric, or hydrochloric); or by using a
vapor-degreasing unit. Surface oxide
can be eliminated by sandi ng, grind-
ing, filing, machining, blast cleaning ,
BA1Si
BCuP
BAg
BAu
BCu
BCuZn
BMg
BNi
• in in.
t joint clearanc e on the radius when rings, plugs , or tubular members are used. Use
recommended clearance on the diameter to preven t excessive clearance when
all the clearance is on one side. Exces sive clea rance produ ces voids espec ially
in gas phase bra zing
; for maximum strength , use a press fit of .001 in .lin . of diameter
or wire brushing. The method used de-
pends on the contaminants, the joint
design, and type of metal to be brazed.
When cleaning the surface, prevent
wearing the faying surfaces too smooth.
If the faying surfaces are too smooth,
filler metal will not be ab le to effec-
tively wet the joint. Smooth sur faces
can be roughened by rubbing with a
3D-grit (coarse) or 40-grit emery cloth.
Brazing shou ld be performed as soon
as the metal is cleaned to prevent con-
taminat ion from atmos pheric exposure
or handling.
Flux and Stopoffs
Metal surfaces are easily contaminated
from the atmosp here after they are
cleaned. Some metals are more suscep-
tible to contamination than others. Any Surfaces to be
chemical reac tion resulting from air brazed m ust he
exposure is accelerated as the tem- completely free of
oil. grease, dirt,
perature is ra ised during the bra zing and oxide.
process; therefore, a flux is needed to
disso lve and remove oxides that may
for m during brazing . Flux may con -
tain bo ric ac id, borates, fluorides,
fluoroborates, chlorides, and/or wetting
agent s. The purpose of a flux is to
pre vent or in hibit the formation of
Fig ure 23~2. An ac cu rate join t
cl earan ce is necessary for opti -
mum strength of brazed joints.
a
.002 - .008 For la len th less than %"
.008- .010 For lap len th reater than Y4"
.001 - .005 No flux and flux brazing
.002 - .005 Flux brazin
.001 - .0021 Gas phase (atmos phere) braz ing
.002 - .005 Flux brazing
.000 - .0021 Gas phase (atmosphere) braz ing
.000 - .0021 Gas phase (atmosphere) braz ing
.002 - .005 Flux brazing
.004- .010 Flux braz ing
.002 - .005 Flux or gas phase (atmosphere) brazing
.000 - .002 Free flowin g or gas phase (atmosphere) brazing
Bra zing, Bra ze Welding, & Soldering ~ 251
 ox ide during the brazing process. Flu x
Alway....use an appro-
is not inte nde d to rem ove co nta mina -
prime filler metal
and flux that is rec- tio n th at is already pre sent on metal,
ommended for the such as din , grease, and oil. See Figure
metal to he bra-rd.
23-3. A stopoffis a material used to out-
line areas tha t are not to be br a zed .
Stopoffs co nsist of various compounds
made into slurries that effectively pre-
ve nt the ingress of filler metal.
Th e flu x used for bra zin g must
readily promote th e fluidity of the
fille r metal. Equally important is its
surface te nsion, since thi s affects the
wettabilit y of the base metal a nd its
flow in the joint. Fi na lly, a flux mu st
last lon g e no ug h to cou nterac t a ny
react ive e ffe c ts de v elo ped d uring
br a zing. Some bra zing filler me tal s
a re preeoated with a flu x.
Flux is a vaila ble in powd er, paste ,
o r liquid fo rm . Flu xe s mu st be se -
lect ed to su it a parti cu lar metal. Paste
flu x a nd powder flux a re co m mo nly
used fo r bra zi ng. Past e fl u x can be
a pp lied to a joi nt before b razing and
pro vides good adherence. Powder flux
is sprinkled on the joint or applied to
the heat ed end of th e filler me tal by
d ipping the fi lle r me tal into the flux
co nta ine r. Se e Figure 23-4 . A liquid
flu x is use d mostl y fo r tor ch brazing.
The fuel gas is passed throu gh the liq-
uid f1o x, whi ch carries the flu x along
and dep osit s it wherever the flam e is
appli ed .
Con trolled A tmos p he re, A contro lled
atmo sphe re may also be used to pre-
ve nt the for ma tio n of o xides dur in g
bra zing. In a controlled atmos phere,
a gas is co nt inuo usly su pp lie d to a
fu rn ace a nd c irc u lat ed a t s lig h t ly
higher than atmospheric pressures. Th e
ga s use d ma y consi st of hi gh -purity
h yd ro g en , c a r b o n di o xide , c a r b o n
mon oxid e, nitrogen , argo n, ammo nia,
or so me form of co rnbus ted fue l gas.

BRAZING FLUX
-
AWS Base Metals Filler Metals!
Brazing Flux ' Useful Range* Flux Agent Available as:

All brazeable Chlorides

1 BAtSi 700 -1 190 Powder
aluminum alloys Fluorid es
All brazeable Chloride s Powder
2 magnesiu m alloys BMg 900 - 1200
Fluorides
Boric Acid
All except those Powder
Borates
3A listed under 1, 2, BCuP, BAg 1050 -1600 Paste
Fluorides
and 4 Liquid
Fluoroborates
Wetting Agent
All except those BCu, BCup, Boric Acid Powder
3B listed under 1, 2, BAg, BAu, 1350 - 2100 Berates Paste
and 4 RBCuZn , BNi Fluorid es Liquid
Fluoroborates
Aluminum bronze, Wetting Agent
aluminum brass and BAg (ail)
Chlorides Powder
iron or nickel base BCuP (Copper
4 1050 - 1600 Fluorides Paste
alloys containing based ailoys
minor amounts of Borates
only)
AI andlor Ti Wetting Agent
Borax
All except those Same as 3B (ex- Powder
Boric Acid
5 listed under 1, 2, eluding BAg-1 1400 - 2200 Paste
Borates
and 4 through- 7) Liqu id
Wetting Agent
• flux type No.
I recommended
" F
Flgure 23-3 . Flux prevents the fo rmation of oxide o r other undesirable substance s duri ng brazing. hut does not remove contamination 111m is
al ready present 01 1 tlu- me tal.

252 ~ Weld ing Skills


Ffuure 23..... 7( J apply II po wder fl ux. heat the fi ller
metal and dil1 it ;1110 tile flux. f1ud:iIlK sure the filler
metal is tlwwlIglJJy coated.
Filler Metals (Brazes)
Some filler metal s for br azing are
maoufactured with a flux coatin g .
Brazing filler metal s are available in
wire, rod, strip , and powder form s.
Filler metals are designed to braze dif-
ferent metal s. The AWS specifies that
brazing filler metal s have the follo w-
ing characteristics:
• be able to we t the base metal and
fo rm a stro ng bond bet ween the
base metal and filler metal
• have a melting temperature th at
permit s ad equ at e di stribution by
capillary acti on
• have suffic ie nt homogeneity and
stability to minimi ze separation by
Iiquation (se pa ratio n of the so lid
and liquid porti on) and not be ex-
cessive ly volatile
• be capable of produ cing a brazed
j oint to meet service requirement s
s uch as strength and corros ion re-
sis tance
Filler metal s may be designated by
commercial name s or AWS classifica-
tion symbols. The AWS class ification
consists of the letter B, which identifies
it as bra zing filler metal , fo llowed by
the chemical symbols of the metallic
e lements included in the filler metal.
See Figure 23 -5. Di git s foll owin g a
dash are shown after the chemical sym-
bols to designate specific filler metals
within the gro up.
Filler Metal Application. Brazing filler
metal and flux can be applied manually
after the work is heated, or pre-plac ed
in a suitable position before the work is
heated. Rod and wire are generally used
for manual fac e-feedin g. Pre-pl aced
filler metals are usually in the form of
rings, washers, formed wire, shims, and
powder. and are located near the joint
to ensure a uniform flow of filler metal
int o the join ing s urfaces . A lt houg h
pre-pl aced fill er met al s ca n be used
in manual brazing, they are more com -
monly used for production work in fur-
nace, induct ion , or dip brazing.

Figure 23-5. Til t' AWS c! os,I'Uie,l"

BRAZING
- _. FILLER METALS
.. .. .. [iller metals hy the symho! of the
metallic elements film /II"(' illdl/finl
AWS Classification of
Types of Metals to be Brazed ill Ille filler metal.
Brazing Filler Metals
BAISi (aluminurn-silicon) Aluminum , aluminum allovs
BCuP (copper-phosphorus) Coppe r, copper alloys

BAg (silver) Ferrous and nonferrous metals except aluminum

and magnesium
BAu (precious metals) Iron, nickel, and cobalt base metals
BCu (copper) Ferrous and nonferro us metals
BCuln (copper-zinc) Ferrous and nonferro us metals
BNi (nickel) Stainless steels, carbon steels. low-alloy steels.
copper
BMg (magnesium) Magnesium, magne sium alloys

Brazing, Braze Welding, & Soldering €l' 253

 Manual Brazing
When using oxvacety-
tI
.e=
•e:::::::
lene orMAPP:oxygen
gas mixtures, heat
the surfaces with the
outer envelope of the
T he heat required for manua l brazing
met hod s is typica lly applied using a
ga s torc h. T he gas mixture can be
flame a nd 110 1 the in- oxy ac e ty le ne, a ir -ga s, gas-oxyge n,
lier cOil e.
ox yhydrogen, or MAPP-oxygen. The
gas mixture used depend s on the ther-
mal conductivity, type, and thickness of
the metal to be brazed. See Figure 23-6.
Ffg u re 23-6. A gas torch is
commonty used for manual
brazing,
Oxyacety lene or MAPP-oxygen is
generally more ver satile becau se its
he at can be co ntrolled over a wide
temperature range. With either of these
gas mixtures, a slightly reducin g flame
is required . Only the outer enve lope
of the flame a nd not the inn er con e
should be applied to the wor k.
The air-gas torch provides the lowest
heat a nd has greate r applicatio n in
br azin g light -gauge me tals. Air-gas
mixtures may use air at atmo sphe ric
pre ssu re a nd c ity ga s o r an a i r-
ace ty lene mi xture.
A gas-oxygen mixture uses oxygen
and city gas, bott led gas, pro pane , or
buta ne. The gas-ox ygen mixture pro-
duces a high flame temperature and is
effective where higher brazing heat is
req uired.
An oxyhydroge n mixture, due to
the low heat it produ ces, is used for
bra zing alumi num and other non fer-
rous metals. The low temperature pre-
vent, overheating and the hydrogen pro-
vides a clean ing action and shielding
during the braz ing process. For bra z-
i ng a p p lica tio ns on mo st met al s ,
follow the procedure:
254 ~ Welding Skill"
I. Determine the most suitable joint
2.
for the work to be brazed.
Review safety practices per ANSI
Z49 .1, Safety in Welding and Cur-
ting. This incl udes ass essing the
need for perso na l protec tive
equipment, assessing ventilation
requirement s, revi ewing relevant
MSDS s, and assess ing potenti al
hazards such as fires.
3. Remove dirt , grease, oil , and ox-
ides from surfaces to be brazed.
4. Se lect the correct flux and apply
it to both the workp ieces and the
filler metal by brushing, dipping,
spri nkling, or spraying.
5 . Assem ble the workpieces and
keep them in a lig nme nt using
clamps, fixtur es, or ji gs. Do not
apply excessive pressure because
eno ug h c le arance bet we en the
faying surfaces must exist to al-
Iow a free flow of filler me~)
6 . Preh eat the entire wo rk area to
a uni form bra zin g te mpe rat ure
by play in g a torch over the
workpie ce surface.
7 . Once the flux is completely fluid,
touch the filler metal to the joint
Keep applying filler metal until it
fl o ws co mplete ly th rou gh the
joint. Use a slig htly red uc ing
flame and do not apply the inner
cone of the flame di rectly to the
filler metal or the workpiece.
8 . Clea n the brazed jo int to remove
flux residue or debri s.
9. Visually inspect the brazed joint
T he joi nt should be free from
grease, paint, oil, oxide film, and
stopoff. The part should retain di-
mensional conformance and there
should be no visible interruption
to the flow of filler metal. There
should be no cracks or porosity.
Visu al ins pection ca nno t detect
intern al discont inuities. The pro-
cedure specification will indicate
s peci fic non dest ru cti ve pro ce-
dures that must be performed.
 Bra zin g using silver filler metals
can be used for high stress applica-
tion s that may be subjected to system
vibration, and expansion and contrac-
tion that occurs on heating and cool -
ing. See Fig ure 23-7.
Smilh Eq uipm enl
Figure 23-7. When brazing. only the oute r envelope
of the jlame should be applied to the work.
Production Brazing
Although torch brazing can be mecha-
nized for production purposes, high er
production rat es are usually accom-
plished using furnace heating, induction
bra zin g, resist an ce brazin g, or dip-
brazing techniques. Production brazing
methods ens ure accurate heat control
and high -quality bra zed jo ints.
FILLER METAL
MELTS AND FLOWS
FLUX
FILLER
METAL
CONVEYOR
HIGH-FREOUEN CY INDUCTION COIL
With furnac e heating, parts to be
braz ed are positioned on tray s, which
are then placed in a gas, electric, or
oil-tired furnace. Flux is generally used
on the parts , unless the furnace atmo -
sphere performs the function of a fl ux,
or if cleaning of the brazed surfaces is
not possible due to design compl exi- Remove allflux resi-
ties. The correct atmo sphere mu st be due after brazing is
used in a furnac e and is det ermined completed.
by th e type of ba se metal and filler
metal used. See Figure 23-8.
With induction brazing, the work -
piece is placed near an induct ion coil.
As current flows t hr o u gh the coil ,
the resistance of the coi l to the flow
of cu rrent causes in stant heating to
occur. The parts are placed in an AC
current field , but do not becom e part
of the circuit. Induction brazing is
commonly used for high-volume
manufacturing appli cations. Induction
braz ing provides rapid heating ;
however, it is difficult to obtain a
uniform heating rate. See Figure 23-9.
Resistance brazin g is similar to spot
welding where heat is generated by
the passage of low -voltage current
Figure 23-8 . Pre -placed filler
metals are generally used for pro-
d uction brazing in a furnace .
BRAZ ED
JO INT
--~
Figure 23-9. In ind uction bra z-
ing , current flows through an in-
duction coil. Resistance of the coil
to the flow of current creates the
necessary heal.
Brazing, Braze Welding, & Soldering ~ 255
 t hro ug h ca rbo n e lec tro des th at are
cla mped around the work. In resistance
brazing , current flows through the parts
being brazed and the parts become part
o f the e lec trica l c irc uit. Re si stance
brazing is used with pre-pl aced flu x
and for low-volu me produ ct ion appli-
ca tions. Se e Figure 23- 10.
Ftgure 23·10 , ln resistance
brazing, ('urn' llt 1'11.\'.\'(',\' through WATER CARBON
ca rbo" elect rodes cla mped
COOLANT ELECTRODE
aroun d the work.
FILLER
METAL
One dip-brazing method co nsists of
immersin g parts in a bath of molten
br azing metal. Th e brazing metal is
contained in an ex ternally heal ed cru-
ci ble. See Figure 23- 11. Dip -brazing
is limited to small asse m blie s suc h
as wire co nnections or metal strips that
can eas ily be held in fixtures. A sec -
o nd dip-b razing method invo lves the
placement of parts in a molten salt
bath. Th e salt bath is heated eith er by
passin g e lec trica l current throu gh
the bath o r by he at ing t he out s ide
o f th e co nta iner.
Fteure 23-11. In dip-hra t ing ,
parts tire immersed in molten
brazing metal inside til l e.\Jer - BRAZING
SHEET
MOLTEN
BRAZING
nallv heated crucible, METAL
C RUCIBLE ~
• l
o
oa 0 a
HEAT APPLIED
256 ~ welding Skills
Flux Removal
Once brazing is co mpleted, flux residue
must be removed to prevent corros ion
fro m de veloping in the brazed joint.
Flux residue has a g las s-like surface
appearance . Fl ux resi d ue can be re-
moved by washing the part in hot water.
In so me inst an ces , th e joint can be
immersed in cold water befor e it has
completel y co o led from the brazin g
temperature. Th e thermal shoc k of the
co ld wa ter will usu all y crac k off the
fl ux resi d ue. Fo r heav y res id ue, a
chemical dip is so metimes used. Wire
o r fib er bru shing, steam jet cleaning,
o r bl ast c lea ning are a lso effective
means of removing heavy residu es or
of remo ving flu x resid ue fro m lar ge
objects. On some so ft metals such as
aluminum, resid ue mu st be rem oved
mec hanicall y and the n cl ean ed with
fluid to ensu re re mova l of small flux
par ticles that may hav e become em-)
bedded in the surface . "---
BRAZE WELDING
Braze weld ing (B W) is a j ommg pro-
ce ss th at produces a coa le sce nce of
metal s with filler metal s that begin to
melt at te m peratur e s above 840' F
(450°C), below the melting point of the
met als joined, and in which the filler
me tal is not distributed int o the joint
by capillary ac tion.
BRAZED
"",_=5~_(~~~J;:OINT
 The braze welding procedure usu-
ally must be qualified . Eight basic
steps ar e requ ired to perform braze
welding . For braze welding , follow
the pro cedure:
I. Clean the surfaces to be bra zed
thoroughl y with a stiff wire brush.
Remove all scale , dirt , or grea se;
otherwi se the braze will not stick.
If a surface has oil or grease on it,
remove these subst ance s by heat-
ing the area to a bright red to bum
them off.
2. On thick sections, especially when
repairing castings, bevel the edges
to form a 900 single-V. Edges can
be beveled by chipping, mach in-
ing, filing, or grinding.
3. Arrange the work in flat position.
4. Adj ust the torch to a neutral name
then ge ntly heat the surface s of
the weld area. The surfaces should
not be melted , but only heated to
a dull red (tinning temperature).
5. Heat the brazing filler metal and
dip it in the nux . (This step is not
necessary if the filler metal has been
pr ellu xed .) When heating filler
metal, do not apply the inner cone
of the nam e directly to the rod.
6. At the start, concentrate the flame
on the base metal until the base
metal begins to turn red . Mel t a
s mall amount of bra zing filler
metal onto the surface and allow
it to spread along the entire seam.
The flow of this thin film of filler
metal is known as tinning. Unless
the surfaces are tinned properl y,
braze weldin g cannot be carried
out success fully.
If the base metal is too hot, filler
metal bubbles or runs like drops of
water on a warm stove. If the base
metal is not hot enough, filler metal
forms into balls that roll off the base
metal as water would if placed on
a greasy surface. When the ' base
metal is the proper temperature, the
liller metal spreads out evenly.
7. Once the base metal is tinned suf-
ficient ly, deposit the prop er size I'!Z= I Use a qualified pro-
.~ c edu.re for bra ze
beads over the joint. Use a slight . = welding.
circular motion with the torch and
deposit the beads as in regular fu-
sion welding with a fille r metal.
Continually dip the filler metal in
the flux as the weld progresses for-
ward . See Figure 23-12.
Figure 23-12. Use a sligh t ci r-
cular motion with the torch when
brare welding a nd depo sit the
beads using fill er metal.
Clean surfaces thor -
8. If the pieces to be we lded ar e [I]
.~ oughlybeforeupplying
.= filler metal.
groo ved , use sev eral passe s to
fill the groove. On the firs t pass,
e ns ure that the tinning action
takes place along the entire bot-
tom surface of th e groove and
about halfway up on each side. The
number of tinning pa sses to be
made depends on the depth of the
groove. When depositin g several
pas ses, be sure that each pass is
fused into the pre vious one .
When making a braze weld with the
work in vertical position, first build up
I
a slight shelf at the bottom . The shelf Be sun' the surfaces
. ~ are properly tinned
acts as a support for additional filler .= hefore depo sit in g
metal. As the weld is carried upward , heads.
swing the llame from side to side to
ma intai n uniform tinning and to pro-
duce an even bead.
Cost Iron Braze Welding
Braze welding is primarily used to re-
pair brok en cast iron parts. High pre-
heat temperatures are not usuall y
required unless the part is very heavy
or compl ex in geometry. A maximum
preheat of 200 °F (93 °C) is typically
Bra zing, Bra ze Weldinx , & Solde ring ~ 257
A CAUTION
When bra zin g or bra ze
welding, mak e sure thai
the base met al is not
allowed 10 o verheat.
Use a nrutrul f lame
unl ess otherwis e
specified. Use a cir-
cular torch motion.
Do IIO! braze weld a
me tal that wi ll be
subj ected to high
tem perat ures or
high stre sses.
.- COPPER-ZINC
...
-~
- ~--,-
AWS Approximate Chemical Composiliont ' Min Tensile Strength ' Uquidus Temperature
Classification" ~~~~Jmmn~~~~
RBCuZn-A 60
RBCu Zn-C 60
RBCuZn-D 50
see AWS AS.? and A S.8
t in%
Figure 23-13. A copper-zinc filler metal is common ly used [or braze welding .
258 ~ Weldill !! Skills
sufficient. The heat of the name or the
arc is sufficient to bring the surface of
the cast iron to a temperature at which
the fille r metal will bond to the cast
iron. The filler metal ductility compen-
sates for the brittleness of the cast iron,
and the weld and adjacent area of the
base metal arc machinabl e after the
weld is completed. Braze welding bro-
ken cast iron is acceptable if a color
difference between the filler metal and
the cast iron is not object ionable.
Filler Metal and Flux
Braze welding filler metals are usually
brasses, with an approximate compo-
sition of 60% coppe r and 40 % zinc ,
and whic h produce adequate ten sile
strength and ductility. In addition, filler
metal contains small quantities of tin,
iron , man gan ese, aluminum, lead ,
nickel , chromium, and silicon. These
elem ent s help deoxidi ze the weld
metal, decrease the tendency to fume,
and increase the free-tlowin g action of
molten metal. See Figure 23- 13.
A clean metal surface is essential
for braze weld ing. For the filler metal
to provide a stro ng bond , it should
!l ow smoothly and even ly o ver the
e ntire we ld area . Adhe sion of the
molten filler metal to the base metal
ta kes place o nly if th e s urface is
chemic ally clean . Even aft er a metal
surface has been thoroughly cle aned
by mechanical mean s, certain oxides
may st ill be pre sent. Th ese oxides
can only be compensated for by us-
ing the correct flux .
Preflu xed brazin g fi ller metal
eliminat es the ne ed to a pp ly flux
whil e brazin g. The flux may a lso be
FILLER
. . , .METAL FOR BRAZE WELDING
~
39 1 40
38 1 1 50
40 10 60
applied by dipping the heated filler
metal into the powdered nu x. The tlux
adheres to th e sur face of the fi lle r
me tal and ca n the n be transfe rred to
the weld. Another method of apply-
ing tlux is to dissolve the tlux in boil-
ing water and bru sh it on the filler
metal before welding is started.
Braze Welding Disadvantages
On e precaution that must be consid-
ered in braze welding is not to weld a
metal that will be subjected to high tem-
peratures in service. Filler metal loses
its strength when exposed to high tem-
peratures. Also, braze weldi ng should
not be used on stee l part s that must
with stand unusually high stresses.
SOLDERING
Soldering (S) is a group of joining pro-
cesses that produce a co alescence of )
metal and nonferrous filler metal that
has a melting poi nt below that of the
base metal. Filler metals su itable for
soldering are those that are completely
molten below 840°F (450°C). In sol-
derin g, the joined metals remain in a
so lid state and filler metal is distrib-
uted between the closely filled surfaces
of the joi nt by capillary action.
In both brazing and soldering, wet-
ting and ca pillary action occur; how-
ever, in soldering, a small amount of
all oyin g oc curs betw een th e ba se
metal and the filler metal (solder). A
major benefit of soldering is that low
temperature s are involv ed , with a
minimum effect on base metal prop-
erties . Many low-temperature heatin g
275 1650 900
344 1630 890
413 1714 935
methods can be used in soldering
with high reliability. Soldering is the
primary method of making joints in
electrical and electronic circuits . It is
also commonly used in the sheet metal
and plumbing industries. Precautions
that must be followed for soldering
include the following:
• Parts to be soldered must have the
proper fit-up so that solder can
travel by capillary action along the
joint. Solder will cease to flow
where gaps occur in the workpiece.
• Parts to be soldered must be clean
because solder will not stick to dirt,
oil , or oxide-coatings on the sur-
face. Dirt and grease can be re-
moved with a cleaning solvent.
Steel wool or an abrasive cloth is
used to eliminate the oxide. Appli-
cation of a flux completes the
cleaning process and keeps the
metal free from oxide during heat-
ing and soldering.
• Parts must be held together during
soldering so there is no movement.
Movement during heating causes
the pieces to be misaligned . The
slightest disturbance to solder
causes it to solidify without form-
ing an optimum bond, resulting in
a weak joint.
• Parts to be soldered must have a
suitable joint design to withstand
the necessary load imposed on the
joint. A lap joint is a satisfactory
joint for most purposes.
• Parts must be washed in hot water
after soldering to eliminate the cor-
rosive action of the flux .
Filler Metals (Solders)
Soldering uses filler metals composed
of tin, lead , antimony, and sometimes
silver, and produces joints with rela-
tively low tensile strength. Most met-
als such as steel, galvanized sheet steel,
tin plate, stainless steel, copper, brass,
and bronze can be joined with a soft
solder. Tin-lead alloy solders have a
melting range from about 370°F
(lSSOC), for a mixture of 70% tin and rIC:::: I Parts fa be soldered
.~ must be clean and
30% lead, to about 590°F (3 10°C) for .= theirsurfacesshould
a 5% tin and 95% lead mixture. See fit closely together:
Figure 23-14.
The most common general-purpose
solder is known as half-and-half or SO/SO
solder. It contains 50% lead and 50%
tin and melts at approximately 471°F
(244°C). Alloys with a low tin content
have higher melting points and do not
flow as readily as high-tin alloys. Sol-
ders with a high tin content have better
wetting properties and produce less
cracking. Solders are available as bar,
cake, solid wire, flux-core wire, ribbon,
or paste. Flux-core wire solder has an
acid or rosin flux in the center of the
wire. With SO/SO solders, no additional
flux is needed.
Special solders are available for Do not allow the
welding aluminum and where special parts to move dur-
characteristics are required of the ing soldering while
the solder is molten.
soldered joint. Tin-zinc solders are in-
tended primarily for joining aluminum.
A tin-antimony solder is designed to
solder food-handling vessels where lead
contamination must be prevented .
Lead-silver solders are used for ap -
plications in which strength at elevated
temperatures is required.
Wash the soldered
work in hot water
Flux to eliminate the cor-
rosive action of the
Just as in brazing, a flux is required
flux.
for most soldering applications. The
flux prevents the formation of oxides
during soldering and increases the
wetting action so the solder can flow
more freely. General-purpose fluxes
can be used on most metals .
Fluxes are classified as corrosive
or noncorrosive . Rosin is the most
common noncorrosive flux . Zinc
chloride is the most frequently used
corrosive flux. Although the corrosive
A WARNING I
types are most effective, they must be
washed away from the metal after sol- When diluting acid,
always add the acid to the
dering . They should never be used for water. Pouring water into
electrical or electronics work . Zinc the acid may result in a
violent ami dangerous
chloride is prepared by adding small action .
pieces of zinc to muriatic (commercial
Brazing, Braze Welding, & Soldering @o 259
 SOLDER COMPOSITIONS AND MELTING TEMPERATURES
- -- - -- - - -- -
-.
Composition- Melting Ranget
-
Alloy Solidus Liquidus
Grade Sn Pb Sb Ag of of
°C °C
8 11961 96.2 .10 .12 3.4 - 3.8 430 22 1 430 221
8 11951 95.2 .10 .12 4.4 4.8 430 22 1 473 245
8 11941 94.2 .10 .12 5.4 - 5 .8 430 221 536 280
8 1170 69.5 - 71.5 28.5 -30.5 .50 .015 361 183 377 193
81163 62.5 - 63.5 36.5 .50 .015 36 1 183 36 1 183
81162 61.5 - 62.5 34.5 .50 1.75 - 2 .25 354 179 372 189
81160 59.5 61.5 39.0 .50 .015 361 183 374 190
81150 49.5 - 51.5 49.0 .50 .015 361 183 42 1 216
81145 44.5 - 46.5 54 .0 .50 .015 36 1 183 441 227
81140-A 39.5 - 41.5 59 .0 .50 .0 15 36 1 183 460 238
81140-8 39.5 - 41.5 59.5 .50 .015 365 185 448 231
8 1135-A 34.5 - 36.5 64.0 1.8 - 2 .4 .015 361 183 447 247
8 1135-8 34.5 - 36.5 62.7 50 .015 365 185 470 243
81130-A 29.5 - 31.5 69 .0 1.6 - 2.0 .015 36 1 183 491 255
8 1130-8 29 .5 - 3 1.5 67.9 .50 .015 365 185 482 25 0
81125-A 24.5 26.5 74.0 1.1 1.5 .0 15 361 183 511 266
81125-8 24 .5 -26.5 74.2 .50 .0 15 365 185 504 263
81120-A 19.5 - 21.5 79.0 .8 -1 .2 .015 361 183 531 277
8 1120-8 19.5 - 21.5 78.5 .50 .015 363 164 517 270
8 11 15 14.5 -1 6.5 64 .50 .015 437 225 554 290
8 11 1O-A 9.0 - 11.0 89 .5 .20 .015 514 268 576 302
8 11 10-8 9.0 11.0 87 .8 .50 1.7 2 .4 514 268 570 299
8 115 4.5 - 5.5 94.5 .50 .015 586 308 594 312
8112 1.5 - 2 .5 97.5 4.5 - 5.5 .015 601 316 611 322
8 b51 94.0 mill .20 .40 .015 450 233 464 240
Ag l .5 .75 - 1.25 97.1 .40 1.3 - 1.7 588 309 588 309
Ag2.5 .25 96 .85 .40 2.3 2 .7 580 304 580 304
Ag5.5 .25 93.85 .40 5.0- 6.0 580 304 716 380
• limits are % max . unless shown as a range or stated OthelWise
t temperatures given are approx, mate and for inlormallOfl only
1 cootaes Jess than.2% lead (Pb)

Figure 23-1-1. Solder.~ an' ('olll/JO!lC'd principally of till , lead, antimonv. tllltl silve r.

hydroch loric) acid unt il the zinc no Heating Devices

It; WARNING )
When zinc is dissolved in
muriatic acid. harmful
chlori ne fumes arc given
off. Preparation must
always be carried our in
area s with adequ ate
ve ntilation. Uncut Of raw
acid (straight) is preferr ed
fur galvanized steel . hUI CUI
ucid (dil uted) may be used
and is safer 10 handle.
longer di ssol ves. The cut , or killed ,
acid is then diluted with an equal
quantity of water.
Joint Design and Clearance
T he stre ngth of a soldered joint de-
pend s on the design of the joint and
the joint clearance . As with braz ing ,
lap joints are the most common design,
with sufficient overlap to provide the
required strength. Proper joint c lear-
ance is required for maximum strength.
If greater strength is needed. some type
of mech anical j oint sho uld be mad e
before soldering. A joint clearan ce of
.00 3" to .005" is required for mo st
appli cations. See Figure 23-15 .
In an y so lde ring op eration , both
workpieces must be hot enough to melt
the so lder. A strong bond is achieved
o nly if th e molten sol der spreads
evenly over the surface. A number of
device s-soldering coppe rs. e lec tric
solde ring devices, and gas torches-
are available for heating. The type used
depends on the size and confi guration
of the assemb ly to be so lde red. See
Figure 23- 16.
Soldering Coppers . A soldering cop-
per is a tool that consists of a copper or
steel heating tip fastened to a rod with a
wood en handl e. Th ese copper s vary
in size and have head s forged in sev-
eral shapes . Generally. a lightwei ght

260 0 Welding Skills


SINGLE
Figure 23-15. Joint designs for soldered seams (I re determined by the strength requirements of the joint.
copper is used for solderin g light-gauge
metal and a heavyweight copper is used
for soldering heavy- gauge metal. Us-
ing a lightweight soldering copper on
heavy metal does not produce enough
heat to adequately heat the metal or al-
low the solde r to flow smoothly. Sol-
dering coppers are heated either in a
furnace or with a blowtorch.
The point of a so ld ering copper
must be covered with a thin coat of
solder. Overheating or failing to keep
the copper clean causes the point to
become covered with oxide. The pro-
cess of replacing this coat of solder is
called tinning . To tin copper:
I . File each side of the point until all
oxide and pit s are removed .
2. Heat the soldering copper until it
is hot enough to me lt solder.
3. Rub the point of th e so ld ering
copper on a block of ammonium
chloride (s al ammoniac) and ap-
ply solder while rubbing. Ammo-
nium chloride helps clean the point
JOGGLE GROOVED
DOUBLE
of the so lde r ing copper. Another
Hi' sure the solder-
method of applying solder is to dip ing heat is adequate
the point of the soldering copper f or the so ldering
in a liquid or paste flux and then job to he done.
apply the so lder.
4. Remove excess sol der by wiping
the soldering copper wi th a clean
cloth .
Electric Soldering Devices. Electric
soldering irons and penci ls are often
more co nvenient than so ldering cop-
pers becau se they maintain uniform
heat. Electric soldering devices vary
in size from 25 W to 550 W. Light-
weight. low-voltage irons with replac e-
able heating e lement s and tips are
called soldering pencils and are used
for electrical and electronic work. An
electric so ldering gun is al so very
popular for electronic soldering work.
Electric soldering gun s produce instant
heat at the tip of a long. small point
when the trigger is pulled . On some
so ldering guns . th e trigger also turns
on a light. which focu ses at the point.
Bra zin g, Bra ze Weldin g, & Solde ring § 261
 Figure 23-16. A nu mber of
de vices a re ava ilable to p ro -
vide the necessary heat f or sol-
d ering,
_
". "-- .
", ~ _ -
WOODEN
HANDLE
ROD
~HEATING TIP
SOLDERING COPPER
ELECTRIC SOLDERING IRON
TORCH TIP
PROPANE GAS TORCH
Gas Torches. Some soldering opera-
tions are very difficult, or impossible,
to perform with a soldering copper or
iron. For such soldering tasks, a flame
is used as the heat source. The flame
can be produced with a gas torch. The
gases used depend on the nature of
the task. The most efficient, safe, and
versatile gas torch is one that uses a
variety of gases such as acetylene,
MAPP, natural gas , propane , and
compressed air.
A ga s torch used for soldering is
equipped with changeable tips that can
produ ce a range of flame si zes. A
gas-air torch has two needle valves;
one valve controls the gas pressure and
the other controls the compressed air.
See Figure 23-17 . To light a gas-air
torch , the gas-needle valve is opened
slightly and the gas is ignited with a
sparklighter. Then the air valve is
262 €1 Welding Skills
turned on and adjusted until a neutral
flame result s. The length of the flame
is controlled by the amount of gas and
air allowed to flow to the tip.
Sm ith Equipment
Figure 23-17. A g a s to rch call be used to solder
copper pipe.
Bottled-gas torches are also used for
soldering, especially when a stationary
torch is not available. The bottled-gas
torch must be operated with care . Fol-
low manufacturer instructions carefully.
Soldering Techniques
The soldering technique required is de-
termined by the size and configuration
of the joint. Common manual solder-
ing techniques are seam soldering and
sweat soldering. See Figure 23-18 .
Seam Soldering. In seam soldering, a
layer of solder is depo sited along the
out side edge of the joint. To solder a
seam di rectly, place the flu xed
workpieces together and tack weld the
seam in several places. Tacking is done
by holding the soldering copper on the
metal until the flux begins to sizzle.
Apply a small amount of solder di-
rectly in front of the soldering copper
point. The metal should be hot enough
to melt the solder. Do not apply the
solder to the soldering copper. Once
the workpiece is tack welded, start at
one end of the seam and heat th e
metal. Apply solder as needed in front
of the soldering copper point. If nec-
essary, pre ss each newly sold ered
section together.
- SOLDER ING
IRON
SOLDER
SEAM SOLDERING
SOLDER ING
COPPER
JOINT FILLED
BY CAPILLARY
ACTION
SWEAT SOLDERING
Figure 23·18. In seam soldering, a layer of solder
run s al ong the outside edge of the joint. In swe al
solderin g, two piece s are joined without any solde r
being visible.
Sweat Soldering . Sweat soldering is
a process whe reby two surfaces are
soldered together without allow ing the
so lder to be see n. To perform sweat
soldering, follow the procedure:
I . Coat the workpiece to be soldered
with fl ux after all dirt, oil, grease ,
and oxide have been removed.
2. Apply a uniform coating of sol-
der to each of the surfaces to be
joined.
3. Place the surfaces together with
the soldered sides in contact.
4. Place the flat side of a heated cop-
per on one end of the seam. To
avoid smearing the exposed sur-
face s of the metal with solder,
remove any excess solder on the
copper by quickly wiping the
point with a damp cloth be fore
placing it on the joint.
5. As the solder between the two sur-
faces begins to melt and !low out
from the edges, press down on the
metal with a punch. Draw the cop-
per slowly along the seam and fol-
low with the punch . Do not move
the copper faster than the solder
melts.
Inspecting Soldered Joints
Soldered joints may be visually In -
spected for quality as follow s:
o Joint integrity. Joint should be
smooth, with no porosity. A smooth
transition should exist between the
soldered j oint and the base met-
als.
o Non-wetting and de-wetting. Non -
wetting occurs when the solder
fails to wet the metal , which re-
tains its original color. De-wetting
occurs when solde r flow s across
the meta l, but is pulled back into
globules, leaving a dirty, di scol-
ored-looking surface. Both are in-
dication s of improper precleaning
or !lux select ion .
o Overheating or underheating . Over-
heating is exhibited by burned
fluxes and oxides on th e so lde r
joint. 7 is exhibited by poor !low
of solder into the joint. They are
both indicative of poor bonding
between the solder and the joint.
Bra zing, Bra ze Welding, & Soldering €l' 263
 Brazing
I. Use the lowest effective brazing temperatures to minimize grain growth, warpage, and hard-
ness reduction.
2 . Joint design for brazing is based on the adhesive qua lities of the filler metal and on joint
clearance.
3. Surfaees to be bra zed must be eompletely free of oil, grease, dirt, and oxide.
4. Always use an appropriate filler metal and flux that is recommended for the metal to be
bra zed.
5 . When usin g oxyaeetylene or MAPP-oxygen gas mixtures, heat the surfaces with the outer
envelope of the flame and not the inner cone.
6 . Remove all !lux residue afte r the brazing operat ion is comp leted .
Braze Welding
I. Use a qua lified proeedure for braze we lding.
2. Clean surfaees thoroughly before applying the filler metal.
3. Be sure the surfaces are properly tinned before depositing bead s.
4. Use a neutral !lame unle ss otherwise specified. Use a eircular toreh motion.
5. Do not braze weld a metal that will be subjected to high temperatures or high stresses.

Soldering
I. Parts to be soldered mus t be clean and their surfaces should fit closely toget her.
2. Do not allow the parts to move during soldering while the solder is molten.
3. Wash the soldered work in hot water to eli minate the corrosive action of the !lux.
4. Be sure the soldering heat is adequate for the soldering job to be done .

I. Why is a lap joint better than a butt joint for brazing?

2. Why is joint c1earanee an important factor in brazing?
3. What procedure should be used in cleaning surfaces to be bra zed?
4. Why is a !lux needed for brazing?
5. Why should all !lux residue be removed after brazing is completed?
6. What do the AWS cla ssification symbols for brazing filler metal represent ?
7. How should the torch flame be app lied to the work to carry out a brazing operation?
8. What is meant by liquidus and solidus tem peratures?
9. What is the diffe rence between braze we lding and bra zing?
10 . What are some of the advantages of braze welding?
I I. When should bra ze weld ing not be used?
12. What kind of filler meta l is needed for braze welding?
13. How should !lux be app lied ?
14. When is a surface hot enough for braze welding?
15. During the solde ring proce ss, why should parts be held firml y in place?
16. What is meant by tinning eopper?
17. How does seam soldering differ from sweat soldering?

264 €l' Weldi11g Skills

 cin

Surfac ing is one of the most eco nomical methods of extending the life of machine parts. too ls. and
construction equipment. The surfacing process applies a hard. wear-resistant layer of material to sur-
fa ces or edges (if' worn -out part s. The proc ess may involve buildin g up worn shafts, gears. or cutting
edges of tools. Many types of wear can be corrected with surfacing.

Surfacing can be applied by welding or thermal spraying. Surfacing can correct many types of abrasion.
erosion. adh esion. and surface fatigue problems. Arc welding pm cesses used to apply weld overlays
include SMAW, GTAW, GMA W, PAW, and SAW,' OAW ('(In also be used. Thermal spraying methods used
to apply weld ove rlays include plasma spraying. flame spraying, high -velocity oxyfu el (HVOF) flam e
sp raying. spray and f use. and arc spraying.

SURFACING als o known as hardfacing. S urfac ing

Su rfacing is the application of a layer
or layers of material to a surface to ob-
tain desired prop erti es or dim ension s.
Surfac ing is used on new comp onent s
and for repairs. Surfacing may also be
used to correct improper joint pre pa-
ratio n and poor joint fit-up.
Wh en designing new com pone nts .
for corrosion resistance is used if me-
chani cal rebuil ding o r repl acem ent of
the part is not cost-effective, and if plat-
ing is not an effective method of re-
storing dim en sion s.
Figure 2~ - 1. Surfacing is us ed
011 hem)' equip ment 10 retain tile
d uctility of the base metal, while
p rovidjll ,~
(/ surface resistan t 10

surfacing is used if the expected wear ah rasivc wea r,

is concentrated to a small area that can

be welded. When a welding process is
use d fo r surfaci ng. the surfacing ma-
terial must crea te a metallurgical bond \Vi/h slIIjttc ing welds,
with the base metal. Metallurgical bond the surfacing material
is the joining of two co mpone nts by creates (/ nwtullurgi-
cal bond withthe base
ato mic fu si on. Depending o n th e
metal. With thermal
weldabi lity of the base metal. preheat- spray coating , the
ing. interpass tem perature co ntrol. and bond is mechanical.
postheating ma y be req uired.
When used for repair work , surfac-
ing helps retain the ductility of the base
metal, while prov iding a surface resis-
tant to abrasive wear. See Figure 24-1.
Surfacing to improve wear resistance is

265
 Surfacing need only be applied to
surfaces that may wear exc essively if
not prot ected. Contact surfaces, screw
ni g ht edges, journal beari ng s , sea l-
wi pe d areas, hammer tips , and shear
edge s are some exa mples . Section s of
a co mpo nent tha t do not wear do not
require surfacing. On shovel or bucket
teet h and items subject to hea vy wear,
su rfacin g creates re g ion s th at allow
abrasi ve ma terial to become trapped
so tha t the abras ive material becomes
a wea r surface agai nst itself.
T he area and thi ckne ss of the ap-
plied surfaci ng mu st be minimi zed to
redu ce di stortion . With high hardness
dep os its, it is usually not po ssible to
appl y more than two laye rs without
cracking . If the desired thickness of the
hard material is inadequate, a soft metal
b uild up is used to min im ize cracking
before the final hard deposit is applied.
WEAR TYPES
Materi als and part s in service may be
subjected to many types of wea r. Most
wear ca n be repa ired by surfac ing;
however, not every ty pe of surfac ing
process may be applied to every type
of wear. T he spec ific wear type must
be determined befo re specifying a sur-
fa cin g method.
Wear types that materials and parts
in serv ice may be subjected to are ero-
s io n (low -s tre ss abrasio n) , go ug ing
( hig h-stress abr as io n), so lid particl e
im pingemen t, liq uid impi nge me nt,
c a vitatio n, slurry erosion, f re tting ,
adhc s ive wear and ga lli ng , pitt ing
and spa ll ing, impac t dam age , a nd
brinell in g.
Erosion (low-stress
Erosion (Low-Stress Abrasion)
abrasio n) is a form
of abrasive wear in Erosion (low-stress abrasion) is a form
which the force of of abrasive wear in which the force
all abrasive against of a n ab ra sive aga inst the s u rface
the surface ca uses
thr remo val of sur- ca use s the remo val o f sur fa ce mate-
face material. rial. Th e forces are low, re sulting in
the rem oval of sma ll particles and little
266 ~ WelditlMSkills
breakdown of the abrasive body. Ero-
sion ca n occur in movi ng liquids con-
taining abrasive particles. If the liquid
is corrosive , th e form of damage is
erosion-corros ion.
Ar ea s in whic h eros io n can occur
in clude coal a nd a re chute s , and
slurry pipelines. Weldin g and thermal
spray coa ting may be used to co mbat
erosion.
Gouging (High-Stress Abrasion)
Gouging (high-stress abrasion) is a se-
vere fonn of abrasive wear in which the
force between an abrasive body and the
wearing surface is large enough to mac-
roscopica lly go uge , groove, o r deeply
scratch the surface .
An example of goug ing is the ac-
tion of backhoe teeth agai nst a surface.
Welding may be used to combat go ug-
ing. Th ermal spray coa ting should not
be used because the abrasive forces are
typi cally too strong for thermal spray
coa ti ng to withstand .
Solid Particle Impingement
Solid part icle impingement is wearing
away of a surface by repeated impa ct
from so lid particl e s. So lid parti cl e
impingement forms small cr aters and
removes tiny chips from the surface.
Solid particle impingement occ urs
in ab ras ive blasting o r cycl on e se pa-
rators. Both welding and thermal spray
coating may be used to fight so lid par-
ticle impingeme nt erosion. T he angle
of im pact of the particle and its hard-
ness affects which proces s should be
used for surfac ing .
Liquid Impingement
Liquid impin gem ent is progres si ve
material removal from a surface by the
striking action of a liquid. The removal
of material may be aggravated by cor-
ro s ive liqui ds. Liq ui d impingem ent
occurs in stea m turbin e vanes and fans
that exhaust liquid droplets.
 Both welding and thermal spray
coating may be used to fight liquid im-
pingement. The corrosiveness of the
liquid may influence the surfacing pro-
cess used. When liquid impingement
is cau sed by liquid droplets, a rubber
lining may be used because it provides
better protection from repeated impact
without damage.
Cavitation
Cavitation is surface damage caused
by collapsing vapor bubbles in a
flowing liquid . The vapor bubbles
form because of changes in flow ve-
locity and/or direction , or a reduc-
tion in the cross section of the flow
passage. An increase in pressure at a
location causes the bubbles to col-
lapse. The collapsing bubbles give
rise to shock waves or minute explo-
sions that cause contact stresses on
the metal surface. Repetitive shock
waves or explosions lead to spalling
and pitting of the surface.
Cavitation is common in pumps and
engine cylinde rs and can occur in ship
propellers, pump impellers, and cas-
ings. Welding may be used to combat
cavitation. Thermal spraying should
not be used.
Fretting
Fretting is surface damage between two
materials, usually metal, caused by
oscillatory movement between the sur-
faces. Fretting produces oxide debris
and leads to pitting and , eventually,
fatigue failure .
Fretting commonly occurs on bolted
components subjected to repetitive
stresses, and can occur in loose-fitting
bearings; metal parts in vibrating
contact; and gears and sheaves at the
setscrews. Welding and thermal spray
coating may be used to combat fretting.
Adhesive Wear and Galling
Adhesive wear is the
Adhesive wear is the removal of metal removal ofmetalfrom
a surface by welding
from a surface by welding together and together and subse -
subsequent shearing of minute areas quent shea ring of
of two surfaces that slide across each minute areas of two
surfaces that slide
other under pressure. In advanced ac ross each other
stages, adhesive wear leads to galling. under p ressure.
Adhesive wear may occur in drive
chains, gears, and bushings . Welding
may be used to combat adhesive wear;
selection of weld overlay consumabies
is on a trial-and-error basis, or repeated ,
successful experience. Thermal spraying
should not be used.

Slurry Erosion
Slurry erosion is the progressive loss
of material from a surface caused by
slurry moving over the surface. Slurry
is a mixture of solid particles in a
liquid. If the slurry is corrosive, ero-
sion of material from the base metal
is accelerated.
Areas in which slurry erosion can
occur include slurry pipelines and
pumps, and oil well downhole equip-
ment. Welding and thermal spray coat-
ing may be used to combat some types
ASl R,,!>im n
of slurry erosion. When slurry is corro-
Conveyor systems are exposed to many types ofwear including fretting , which results
sive, the surfacing material must provide from repetitive stresses, ami adhesive wear, which results from parts sliding across
corrosion resistance. each other.

Surfacing ~ 267
 Ga lling is a co ndition that occ urs
when excess ive fric tio n, ca used by
ru bbing of high spots on the surface,
result s in locali zed welding with sub-
sequent spa lling (formation of surface
slive rs) and further roughening of the
rubbing surfaces. Galling is a result of
an improper mati ng combi natio n be-
twee n components, and not a failure
of anyo ne component. Ga lling may
resu lt in seizure of a com ponent.
Examples of compo nents that gall
incl ude valve trim, engi ne camsbafts ,
and threaded connections. Galling may
be combated using we lding. Therma l
spraying shou ld not be used .
Pitting (Spalling)
Pitting or spalling is
ljl the f orming oflocal-
Pillin g (spalling) is the forming of lo-
~
- ized cavities in metal
resulting from cor-
c a lized ca vities in met al re sultin g
from co rros io n, repe titive s lid ing or
msion. repetitive slid-
roll iog surface stresses, or poo r elec-
ing or rol ling sur-
face stresses. or poor troplating. Pitting leads to subs urface
electroplating. fati gue crac king . Pittin g appears on
the surface as cav itie s. depres sion s,
or flakes.
Pittin g can occ u r in c a m path s,
gea r teeth , rolling element racewa ys,
and sproc kets . Wel din g may be used
to co mbat pittin g or spalling, but the
typ e of mate ria l used must be ca re-
fully selected. Thermal spraying should
Weld overlay ;.'1 the
applicationof surfac-
not be used.
ing using a we lding
I'ITH,'CSS that creates
metallurgical bond
(J
with the base metal
Impact Damage
thnmgJr melting ofthe Impact damage is removal of material
sutfacing metal.
from and da mage to a surface caused
by repetitive colli sion s or imp act be-
tween two surfaces. Impact damage can
occ ur in hamm erh eads, riveting tool s,
and pneumatic drill s. Welding may be
used to minimize impact damage. Ther-
mal spraying should not be used .
Brinelling
Brin ellin g is locali zed plastic defor-
mati on or surface denting cau sed by
repeated lo cal impact o r ov erload.
268 ~ Welding Skills
Brinellin g occ urs in whee ls or rail s,
ro ll ing e leme nt bea rings, and ca ms.
Wel di ng may be use d to combat
brine ll ing . Therma l spraying should
not be used .
SURFACING METHODS
Surfacing methods used to repa ir and
com bat wear are welding and thenna!
sprayi ng. See Figure 24-2. Spray and
fuse is a surfac ing variation that com-
bines traits of both we lding and ther-
mal s pray ing. Surfaci ng by we lding
creates fusion with the base metal. Sur-
fac ing by therma l sprayi ng ap plies a
coating to a surface that is mechanically
bonded to the base metal and does not
fuse with it. Spray and fuse is a method
of improving wear or corrosion resis-
tan ce th at incl udes e leme nts of both
surfacing weld and thermal spraying.
M an y co ns uma bles ca n be used for
weld overlay and thermal spraying, but
a few co nsuma ble typ es are most of-
ten used to correct most wear problems.
Welding
Welding processes arc commonly used
to apply a weld overlay to produce the
desired propen ies on the surface of the
metal. Weld ove rlay is the application
of surfac ing usi ng a we lding process
that crea tes a metallurgical bond with
the base metal through melting of the
surfacing metal. Welding is also used
to apply wea r-res istant or corrosion-
res istant alloy s as an overlay to the
surface of a metal. Weld ove rlay can
only be use d on metal combinations
that ca n be joi ned by we lding .
On ly th e second layer o f a weld
dep osit pro vid es the in te nde d wear
propenies beca use the first layer is di-
luted by the base metal. Dilution is a
chan ge in the co mpos ition of welding
filler metal in the weld deposit caused
by melted base metal. The amount of
dilution varies dependin g on the weld-
ing process used. See Figure 24-3.
 WEAR TYPES AND SUR~ACING
- -
OVE~~L~YM~THODS ...

Wear Type DesctiptiDn Examples Surfacing

~~ ~ * Mejhods
· abrasive forces
· pa rticles sliding in chutes • we lding
Erosion
(Low-Stress
result in scratching
of the surface · packing cartons that
run on shaft ing · thermal spraying

Abras ion) • low force, does

not crush abras ives ·• sandy soi l being plowed
abrasive material be ing cut

· abrasive forces resu lt in

deep scratches
•
·
rollers run ning on dirty tracks
ba ll mills for grinding minerals
• weld ing

Gouging · suriace has insufficient

comp ressive strengt h to
• farm implements in hard soil
• heavily-loaded metal sliding
(High-Stress resist damage
systems in dirty environments
Abrasion)
·• plastic deformation
chip removal after rep eated
• gy rato ry crusher parts
• ham me r mill hammers
compressive load ing
• jaw cr ushers

• wear ing of suriace caused • abrasive blast ing • welding

Solid
Particle
by repeated impact of so lid
particles · aircraft operating in sand
or dirt
· thermal spray ing

Impingement
· forms sma ll craters
· cyclo ne separators
· removes chips of material

Liquid
· prog ressive material remova l
caused by the striking action
· steam turbine vanes
• fans exha usting liquid droplets
• weld ing
• thermal spray ing
Impingement of liquid
· rubber lining

• prog ressive loss of mate rial • ship prope llers • weld ing
Cav itat ion caused by air bubbles of a • pump impellers and cas ings
liquid collaps ing nea r su rface • ultrason ic cleaners

· prog ressive loss of mate rial

ca used by a slurry
·• slurry pipe lines and pumps
oil well downhole equipment
• welding*
• thermal spray ing*
Slur ry Erosion
·• mud pu mps
well pumps

· ag itato rs

• osci llatory movem ent with

little displace me nt
· gea rs and sheaves held on
shafts with setscrews
• weld ing
• thermal spray ing
·• produces oxide deb ris • bearings loose-fitt ing on shafts
Fretting leads to pitting and fatigue
failure
·• drive coup ling components
meta l parts in vibrat ing contact

· bo lted components subjec ted

to repet itive stress

· localized da mage in
solid-state welding between
• face sea ls

· gears
• weld ing t

sliding surfaces leading to • bushings

material transfer between
• drive cha ins
Adhesive Wea r
surfaces
· actuato rs
or Galling
· heavi ly loaded sliding members • weld ing

· austen itic sta inless stee l

gate valves

· plug valves
• threaded faste ner assemblies
• when slurry IScortosrve. must have adequate corrosion resistance
t determine prop er consumable by trial & error

Figure 24-2 ...

Surfacing €l' 269

 . - . - ..• WEAR TYPES _.
-*._~---_. -.- -_.
AND SURFACING
.. OVERLAY METHODS - --
Wear Type Description Surfacing
~xa~ P,les Methods

Pining
· rem oval or displacement
of a surface
· cam paths
• gea r teeth
• weldi ng

• caused by repetitive sliding

(Spall ing)
or rolling surface stresses
• rolli ng eleme nt raceways

· lead s to subsurface cracking • sp rockets

· removal of material from a

· ham merheads • welding

Impact
·
surface
· rivetin g too ls
Damage caused by repetitive impact
collisions of two surfaces · pneumatic dril ls

• localized plastic deforma tion • whee ls or rails • welding

or surface de nting • rolling elem ent bearings
Brinnelling · caused by repeated local
impact or ove rload
and cams

Fi~1I1'"e24·2. Pa rts ill se n-ice are commonly suhjected 1(1 [our l.\1'CS of wear: ab rasion, erosion, adhe sion, and slit/ace fatigue. Surfa cing overlays
10 repair wea r call be app lied by welding and thermal spraying .

ZONE 3 ZONE2

} FACING
DILUTION " - .....,i-__-'--'-'!::'-' -' -_ _¥-_
ZONE "

BASE •
METAL .../"
ZONE 1: Base metal diluted by zone 2
ZONE 2: Facing diluted by base metal
ZONE 3: Minimal dilution
40 . , -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --,

30 · f -- --== = - - - - -

0
0 20
si5
10
" 0
OAW SMAW GTAW GMAW PAW SAW

WELD ING PROCESS

Figure 24·3. /)i/lltioll varies with the type of welding proce ss used for .m rfclcillK.

Dilution is ge ne ra lly a reduction A one-layer deposit may be possible

ljl HH d overlay may be
ap p lied using the
in th e a ll oy c ont ent of the weld if it is carefully applied by the welder
~- OAW, SMAIV, GTA\V,
GMA\V, SAIV, or PAW
depo si t s ince the melted base meta l, and if a welding process that causes little
with low er alloy cont ent, is incorpo- me ltin g of the bas e met a l, suc h as
processes.
rat ed into the melted fi ller meta l, OAW, is used. Weld overla y may be
changin g th e c o m p os i t io n of the applied using OAW, SMAW, GTAW,
deposited metal. GMAW, SAW, and PAW processes.
270 ~ Weldin g Skills
OAW Weld Overlays. An OAW weld
ov e rlay is widel y used on stee ls
where maximu m hardness and min i-
mum crack susceptibility are required.
An OAW weld overlay can be applied
to most materi als, exc ept for copper
alloys.
T he ba se metal sur face mu st be
preheated to produ ce a swe atin g
c ondition on the s ur fac e . Durin g
preheating, the tip of the surfacing
filler metal is held on the fringe of
the flame until the metal has been suf-
ficie ntly heated . Th e filler met al is
then mo ved int o the ce nte r of the
flame and melted . Filler metal is de-
posit ed using a reg u la r fo re ha nd
we ld ing te chn iq ue with a slig ht
weaving motion. Generally, a slightly
reducing flame is recomm end ed , as
this adds carbon to the deposit. Filler
metal used for OAW weld overl ay
should be composed of low-meltin g-
point, high -carbon metal.
The deposition rate with OAW is
not as high as with other processes ;
however , OAW minimi zes fusion of
the base metal. The reduced fusion of
the base metal minimizes dilution and
loss of hardn ess of the surfac ing al-
loy. OAW is not used for copper al-
loys because with copper a greater loss
of aluminum or silico n by oxidatio n
occ urs compa red with arc we lding
processes, resulting in a softer deposit.
The absence of steep thermal gradi-
ents in OAW reduces cra cking or
spalling of the weld overlay becau se
thermal stresse s ar e reduced . OAW
weld overlays are a useful technique
for depositing weld overlays on small
parts such as engine valves, plowshares,
and tools. One layer may be sufficient.
SMAW Weld Overlays. Weld over-
lays a re com mo n ly applied usin g
SMAW because of its high deposition
rate and relatively low dilution. It also
is wid el y used fo r s urfac ing large
areas or for heavy parts that normally
would require excess ive time to heat
with an oxyace ty lene flame . SMAW
weld overlays are especially suitable
fo r mang a nese stee l and other stee l
alloys where heat buildup must be re-
stricted.
The surface of the base metal must
be thoroughl y clean ed before surfac-
ing; however, cleanliness in SMAW is
not as stringent as in other processes.
Although some poro sity and cracking
may be present, such di scontinuiti es
are usually acc ept abl e in the seve re
types of applications for which SMAW
is used . The se severe applica tio ns ,
such as earth moving equipmen t and
mining equipment, require thick ove r-
lays. It is ge nera lly necessary to ap-
pl y seve ra l layers of surfacing to
achieve the intended surface hardness.
See Figure 24-4.
Figure 24-4 . Sill/ acing (lJ ear th
moving equipment is performed
US i ll/{ weld ovcrtuy. Several lay -
crs art' f)l'icl/lly add,'" /0 achieve
the intended surf ace hardness.
Either AC current or DC current can
be used to produce a satisfactory weld
overlay. To properly apply weld over-
lay using SMAW, follow the procedure:
I. Remove all rust, scale, and other
foreign matter from the surface.
2. Set cur rent j ust high enough to
provide suf fic ie nt heat to main-
tain the arc yet preve nt dilution.
3 . Position the workpiece so the section U1;e a minimal
am ount of heal
to be surface d is in flat position. when surfildl1g with
Most surfac ing electrodes are de- SMAll(
signed for use in flat position only.
Surfa cing @o 271

r= I
.~
When (/l'l'ly;(/~ a weld
overtav with SMA lV.
4 . Maintain a medi um arc length and
do not allow the e lectrode to
.= maintain a medium touch the base metal.
arc length and do 1101
allow till' elec trode
Wh en making the deposit , use a
coaling 10ctmlacl the stra ig h t or weaving motion . A
base metal. weaving or w hipp ing mot io n
sho uld be used on thin metals. A
weaving mo tio n is preferred
whe n on ly a thin bead deposit is
requ ired . The width of the weaved
bead should not be more than Vl' .
A whipping act ion is ofte n used
whe n sur fac ing an area a lo ng a
thin edge . The arc is held ove r the
heavy portion and then whipped
out to the thin edg e. In this man-
ner, a shallow depo sit is made be-
fore the heat builds up eno ugh in
the ba se metal to burn thro ugh.
5. Remove slag from the surface after
Whl' lI depos it i ng eac h pass.
sm!(/c;"g material.
rl' !/UH' (' sl ag aft e r
6 . Man ip ulate th e el ectrod e c are-
each pass. fully to secure adequ ate pen etra-
t io n into pre viou s passe s. Hold
th e elec tro de over th e deposit ed
bead mome nta ril y to allow heat
to build up in the adjoining beads.
Thi s pro cedure also minimi ze s
u ndercu tt ing.
GTAW and GMAW Weld
Overlays
Both GTAW and GM AW are ideal for
a p p ly ing we ld ove rlay s . Su rfac ing
mater ials arc easily deposited to form
a smoot h, uniform, poro sity-fr ee weld
overlay. When using GTAW and GMAW
for we ld overlay, prevent diluti on of
th e depos ited we ld metal as dilution
red uces the effec tive ness o f the weld
overlay. The shielding gas req uire d by
GTAW and GMAW prevents ox idation
and the loss of allo ying ingredie nts
when performing a lumi num and
b ron ze s ur faci ng . S u rfac ing w ith
GTA W is so me wha t s lo we r th an
hard facing w ith G MA W, but th e re-
s u lt ing we ld o verl a y is o f s lig h t ly
hi gh er q uality.
272 ~ Welding Skills
-
GTAW produces a clean depo sit with
a high rate of deposition. However, the
high heat input results in steep thermal
grad ients, causing dil ution and loss of
hardness in the weld overlay coupled
with increased crack ing susce ptibility
from high thermal stresses. GTAW is
often used whe re thin overlays are re-
quired . GTAW is particularl y effective
in applying cobalt-base alloys .
S urfac ing with GTAW ord ina rily
requi res very little preheating. Since the
heat buildup is minimal, there is less dis-
tortion and very little of the base metal is
affected by the heat of welding.
GMAW is not as widely used for sur-
facing as the other ar c we lding pro -
ce sses. However, with its co ntinuous
wire feed, GMAW is faster than GTAW
and prod uces exce llent weld over lays.
GMAW also allows for high deposition
rates and low d ilution of the surfacing.
A variety of special filler metals are
availabl e for practicall y eve ry surfac-
ing operation. Composite filler metal is
typically used. Composi te filler metals,
suc h as flu x-cored electrodes . co nsist
of a tubular steel shell with metallic pow-
de rs o r fin e par ticles of hard com-
pounds incorporated into the center or
into the coa ting .
PAW Weld Overlays
Application of weld overlay using PAW
is a mechanized GTAW process that uses
a metal powder as the surfacing material.
The metal powder is carried from a hop-
per to the electrode holder in an argon
gas stream. From the torch, the powder
moves into the arc strea m wher e it is
melted and then fused to the base metal.
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a welding
process that uses a co nstricted arc be-
tween a nonconsumable tungsten elec-
trode and the weld pool, it is not a metal
spray process. See Figure 24-5 .
A variety of cobalt, nickel, and iron-
base sur facing po wders arc avai lab le.
These powd ers are fused materials and,
co nse q ue ntly , ar e hom o g en eou s in
compos iuo n. Th ey are c lass ified as
high-alloy materials and have varying
degrees of impact-resistance, abra sion-
resis tance , and co rros ion-resistance .
The s ur fac ing application required
should be determined before selecting
the metal powder to he used.
Figure 24~S. I~ W ,l'lll:{t IC;llg is a welding process filar
uses a IIIIlR.l Il'1I electrode and metal powder.
The power source used for PAW weld
over lay s cons is ts of a conventional
DCEN power supply unit. A second DC
unit is connected between the tungsten
electrode and the arc-constricting orifice
to support a nontransferred arc. The sec-
ond power supply supplements the heat
of the transferred arc and serves as a pi-
lot arc to start the transferred arc. Argon
gas is used to form the plasma as well as
the shielding.
SAW Weld Overlays
Submerged arc we lding (SAW) is a
welding pro cess that uses an arc be-
twee n a bare meta l electrode and the
weld pool. Th e SAW process is used
when surfacing an extensive area, and
on parts that requ ire heavy depo sits of
surfacing. Since SAW uses a high weld-
ing current, it has a high deposition rate
and results in high quality depo sits.
Filler metal may be either solid or
tubular. Filler metal is especially suit-
able for surfacing th at requires high
co mpression stre ng th. However, th e
relat ively dee p penetration of the sub-
merged arc we ld with its protective
flux cove ring usuall y develops intense
heat in the weld area. Great er precau-
tions must be taken to provide suitable
preheat and postheating for stress relief.
Very often. the full strength of the sur-
facing material is attained only by de-
positing two or more layers. With SAW,
the initial weld layer frequently becomes
diluted when fused into the base metal
and an additional layer is usually neces-
sary to ensure the desired surface.
Surface Preparation
Base metal preparation for weld over-
lay depends on the required qualit y of
the finished surface. For dilly work, such
as guide plates, coke chute s. lIT power
shovels, where some degree of surface
porosity or inclusions may be tolerated,
loose scale, dirt, or other foreign sub-
stances should be removed by wire
brushing, grindin g, or sandblasting.
For critical work such as valve seats,
pump shafts, or coating rolls where no
porosity or inclusions are permitted, the
base metal must be prepared by machin-
ing or grinding to bright metal; other-
wise, surface irregulariti es can lead to
gas vo ids and inclu sion s. All forei gn
matter such as grease, oxides, or dirt must
be rem oved co mplete ly. The surface
may also be scrubbed with meth anol.
Handling of the component after prepa-
ration shou ld be minimized because
even fingerprints can interfere with good
wetting action during surfacing.
Weld Overlay Filler Metals
Filler metals used for weld overlay are
formul ated to possess prop erties that
provid e wear resistance or corrosion
resistance to the surface. Filler metals
may be bar e met al or w ire; coate d
elect rode ; flux-co red electrode; metal
powd er ; or metal-cerm et, self-fluxing
powder. See Figure 24-6.
Surfacing @o 273
 • repairs on tool steels
R Fe 5-B
High speed Steel OR 60
E Fe 5-B

• high-stress abrasion
R Fe CroAt resistance for
High Chromium - heavily-loaded metal
OR 58
Iron Alloy
E Fe CroAt - metal sliding systems
in dirty environments

• low-stress abrasion
resistance
• metal-to-metal wear
R Ni Cr-C
• deposits that must
Nickel Alloy OR 35-56
be machined
ENi Cr-C
- shafts
- running in packing
- ash handling equipment

• metal-to-metal wear
RCo Cr-A • low-stress abrasion
Cobalt Alloy OR 38-47 resistance
ECo Cr-A • elevated temperatures
• corrosive environments

• high-stress and gouging

RWC 20/30 abrasion resistance for
Composite OR 60 - crushers
material EWC 20/30 - earth-moving equipment

Figure 24-6. Filla metals may be bare metal or wire; coated electrode; flux-cored electrode; metal powder; or metal-cermet. self-fluxing powder.

AWS specifications identify filler
metals for surfacing applications. The
Filler metals may AWS designation uses chemical sym-
be bare metal or
wire; coated elec- bols to describe the main elements, such
trode; flux-cored as RNiCr-A. An R prefix stands for bare
electrode; metal
wire or rod, which does not normally
powder; or metal-
cermet, self-fluxing conduct current. An E prefix stands
powder: for electrode, which can conduct cur-
rent. The A, B, and C suffixes iden-
tify a specific alloy within the group.
The type of filler metal used depends
on the requirements of the weld metal
and the limited ductility of some filler
metals, cracking of the deposit may re-
sult. Preheating the base metal helps
minimize cracking, and in some cases
hardness of the deposit may be com-
promised to reduce cracking. In most
surfacing deposits (except those used
for sealing purposes) , some cracking
is expected and is of little concern.
Thermal Spraying
/

applied . AWS specifications do not Thermal spraying (THSP) is a group

encompass most tool steel and alloy
steel filler metals used for surfacing;
trade names are used instead.
Thermal stresses may develop in a
surfacing deposit as it contracts dur-
ing cooling. Coupled with constraint
274 ~ welding Skills
of processes in which finely divided
metallic or nonmetallic materials are
deposited in a molten or semi molten
condition to form a coating. The ther-
mal spray coating material may be a
powder, ceramic, rod, or wire.
 Th e most imp orta nt as pec t of ther- through which the co at ing mat eri al is
mal spray ing is correct prepa ra tion o f fed . Aro und the o rif ice are a number
the co mponent. It must be cle aned and o f gas jets that pro vide the flam e and
rou gh ed . but sha rp co rners sho uld be the air strea m. As the coating materi al
a vo ide d . S o me pr eheatin g ma y he comes through the orifice, it is melt ed
necessary depending on the alloy con- and at omi zed by the fl ame. The gas
tent of the component. Spraying should head controls the flow of oxygen , fuel
be performed immediatel y after th e gas. and compress ed air. The fine mol-
component is clean ed . If the compo - ten particles are pick ed up by the a ir
nent is not spra ye d immediatel y. it strea m and proj ect ed against the wo rk.
sho uld be protec te d from th e atmo- A h op pe r mo un te d on the torch
sphere by wrapp ing it in paper co ntain- bod y feeds po wd ered coating ma teria l
ing a va por- phase co rrosio n inhibit or. (metal alloy) into the ga s stream while
Th e fir st pass sho uld be applied as the operator control s th e flow of th e
soon as pos sibl e afte r the part is pre- powdered alloy. Th e alloy parti cles be-
pared and as quickly as possible. Addi- come molten as th ey a re sp rayed
tional coat s may be a pp lied more throu gh the flame and onto th e
slowly. Th e surface of the compo nent workpiece. See Figur e 24-7.
d oe s not he a t up appreci abl y during
therm al spraying as it does during weld-
ing bu t a uniform tem perature mu st be
maintained through out the co mpo ne nt
during surfacing. Distortion during ther-
mal spraying is minimal.
Thermal spraying is don e with a spe-
cial spray gun and . typi cally, 20 gauge
to 3/16" d iame ter wire. Spray guns can
spray abo ut 4 Ib to 12 Ib of metal per
hou r. Larger guns are usually mounted
o n a fi xt u re a n d are d e si gn ed for
sprayi ng large machi ne compo ne nts .
A therm al spray gun co nsists of two
majo r parts : th e p o wer un it a nd th e
gas head . The power un it feeds th e
coating material into the nozzle of the Will/ Co/m"'''' \'
gun. T he no zzl e has a cente r orifice Thermal spraying is commonly Il Sl'{J to build up shafts.

Figur e 2-l· 7. All osyacetvtene

metal .Vlmy torch has a mounted
hopper that feeds powdered metal
COOLANT WATER alloy into the gas stream . The
metal particles mel' as they are
sp rayed tllrollJ;:h the fla me lind
a re f used to the wor kpiece.
POWDER
CARRIER

/f
GAS
~ POWDERED
""'- - METAL ALLOY
HOPPER
' - FLUIDIZING
COMBUSTION GAS
CHAMBER

Su rfuc ing @ 275


AWARNING1
Ven tilation is necessary In
remove dust partic les and
fumes that are extre mely
haza rdous to an operator' s
health. If posi tive ventilation
is not possible. the ope rator
should wear a respirator.
Process
Plasma Spraying
Flame Spraying
High-Velocity
Oxyfuel (HVOF) Flame
Spraying
Spray and Fuse
Arc Spraying
• in psi
tin%
Figure 2~-8. Th erm al spraying processes include pl asma spraying, jll/mt' spraying, high-velocity OX)fuel (H VO F) flame spraying , spra y and
fu se, and a rc .\'p l'llying .
276 @ We/clinK Skills
The most commonly used gas for the passes thro ugh the arc, it is ioni zed,
oxyfue l flam e is acety le ne, which is forming a stream of plasma with tem-
capable of producing temperatures ex- peratures that reach as high as 30,OOO'F.
ceeding 5600°F (3094°C). Hydrogen or A coating materia l is fed into the
propane may be used for metal s that plasm a st rea m, me lte d , a nd is pro-
melt at a lower temperature. Thermal pell ed to the workpi ece at approxi-
spraying processes include plasma spmy- matel y 400 fe et pe r seco nd ( fps) .
ing, flam e spray ing, high-ve locity Coatings applied by the plasma spray
o xyfu el (H YO F) flam e sp ray ing , method are den ser, but mor e costly,
spray and fuse, and arc spraying. See than those applied by flame spraying.
Figure 24-8 . See Figure 24-9.
Plasma Spraying. Plasma spraying is
a thermal spraying process in which a
plasma torch is used as a heat source
for meltin g and propelling the surfac-
ing material to the work piece . Plasma
spray is the most commonly used form
uf thermal spraying. Plasma spray uses
a co nfined high -cu rrent electri c arc
and an inert gas such as argon to pro-
du ce a hi gh -pre ssure s trea m of hot
ioni zed gas called plasm a. \\'u/l C"I",,,,IO)"
The gas is directed through the Figure 24-9. III plasma spraying. {/1/ 80.\" stream
l lrg m /
curries rhl' metal powder mrfllcillg materia! f rom a
nozzle and an arc is struck between the hopper to the elect rode holder. 71t(' powder moves info
electrode and the noz zle. As the gas the are' stream. is melted, ami [uses to the base metal.
THERMAL SPRAYING PROCESSES
Method Bond Strength" Porosity! Cost
Powder is fed into plas ma created
by striking an arc in an inert gas and
43 0- 1000 5 Mid-range
then propelled towar d the workpiece
with compressed air
Consuma bles in the form of rod, wire,
or powder are heated in an oxyace-
600-1 000 10-20 Low
ty lene flam e, and propelled toward
th e wo rkpiece
Hot ga s from fuel combustion melts
powder that is directed toward the > 10,000 <5 High
workpi ece at extreme ly high velocity
As in flam e sp raying but powd ered
nickel or co balt alloy is used that is
fused to the wor kpiece by torch or 600-1 000 0 Mid- range
furnace heating afte r sp raying ,
creating a non po rous su rface
Two consumable wi res of coa ting
materials are melted by an electric arc,
600-1000 5 Mid- range
ato mized, and prop elled toward the
wor kpiece with co mpress ed air
 The temperature for plasma spray-
ing is much higher than that of flame
spraying and coating materials that
have high melting points can be ap-
plied using plasma spray ing. Most in-
organic materials that melt without
decomposition can also be used.
The coating material to be sprayed
is a powder that is suspended in a car-
rier gas and carried to the plasma spray
gun. The high-temperature plasma im-
mediately melts the powdered metal
and propels it to the surface of the
workpiece .
Since inert gas and high gas tem -
peratures are used, the mechanical and
metallurgical properties of the coatings
are generally soperior to either type of
flame spraying, and bond and tensile
strengths are higher.
Flame Spraying. Flame spraying is
a thermal spraying process that uses
an oxyfuel gas flame as a source of
heat for melting the coating material.
Two variations of flame spraying
exist. One uses metal in wire form
and is sometimes referred to as metal-
lizing . The other uses materials in
powder form . In both variations, the
coating material is fed through a gun
and a nozzle and melted in the oxyfuel
gas flame .
Flame spraying can be applied
manually or automatically. Flame
spraying allows hard, thin coatings to
be deposited quickly and uniformly.
Deposits range from .0 1" (.25 mm) to
.08" (2 mm) thick. The coatings are
porous and usually brittle. They do not
resist excessive mechanical abuse.
A wire, powder, or rod coating ma-
terial is introduced into a stream of fuel
gas , usually oxygen and acetylene,
which atomizes the material, allowing
it to be propelled by a stream of air to
the surface. Compressed air is used for
atomizing and propelling the material
to the workpiece . A torch is used with
the proper flame setting, and the trig-
ger is pressed to propel the material to
the surface. See Figure 24-10.
Figure 24-10. In flame spraying a torch is used with
the proper flume setting, lind a trigger is pressed to
propel the coating to the surface.
Wire spray materials are metals that
can be made into flexible wire that will
melt in an oxyacetylene flame. Wire
spray materials are eommonly zinc,
aluminum, carbon steel, 300 series
stainless steel, bronze, or molybdenum.
Flame spraying with wire spray ma-
terials is used to coat metals for rust
protec tion, for heavy rebuilding, or to
restore dimensions. It is not used on
parts that are subject to rigorous ser -
vice conditions.
Powder spray materials include
carbides, high-alloy steels, stainless
steel, cobalt alloys, and ceramics.
Powder spray machines are usually
more complex than other flame spray-
ing equipment and are used for more
sophisticated work.
Rod spray materials are usually ce-
ramics such as aluminum oxide, chro-
mium oxide, and zirconium. Other,
more appropriate methods of applying
ceramics are available and are gener-
ally more widely used because they
usuall y provide a better coating spray.
High- Velocity Oxyfuel (HVOF)
Flame Spraying. High-velocity
oxyfuel (HYOF) flame spraying is
quite different from other thermal
spraying processes. In the HYOF flame
spraying process, a mixture of oxygen
and a combustible gas, such as acety -
lene, is fed into the barrel of a spray
gun with a charge of surfacing powder.
The mixture is ignited and the detona-
tion wave accelerates the powder to
Surfacing ~ 277
 the workpiece while heating it close to
or ahove its melting point. The cycle
is repeated many times a second. The
nois e level is extremely high, and the
process must be performed in a sound-
proof room .
HVO F flame spray ing is most
successfu l in applying dense , hard,
carbide, and oxide coatings to cri ti-
cal areas of precision components .
Since the hase meta l surface is seldom
heated ahove 300°F ( 150°C) , the
component can be fab ricated a nd
fully heat-treated prior to coating .
Spray and Fuse (Spraywelding) .
Spray and fuse (spraywelding) is a two
step thermal spray process in which a
thermal spray coating is deposi ted and
subsequently fused by heating with a
torch or by placing the part in a furnace.
Spray and fuse is a variation of flame
spraying in which the coating material
is fused after application. The spray
and fuse proces s contains characteris-
tics of both weld overlay and thermal
spray coating and prov ides helter cor-
rosion resistance with less effort.
Spray and fuse coating materials are
usually made of nickel or cohalt
self-fluxing alloys that contain silicon
Figure 24-11. Arc spraying equip-
ment p rod uce s coatings with
g reater hand stre ngth and lower
ox ide content than coatings with
oxyacetylene spraying guns ,
INSULATED REFLECTOR
HOUS ING PLATE
GAS - .....~J
WIRE
278 ~ Welding Skills
or boron that are sprayed onto a part.
The sprayed mate rial is then fused to
the base metal with a torch or furnace
at a tem pe rature between 1875°P
(I024°C) and 2000°F (1093 °C).
The spray and fuse process creates
a smooth, nonporous, welded, hard sur-
face that can be ground and lapped
to a low RMS fini sh . Tungsten car-
bide particles are added for increased
wear resistance.
The fusion process permits the flux-
ing additives of silicon and boron to
react with oxid e films on the surface
and with powder pa rt icl es. This al-
low s them to wet and in terdiffuse
with the base metal.
Arc Spraying. Particle s deposited
with an arc spray unit are hotter and
more flu id than those spraye d with
o xyace tylene spr ayin g equipment.
The heat required to melt the wire is
generated by an e lect ric arc instead
of oxyacetyl ene . The ar e, whic h
reache s a temperatu re of app roxi-
mately 7000°F (3870°C), produ ces a
stronger bond with the surface because
the highl y heated particles can create
belter fusion with lower oxide content.
See Figure 24-11 .
BASE
METAL
SPRAY
DEPOSIT
GAS NOZZLE
WIRE GUIDE
Surface Preparation and Part
Design
Before surfac ing. a part must be ma-
chined and excess materi al removed
to level out a worn surface. pro vide
for the thickness of the spray coating .
and remove co ntaminated materi als.
The part is machined undersize to al-
low for the thickness of the coating. A
lathe is com monly used on cylindrical
parts to reduce part diameters.
The success of any therm al spray-
ing process depends on having a clean
surface that ha s been properly
rough ed. All trac es of oil. dirt . scale.
rust . a nd other debri s must be re-
moved. Nonporous surfaces may be
cleaned using steam. vapor degreasing.
hot detergent washing. or industrial sol-
vents. Porous materials must be baked
at temperatures from 400°F (204°C) to
60<JOF (3 15°C) to remove contaminants
from the pores.
Roughing the surface provides me-
chanical anchorages for the splats. A
sp lat is a flatt ened particle that cools
rapidly a nd solidifi es as it strikes a
metal s urface . Grit bla sting is co m-
monl y used to rou gh a surface . Gri t
blasting ab ras ives may be stee l grit.
hard sand. aluminum oxide. or silicon
ca rbide . Th e s urface profile to be
achieved by grit bla stin g varies be-
tween I mil and 5 mil depending on
the thermal spraying method . Another
method of roughing a surface is to run
a knurling tool over the area to pro-
duce ragged threads. thus ena bli ng
better bondi ng.
Occasionally. after a surface is pre-
par ed . a thin layer of mol ybdenum
is sp rayed on to produ ce a fus io n
bond. a llowing gre ater adherence of
the sub sequent spray coatings . Once
the surf ace is properl y cleaned and
roughed, areas not to be coated are
mask ed with thermal spra y tape to
prevent ove rs pra y. Whit e me ta ls.
such as aluminum or magnes ium. 'are
cl ea ne d w ith al umi nu m oxide o r
quart z.
o Gas es used for flame spraying are acety-
lene. methvlacetylene-propadiene (MAP?).
p ropane, and propylene. Hyd rogen 'na....' b e
used to sp ray metals such as tin, zinc, and
aluminum that have a low melting point.
Thermal Spray Coatings
Thermal spray coatings should be ap-
plied within fo ur hours of surface
preparat ion; otherwise, surface oxida- Prop erlv cleaning
and roughin g th e
tion and rusting can compromise the me- part surface ensure.'i
chanical bond between the coating and that thermal spray
the base metal. Mechanical bond is the coat ing ca n be sue-
cessfully appl ied.
joining of two components by locking.
compression. or surface tension .
Surfaces are generally preheated to
e liminate moisture that may interfere
with bonding. Preheat in g to 20 0°F
(93 °C) to 250 °F (1 2 1°C ) rem o ves
moisture and aids bondin g.
Thermal spray coatings are appl ied
at a high velocity in the form of finely
div ided molte n or semi-molten drop s
that produce a coatin g that adhere s to
a surface. The velocity range possible
is determined by the design of the sur-
facing gun. Coh esion is achieve d by
intermingling of the splats and mechani-
cal bonding of the splats and the base
metal. Th ermal spra y con sum abl es
can be metals. ceramics. cermets, or
plastics. Material s used for ther mal
spraying mu st become plastic when
heated. and not de grade on heating.
The type of coating used is determined
by the process.
Ther mal spray co atings are so me-
what porou s and may a llow co rro-
si ves to lea k throu gh to the base
metal; however. they also absorb oil
and provid e compl ete lubrication and
protection from porosity. Prev enting
porosity is more critical in applications
that are subject to acids and other cor-
ro sive materi al s. Adju sting the gas
and air regulators and maintaining the
prop er distance of the surfac ing gun
fro m the wo rkpiece help s to co ntro l
porosity. However, too much effort to
Surfacing ~ 279
 reduce porosity usually results in hard,
When spraying j7al
tI~
•
• surfaces. the surfac-
ing gnn is moved back
and jim" to allow a
fuJI. unlfon n depo sit.
brittle, and hi ghly oxidized coatings
that ar e likely to fail in service.
Oxidation normally occurs within the
Spraying should he-
melting flame and as the metal particles
gi" beyond olle edge fly to the surface. Generally, lillie oxida-
of fill! area to be COl'- tion takes place as the metal is melted
ered and continue be-
unle ss the gas-fuel mixture is oxidi zing .
yond the opposite n ul.
The mo st common causes of oxidation
ar e ov erheating o f the coating , exces-
sive use of oxygen, and spraying at too
great a distance from the workpiece. To
protect against oxidation. metal s can be
a lu m in ized or coated with a nickel -
chromium deposit and then heat treated.
Wht'll surfacing using an automated plasma sprayer: wire feed. limO/till ofspray, gas
oxygen pressure, and othe r parameters lire preprogrannned by the operator.
(1/1(/
6 Postt reatme nt s applied afte r thermal
spraying include sealing 10 prevent cor-
ros ion and/or lengt hen the se n-ice life of
a part; diffusing to provide co rros ion re-
sis tance ; and surface fi nishing. Surface
fi nishing pro cesses include machinin g,
grinding. buffing (poli shing ), and abra -
sive tumbling.
2S0 § Welding Skills
Thermal Spraying Operation
The wire feed spee d. amount of spray,
and gas and oxygen pressure mu st be
re gulated accordin g to the rec-
ommendation s es ta b lis he d for the
equipme nt to be used a nd the type of
thermal spray ing to be done. Air pre s-
sure is normally set for 60 psi. The use
of a flowm eter e nsures accurate con-
trol o f the gas flow. A slight increase
in air pre ssure provides a finer coating
and, similarly, a decrease in air pre s-
sure produce s a coarser coating.
The tip of the melting wire should
project beyond the end of the air cap .
The length of the projection depends
largely on th e material being used .
A recommended practice is to speed
up the wire feed unt il c hunks of wire
are being ejected, then reduce the wire
feed unt il the ejection of chunks stops.
Each coating should be between
.003" and .005" thick, or as light as
possible. Too heavy a coating produces
an irregular and stratified surface. The
actual movement of the surfacing gun
is similar to paint spraying. The nozzle
should be kept approximately 4" to 10"
away from the surface and moved with
a uniform motion . If the gun is held
too close to the work, minute cracks
form in the coating . Too great a dis-
tance produces a so ft, s po ng y deposit
with poor phy sical properties. Th e gun
travel speed is a lso important. When
the travel speed is too rapid, the coat-
ing develops hi gh oxide c ontent.
After th e first lay e r, either the
workpi ece or th e gun is rotated 90 °
and the sp ray ing pattern is repeated
for each subseq ue nt coating until the
required thi ckne ss is built up . On cy-
lindrical piec es. the work is generally
fa stened in a lath e with the g un
mounted on a tr av eling c a rr iage.
 I . With surfacing welds, the surfac ing material crea tes a metallurgical hond with the base
metal. With thermal spray coating, the bond is mechanical.
2. Erosion (low- stress abra sion) is a form of abrasive wear in which the force of an abrasive
again st the surface cau ses the removal of surface material.
3. Adhesive wear is the removal of metal from a surface by welding together and subsequent
shearing of minute areas of two surfaces that slide across each other under pressure.
4 . Pitting or spa lling is the forming of localized cavi ties in meta l result ing from co rros ion,
repeti tive sliding or rolling surface stresses, or poor electroplating.
5. Weld overlay is the application of surfacing material using a welding process that creates a
metallurgica l bond with the base metal throu gh meltin g of the surfaci ng metal.
6 . Wel d ove rlay may be appli ed usin g the OAW, SM AW, GTAW, GMAW, SAW, or PAW
pro cesse s.
7 . Use a minimum amount of heat when surfacing using SMAW.
8. When applying surfacing with SMAW, maintain a medium arc length and do not allow the
electrode coa ling to contact the base metal.
9 . Whcn depositin g surfacing welds, remo ve slag after each pass.
10. Consumables may be bare filler metal or wire; coated electrode; flux-co red electrode; metal
powder; or meta l-cermet, self-fluxing powder.
I I . Properly clea ning and roughing the part surface ensures that thermal spray coa ting can he
successfully applied .
12. When thermal spraying flat surfaces, the surfacing gun is moved back and forth to allow a
full, uniform deposit. Thermal spraying should begin beyond one edge of the area to be
covered and continue beyond the oppo site end.

I. What is surfacing?
2. What benefit s does surfac ing provide when used for repair work?
3. What types of wear do parts encounter in service?
4. What is solid partiele impingement?
5. What is pitting?
6. What are the two common surfacing overlay meth ods?
7. What is diluti on?
8. What surface defects can occur on critical work if the surface is not properl y prepared?
9. Why should surfacing be done in flat position ?
10. How should the torch be manipulated when surfacing large objects with SMAW where a
high depo sition rate is required?
I I. What is the most commonly used form of thermal spraying?
12. When is high-velocit y oxy fuel (HVO F) flame spraying comm onl y used ?

Surfacing €l' 281

 ~)

282 ~ Welding Skills

Cutting operations are methods of rough or final preparation of shapes and edges of metals fo r welding.
Gouging is related to cutting and refers to excavation of metal from the surface in preparation for weld-
ing. Safety considerations are an integral part of any cutting operation.

Cutting may be controlled manually or with mechanized equipment. In manual cutting. a torch is ma-
nipulated over the area to be cut. In machine cutting. the torch is guided entirely by automatic controls.
The cutting process used depends largely on the kind of metal to be cut or the cost of the operation.
Common cutting processes used are oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC). plasma arc cutting (PAC). and air car-
bon arc cutting (CAC-A).

OXYFUEL GAS CUmNG (OFC) The cutting of metal occurs when

Oxyfuel gas cutting (OFe) is a group
of cutting processes that use heat gen-
erated by an oxyfuel gas flame . The
fuel gas/oxygen mixture accelerates the
chemical reaction between oxygen and
the base metal, removin g the metal.
Cuttin g metal using a flame is widely
used in many indu stri al field s. Th e
cutting is done by means of a hand cut-
ting torch or by an automatically con-
trolled cutting machine. See Figure 25-1 .
Viel.'T.a di";.f i_ oj11J"rmaJ,7U" I"" ,u n it's, tn<.
Figure 25-1. OFC is commonly performed with a
hand cutting torch ,
ferrous metals are subjected to rapid
oxidation. When a piece of stee l is
left expo sed to the atmo sphere, a
c he m ica l reaction (ru sting) tak e s
place . Rust is the result of oxygen in
the air unitin g with the metal, ca us-
ing it to oxidize. Occurring naturally,
the rustin g process is ver y slow. But
if metal is heated to its ignition tem-
perature it oxidizes and ru sts much
faster. The intense heat causes the mix-
ture of oxides and metal to melt. The
mixture is swept away by the flow o f
oxygen, resulting in a cutting action.
The width of the resulting cut is called
the kerf.
The oxygen used for cutting must
be 99 % pure. Efficienc y and cutting
speed ar e reduced with lesser oxy-
gen purity.
Iron and low -carbon steel can be
readily cut. Steels with greater carbon
content must be preheated to prevent
them from cracking or cooling. Cas t
iron is not easily cut because of its high
carbon content. Stainless steels cannot
be cut becau se chromium ox ide is
formed on the surface, which resists
meltin g and shields the metal surface.

283
 Co ppe r and a lu mi num fo rm similar savings. Acetylene gas is the gas most
high -m elting-point oxides and in ad- commonly used for OFe. Because oxy-
dition possess high thermal co nductiv- ge n and ace tylene are the most co m-
ity, making it diffic ult for them to be mon gases used in OFC, oxyacetylene
heated sufficiently. equipment and procedures are depicted.

Torches
For the rap id cu tting of metal to be
possible, it is nece ssary to use a cut-
ting torch th at will heat the iron or
steel to a certain temperature and then"-
direct the oxygen onto the heated sec-
tion to perform the cutting action. See
Figure 25 -2.

VI" ,,,r, <I diri"""'1 o/l1r"rltlllliylu'!lId',-,lrir", /nr

OrYlll'l'ly {e/w rutting is commonly performed 01/ the j oh site since oXYKell and acetylene
art' readily available and eas y to transport.

Oxyfuel Cutting Gases

Gases mixed with oxygen and used for
OFC include acetylene, natural gas, pro-
pane, meth ylacetylene-propadiene sta-
bilized (MA PP), and proprietary gases.
Procedures and equipment used in the
OFC process do not vary much regard-
Figu re 25·2. OFC is used to mpidly cut metal b~'
less of which gas is used . The heat of subjecting l/ hea ted section of met al to (I blast of
an oxyfuel flame brings the base metal oxygen thaI pro duces tke cutt ing action.
up to me lting temperature and a flow
of pure oxygen is introd uced to create The cutting torc h has conventional
the rapid oxidation of the steel. ox ygen and acetylene needle valves.
Natural gas has a low-temperature, These are used to control the flow of
low-heat flame, maki ng it inadequate oxygen and acety lene when heating
for many welding operations. However, the metal. Some cutting torches have
natural gas is commonly used for OFC two oxygen needle valves for fine ad-
because it works well for preheating and justment of the neutral flame . The cut-
cu tting mater ials. Propane, also called ting tip is co mpo sed of an orifice in
LPG or liquefied petroleum gas, may the center surrounded by several smaller
also be used for OFC and for preheat- orifices (preheat holes). The center ori-
ing or posthcating. Natural gas and pro- fice permits the flow of the cutting oxy-
pane are co mmonly avai lable in many ge n and the smaller ho les are for the
sho ps , making them inex pens ive op- preheat ing flame. See Figure 25-3.
tion s for cutting ope ration s. However, A cutting torch differs from a regular
both natural gas and propane gas draw welding torch in that it has an additional
an excessive amount of oxygen durin g lever to co ntrol the oxygen discharged
heatin g, which may offset their initia l through the center orifice .
284 ~ Weldinx Skills
 "'i J:un~ 25-3. All ox ygen cutting
torch has 0 1/1.' oXYKt'l1 ne ed le valve
an d one acetylene needle valve.
The torch ti" includes the cutting
O.1:Y1:"'I hole and se veral preheat
holes.

CUTTI NG OXYGEN
HOLE

PREHE AT HOLES

A number of different tip sizes are
prov ided for cutting metals of varying
thicknesses. In addition, special tips are
made for other purposes , such as for
clean ing metal; cutting rusty, scaly, or
painted surfaces; rivet washing; etc. It
is possib le to convert a welding torch
into a CUlling torch by repl ac ing the
mixing head with a CUlling allachment.
Oxygen and Acetylene Pressures, The
correc t oxygen a nd ace ty lene prcs-
sures to bc used depend upon the tip
size used, the type of cutting to be pcr-
formed, and the thickness of the metal
to be CU t. Sec Fig ure 25-4. Always
co nsu lt ma nufacturer recommenda-
tion s as to the proper oxygen and
ace ty lene pre ssu re settings for a par-
ticular torch and tip. The given oxygcn
pressure cannot always be strictly fol-
lowed because cutting co nditions are
not the same for every metal.
Piercing Holes
For steel up to ¥.{' thick, hold the torch
ove r the area where the hole is to be
cut until thc name has heated a small,
round spot. Gradually press down the
oxygen lever and at the same time raise
thc tip slightly. A small, round hole is
quickly pierced through the mctal. See The correct oxygen
Figure 25-5 . Fo r stee l more than 1/2'
thick, move the torch slow ly in a cir-
cular moti on as the oxygen le ve r is
tI
. ~ and acetylene pres-
.= sures to be used de-
pend upon the tip size
used. the type of ( ' /I t-
depressed to pierce the metal. ting /0 be performed.
Wh en la rge r hol es an d ci rcu lar and the thickn ess of
the metal to he Cllt .
shapes are requ ired, trace the shapes
with a soapstone. If the holes are located
away from the edge of the wo rkpiece,

CUTIING PRESSURE FOR METALS

Metal Oxygen Acetylene
Tip No. Thickness· Pressuret Pressure t
0 V. 30
% 30
1
V, 40
Y, 40
2 3
1 50
3 1V, 45
4 2 50
3 45
5 4
4 60
5 50
6 5
6 55
8 60
7 10 6
70
In In .
t in psi

Figure 25-4. The ('orn 'l"I OX)'Xe l1 and acetvtene pressure lilliS' he used when cutting meta ls; cor rect press urt''''
Me determined bv the tip site and the thickness of tlir met al to be cut.

CUlling Operations 0: 285

 first pierce a small hole near the de-
sired area, and then start the cut from
the hole, gradually working to the
drawn line and continuing around the
outline. See Figure 25-6 .

Figure 25-5. A cutting torch can ~.

_ _ • . _
be used to pierce (J hole through _
metal.
LARGE HOLE

(DHeat a small round spot

CIRCULAR SHAPE
Figure 25-6. The cutting rool must be held steady
when cutting circles and large curves.

Beveling
To make a bevel cut on steel , incline
the head of the torch to the desired
angle rather than holding it vertically.
An even bevel may be made by rest-
ing the edge of the torch tip on the
®Depress oxygen lever and raise tip slightly workpiece a, a support, or by clamping
a piece of angle iron across the
'" workpiece. A cutting machine can also
be set to automatically cut the proper
beveled edge . See Figure 25-7.

® Pierce small round hole

Keep the preheating cones burning with a

neutral flame . Hold the torch with the in-
ner cone of the heatingflame about 06"
above the metal untila spot is heated to a
bright red. Move the cutting torch just
fast enough to make a fast but continuous
cut. If the cut does not go through the
metal, start the cutting process overagain.
Figure 25-7. The torch must he positioned at an
angle to make a beveled edge.

286 @o Welding Skills

Cutting Round Stock
To cut round stock, start the cut about
90° from the top edge. Keep the torch in
a vertical position (perpendicular to the
cutting line ) and gradually lift it to fol-
low the circular outline of the bar. Main-
tain the position of the torch while
ascending as well as descending on the
opposite side. See Figure 25-8. Depend-
ing on the thicknes s of the round stock,
preheat may be necessary before cutting.
Flgure 25-8. Wilen cutting round stu ck , sta rr 90 °
fro m the lOp edge. Then f ollow around the conto ur
of the ba r:
Cutting Cast Iron
Wh en cutting cast iron, the chem ical
co mpos ition o f the iron must be con-
sidered. Since cast iron has such a wide
range of uses, a vast differen ce in qual -
ity and chemi cal composition can be
expected. The better grades of castings
are more ea sily cut. Do not start a cut
in ca st iron or heavy steel unless it can
be completed without stopping.
L-3
1'h
2 70
3 80
4 90
L-4 6 110
8 120
10
12
• in in.
t in Ib
Random grades of scrap , such as
co unterwe ights , gra te bars, and floor re:::::: IlVhen cutting casl
o§ iron. adjust the pre-
plate s, present greater difficulty in cut- .= heatingj1ame so it is
ting and require more gas, a wider kerf, slightly ca rbu rizing .
and correspondingly, a slowe r cutting
speed. If the cut is stopped on a heav y
section of cast iron or heavy steel, it is
extremely difficult to start again.
The oxygen pressure and acetylene
pre ssure needed for cutting ca st iron
depend upon the tip size used and the
thickness of the cast iron. Alway s con -
sult manufacturer recommendations
for the proper oxygen and acetylene
pressure settings for cutting ca st iron.
See Figure 25-9 .
Excess heat , sparks, and slag ar e
generated when cu tt ing cast iron .
Proper person al protective equipment
is required when c utt ing . Weldin g
gloves are essential, and a firebrick or
suitable torch rest is de sirable.
~
For high-sp eed cut-
PLASMA ARC CUTTING (PAC) .~ ling of nonferrous
Plasma arc cutting (PAC) is a cutting pro- .= meta ls, pla sma arc
cutting is the most
cess that uses a constricted arc to remove effective.
molten metal with a high-velocity jet of
ionized gas. Th e hi gh -velocity jet of
ionized ga s issue s from a constricting
o rifice and removes the molten metal.
PAC is one of the be st processes fo r
high-speed cutting o f nonferrous met-
als and stainless steels. lt cut s carbon
steel up to 10 time s fa ster than any
oxyfuel mixture , with equal quality and
at Jess cost. See Figure 25-10.
Ffuure 25-9. Th e OXYNt' 1l an d
ace ty le ne pre.\"sure settings re -
quired f o r cut ting ( ' {/ .I'1 iron ar r
de/ermined by the tip size lind the
thickness of the ('<H ( iron.
50 7 to 8
60
8 to 10
150
170
Cutting Operation s :0 287
 water int o stea m, and sim ilarly, the
plasma torch supplies energy to a gas to
change it into plasma. As plasma returns
to a gaseous state, the heat is released.
When cutting aluminum and stain-
less stee l, be st resu lts ar e o btai ned
with an argo n- hydroge n or nitrogen-
hydrogen gas mixture. Air has proven
to be the most efficie nt gas for use with
plasma cu tt ing; however, oxygen can
also be used. Ca rbon stee ls require an
ox idizing gas .

tl]
•~
.=
lt11'la,m W arc cutting.
set the polarity 10 di-
reel current electrode
negative.
Figure 25-10. The ptasma arc ("U/f inK I'roce.~.\· is 0111'
of the bes t " ;K" " ~I't'f'd cutti ng proc esses for nonfer-
rous metal s and S /d ;lI /('.U steels.
Plasm a is often co nsi de red the
fourth state of matter. The other three
are ga s, liquid , and solid. Pla sma re-
sults when a ga s is heated to a high
temperature and changes into positive
ions, neutral atom s, and negative elec-
trons. When matter changes from one
state to another, latent heat is gener-
ated. Latent heat is required to change
Manual PAC
In a plasma arc cutting torch. the tip of
the e lec trode is loc at ed within the
no zzl e . T he no zzl e has a relati vel y
sma ll o pe ning (o rifice), whi ch co n-
st ric ts th e arc . T he gas mu st flo w
through the arc where it is heated to
the pla sm a te mpe rature ran ge. Since
the gas cannot expand due to the con-
struction of the nozzl e , it is forced
through the op ening. and emerges at
an extrem ely high velocity and hotter
than any n am e. This heat melts any
known metal and its velocity blasts the
molten metal throu gh the plate cre at-
ing a kerf. See Figure 25- 11.

ORIFICE GAS
o ELECTRODE
(CATHODE)

CUTIING POWER SUPPLY

SHIELDING!
COOLING
GAS

+ GAS
NOZZLE

PLASMA ARC ~

PLATE CUT BY PLASMA ARC

}' I
KERF/

Figure 25-11. Gases emerge from the no ule oj a I'!W'fII(f an- torch in the form of a high- velocity jet stream fil m C(/ II MU.I" thro ugh the metal,
creating II kerf.

288 ~ Weldin g Skills

 Becau se the maximum tran sfer of rem ote control panel, the control unit
heat to wo rk is essen tia l in cutt ing, perform s all ON-OFF and sequencing
plasma arc torches use a transferred arc functions. The coo ling water must also
(the workpiece itself becomes an elec- be turned ON or the water-now inter-
trode in the electrical ci rcuit) . Th e lock will block the starti ng circuit.
workpiece is subjected to both plasma
heat and arc heal. Precise control of the
plasma jet can be obtained by control-
ling the variables-current, voltage, type
of gas, gas velocity, and gas flow (cfh),
The power supply for PAC is a spe-
cial rectifier-type with an open- circuit
rating of 400 V. DCEN is also used. A
control unit automatically control s the
sequence of operations-pilot are, gas
flow, and carriage travel. A water pres-
sure input of 60 psi to 80 psi for gas
cutt ing and 100 psi for air cutt ing is
necessary to keep the torch cool.

Mechanical PAC
To make a proper plasma arc cut, the
pow er supply and the gas flow must
be adj usted to the appropriate settings. ESAB \\01.1''' 8 "'", C"II;II/: 1',..l< luo 'I.\'
See Figure 25- 12. When the operator A plasma cutt ing tool is commo nly used f or accurately cutting circles and large
pu she s the START button on the cun 'es.

PLASMA ARC CUTTING CONDITIONS

Type of Orifice
Thickness" Speed! Insert* Power§ Gas Flow ·
Metal Type

'h 25 4 x 8 'h 45 130 N2

'h 70 4 x 8 'h 60 130 N2
1'h 25 5 x 10 85 10 H2
'" 175 N2
Stainless 2% 18 8 x 16 V. 150 15 H2
steel 175 N2
4 8 8 x 16 V. 160 15 H2
'h 25 4 x 8 'h 50 100'
'h 200 4 x 8 'h 55 100 '
1% 30 5 x 10 y" 75 100 '
2'h 20 5 x 10 y" 80 150 '
Aluminum
4 12 6 x 12 'Yi. 90 200 '
V. 200 4 x 12M" 'h 55 250
1 50 5 14M" 70 300
Carbon
steel 1'h 35 6
x
x 16M" '"'Yi. 100 350
2 25 6 x 16M" 'Yi. 100 350
• ,n In.
t 'pm
~ dra met ee

•II clt1
kW
• 65% a rgon. 35% hydroge n mmure
•• mullipo rt orifice

Flgure 25-12. The operator mU.~1 adj ust the power supply and ga.\' }70w ((I the appropriate settin gs for l/ particular PAC operat ion.

Cutting Operations 0 289

 To make a mechanized cut, the op-
erator locate s the center of the torch
about '//' above the s urface of the
workpiece to be cut and push es the
START button. Current flows from the
high-frequ enc y generator to establi sh
the pilot arc between the workpiece and
the cathode in the nozzle. Gas starts to
flow, and welding current flows from
the power supply. The pilot arc sets
up an ionized path for the cutting
arc . As soon as the cutting arc is es-
tablished, the high-frequency pilot arc
is shut OFF, and the carr iage start s to
move. See Figure 25-13 .
"",1J T....Iling Corp.
Figure 25-13. A semiautomat ic pla sma arc cutt ing
unit is co mmonly use d to ensure an e\'etl cut 10 tlie
metal.
When the cutting operation is com-
pleted, the arc goes out automatically
becau se there is no ground to sustain
it and the contro l unit stops the car-
ria ge, opens the main contactor, and
shuts OFF the gas flow.
AIR CARBON ARC CumNG
(CAC-A)
Air carbon arc cutting (CAC-A) is a cut-
tin g process in which the cutting of "
metals is accomplished by melting with
the heat of an arc between a carbon elec-
trode and the base metal. A compressed-
air line is attached directly to the torch.
When the torch is in operation, the jet
ori fices must be positioned under the
electrode . As the metal melt s dur ing
cutting, a jet of compressed air is directed
at the arc to blow th e molten metal
away from the cutting area . The jet air
stream is controlled by depressing the
pushbutton on the e lectrode holder.
Power can be supplied with either
an AC or DC welding machine. How-
ever, the pow er requirements for a
given diameter carbon e lectrode are
higher than those for a comparable
diameter SMAW electrode . Air is
s upplied by an ordinary compressor.
In ge nera l, the required air pressure
range is fro m 40 psi to 80 psi. See
Figur e 25- 14.

AIR CARBON ARC CUTTING CONDITIONS

Electrode Diameter i . . DeEP ". AC Air Pressure
~~~~f.!!' ~~ __.
~~mIlf'iI~~ :\1
40 280
0/32 4 90 150
80 550
40 280
0/,. 4.8 150 200 150 180 150 200
80 550
40 280
V, 6.4 200 400 200 250 200 300
80 550
0/, . 7.9 250 450 80 550
% 9.5 350 600 300 400 300 500 80 550
'h 12.7 600 1000 400 500 400 600 80 550
% 15.9 800 1200 80 550
¥, 19.1 1200 1600 80 550
Figure 25·14. The cut ting air pressur e and power settings are determined by the size electrode used for air
ca rbon ar c cu tting,

290 @o Welding Skill"

 Electrodes used for air carbon arc Gouging

tI
cutting are plain or copper-clad Use plain or copper-
Gouging is a cutting process that re- .~ clad carbon-grap~ite
carbon-graphite electrodes . Plain .= rods when cutting
moves metal by melting or burning off
carbon-graphite electrodes are less ex- metals with the air
a portion of the base metal to form a carbon arc process.
pensive, but copper-clad carbon -
bevel or groove. The depth and con-
graphite electrodes last longer, carry
tour of the groove are controlled by
higher currents, and produce more
the electrode angle and travel speed.
uniform cuts . Electrode holders are
For a narrow, deep groove, a steep elec-
specially designed for air carbon arc
trode angle and slow speed are used .
cutting. See Figure 25-15.
A tlat electrode angle and fast speed
Air carbon arc cutting is used to cut
produce a wide, shallow groove. The
metal, to gouge out cracks , to re-
width of the groove is also intluenced
move risers and pads from castings ,
by the diameter of the electrode .
to remove inferior welds, and to
During all gouging operations, using
backgouge and prepare grooves for
the proper travel speed produces a
welding. Air carbon arc cutting is
smooth, hissing sound.
used when slightly ragged edges are
The electrode holder should be
not objectionable. The cut area is
gripped so that a maximum of 6" of
small, and since metal is melted and
electrode extends from the electrode
removed quickly, the surrounding
holder to the work. For aluminum al-
area does not reach high tempera-
loys the distance should be reduced to
ture s. This reduces the tendency to-
4". Hold the electrode holder so the
ward distortion and cracking.
electrode slopes back from the direc-
Air carbon arc cutting may be used
tion of travel. The jet air stream should
for alumimum alloys, copper alloys,
be behind the electrode. Maintain a
carbon steels, cast irons, nickels, alloys,
short arc and travel fast enough to keep
and stainless steels . It is not recom-
up with metal removal. The arc must
mended for titanium or zirconium.
provide sufficient clearance so the
After air carbon arc cutting, but be-
compressed air blast can sweep be-
fore welding, grinding must be used
neath the electrode and remove all
to remove the surface that has picked
molten metal.
up carbon. Gouging in tlat position is typically
performed toward the left (as the work
is viewed). The electrode holder
o Theair carbonarc cutting process mustbe
properly performed when gouging, cutting,
should be held perpendicular to the
direction of travel , with the electrode
washing, Of beveling metals to prevent car- pointing to the left. The air jet orifices
burized molten metal from remaining on
the surface. should be under the electrode and should
follow the electrode. See Figure 25-16.

Figure 25-15. The carbon -graphite

electrode must be held in a spe -
cial electrode holder designed for
air carbon arc cutting.

Cutting Operations @o 291


FiRUI'"C 25-16. Whe" go ug illg ill
fl at position. the electrode hole/a
is he ld so tha t t ire electrode
slo p es ha ck fro m th e d irect ion
of travel.
Ftg ure 25- 17. ln vertica t posi -
tion goug ing. the electrode holder
is held perp endicu lar to the
workpiece and the air je t orifices
fo l1011' the electrode, pl'rm itt ing
gravity to removr the 11101[1'11 IIIt,tIIl.
£ WARNING
To prevent accidental fire ,
do not perform CUlling
o pe ration s ncar com bust ible
materials.
292 ~ We/ding Skills
~~
AIR JET OR IFICES
FOLLOW ELECTRODE
[
~:'r.~"""_
For goug ing in ve rt ica l posi t ron.
ho ld the electro de hold er perpendic u-
lar to the workpiece and move down-
ward. The air jet orifices should follow
the electrode so that gravity ass ists in
removing the molten metal. See Figure
25- 17.
Gouging in hori zontal posiu on ca n
be do ne by movin g the el ect rod e to
either the right or the left. When trav-
eli ng to the right, hold the e lec tro de
ho lder perpend icul ar to the direct ion
of travel, with the electrode po inting
toward the rig ht, the release lever in
the dow nwa rd position, and the air jet
orifices following the electrode . When
tra velin g to the left , reve rse the posi-
tion of the electrode holder so the air
jet orifices are under the electrode, the
relea se lever is o n to p, and the elec-
trode face s toward the left. See Figure
25 - 18.
......-
DIRECTION
O F GOU GING
Fig ure 25-18. Gou ging in horizontal po sit ion can
be performed fro m either the lef t or the rigtu. n i l' air
jet or ifices sho uld al ways follow the electrode.
Cutting
The cu tt ing techniqu e is the same as
gougi ng except that the e lec trode is
held at a steeper ang le and is directed
at a point that perm its the tip of the
electrode to pierce the metal being cut.
For CUlling thick, nonferrous metals,
hold the elect rode in vert ical position
with a push angle of 45° and, with the
air je t above it, move the arc up and
down through the metal with a sawing
motion .
Washing
Wa sh in g is a pr oce ss of re mov ing
me ta l fro m large areas, suc h as re-
moval of surfacing and of riser pads
on ca stings. When using air carbon
arc cutting for washing, weave the elec-
tro de fro m s ide to side in a forward
dir ection to the depth desired. A push
angle of 55° is recomm ended, with the
air je t orifice follow ing the e lectrode.
The steadiness of the operator de ter-
mine s the smoothne ss of the surface
produ ced. See Figu re 25- 19.

Washing
Figure 25-19
ELECTRODE HOLDER \
ELECTRODE ~::;1:::~~~
Figure 2S . Weave the electrode fro m side
M19
to
when washing with air carbon arc.
Beveling
Fo r beveling , hold the electrode at
approx imately a 45 ° angle, with the
o xygen blast between the electrode
and the metal surface. Draw the elec-
trode smoothly along the edge being
bev el ed . Se e Figure 25 -20 .
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
In any cutting operation, a large
amount of me tal alway s falls to the
floor. Turn pant cuffs down over the
shoes to prevent molten metal from
lodging inside the cuffs or shoes.
Be sur e there are no combustible
materials near the work area when per-
forming cutting operations. When an
excess ive amo unt of cutting is to be
Fig ure 25·20. When beveling a
plate. hold the electrode at a 45°
angle.
done, sand should be sprinkled over a
side concrete floor to prevent the molten
metal from heating the concrete so that
it crack s and causes particle s to fly up-
ward. Another alternative is to cut over
a workbench tra y partially filled with
sand . If the bench lacks a tra y, a
sand-filled pan can be placed on the
floor. Eye protection mu st alw ays be
worn to protect against sparks and cut
metal that may pop from the surface
and project upward s.
Fumes are a potential health hazard.
Cutt ing processes, such as plasma arc
cutting and air carbon arc cuttin g, may
require additional respiratory protection
to protect the welder from the high vol-
ume of du st , smoke, and fumes pro -
duced by these pr oce ss e s. Exhau st
ve ntilat io n mu st be available when
working in enclosed or semienclose d
areas . Some cutting proce sses generate
huge amounts of noi se, and in the se
cases, ear prote ction must be worn .
Cutting Operations :§: 293
 I . The correct oxygen and acetylene pressures to be used depend upon the tip size used, the type
of cutt ing to be performed. and the thic kness of the meta l to be cut.
2 . When cutting cast iron, adj ust the pre heating fla me so it is slightly carburizing.
3. For high-speed cutting of non ferrous meta ls, plasma arc cutting is the most effective.
4 . In plasma arc cutti ng, set the po larity to direct current electrode negative.
5. Use plain or cop per-clad car bon-grap hite rods when cutting metals with the air car bon arc pro-
cess.

~ Exe rc ises
Cutting Steel Using Oxyfuel Cutting...
•••••••••••••••
exerCise
•.

I . Obtain a piece of mild stee l.

2 . Use a soapsto ne to draw a line on the workp iece about s;." from one edge.
3. Pos ition the workpiece so the line clears the edge of the welding bench.
When an exceptionally straig ht cut is desired, clamp a bar across the wor kpiece alongside the
cutting line to act as a guide for the torch.
4. Turn ON the acetylene needl e valve and light the gas with a spa rklig hter as for welding. Turn
ON the oxygen valve and adj ust it for a neut ral flame.
The neutral flame is used to bring the me ta l to a kindling temperature. In the case of plain
carbon steel, for examp le, the kindl ing tem perature is between 1400°F (760°C) and 1600°F
(87 1°C).
5 . Observe the nature of the cutting fla me by pressing
dow n the oxygen co ntro l lev er. Wh en th e oxygen
pressure lever is depressed, additional adjustm ent s
may be needed to keep the preh eating cone burn ing
with a neutra l flam e.
6. Grasp the tor ch handle in suc h a way as to per mit
insta nt access to the oxygen control lever. Th e valve
is usually opera ted with either the thumb o r forefin-
ger.
Hold the torc h steady to ensure ma king a clean.
straight cut. If the tip is allowed to waver from side to
side, a wide kerf is formed, which results in a rough
Smitlt £q ..ipm~nJ
cut, slower cutti ng speed, and grea ter oxygen co n-
sump tion. To help keep the torch steady, suppor t the
e lbow or forearm.

294 0 Welding Skills

...Cutting Steel Using Oxyfuel Cutting
•••••••••••••••
exerCise
••

7. Start the cut at the edge of the workpiece. Hold the torch with the tip vertical to the surface of
the metal and the inner cone of the heating flame approximately 1/1 6" above the line. Hold the
torch steady until a spot in the metal has been heated to a bright red.
8. Gradually press down the oxygen pressure lever and move the torch forward slowly along
the line.
The torch should be moved just rapidly enough to ensure a fast but continuous cut. A shower
of sparks falling from the underside of the cut indicates that penetration is complete and the
cut is proceeding correctly.
9. If the cut does not seem to penetrate the metal, close the oxygen pressure lever and reheat the
metal until it is a bright red again. If the edges of the cut appear to melt and have a very
ragged appearance, the metal is not burning through and the torch is being moved too slowly.
10. Initially, the workpieces may stick together, even when the cut has penetrated through. This
is due to the slag produced by the cutting flowing across the workpiece. Slag is not a serious
problem because it is quite brittle, and a slight blow with the hammer will separate cut sec-
tions .
1 1. It may occasionally be necessary to start the cut in frorn the edge of the plate. If so, hold the
preheating flame slightly longer on the metal; then raise the cutting nozzle about 112" and
depress the oxygen lever. When a hole is cut through, lower the torch to its normal position
and proceed with the cut in the usual manner.

Cutting Operations €1 295

 Cutting Cast Iron Using
Oxyfuel Cutting
••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
exercise
•.

I . Obta in a piece of cast iron.

2 . Use a soapstone to draw a line on the workpiece about %" from one edge .
3. Position the workp iece so the line clears the edge of the welding bench.

LE NGTH OF EXCESS AC ET YLENE STREAM ER

I
f
SAME AS THICKNESS OF CAST IRON

I
...L ~
;1"\ ~TO'
~NEUTRAL
FLAME
Hold torch at a 40 ' to 50' angle
and heat starting point
•
Move torch with
swinging motion
Move torch along cut Continue swinging motion
for entire length of cut
FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW

4 . Light the torch and adj ust the preheating flame so that it shows an excess of acetylene.
5. The excess acetylene, as indicated by the length of the white cone , must be varied to best suit
the grade and thickness of the cas t iron to be cut. Experience is the best guide ; however , it
generally varies from little or no excess of ace ty lene for extreme ly thin workpieces to an
excess of a I" to 2" white cone for thick workpieces,
6 . Bring the tip of the torch to the starting point. Hold the torch at an angle of approxim ately 40°
to 50° and heat a spot about 'h" in diameter to a molten condition.
7 . With the end of the preheating cone about 3110" from the metal, start to move the torch and open
the high-pressure cutting valve. A swinging motion may be required for thick metals .
If adjustments to the Ilame are needed, they should be made with the high-pressure valve wide
open to avoid any change in the character of the flame during the cutting operation.
S. Grad ually bring the torch along the line of the cut, continuing the swinging motion. As the cut
progresses, grad ually straighten the torch to an angle of 65° to 70° to ensure thorough penetra-
tion. Co ntinue the swinging motion along the entire length of the cut.
9. On thick workpieces, ensure that there is sufficient heat to allow the cut to proceed without
interruption. On thin workpieces, it is easy to lose the cut as the surface of the metal cools too
rapidly and only a slight groove is made with the flame .
Restart a cut by heat ing a sma ll circle as prev iously described. Gradually raise the torch and
incline it to cut away the lower port ion of the workpiece. Proceed as before, with the exposed
side of the cutting groove appearing bright. Co ntinue to cut until finis hed.

296 ~ Weidill MSkills

 I. What causes metal to rust?
2. What principle makes possible the cutting of metal by OFC?
3. How does a cutting torch differ from a welding torch?
4. What determines the oxygen and acetylene pressure that must be used for cutting?
5. What aids may be used to facilitate an even cut?
6. How can it be determined that the cut is penetrating through the metal?
7. What is the position of the torch when cutting round stock?
8. How is it possible to make a bevel cut with a cutting torch?
9. Describe the operation for piercing small holes with a cutting torch.
10. What type of flame is used for cutting cast iron, assuming a good grade of iron?
II. How is the torch held when cutting cast iron?
12. What torch motion is used for cutting cast iron?
13. What is meant by PAC?
14. What types of metals can be cut by PAC?
15. What type of electrode is used in the. CAC-A process?
16. What causes the removal of molten metal when using CAC-A?
17. What does the term washing mean when using CAC-A?
18. What are some of the precautions that should be observed before engaging in any cutting
operation?

Cutting Operations :@; 297

298 ~ Welding Skills
Repair welding is a method of restoring components that have failed or have lost their ability to perform
as designed. All repair options, usually mechanical repair and weld repair, must be evaluated after
identifying the cause offailure . Distortion, flammability, and related safety concerns may prevent the use
of repair welding. When repair welding is appropriate, a repair welding plan must be prepared that
complies with relevant repair codes and safety requirements.

EVALUATING REPAIR METHODS
Repair welding is used only if it is eco-
nomical or if a replacement part is not
available. If a piece of equipment fails
within the warranty period, the manu-
facturer of the equipment is contacted
to determine replacement options be-
fore developing a repair plan.
Certain repairs may require the ap-
proval of authorized personnel, use
of a qualified procedure, and/or prep-
aration of supporting documentation.
Repairs that are regulated by appli-
cable codes and standards, such as re-
pairs to aircraft, pressure vessels, and
transportation containers, require doc-
umentation that repairs were made
appropriately.
An understanding of how a part failed
is necessary before considering repair
methods. Some repair methods may not
be effective on certain failures. For ex-
ample, a leaking stainless steel tank that
has failed by chloride stress cracking
cannot be repair welded. The heat cre-
ated by grinding to remove the cracks
or by welding over the cracks actually
accelerates the spreading of the crack ,
making it worse. For an effective weld
repair, the leaking area must be cut out
and an insert plate welded flush with the
tank wall. See Figure 26-1.
Failure Analysis
Failure analysis provides an accurate
explanation of the cause of a failure or
loss of performance. Failure analysis
techniques consist of failure modes and
effects analysis, physical failure analy-
sis, and root cause failure analysis.
Failure modes and effects analysis
is a failure analysis process that pro-
vides a diagnosis of the technical cause
of failure using experience gained
from previous failures . Physical fail-
ure analysis is a failure analysis pro-
cess that provides a diagnosis of the
technical cause of failure using rigor- A n understanding of
how a part failed is
ous analytical methods . Root cause ne cessary before
failure analysis is a failure analysis considering repair
process that determines how to prevent methods. Some re-
pair methods ma y
a failure from recurring by understand- not be effective on
ing how the actions of humans or sys- certain fai lures.
tems may have led to the technical
cause of the failure. Root cause failure
analysis seeks to eliminate defects so
that the failure does not recur.

299
Ftgure 26-1. An understanding
of ho ll"'p(lnfailecli.~11e(·es.~Clr)'
"'''1'''
selecting all effective repa ir
".- •.. . - .. . ~

method.

CHLOR IDE STRESS

CRACKING (e.g. UNDER TANK
INSULATION) \

LEAKING STAINLESS STEEL TANK

WELD
OVERLAY\

HEAT ACCELERATES J
SPREAD OF CRACKS

INEFFECTIVE WELD REPAIR

INSERT PLATE
WELDED FLUSH WITH
THE TANK WALL
-.It:1
-
EFFECTIVE WELD REPAIR

Root cause fail ure
a na lysis id entifies
and links 'he three
levels of defi ciency
that lead to failures:
technical, hunum,
and system.
Root cause failure analysis uses fail-
ure modes and effects analysis or physi-
cal failure analysis to determine the root
cau se of fa ilure . Overall, root cause
fai lu re ana lys is ide ntifies and lin ks
thre e level s of de ficienc y that lead to
fa ilures:
• technica l causes that lead to equip-
ment unre liabi lity
• human cau ses that lead to tec hni-
ca l ca uses
• system operations ca use s that lead
10 human causes
Once the technical cause is identified,
human behavior and system operations
causes that contribute to the root cause
of failure can be dete rmined. Once the
root cause of the failure is determined, a
repair plan can be established. Mechani-
cal repa ir and we ld repa ir are two op-
tions for conducting repair welding.
o An understanding of hov..· a part jailed is
necessary 10 pre vent further dama ge to the
part. Some repair options. such as weld-
ing, I1UI )' worsen the condition of the pan.

300 ~ Welding Skills

MECHANICAL REPAIR METHODS
Mechanical repair is a repair weld pro-
cess that con sists of method s that do
not create a metallurgical bond between
the restored parts or at the restored sur-
face . Mechanical repai r methods pro-
duce a physi cal joining or resurfacing
of parts without metallorgical bonding.
Mechanical repai r does not involve a
significa nt heat input, which reduces the
poten tia l for di stortion and re sidual
stresses that may occur in weld repair.
Som e mechanical repai r method s
may be performed in the field where
the failore occurred; however, the failed
par t is generally tak en to a shop for
repair. Mechani cal repair methods in-
clude adhesive bonding, cold mechani -
cal repair, electroplating , thermal spray
coating, and blend grinding.
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive bonding is th e joining of
parts with an adhe si ve placed be-
twee n th e fa ying (matin g) surfa ces ,
wh ich produ ce s an adhe sive bond .
A satisfac tory adhe sive bond requ ires
close contact between the surface s to
be j oin ed .
Adh esive bonded par ts normally
have a high resistance to shear and ten-
sion stresses because the entire surface
are a of th e join t contributes to th e
strength of the bond. On the other hand,
adhes ive bonded parts e xhibit rela-
tively low resistance to clea vage and
pee ling . T hus, if the load is conc en -
trated at the end of the bond, the joint
may start to fail from the loaded end ,
leadin g to incremental separation into
the body of the joint ("unzipping").
To minimi ze or eliminate the nega-
ti ve effect s of peelin g or cl eavage,
adhe si ve bonding may be comb ined
with an additional mechanical fasten-
ing method s uch as riveting. Ri vet-
ing coupled with adhes ive bond ing
al so increases th e fat igu e str eng th.
See Figure 26- 2.
~
Figure 26-2 . Adhesive bonded
joints may resist bonding, resulting
in cleavage or peeling, However,
when co n/hilled with riveting. fa -
~~'~
tigue strength is increased.
I
CLEAVAGE PEELING
JOINT FAILURE
I
M ec ha nica l repair
.~ methods do not ere -
0= at e a met all urg ica l
bond with the surface
ADHESIVE BONDING COMBINED
that is being repaired.
WITH RIVETING
I
Adhesive banding is
.~ the joining (~f parts
.= with an adhesive that
Surface Preparation . A clean, dry sur- is placed between the
faying (ma ting ) sur-
face is necessary for a quality adhesive
faces, producing an
bond. Joint failure commonly occurs adhesive hondo
because of inad equ ate cle aning. Sur-
face cleanliness may be ev aluated by
pouring a small quantity of water over
the cleaned surface. If the water breaks
into individual droplets, some contami-
nation is present. If the water uniformly
covers the surface in a thin layer, the
surface is c lean. Surface preparation
methods for adhesive bonding are abra-
siv e cleaning , so lve nt cleaning, and
chemical con version .
Abrasiv e cleaning includes sand-
blastin g, sanding, and wir e brushin g.
Abrasive c leaning is used to remove
heavy layers of rust or other deposits.
Solvent cleaning includes hot alkalin e
wa shing, solve nt wiping, and vapor
degreasing. When using solvent clean-
ing, the solvents must be properly dis-
po sed of once c lea ning is fini sh ed .
Chemical conversio n includes anodiz-
ing and pho sphatin g.
Repair WeldinK €1 301
 Adhesive Application, Adhesives are
selected ba sed o n the service requi re-
ment s of the bo nd ed pa rt and the
permitted ap plicatio n me thod s , See
Fi g ur e 26- 3, E poxy phe nol ic ad he-
s ives for m stron g bo nds and have
good moisture reten tion, making them
suitable for joining some metal s, glass ,
and phe nolic resi ns, Pol yacrylate es -
ter s are not suitable for structural joi nts
but may be used as press ure-se nsitive
tape ,
A n ad hes ive s up p lier is a go od
source of technica l advi ce on adhesive
se lec tio n, To make any recommenda-
tion , the adhes ive sup plie r m ust be
pro vided the fo llowing informa tion:
• how the part is expec ted to perform
mech anically
• thermal history of the materials be-
ing joi ned
• expected service temperature, in- ,
el uding any temperature cycling

• variable impact resistance

Room temperature up to 130"F
Acrylic • moderate strength
(SS'C) for 10 min to 20 min
• aluminum, copper. and steel

• strong but brittle

Cyanoacrylate 30 sec to 5 min, room temperature
• jewelry, electronic components

• high tensile strength, low peel strength, and

Epoxy: amine, amide, and moisture- and chemical-resistant Varies from slow to fast, room
anhydride cured • widely used for metals, ceramics. and rigid temperature to 3S0' F (17S'C)
plastics

• strength retention from 300' F (l S0'C)

to SOO'F (2S0'C)
Epoxy-phenolic 1 hr at 3S0' F (17S' C)
• some metals. aluminum, steel, glass, and
phenolic resins

Nitril e-phenolic or • flexible with impact resistance Up to 12 hr, 2S0' F (120' C)

neoprenephenolic • metals and some plastics to 300' F (lS0' C)

• good room temperature strength and toughness Applied as hot melt and cures
Polyamide
• aluminum and copper by cooling

• develops strong bond

Polyester Min to hr, room temperature
• fiberglass, sometimes for metal

moderate strength, flexible, good adhesion Applied as hot melt and cures
Polyhydroxyether
nickel and copper by cooling

• flexible
Rubber-containing limited load bearing ability, but high impact Varies, but mostly pressure
(e.g. neoprene. natural rubber) strength and moisture resistance sensitive

most types of materials

Fig ure 26-3. VariOlH adhesives may be used depending 01 1 the service requ irements of the pari 10 be repaired.

302 ~ Welding Skill"

 Manual adhesive application (using
brus hes , rollers, and squeeze bottles)
is th e simp lest met ho d of applyi ng
adhesives. Adequate ventilation is re-
quired, and personal protective equip-
me nt mu st be used to pre vent skin
co ntac t with the adhes ive.
After the adhesiv e is applied , the
part s ar e brou ght into co ntact with
each other and the adhesive is allowed
to cure. Curing is a process that con-
verts the adhesive from its applied con-
diti on to its final so lid state. Curing
occ urs by solvent evaporation or by
c he mical reacti on bet ween two or
more che mical components. For ex-
am ple , co ntac t ce ments cure by so l-
vent eva pora tio n, whereas epoxy and
ureth ane adhesives cure by chemi cal
reacti on.
Heat andlor pressure may be used
to assist curing. The adhesive supplier
should set the limits of using heat and
pressure for a particular product. Ex-
cessive heat andlor pressure may result
in a n unacceptabl e bond. Exce ssive
pressure causes adhesive to be squeezed
out of the bond area, leading to a starved
joint. A starved joint is a joint that con-
tains insufficient adhesive to create an
opt imum bond .
Insufficien t co ntac t pressu re lead s
to an excessively thick adhesive bond
lin e, increasin g the prob ability of a
major flaw d ev el op ing within the
bond , whi ch ca n e ve ntua lly cau se
join t separation.
Cold Mechanical Repair
Cold mechanical repair (metal stitch-
ing) is a repair method that consists of
locks and stitching pins install ed into
the surface of a cracked metal part. A
lock is a precision, high-strength steel
member with a multi -lobed outer con-
tou r. When ins talle d int o preci sion -
drill ed hole patterns they add strength
across a crack by pulling and hold ing
the two sides together.
St itching pin s are in stall ed alo ng
the crack in a continuous, ove rlapping
pattern . Th e spe c ial th read s on the
stitching pin s grip the side wa lls of
the drilled and tapped holes and draw
the sides togeth er rathe r than spread
them apart as norm al threads do.
Cold mecbani cal repair is appropri -
ate for repairing metals that are diffi-
cult to weld, such as cast iron. Welding
on cast iron at temperatures ab o ve
1000 °F often ca uses mor e prohl em s
than it solves. Cold mechanical repair
prevents those probl em s. Co ld me-
chanical repair can also be used on fab-
ricated metal parts that may be difficult
to replace or where welding may cause
distorti on.
Co ld mechani cal repair is com-
monl y used on met al s s uc h as gray
iron, ductil e iron , aluminum, bron ze,
ste el, and fabri cat ed stee l sec tions.
Some appl icat ions include eng ine
block s and head s, pumps , compres-
sors , machine tool s, and gear boxes .
Lock s, stitching pins, and tooling are
manufactured by companies that spe-
cialize in cold mechanical repair. Some
repairs can be done with j ust the stitch-
ing pins or the locks. See Figure 26-4.
For repa irs requi rin g both lock s and
stitching pins, follow the procedure:
I. Determine the extent of cracki ng
by liquid penetrant (PT) or mag-
netic particl e (MT) examination.
2. Drill the hole pattern s tran sver se
to the crack along its length using
the preci sion -drill fixture s.
Cold mechunicul
repair is a repair
3. Drive the locks into the hole pat-
me th od thut con-
tern to lock the opposite sides of sis ts of lo cks mid
the crack togeth er. stitching pins in-
s/ailed into the sur-
face of a cracked
4. Drill, tap, and install the stitching me ta l part 10 add
pin s in an overla pp ing pattern strength ac ross the
along the crac k. crack.
5. Grind or machine the repair flush
with the surface .
Repair Welding ~ 303
Ftgu r e 26-4. Co ld mechanical
repair is used 0 11 large or ( '0111-
ptes castings and forg ings that
are difficu lt replace.
. - . '
10
f1\ D ET ERMINE EXT ENT OF C RAC K ING BY LIQU ID PENETRAN T
~ O R MA GNETI C PARTI CLE INSPECTI ON

DRILL H AMMER
BIT

HOLE
PATTE RN

f2\ DRILL HOLE PATT ERNS

\V TRANSVERS E TO CRACK
{.;'\
3 DRIV E LOC KS INTO HOLE
\V PATTERN

~k
ST ITC HING M AC H I N ED
PIN FLUSH W IT H
~ SURFAC E

~~ L..- QVERLA PPING

PATTERN

f4\ INSTALL STITCHING PINS

\V IN OVERLAPPING PATTERN
f5\ GRIND OR MACHINE REPAIR
\V FLUS H WITH SU RFACE
ALO NG CRAC K
f-OCK·N S TJCJ/. IIIC

rco: I
, Electroplating
Electroplating is the
.~ application of a thin.
·= hord. chrome ('(Kltin/-: to
repair mil/or damage.
Electroplating is the appl icat ion of a
th in, hard , chro me coating to repair
minor dama ge. The coating is typically
between 5 mil and 10 mil thick. The
part is masked with a nonconducting
co mpo und suc h as wax to scree n ar-
ea s not to be plated . Th e part is then
pa rt before e lectro pla ting , and baking
the part a fter electroplati ng . Baking
should be performed for 4 hr at 350°F
( 175°C) or higher.
Electroplating may also be used for
minor rep airs by mean s o f selective
plat ing. Selective plating is a form of
electroplating used for touch-up repairs

r= I
•~
Selective platin g is a
form ofelectroplating
placed in an electro plati ng tank that
co nta ins e lec tro plat ing solut io n. An
·= used for touch- up re- electric current is applied , with the part
pairs that call he pa-
formed in the field or as the negativ e electrode in the circuit,
ill flit' shop. so that metal (plating) is deposited on
the part. Heavier platin g thickness ca n
be achieved by applying a copper flash
pl ate a nd c rea ting the bul k o f th e
buildup (up to '/16") with electroplated
nick el. Wh en e lec tro pla t ing is in-
tended to produce wear resi stance, a
thin layer of electroplate is used .
Elec tro plat ing redu ces the fatigue
st re ng th of rotati ng or recipro catin g
equipme nt s uch as shafts. Fat igue
strength can be restored by peening the
304 @ Welding Skill"
o n wo rn or damaged parts . Selective
plating can be performed in the field or
in the shop to repair nick s, scratches,
o r ding s in rolls , bearing journal s,
wear surfaces, or oil seal surfaces . See
Figure 26 -5 .
An a no de satura ted w it h specia l
plating so lutio n is used for se lective
platin g. A rectified AC pow er supply
is co nnected to the workpiece and the
plating anode. Selecti ve platin g is
acc ompli shed by the relati ve moti on
of the solution-soaked anode and the
workpiece . A varie ty of plating types
is ava ilable; however, hard nickel and
nickel alloy platin g are most co mmon.
 Figure 26-6 . The SWf(l Cf'S of PlJnS
to be repaired wi th thermal spray
coating mltSI be properly under-
RADIUS FOR
GRADUAL
minimize 'he chalice of chip-
C UI 10

/ TRANSI TION ping at the edges.

CORRECT

SWCO Sr/...:tn'l' PI", i,,/:. CI..""I"" J, OH

Ffgure 26-5. Selective plming may be used ill 'he field

~
INCORRECT
-,
CO RNER EDGE

or repair shop to repair nicks. scr atches, or dings 0"

wear surface s.

Thermal Spray Coating Th e depth of und er cuttin g deter-

Co mmon therm al spray coatings used
to add wear resistance are chro mi um
oxide and tungsten carbide. The coat-
ing material can be a rod, powder, or
wire ; and ma y be metal, ceramic, or
cermet-any material that melts or be-
comes plastic in the heating cycle, and
does not degrade whe n heat ed . Base
tempe rat ures ra rely exceed 300 °F
(150 °C) du ring therma l spray coating,
so distortion is not usually a concern .
The rmal spray coat ing thicknesses
range fro m 3 mil to 10 mil, de pend-
ing on the typ e of coating material.
Thin coatings are used for highly wear-
resis tant applica tions. Thi ck coatings
may be used to build up badly worn
base metal before application of a thin,
hard, top cuatin g. Thermal spray coat-
ings are inherentl y porou s and mu st
be scaled with an epoxy coating if cor-
rosio n resis tance is required.
Therma l spray coat ings are suscep -
tible to chip pi ng and d isbo ndin g at
exposed edges . The base metal should
be smoothly undercut to minimize the
chance of chippi ng at the edges of the
coating. For the same reaso n, ther mal
spray coatings should not be applied
to sharp corners. See Fig ure 26-6.
COaling material. in
mines the fini shed deposit th ickn ess.
Some rep airs may require und ercut- lil
~-
the form of rod.
p o w d e r, o r wire,
melts or becomes
ting as deep as 50 mil to remove scor-
plastic ;11 the 'I('tI1-
ing or other dam age .
ing cycle and does
Thermal spray coatings can also be not degrade when
heated can !J(, usn!
a pp lied usin g th e s pra y and fu se
as (J the rmal spray
meth od . Spray and fuse coatings ca n
coating .
be used to rem ove or pre vent poros-
ity. Spray and fuse coatings can be
made relatively thick, from 20 mil to
80 mil, and there is some metall urgi-
cal bonding with the base metal. Abra-
sive particles may be incorporated into
the coating to provide wear resistance.
A disadvanta ge of the spray and fuse
process is that the base metal is sub-
jected to high temperatures, which may
affect its mechanical properties.
Blend Grinding
Blend grinding is a mechanical repair
method in which a thinn ed, pitted, or
cracked region of a part is prepared to
create a gradual transition with the un-
affected surface. The smooth transition
reduces stress that might lead to fai l-
ure in service. Two specific conditions
must be addressed before blend grind-
ing is used : design thickness and the
corrosion allowan ce of the structure.
Repair Welding '€1 305

Blend grinding nUlY
be used to avoid weld
repair when the re-
maining thickness of
a structure provides
adequate strength.
Figure 26-7 . Blend grinding can
be used to repair tank s in which
corrosion has de veloped, and is
an adequate repair if the remain -
ing tank wall has sufficient struc -
t ura l strength . Blend grinding
helps to prevent weld repair
buildup on the surface.
306 ~ Welding Skills
Design thickness is the thickness
of metal required to support the load
on a part. Most parts are built with a
thickness in excess of their design
thickness because the product forms
used to fabricate them, such as plate
and pipe, are available in standard
thicknesses . The designer selects the
nearest available thic kness above the
design th ickness .
Corrosion allowance is an addi -
tional thic kness of metal above the
design thickness that allows for metal
loss from corrosion or wear without
red ucing the design thickness. The
corrosion allowance is based on the
anticipated severity of the enviro n-
ment in which the part is to ope rate.
For example, a part having a Vs" cor-
rosion allowance may withstand a
general corrosion rate of 20 millyr for
approximately 6 yr before repair or
replacement may be necessary.
Blend grinding may be applied to
restore the wall of a storage tank that
exhibits a sharp ring of corrosion.
Blend grinding eliminates the oeed for
weld repair, provided the metal thick-
ness in the corroded ring is above the
m in imum requi red for t he service
loads. See Figure 26-7 .
TANK DEVELOPS GROOVE OF
CORROSION AROUND WALL FROM
STO RA~E OF CORROSIVE LIQUID
(
TAN~
A repairs are restoration of a broken
WATERLlN~j
COR RODED AT
CORRO DED TANK
BLEN D GRINDIN G
REDUCES STRESS
CONCENTRATION
REPAIRED TANK
Wall thickness checks are performed
using ultrasonic thickness measure-
ments to measure the extent of the
area to be ground . There must be an
adequate wall thick ness in the tank to
ensure a successful blend grinding
operation .
Blend grinding is useful when weld
repair is too difficult or unsafe, as in a
storage tank that contains flammable
vapors. Precautions must be taken to
prevent sparks during grinding and to '"'"
ensure that confined space entry pro- )
cedures are followed . A wall thickness
check is performed using ultrasonic
thickness measurements to map and
measure the extent of the area to be
repaired, and the available wall thick-
ness in the area.
WELD REPAIR METHODS
Weld repair is a repair weld process
that consists of methods that join failed
parts or restore their surface using a
welding process. The heat and residual
stresses created by weld repair meth-
ods must be anticipated and allowed
for in the repair plan. Weld repair meth-
ods consist of structural weld repair,
surfacing weld repair, wallpapering,
and sleeving .
Structural Weld Repair
Str uctural weld repair is restoration
of a load-bearing structure by weld-
ing to meet performance require-
ments. Examples of structural weld
rotating shaft, or rebu ild ing a stor-
age tank wall that has worn to less
than the design thickness.
Before structural weld repair is per-
formed, confirm that the res idual
stresses introduced by the weld will
not worsen the failure. Welding must
be don e in a region away from the
critical high stress region where the
failure occurred to prevent continued
failure of the part.
 When fatigue stresses are a factor,
the location of the weld repair must be
in a region away from a change in sec-
tion thickness, where the stress concen-
tration is highest. See Figure 26-8.
Preheating , posthea ting, and distor-
tion cont rol requiremeot s must be de-
tailed in the repair plan. The structural
weld repair technique must minimi ze
distortion and prevent the introduction
of excessive residual stresses. If the re-
pair is greater than W' thick or the joint
is highly restrained, low-hydrogen elec-
trodes should be used. A fillet weld joint
is commonly a highl y restrained joint
and the toe should be undercut when a
fillet weld joint is to be used in fatigue
or high stress applicatio ns.
components to extend their useful life.
Surfacing weld repair can be used for
many appli cati ons, The co mpatibility
r=I
.~
.=
The compatibility of
the base metal and
the surfac ing mate-
of the base metal and the s urfaci ng ria/ determines which
material determines which surfac ing surfacing weld re-
pa ir technique 10 UM' .
weld repair technique to use. As with
structu ral weld re pair, preheatin g ,
po stheatin g , and di st ortion con tro l
must be detailed in the repair plan.
Surfacing weld repair may be done
in the shop or in the field and may be
perform ed automat ically or manually.
Autom ati c surfaci ng we ld re pa ir is
typically performed on large corroded
areas that must be rebuilt. Automatic sur-
faci ng welding machines have one or
two GMAW head s and depo sit metal
on the vertical inside surface. The weld-
ing heads are mounted on a boom that

~
. .. rotates around a centerline and makes
. the metal deposi ts on the inside diam-
SHAFT FRACTURES eter of the corroded surface. Many au-
ROTATION IN REGION OF
( I HIGHEST STRESS tomatic surfacing weld repair machines
are portabl e enough to be used in the
\J------.J('c:=J field as well. For manual surfacing re-
pair in the field , SMAW is preferred,
FRACTURED SHAFT however, OFW proc esses can also be
used because the equipment is portable.
WELD NEW
STUB HERE The thickness of the surfacing weld
ROTATION lA" RADIUS repair should not be greater than twice
SMOOTHLY POLISHED the amount of wear. For hard deposits,

Q~~!_J~=R:E:DESI GNED SHAFT

each layer sho uld be as thin as pos-
sible to prevent cracking, and no more
than two passes sh ould be mad e. A
SOLID SHAFT REPAIR single pass is adequ ate if diluti on be-
tween the surfacing and the compo-
ROTATION
r NEW WELD
STUB nent can be minimized. Surfacing weld
rep air shou ld not be app lied ove r an

(:::::1icMINIM~M RADIUS OF
SMOOTHLY POLISHED
~. existing deposit that has partially worn
away. A worn deposit must be com-
pletely removed by grinding.
SMAW or FCAW may be used after
HOLLOW SHAFT REPAIR
a worn depo sit is co mplete ly ground
Figure 26·ft Whn l makin g a structural weld repair, away, and for applications in which the
ensure the weld is made a way fro m tile region of same component is resurfaced o n a
highest stress.
regular basis. GMAW is used with au-
tom atic or semiautomatic processes .
Surfacing Weld Repair
GTAWand PAW arc typically only used
Surfacing weld repai r is the applica - on small component.' because they are
tion of a layer, or layers, of weld metal more expensive, take longer to apply,
to restore corro ded, worn, or cavitated and there is less availability of wires.
Repair Weld ing @ 307
 OAW is used for bronze bearing sur-
faci ng weld repair. Only one pass of
weld metal is required, which helps
minimi ze distortion. However, if the re-
pair is being don e to improve corro-
sion resistance, the level of dilution by
the base metal must be determined to
ensure that one pass is adequate. If di-
lution of the surfacing weld could be a
problem, a second pass may be required.
Peening is used to minimi ze distor-
tion and cross chec king in surfac ing
deposits. Crosschecking is a series of
parall el cracks about '/2" apart that oc-
cur in brittl e deposits (with hardness
greater than HRC 50) as they under go
stress relief. Peening is done by bat-
tering the surface with a blunt-no sed
hamm er while the temperature exceeds
JOOO°F (540°C) . Peening compresses
the surface and reduces residual ten-
sile stresses . For manual repair weld
processe s, the welder deposits 6" of
surfacing and then peens the surface.
Pitting can occur from underbead
cracking if surfacing weld repair is
appli ed to heat-treatable steels without
sufficient preheating and postheating .
To prevent hardening of the base metal
durin g surfacing weld repair, the base
metal must be preheated to the appro-
priate temperature. Preheat tempera-
ture must be maintained throughout the
procedure , and the component must be
blanket-cool ed after surfacing weld
repair is completed.
Aluminum bronze surfacing welds
are used to restore plungers in pumps,
rams in extrusion presses, and rings on
hydraulic ram s. An aluminum bronze
surfac ing weld wears fast er than the
hardened stee l sleeve it contacts , but
can be replaced mo re easily. Alumi -
num bronze s can also be used to re-
pair weld worn bron ze bearings in
hea vy machinery, and to overlay cast
Wa f/p ap er in g and
sleeving are special - iron gears and sheaves .
ired repair welding
p roc esse s and a re Wallpapering
tess commonly used
than ot he r repair
Wallpapering is a weld repair method
welding processes. that uses thin, usuall y '116" , sheets of
corros ion- re sis tant material that are
308 €1 Welding Skills
welded to a corro de d surface. The
corrosion -resistant sheets are usually
mad e of nickel alloy. GMAW is com-
monl y used for wallpapering using
short circuiting transfer or pulsed spray
transfer. An intermittent fillet weld is
used with adjac ent sheets overlapping
one another. A continuous fill et weld
is made between the new sheet and the
pre viou sly installed sheet. See Figure
26- 9. Continuo us fill et weld s are re-
qu ired around the entire outer edge
of the corrosion -resistant sheet so that
no leakage occ urs . If she e ts larger
than I sq ft are used, spot weld s or
plu g weld s sh ou l d be made in the
middle of each sheet to provide addi-
tional reinforcement.
HapU'I {mema/;",,,,I, 1m:
Figure 26-9. Corrosion-resistant sheets are overlapped.
with a fillet weld made between flnv and prev iously
installed sheets, 10 repair (I corroded surface.
Sleeving
Sle eving is a weld repair method that
appli es surfacing to badly worn shafts
by welding snug- fitting semicircular
form s to cov er the shaft surfac e. Half
sleev es are usually mad e of a wear-
resistant cobalt alloy. Transverse shrink-
age tends to pull the half sleeves tightly
down on the shaft when sleeves are lon-
gitudinally welded to one another. Lon-
gitudinal relief grooves are cut into the
shaft to prevent heat buildup that might
lead to crackin g where the half sleeves
arc welded together.
WELD REPAIR PLANS
When develop ing a we ld rep air plan ,
all fact ors th at lead to a success ful
repair mu st be co ns ide re d . Fact ors
include determining necessity of re-
pairs , repair codes , identifying ba se
metal , joint profil e, distortion control ,
and rep air we lding pr ocedures. See
Fig ure 26 - 10.
Determining Necessity of
Repairs
Before an y rep airs can take place, it
mu st be det ermined wh ether a weld
repair is the best course of action for
the part. Some components can be re-
paired , whil e others are normall y re-
placed . Man y fact or s de te rmine th e
type of repair to be made, or whether
any re pa ir a t a ll s ho uld be m ad e .
Based on the e ffects of distortion and
res idual stress in the performance of
the co mpo ne nt, mechan ical rep air
methods may offer better option s.
Mechani cal repair meth ods may pro-
vide better results because if an incor-
rect welding procedure is used , the re
is an increased chance of failure .
Th e com ponent or equipmen t name
must be doc ume nte d. A fabricatio n
drawing number is assigned to the com-
ponent to he designed. The fabrication
drawin g number for th e compon ent
contains essent ial data , such as mate-
rials of construction and heat treatment
requirem en ts, whe n applicable . For
shafts , the fabrica tion drawing num-
ber contai ns other esse ntia l ioforma-
tion necessary to ma ke an e ffec tive
rep air. Esse ntial informati on such as
shaft finish; radii, if stepped locations;
special fits; existing surface treatment s;
and run out are includ ed.
The techni cal cause of failure must
be known and und erst ood. Using an
inappropriate weld repa ir method may
cause the repair to fail rap idly. Inap-
propria te we ld repair method s are a
co mmo n probl em w he n pe rform ing
weld repai r on fatigue failures.
C Per AIVS. D/ ./ . Structural Welding Codc-
Steel. whenperforming repairs 10 an existing
stm ctllre. all modifications mllst meet de-
sign requirements specifiedby the engineer.
The engineer must prepare a comprehen-
sive plan (weld repair plan) fo r all repair
work to be performed.
Repa ir C od es. Weld repair ma y be
governed by a code, in whi ch case it
is necessary to foll ow the applicable
requirements, or risk penalties for vio-
lation of the code . Som e codes ad-
dre ss rep air welding requirement s as
a speci fic subjec t and ot hers requi re
welding qualification s that apply to
both new and repair welding . Codes
dealing spec ifica lly with repairs are
sometimes called in-service inspecti on
and repair codes. All repair codes re-
quire qu ali fied we ldi ng procedures,
qualified welders, and proof that weld- A documented re-
pair we ld ing plun
ers are qualified to perform the required " "1.\'/ be created be-
procedures. Most codes rely on ASME fore (>l'eI)' job.
Section IX and AWS D 1.1 to describe
the requ irements for qualifi ed weldin g
procedures and welders. Nondestru c-
tive e xa mination must be performed
by qualifi ed ex am ine rs , and th e re-
sults interpr eted by inspecto rs qu ali-
fied in the ap pl icab le code . T he
followin g spec ific types of equip ment
are cove red by repair codes :
• Bridges, steel-frame buildin gs, and
ships may only be repaired with
spe c ia l authori zation . Structu ral
steel and bridges are built in acco r-
dan ce with American Weldin g So-
ciety Codes . Th e repa ir work must
be designe d: a pproved . Wel der s
must be qualified according to the
code used ; and the work must also
be inspected. Writt en weldin g pro-
cedures are required .
• Tran sport ation equipment and co n-
tainers, such as railroad locomotives
and rail road car whee ls, high -
strength, low-alloy steel truck frames,
and compressed gas containers are
not usually weld repaired. Weldin g
is only permitted with specia l per-
mission and approva l.
Repair We/ding ~ 309
 Determining Nece ssfty of Repairs
Part/equipment
Fabrication drawing numbers
Identify failure mode
Repair options
Repair Codes
Name of code
Determining Type of Repair
Requirements for stress analysis
Base Metal
Base metal identification
Effect of welding on mechanical propertie s
Heat treatment requirements after repair
Cleaning requirements before welding
Special disassembly procedures
Controll ing Distortion
Effect of welding on distortion
Special alignment methods to minimize distortion
Special repair weld sequence to reduce distortion
Special support/bracing during weld repair
Joint Profile
Access of welder and filler metal to repair area
Method of defect/crack excavation
Method of checking for total defect/crack removal
Final surface preparation before repair
Weld ing Personnel and Equipment
Method of qualifying welders
Welding equipment
Backup welders and support personnel
Special safety requirements
Repair Procedures
Welding process
Gas shielding
Filler metal type and diameter
Tack welds or buttering
Number of passes (if surfacing repair)
Welding position
Welding technique
Preheatlint erpass temperatu re control
Peening
Postheating or cooling method
Repair Wrap-up
Inspection
Testing of repair
Final machining/su rfacing treatment
Cleanup
Reassembly

Figure 26-10 . A weld repair pla n detail s all required stl'/H to successfulty complete a repair weld.

310 ~ Welding Skills

• Aircraft may be repaired by weld-
ing , under stringent controls. The
welde r performing rep airs on air-
craft should be certified in accor-
dance with MI L-T-50 120 , Test s;
Aircraft and Missile Operators Cer-
tification. The we lde r mu st be
qualified for the type of metal be-
ing welded, the welding process to
be used, and the cate gory of parts
invo lved.
Furthermore, the welder should
be qualified in accordance with the
requirements of the Federal Avia-
tion Ad ministrati on (FAA) guide -
lines contained in two appli cable
documents: Accep tab le Meth ods,
Techniques and Practices- Aircraft
Inspection and Repa ir, and the Air
Frame and Power Plant Mec ha n-
ics A ir Frame Handbook . These
document s provide precautio nary
information, techn iques, practices,
and meth ods that may be used in
repair welding. Alt ern ative tech-
niques mu st be approve d by the
FAA. The late st ver si on o f any
sta ndard or co de sho uld al ways
be used .
S tric t reg ulation of re pa ir
welding for aircraft is required be-
cause many aircraft parts are made
of materials heat-tre ated to obtain
high strength. Weldin g repair may
compromi se their mech ani c al
properti es.
• Rot ating equi pme nt s uch as tur -
bines, generators, and large engines
are generally covered by cas ua lty
insurance. Weld repair is performed
o nly after approval of a writte n
we ldi ng proc edure by the in sur-
ance co mpany.
• Fired boil ers and pressure vesse ls
are covered by various repair codes.
Boilers and pressure vessels are cov-
ered by AN SIIN B-23, Nationa l
Board Inspection Code. Addition-
ally, pressure vessels are covered by
API 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection
Code; Materials, Inspection, Rating;
Repair; and Alteration. An autho-
ri zed ins pec tor (A I) mu st be in-
vo lved or give approva l dur ing
repairs and alterations.
Th e rep air firm co ntacts the ju -
risdict ional auth ority, the insurer,
and the owner of the boiler or pres-
sure vesse l to en su re that the
method and extent of repair is ap-
proved before making the repair.
• Stora ge tank repairs are covered
by API 653 , Tank Inspection, Re-
pair. Alteratio n, a nd Reconst ruc-
ti on , and pipin g repa irs b y API
570 , Piping Inspection, Repa ir, Al -
teration, and Rerating,
All welding procedu res and weld-
ers mu st be qualified in accordance
with ASM E Sect ion IX, Welding and
Brazing Qua lifi cations.
Som e co mpanies spe cia lize in the
rep air and a lteratio n of boi lers and
pressure vessels. Th ey are authorized
by the appropriate j urisdi ctio nal au-
thority; possess a current ASM E code
sy mbol stamp cove ring the scope of
the repair work; or have a current Na-
tional Board " R" repai r code symbol
stamp.
Analysis of operating stresses may
be required to en sure tha t ade qua te
weld metal is applied .
Identifying Base Metal
The base metal to be welded must be
identifi ed , including its heat -treated
and/or mechanically worked condition
to determine the weldability of the metal
and the proper repair performed. The
integrity of the base metal is influenced
by heat treatment and mechanical work.
Original docum entation and draw-
ings ar e helpful in determini ng the The base metal must
specificat io ns or de script ion of the he identified bef o re
attempting a weld
bas e metal. Without documentation , repair /0 determin e
the base me tal ca n be identified by the weidability of the
using a spark test, chem ical analysis , metal and the ope of
repa ir that should
or X-ray fluorescence analysis. A spark be performed.
test ca n det ermine the approxi ma te
base metal chemistry for carbon steels.
Repair Wetdillg @o 311
 Chemical analysis requires that drillings
be taken from the item and provides an
accurate composition of the base metal.
X- ray fluorescence ana lys is can iden -
tify many types of alloys .
Even when the chemical analysis or
£ WARNING materi al ty pe is known . the hardness
Neve r pe rfor m weld may no t be indi cat ed. Hardn ess is a
repair o n an unidentified
base me tal. key indicator of mech anical properties
for carbon and alloy steels. Heat treat -
ment may be requ ired after wel d re-
pa ir to restore the part to its optimum
mechanical condition, particularly with
mach ine ry compo ne nts, whic h are
usu all y q ue nch ed and tempe red to
high strength level s.
Distortion Control
The effec t of heat and residual stresses
on tolerances and other critical dimen-
s ions mu st be es tima ted before weld
repair. D urin g we ld re pa ir, speci a l
alignment methods may be requ ired to
monitor d istortio n, coupled with spe-
cia l sup po rts or br acing and spe cial
rep air seq uences to redu ce distortion .
For repai r of mechanical equipment,
align ment marker s may be used . An
alignm ent ma rker is a ce nter punch
mark made ac ross the joint in var ious
locati ons. Alignment markers are use-
ful in precise repair work to maintain
dimensional co ntro l or alignme nt dur-
ing weld ing. Whe n re pairing shafts. a
dial indicator may be used to measure
distortion.
Intermi tten t we lding and back-step
we lding are used to red uce distorti on .
Intermitt e nt weld ing an d back- ste p
weld ing help balance out stresses and
the effects of heat in the repair.
6 Pa AIVS. DJ .J. Structural Wctding Code-
Steel. the old weld is rem oved by grinding,
ma chining, chipping. or gouging. Addition-
ally bef ore weld repair methods are per-
fo rmed. the surface of the structure to be
repa ired must be thoroughly cle aned offo r-
eign matter, including paint to at least 2"
f rom the root of the weld.
312 €l' Weld/tlMSkills
Support or bracin g d uring we ld
rep air is required on co mplex or large
j obs to ens ure the pa rts und er repair
do not move and are free of unneces-
sary forces. The supports or braces are
necessary to align the parts and should
not interfere while the weld repair is
being mad e. It may be nece ssary to
tempora rily tack we ld the support s or
braces to the structural members to sup-
port the load.
Joint Profiles
The repair area must be accessible by
the we lde r an d the welding elec trode
or filler metal. Oth er wise. mak ing the
repair is di ffi cult and the cha nce of
success fully repairing the area is low.
Acc ess to the repair area mu st allow
the most comfortable welding position.
Root opening and backgou ging re-
quirem ent s mu st be spe c ifie d to
achieve a full-pen etration weld. If the
back side of the weld cannot be
backgouged, a backing bar may be re-
quired. The groo ve angle should be the
minimum possible to reduce the amount
of weld metal added, but should be suf-
ficient to allow room to manipulate the
electrode at the root of the repair.
When weld repairing casting defects.
the groove angle depend s on the alloy.
The groove angle is opened up with cast
austenitic stainless steels compared with
cast steels because the former are more
pron e to ho t cracking . Buttering the
sides of the joint may be necessary with
cast austenitic stainless stee ls to over-
come suscep tibility to hot crac king.
Low heat input is also beneficial. Nickel
alloys are eve n more suscept ible to hot
cracking than austenitic stainless steels.
and the groove ang le may be opened
up even furth er.
Evaluating Defects and Cracks.
Crack or defect remo val is usually per-
formed with ox yfu el gas cutting or
with air carbon ar c goug ing . Sp ecial
gouging tips should be selec ted based
on joint preparation . For some metals.
air carbon arc goug ing can introduce
ca rbon into the surface and the HAZ.
By clos ely watching the joint surface ,
it is possible to sec if cracks are spread-
ing. Metals that requi re preheatin g in
weldin g require the same preheat con-
ditions during cutting or gouging.
Testing for Defect and C r a ck Re-
moval. Liquid penetrant examination
is the most common method of check-
ing for crack s. All liquid penetrant
re sidues mu st be rem ov ed after ex -
am ination by w ip ing with a ra g
soaked in a suita ble so lvent for so l-
vent removable penetrant or with wa-
ter for water was hable penetrant.
Final surface preparation before re-
pair is requ ired when the surface pro-
duced by cutting or go uging is not as
smooth as desired, or has been contami-
nated. Unless the resulting groove is
smooth without und ercutting or con-
tamination, grindin g or machining may
be required. Grindin g mu st achie ve
bri ght metal without excessive heat
buildup. If machining is used, all fluids
must be cleaned off the surface. After
grinding or machining, the surface is
carefully inspect ed for cracks and ox-
ide particles to ensure they are removed.
If magnetic particle or liquid penetrant
examination is required, the surface must
be cleaned one final time before testing.
Weld Repair Procedures
Weld repair procedures must take into
consideration cleaning methods, di s-
assembly, preheating, welding proce ss,
postheating , weld repair equipme nt,
weldin g support personnel , safety re-
quirements, inspe cting weld repairs,
and cleanup.
Clea ning Methods, Su rface or sub-
surface conta m ina nt s ca n lead to
crac king , porosit y, or lac k of fusio n
in a wel d repa ir. Co nta minants pen -
etra te pits, cracks, patches, pl at ing,
and pinholes, and are difficult to re-
mov e. Met al s re spond in different
w ays to con ta mina nts introdu ced
from the heat of welding. Nickel al-
lo ys c rack wh en ex posed to s u lfur
co mpo unds s uc h as gr ease o r o il.
Sta inless stee ls crac k when ex posed
to zin c, such as from co nta mina te d
grinding wheels.
The imm ediate work area must be
cleaned of all dirt, grease, paint, galva-
ni zin g, or any other coating. Th e
method of cleaning depends on the ma-
terial to be removed. For most construc-
tion and production equipment, steam
cle aning is used . If steam cleaning is
inadequate, solvent cleaning may be
used, provided proper dispo sal condi -
tions are establi shed . For sma ll com-
ponent s, acid or so lve nt dipping may
be advisable. Acids must be completely
removed from the base metal after dip-
ping to prevent excessive corrosion.
Mechani cal cl eanin g methods in-
c lude grinding with discs or whe el s,
power wire brushing, and blast cleaning
with abrasives. Blast cleaning with abra-
sives is very effective, but the abrasive
must not be recycled or contamination
can return. Blast cleaning is oft en the
After the crack is re-
only way of re mo ving zinc conta mi-
moved. g rind ing is
nati on bec au se grindin g and po wer required to smooth
wire brushing only smear the zinc over the surface. Nondr -
structive examination
the surface .
mllst be used to en-
Where zinc is a specific contaminant, sure cruel...{ haw!been
the dithizone test for residual zinc must removed.
be carried out. It is important to perform
the dithizone test to check for cleanli -
ness when performing repair welding
on carbon steels, stainless steels, nickel
alloy s, or heat-resistant castings .
Disassembly. Co mponents that ar c
sensitive to the heat of welding must
be protected or di sas sembled . Instru -
ment tubing. wirin g, lubrication lines,
and critical surfaces must not inter-
fere with the repair and must not be
ex pos ed to damage by heat , sparks,
or weld spatter. Disassembly may re-
qu ire skilled mech anics ex perience d
with the eq uipme nt. Sh eet met al
baffles may be used to protect adja-
cent machinery and fir eproof cl oth
may be used to protect critical surfaces.
Repair Welding ~ 313
 Preheating. T he preh eatin g rat e de-
pends on the amount of metal involved.
For large sect ions of met al, the tem -
perature rise in the component should
not be grea ter than 100°F/hr and the
ent ire section thickness of the area to
be repaired must be at the preheat tem-
pera ture fo r V2 hr before star ting the
repair. Based on the service conditions
to whic h the co mpo nent is ex posed,
it may be necessary to per for m a
bake-out. A bake-out is a temperature-
control process used on a cas ting to
remove hydrogen and other co ntami-
nant s that co uld cause cracking dur-
ing welding. A typical bake-out would
be performed a t 600 °F (3 16°C) to
800°F (426 °C) for 4 hr to 8 hr.
Peening is done by battering the sur-
face with a blunt-nosed hammer, while
the temperature is greater than IOOO°F
(540 °C), to compress the surface and
reduc e residual tensil e stresses . When
manual welding, the welder deposits 6"
of weld metal and then peen s the
welded area.
Ml/Iu EIrr /ri,- M"n"fij" I"ri,,~ C"mpan.)'
Weld repairs are commonly perform ed ill the fiel d. WefdillK equipment must be
available to complete weld repairs with a minimum ofdowntime fo r the equipment.
314 ~ Welding Skills
Welding Process. The welding process
is selected tn achieve a so und repair
co nsistent with the conditions at the
time of repair. For these reasons, OAW
and SMAW are often preferred for field
weld repairs. Stri nger (straig ht) beads
are preferred ove r weave beads to re-
duce heat input. When ever possible,
the j oint should be welded in the flat
(I G) posi tion to produce the most ef-
fective weld qua lity.
Th e fille r met al must be se lected
for optim um weldability. A smaller di-
amet er is prefe rred to reduce heat in-
put , whic h is bene ficial in reducing
di stortion .
Tack welds may be required to main-
tain alignment of the joints. Tack welds
should be performed to the same quali-
fied procedures as the main repair weld.
If not, they must be ground away and
the gro und area inspect ed for cra cks
using liquid pen et rant ex amination.
Buttering may be used to avoid the need
for preheat or postheat.
When performing a surfacing repair,
the minimum number of passes neces-
sary to meet dilution requi rement s is
preferable.
Postheating. Postheat ing may be re-
quired afte r weld repa ir to res to re
mechanical properti es. Postheating is
required to stress-re lieve the rep air
weld and redu ce d isto rtio n. In some
cases. slow coo ling und er a blan ket
may serve to stress-relieve the part so
that a complete postheating cycle is not
required. The problem with a com plete
postheating cycle is the poss ibility of
further dis tortion.
Weld Repair Equipment. Weldi ng
equipme nt req uired for we ld rep airs
must be readil y avai lable to pre vent
delays to the work. Standby equipment
is also required. Equipme nt required
for weld repair includes electrode hold-
ers, grinders, wire feeders, and weld-
ing ca bles . Su ffic ient power sources
must be available to power all neces-
sary equipm ent. If the job runs around
the clock , pro vision s for lighting and
personnel co mfort (such as windbreaks
or covers) sho uld be provide d . Wind
and rai n are two conditions that ad-
ve rsely affect fie ld we ldi ng. Wh en
GMAW and GTAW processes are used
o uts ide , the y ar e restri ct ed to full y
sheltered location s since it takes very
littl e wind to disturb them.
Welding mat eri al s mu st al so be
readily avai labl e for the entire job.
Welding ma teri als that are need ed in-
clude filler met als, insert s, reinforce-
ment, fu el for pr eh eat and interpass
te mpe rature co ntro l, shie lding gases.
a nd fuel for e ng ine-powe red we ld-
ing machines.
Welding Support Personnel. Trained
we lde rs and as sistants sho uld be ca-
pabl e of performing the e ntire j ob.
The re should be a sufficie nt number
of welders av a ilable to perform th e
we ld repair and , if nece ssary, th ey
should be rotated to main tain quality
output. For code rep ai rs, the welder
must be formall y qu ali fied to the ap-
plicabl e welding procedures. For non-
code work, welders should be qualified
to a mock-up. A mock-lip is a simula-
tion of the re pa ir area on wh ich the
welder perform s wo rk in the ex pec ted
position of the rep air.
Safety Requirements. Sp eci al sa fety
requirements mu st be met whe n per-
for ming weld rep air, Sa fe ty requ ire-
ments incl ude co nfi ne d space entry
procedure s, proper g rou nding, a nd
co rrectly sized we lding cables.
Co nfined spaces ca n co ntai n life-
threat ening atmos phere s such as oxy-
gen deficiency, combustible gases, and/
or tox ic gases, and ca n cause entrap -
ment. Oxygen deficiency is ca used by
the displacement of oxyge n as welding
take s place, the co mbustion or oxi da-
tion process, oxygen being abso rbed
by the vessel by corrosion, and/or oxy-
gen being con sum ed by bacterial ac -
tion. Oxygen-deficient air can result in
inj ury or death . See Figure 26-11.

Ffgure 26-11 . Oxy gen -defi ci ent

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF atmospheres in confilled spaces call
OXYGEN-DEFICIENT ATMOSPHERES' cause life-threate ning condi tions.

lliLOxygen Content' Effects and Symptoms '

19.5 Minimum permissible oxygen level
Decreased ability to work strenuously. May impair
15-1 9.5 condition and induce ea rly symptoms in persons with
coronary, pulmonary, or circulatory problems
Respiration exertion and pulse increases. Impaired
12-14
coordination, perception, and judgment

10 -11 Respiration furth er increases in rate and depth, poor

judgment, lips turn blue

Mental failure, fainting. unconsciousness. ashen face. blue

8- 9
lips, nausea, and vomiting

8 min, 100 % fatal; 6 min, 50 % fatal; 4 min-S min, recovery

6-7
with treatme nt

4-5 Coma in 40 sec, convulsions, respiration ceases, death

.. values are approximate and vary with state 01healthand physical activities
t % by volume
* at atmospheric pressure

Repair Weldin g 0 315

 Before e nte ring a permit-required
confined space , an e ntry permit mu st
be posted at the e ntrance or otherwise
made ava ilable to e ntrants. The permit
mu st be signed by the e ntry supe rv i-
sor. A signed entry permit verities that
pre-ent ry prepara tions have been co m-
pleted and that the space is safe to e n-
te r. See Fig ure 26- 12.
T he work piece co nnec tion must be
coonec ted to the wo rkpiece with go od
electric al co otact. T he workpiece lead
should make a finn , pos itive co nnec -
tion with the wel ding po we r so urce .
Th e placement of the workpiece con-
nection determines arc charac teristics
and prevents or minimi zes arc blow.
Wel din g ca bles mu st be sized cor-
rcctl y for the j ob. A hot cable indica tes
the ca ble is too sma ll, or the connec -
tion s a re in ad equ ate . In a ll c ases,
weld ing cables mu st not be used if the
in su lation become s dam aged or the
connection s become hot.
Many repairs of in-place storage tanks are
perfo rmed hy compan ies specializing ill
such repairs. Repair methods mllst be ap-
proved by the authority having jurisdiction
and the insurer of the sto rage tank. When
repairs are made to a p ressure vessel, a
Form R-I . Report of Welded Repair or Al-
teration must he signed by the inspector who
autho rized the repai rs and by the contrac-
tor performing the repairs. Copies must be
sent to the proper slate authorities. and must
be retain ed by the vessel owner and the
authorized inspector:
Inspecting Weld Repairs. Inspect ion
[Juring welding . the sho uld be do ne in form all y during th e
quality of the repair
should he continna tly re pai r and forma lly at the end of th e
chec ked to prevent repair. During we ldi ng , the quality of
problems during the th e repa ir s hou ld be con tin ua lly
f ormal inspection at
the cmnpletion ofthe
checked to catc h and correct problems
job. before the formal in specti on . The fi-
nal weld s should be smooth and with-
out not ch es, a nd re inforc ing, if used,
should blend smoo thly into the existing
structure . G rind ing may be necessary
to main ta in smoo th contou rs and to
316 0 We/dil/Ii Skills
perform surface repairs on sea ls. A for-
mal inspection brief should be prepared
with the types of nondestruct ive exami-
nat ion s req uired. Exa m ine rs mu st be
qualified if required by specific codes;
the acce pta nce criteria of the govern-
ing code must be used.
Testing of a repair weld may involve
a pressure test such a' a hydrostatic test
A pressure test is not mandatory unless
specifically required by the applicable
code. Other procedures may be substi-
tuted if approved by the authorized in-
spector or code. Examples of alternate
tests incl ude 100 % radiography of re-
pair welds; liquid penetrant exami nation
or magnetic part icle examination of all
welds not radiographed; or a se nsitive
leak test such a' a vacuum box test.
Cleanup, Cleanup inclu des removal of
stro ng backs or ot hcr c la mps, and
smooth grinding of the locations where
such item s were attac hed . Th e ground
ar ea sho uld be in sp ected wi th liq uid
penetrant exa mination or magneti c par-
ticle examination to e nsure it contains
no crac ks or other defects, G round ar-
eas that requ ire wcld re pair s must fol-
low exactl y the sa me we ld proced ure
as the rep air itse lf. incl uding preheat
and int erpass te mp erature contro l if
necessar y. A ll we ld stubs, we ld spat-
te r, slag, a nd ot her residues must be
re moved . Gri ndi ng du st mus t be re-
moved since it is abrasive and may in-
filt ra te working joints a nd bearings,
creating future problems.
Reassem bl y is required for piece s
of machinery taken apart for repair
wel ding . Particular attention mu st be
pa id to proper fit -up. If necessary,
rem ac hining or gr ind ing may be nec-
e ssary to re store proper fit-up or
alignme nt. All ot her ite ms such as lu-
bri cati o n li ne s. ca ble. a nd co ndu it
should be reassem bled. Once all wrap-
up procedu res ha ve bce n co mpl eted,
th e re pa ired machin e ry sho uld be
give n an operatio nal test before being
ret urned to service .
 _~ Confined Space ~ Hazardous Area IPermit No. 4672 555 11
All COPIES OF PERMITWlLl BE POSTED AT JOB SITE UNTIL JOB IS COMPLETED. PERMIT GOOD ONLY ON DATE(S) INDICATED.

SITE LOCATION and OESCRIPTIO N PERMIT SPACE HAZARDS (indicate specif ic hazard s with initials)
Bunker Wate r Tank #2 _ _ Oxyg en def iciency (less than 19.5%)

PURPOSE OF ENTRY _ _ Oxygen enri chment (greater than 23.5%)

Repair Crack in Tank _ _ Flammable gases or vap or s (greater than 10% of LEL)

SUPERVISOR(S) in charge of crew(s). (Type of Crew-Phone #)

- - Ai rborn e combustible dust (meets or exceeds LEL)
_ _ Toxi c gases or vapors (greater than PEL)
Michael Green Maintenance Shift II - x5924
-- Mechanical Hazard s

- - Electrical Shock
- - Materials harmful to sk in
AUTHORIZED DURATION OF PERMIT
_ _ En gulfment
DATE: 10/ 2 to 10/4
- - Other:
TIME: 7:00 AM to 3:00PM

• BOLD DENOTES MINIMUM REQUIRE MENTS TO BE COMPLETED AND REVIEWED PRIOR TO ENTRY·
REQUIREMENTS COMPLETED DATE TIME REQUIREMENTS COMPLETED DATE TIME

Loc k OutJOe-.energ izelTag-out 1012 0900 Full Body Harn ess wr o- ri ng 10 /4 08,00
Line(s) Broken- Capp ed-Blanked 1012 11,00 Emergency Escape Retri eval Equ ip 10 /4 08,00
Purge-Flush and Vent 10/3 09,00 Lifelines 10/4 08,00
Ventilation 10/3 10 ,00 Fir e Extinguishers 10 /4 08,00
Secure Ar ea (Po st and Flag) 1012_ 0800 Lightin g (Exp losiveproof) 10/4 08,00
Breathing Apparatu s 10 /4 08,00 Protective Clo thing 1Qi1.- 08,00
Resuscitator-Inhalator 10/4 08,00 Resplrator(s) (Air Purifying) 10/4 08,00
Standby Safety Personnel 10 /4 08,00 Burning and Welding Permit 10/4 QMQ
Note: Items that do not apply enter N/A in the blank.

** RECORD CONTINUOUS MONITORING RESULTS EVERY 2 HOURS

CONTINUOUS MONITORING '· Permissible
10/4
TEST(S) TO BE TAKEN Entry Level
20 .5 20.6 20 .7 20.5 20 .5
PERCENT OF OXYGEN 19.5% to 23.5% - - -- - -
LOWER FLA MMA BLE U MIT Unde r 10% --'L ...2-- .lL -'L - -
-"L -- --
..Q.- ..Q.- .a; ~ ..Q.- - -
CARBON MONOXIDE
Aromatic Hydrocart:lOn
35 PPM +
1 PPM+ 5 PPM" .z., ...L 2- ...L --
_,_ --
--
- -
--
N/A
Hydrogen Cyanide (Skin) 4PPM* -- -- --
NlA
Hydrogen Sulfide 10PPM + 15 PPM" -- -- - -
Sulfur Dioxide 2PPM+ 5 PPM ' l ....L L L ....L - - -- --
N/A
Ammonia 35 PPM" -- -- -- --
, Short-te rm exposure limit: Employee can work in area up to 15 min.
+ 8 hr time weighted avg: Employee can work in area 8 hr (longer with appropria te respiratory protection).

REMARKS:

GAS TESTER NAM E & CHECK # 1NSTRUMENTISj USED MODEL &/OR TYPE SER IAL &/OR UNIT #

Marty James Combination Gas Meter Industrial Sc ientif ic 15A

SAFETY STANDBY PERSON IS REQUIRE D FOR ALL CONFINED SPACE WORK

SAFETY STANDBY PERSON(S) CHECK # NAME OF SAFETY STANDBY PERSON(S) CHECK #

~.te Washington 3312_
Tony Linder 3318

SUPERVISOR AUTHORIZING ENTRY AMBULANCE 2800 FIRE 2900

ALL ABOVE CONDITIONS SATISFIED -.LI\~ I'J"",," Safety 490 1 Gas Coordinator 4529/5387

Fh mrc 26· 12. A confined .\"I'a("(' entr y permit form dOCllll1ellt.~ preparations. procedures. and required equipment,

Repair Welding ~ 317

 I. An understanding of how a part failed is necessary before considering repair methods. Some
repair methods may not be effective on certain failures .
2 . Root cause failure analysis identifies and links the three levels of deficiency that lead to fail-
ures: technical, human, and system.
3 . Mechanical repair methods do not create a metallurgical bond with the surface that is being
repaired .
4. Adhesive bonding is the joining of parts with an adhesive that is placed between the faying
(mating) surfaces, producing an adhesive bond .
5 . Cold mechanical repair is a repair method that consists of locks and stitching pins installed
into the surface of a cracked metal part to add strengt h across the crack . \)
6 . Electroplating is the application of a thin, hard, chrome coating to repair minor damage.
7 . Selective plating is a form of electroplating used for touch- up repairs that can be performed in
the field or in the shop .
8. Coating material, in the form of rod, powder, or wire, melts or becomes plastic in the heating
cycle and does not degrade when heated can be used as a thermal spray coating.
9. Blend grinding may be used to avoid weld repair when the remaining thickness of a structure
provides adequate strength .
10. The compatibility of the base metal and the surfacing material determines which surfacing
weld repair technique to use.
I I. Wallpapering and sleeving are specialized repair welding processes and are less commonly used
than other repair welding processes .
12. A documented repair welding plan must be created before every job.
13. The base metal must be identified before attempting a weld repair to determine the weldability
of the metal and the type of repair that should be performed.
14. After the crack is removed, grinding is required to smooth the surface. Nondestructive exami-
nation must be used to ensure cracks have been removed.
15. During welding, the quality of the repair should be continually checked to prevent problems
during the formal inspection at the completion of the job.

I. What are the three levels of deficiency analyzed by root cause failure analysis?
2. When are mechanical repa irs required rather than repair welding?
3. What is adhesive bonding?
4. Why must an adhesive bonded joint be allowed to cure?
5. On what type of metal is cold mechanical repa ir primarily used?
6. What is electroplating?
7. What type of bond is produced between thermal spray coating and the base metal?
8. Why must thermal spray coatings be applied to smooth base metals and not sharp corners?
9. What conditions must be present in order to use blend grinding as a repair option?
10. What are the two major types of weld repair?
I I. What is the benefit of peening a surface?
12. What welding process is commonly used for wallpapering?
13. Why is it important to know the type of base metal before attemptiug a weld repair?
14. Why is cleaning of the surface so important to repair welding?
15. What common types of inspection are used to inspect weld repairs?
318 ~ Welding Skills
 - --

Pipe is used to transport oil, gas, and water in a system. Pipe is also used to transport chemicals (nitro-
gen. air) or utilities. Pipe is used extensively fo r piping systems in buildings, refin eries, and industrial
plants. The use of pipe has gained acceptance in construction and ofte n takes the place of beams, chan-
nels, or angle iron. Pipe is commercially available in a wide range of diameters, wall thicknesses, and
lengths.

Welding is the easiest, most common method ofjoining sections ofpipe. Pipe welding eliminates compli-
cated threaded j oint designs, permits free flow of liquids, and reduces installation costs. Welding is
also a practical and eff ective cost-cuttin g technique in joining noncriti cal low-p ressure piping fo r
refrigeration or HVAC systems. Welded j oints are not designed to be disassembled. Repair or replace-
ment requires removal of a section by cutting.

PIPE CLASSIFICATION and ASME c lass ify pipe thickne ss A CAUTION

Pipe for mo st applicati on s is made
from sta in less stee l or low -carbon
stee l. S pec ial applica tio ns may use
ch rom e-m ol y stee l. nickel stee l,
wrought steel, low-alloy steel, copper,
a lumi num , o r br ass p iping . Pip e is
se lec ted ba sed o n th e wo rking load
pr essure an d the material to be
co ntro lled in the pipe. For examp le,
steam lines in a nuclear pow er plant
must be strong e noug h to withs ta nd
high press ures without the possibilit y
of fai lure ca used by defective welds
or corrosion.
Pipe dimension is determined using
the nominal pipe size (NPS). For pipe
14" and larger in di am eter, the NPS
is the sa me as th e outs ide diameter.
Pip e wall th ic kn es s is s p e c if ie d
usin g one of two standards: ANSI or
A STM I ASM E. ANSI cla ssifies pipe
thi ckn esses usin g schedule numbers
(S ch edul e 40, 60, 80, etc .). ASTM
usin g nomin al in side di ameter as Determine ce rtification
requirements for welders
required by load requirements. Tb e
before procee ding with any
nomina l inside diame ter is determined pipe welding ap pli cat ion .
using standard weig ht pipe. The three
sta nda rd pipe wei gh ts are sta nda rd
(STD), extra-strong (XS) , and doubl e
ext ra- st ron g (XXS) . As the wall
thickn ess of ex tra -s tro ng pipe and
dou ble extra-strong pipe is increased ,
the in side diamete r is re duced . Th e
outside diame ter rem ains cons tant in
pipe cla ssifications. See Appendix .
For example, pipe witb an NPS of
3" has an ou ts ide d iame ter of 3.5".
Standard pipe has an inside diam eter
of 3.06 8" . Extra-s tro ng pipe has a n
in sid e di am et er of 2 .9" . Doubl e
extra -strong pipe bas an in side
diameter of 2.3". See Figure 27-1.
Pipe can be classified as thin-wall or
thick-wall. Thin -wall pipe has a wa ll
thickness from \1{' to 0/16". Thick-wall pipe
has a wall thickne ss greater than 5/16".

319
 STANDARD ~~3~ii SCNEDULE SCHEDULE
40 60
y, .40 5 .269 .215 .068 .095

l" .540 .364 .312 .088 .119

% .675 .493 .423 .091 .126

Y, .840 .622 .546 .252 .109 .147 .294

% 1.050 .824 .742 .434 .113 .154 .308

1.315 1.04 9 .957 .599 .133 .179 .358

1!4 1.660 1.380 1.278 .896 .140 .191 .382

1% 1.900 1.610 1.5 00 1.100 .145 .200 .400

2 2 .375 2 .067 1.939 1.503 .154 .21 8 .436

2% 2 .875 2.4 69 2.323 1.77 1 .203 .276 .552

3 3.500 3 .068 2.900 2 .300 .216 .300 .600

3Y.. 4.000 3.5 48 3 .364 2 .728 .226 .318

4 4.500 4.026 3 .826 3 .152 .237 .337 .674

5 5.563 5.047 4.81 3 4.063 .258 .375 .750

6 6.625 6.065 5 .761 4.897 .280 .432 .864

8 8.625 7 ,9B1 7.625 6 .875 .322 .500 .875

10 10.750 10.020 9 .750 8.750 .365 .500

12 12.750 12 .000 11 .750 10.750 .406 .500

• in in.
t bw gau ge
Figure 27-1. The inside diam eter of pip e chan ges as the wall thickness increases.

Th e wall thi ckn ess of the pip e to PIPE CONNECTIONS

be welded det ermines the joint prepa- Weldin g is the most common method
ration required. Thin-wa ll pipe with a of j oini n g la rg e- diam et e r pip e.
wall thickness of 'Is" or less does uot Welded pipe co nnec tio ns caus e less

I
Small-diameter pipe
.E with a UY11l thickness commonly require edge preparati on or restric tion to the flo w of mat eri als
•e:::::: (?l tess than l,t§// is not beveling. Pipe with a wall thickness in the pip e . When prop erl y welded.
typically beveled. greater than VB" usually requires edge there is no gap between pipe sections
preparation. See Figu re 27-2. and joint stre ngth is co nsistent with
Figure 27-2 . Thick -wall pip e has
a wall thickness Kremer than M6'~
Wallthicknc.\-.\-e.\ ora ~"req u ire
.C
r Va" WA LL THI CKNESS

;; 14
1 ';
f UP T~ 0/,,' W:~IL ~HICK N:SS
som e edge p reparat ion .
THIN-WALL
l THIN-WALL WITH

[r::aKkJ
GREATER THAN ROOT OPENING

THICK-WALL WITH
EDGE PREPARATION

320 €1 Welding Skills

the surround ing sections of pipe .
Welded jo int s may be made with
butt-welded fillin gs or socket fillings.
See Figure 27- 3.
Butt-welded fittings require ed ge
preparation of th e pipe with a maxi-
mum 3/ 16" root opening . T he groove
angle should be between 70° and 80°.
A backing ring is recomme nded for
butt-welded pipe with a wa ll thickness
ove r %" . Socket fill ings joi n pipe and
fittings using sleeves that are we lded,
brazed, or so lde red. A socket fitting
does not require edge preparat ion .
Socket fittings are used on pipe with
less than 2" outside diameter (00).
PIPE JOINT PREPARATION
Pipe joints must be properly prepared
before welding. Common joint prep-
aration s used with pipe include the
single-V-groove and single- U-g roove.
Th e groove an gle , root face , and root
opening vary ba sed on pipe diameter.
Pi pe weld spec ifica tio ns commonly
used on 5liB" thick-wall pipe ca ll for a
75 ° groove angle (37 .5° bevel angle) .
The root opening is approx imately 3/32"
to V8". The root face is approximately
31.12" to 1/ 8 " . T he root opening and
groove angle increase as req oired for
pipe with greater wall thicknesses. See
Figu re 27-4.

Fi~ure 27-3. wekted j oin ts tiki."

he m ade witls butt -weld ed fi t.
tings or socke t fittings.

c v,,- TO *"PIPE THI CKNE S S j

1h2" TO %2'''
BUTT- WELDED FtTTtNG

PIPE
SOCKET FtTTING

Figure 27- 4. Root openings,

.. . ang les. and j oint pre/w rm ;OIH

m ry for both thin- wall and thick -
wall "if/e.

Single-V Sing le-U

ROOT OPENINGS AND ANGLES
75 '

~!7
OVER Vlt;'" iI
L '
ROOT J ROOT FACE
¥:rr" TO Ye'"
J-HI- 0/.- TO y,,-
ROOT OPEN ING
FACE ""6"
Th in-Wall Pipe Th ick-Wall Pipe
EDGE PREPARATIONS

Pipe Welding ~ 321

 In add ition, various joint prepara- A cutting torch can be used to bevel
ti on s may be re quired to e ns ure the edges if joint pre par ati on must
proper penetration during welding. The take place at a job site where a bev-
groove face ca n be altered to a llow eling machi ne is not availab le . See
access a nd to limit th e a mo unt of Figure 27-5.
filler metal requ ired without co mpro-
mising weld strength. Joint preparation
is determined by pipe wall thickn ess,
pipe composition, and the welding pro-
cess used .
Sm all -diameter pipe s with wall
thicknesses less than '18" are commonly
welded without any joint preparation .
Th e ends are simply butt ed together
with a small separation to ensure com-
plete fusion. Most pipe with wall thick-
nesses over l/ S" req ui re some joi nt
prep arati on.
Pipe we ld ing technique s are af- IM"""dl'M 1"",,,' ti <,J,IIII:.

A WARNING
Improper fit-up in piping
can lead to catastrophic
failure of a pipe, especially
in high-pressure piping.
fected by pipe dimensions, locat ion ,
requirements of the pipe and the weld,
and welding equipment available. The
following steps are used to prepare pipe
for welding:
I. Select proper joint design for the job.
2. Clean the joint surface.
3. Align and fit-up the pipe jo ints.
4. Tack weld the pipe sections together.
Joint Design
Join t desig n specificatio ns va ry de -
pending on the size and co mpositio n
of the pip e and the thickness of the
pipe wall. However, a single-V groove
is used for most thick-wall pipe weld-
ing. The joint edges must be smooth
and free of defects and contaminants.
Edges should be worked with a wire
brush, if necessary, to remove defects
or discontinuities and contaminants.
Pipe typicall y arrives from the sup-
plier already prepared and beveled to
standard specifications. A bevel can be
cut or ground in the field; however, this
meth od is time-consuming and is less
acc urate tha n machine-bevelin g.
Whether performed at the supplier's
or at the shop, bevelin g of the joint is
usuall y don e with an oxya ce ty le ne
bevelin g machine or pipe machine .
Figure 27·5. An oxyacetylene beveling mac hine can
be used to bevel pipe.
Joint Alignment and Fit-Up
After the joint is prepared, it must be
accurately aligned and spaced. Surfaces
to be welded must be clean and free of
foreign matter before welding. Joint tit-
up mu st be as consistent as possible
around the circumference of the pipe.
Fit-lip is the positioning of pipe with
other pipe or fittings befo re weldin g.
Weld speci fications and detail s indi-
ca te fi t-up re qu ire me nts. Line-up
clamps are used to hold pipes or pipe
and fitti ngs sec ure ly a nd to e ns ure
proper alignment durin g weldin g. The
pipe may be aligned with consumable
inserts, spacers, backing rings, or pipe
jigs. See Figure 27-6.
M a th. ) , D<-arman
Figure 27·6. Line -up clumps lrold pip e .\'(' 1'1;0 /15 se-
curely ill pos ition while tack welds are made.

322 ~ We/dillg Skills

 A con sumabl e ins ert provides the prevent spatter and slag from entering
prope r open ing of the weld joint and the pipe at the joint. Backing rings are
becomes part of the weld. Consumable useful in maintaining pipe alignment
insert rings are used to ensure an ac- and preventing metal slag and spatter
curate root ope ning be fo re weld ing . from entering the pipe at the joint. See
Con sumable in sert ring s are placed Figure 27-8.
when the pipe is tack weld ed. Whe n
Figure 27-8 . Back i ng rings are
the root pass is deposited, the insert ring fitted inside the pipe before weld-
is consumed into, and becomes part of, ~ B AC K I N G ing and keep the sections oj pipe
RING aligned. preventing slag and spat -
the completed weld . Five classes and
ter penetration.
compositions of inserts are available
for use as required by spe cific jobs.
The clas sification numbers refer to
AWS classes of cons umable inserts.
Cla ss I is A-s haped, or in verted-T,
and extends beneath both pipe on the
oppos ite side. Class 2 is J-shaped and
extend s under one pipe on the oppo-
site side. Classes 3 and 5 are rectangu-
68' TO 70'
lar. Class 4 is Y-shaped, extending to
bot h sides on the welding side. See
Fig ure 27-7.
Spacers may be used to pro vide a
gap between the joint until the joint is
tack welded . The spacers are removed
before welding. Backing rings are com-
monl y use d in the GTAW proces s.
Backing rings have spacers attached to
a ring whic h fit s in th e pipe before
welding.
Liners or backing rings can be fitted
into the pipe before welding . Liners o into jiv e classes, which are detailed in
The AWS catego rizes consumable inserts
and backi ng ring s assi st in secur ing
AWS A5.30, Specificat io ns for Con sum-
penet ration without burning through the able Inserts.
surface. Liners and backing ring s also

CLASS 1 CLASS3AND5

CLASS 2 CLASS 4

Figure 27-7. Consumable insert rings are categorized by class and may be used to maintain an accurate
roo t opening before welding,

Pipe Welding ~ 323

I';Z::: I Tackwekledpipesmust
o Welding is the most common method of
.~ 1)(> properlyaligned be-
.= fore welding.
Tile root pa ss
should completely
penetrate into the
root ofthe joint.
Fi ~ur e 27-9. Tack we lds are
used to IIO /d prop erly aligned
pipes ill position.
324 €1 Welding Sk ills
joining pipe. Pipe welding is usedfo r lIum y
applications including piping ill commer·
cial H VA C sy stems and high-p ress ure
steam lilies in nuclear po wer plants.
Tack Welding
A tack we ld keeps the joi nt members
from moving out of their required po-
sit ion s duri ng we lding . T he pi pes to
be j oin ed must be prop erly fitted and
can be held in position with a pipe j ig.
A pip e jig is a device that hold s sec-
tion s of pipe or fittings before tack
welding. Once the pipe jo ints are prop-
erly aligned, they are tac k welded to
hold the alignment during welding. For
most pipe welding, four evenly spaced
tack welds are made around the pipe.
Tack weld s should typic all y be about
'Il" to s;." long. Tack welds should pen-
etrate to the roo t of the groove, since
they will become part of the root bead.
To make a tack weld , the electrode
is inclined 10° to 15°. The arc is strnck
in the jo int slightly ahead of where the
tack weld is to be made. Th e arc is then
quickly length ened to stabilize it and
give it time to form a protecti ve gas
shield. A sliding motion is used after
the elec trode has been lightl y pushed
into the joi nt. If the electrode sticks, it
shou ld be w igg led slig htly bnt kep t
buried in the groo ve. When the tack
we ld is co m ple te d, the e lectro de is
pulled away. Thi s procedure produ ces
a s tro ng and fully pen etratin g tack
weld. See Figure 27-9 .
12 O'CLOCK o/-l" LONG
TACK WELD
9 O'CLOC"~K~_
e O'ClOCK
WELDING PASSES
Weldi ng passe s are used to fill the
groove to the specified depth . Welding
codes and sta ndards pub licati ons
specify the requi red depth of we lds.
Weld in g co des and specifica tions
should be followed closely.
Most gas tungsten arc pipe welding
standards requ ire co mplete root pene-
tration with uniform welds and allow for
few, if any, defects. The passes used for
pipe welding are the root pass, interme-
diate weld pass(es), and the cover pass.
Root Pass
A mol pa ss is the initial weld pass that
provides complete penetration through
the thickness of the j oint member. The
current is set to provide maximum pen-
etration without excessive weld metal de-
posited on the inside of the pipe.
The root pass deposits weld metal in
the root of the weld as a "keyhole". The
keyhole is formed by the penetration of
the root pass. A properly deposited root
pass (root bead) should penetrate to the
root and leave a solid bead below the
surface with a slight crown that does not
exceed approximately V16" or the maxi-
mum allowed by the governing code.
An improper root bead is cause for the
entire weld to be rejected.
The success of a pipe weld depends
on the correct penetration of the root bead
because it form s the base upon which
successive layers are made. Subsequent
weld pa,ses cannot compensate for a de-
fective root bead.
Som e und ercutting may occ ur on
the face of the groove, but undercut-
ting is not objectionable since it will
be elimin ated by success ive passes.
See Figure 27- 10.
Th ere may be times when the root
opening will vary due to poor fit-up.
If the root opening is narrow, the speed
of travel and e lec trode ang le should
be redu ced. Wh er e a wi de ned root
opening exists, the travel speed should
be increased .
 Figure 27-10. A properly depos -
KEYHOLE
ited roo! pass [orms a crown on
the inside of the pipe. A keyho le is
formed if the root pass is stopped
ROOT PASS
and must he fitted when welding
CROWN - - - - ' -- - - 1fle" MAX starts again,
PROPERLY DEPOSITED
ROOT PASS KEYHOLE

Intermediate Weld Pass(es) INTERMEDIATE Ftgu r e 27- 12. In ter m ed ia te weld

WELD PASSE S passes arc used to build up the
An intermediate weld pass is a single weld and fill the joint, creating a
st rong , sound weld.
progression of welding subsequent to
the root pass and before the cover pass.
In pipe welding , the first intermediate
weld pass (also called the hot pass) is
designed tu fill the undercut caused by
ROOT PASS
the root pass. It burns out particles of
slag that may remain in the groove and CROSS SECTION
en sures complete fusion of the bas e
metal and the root bead . The first in-
term ed iate we ld pa ss also e liminates
the possibility of slag inclusions or po-
rosity left from the root bead. See Fig-
ure 27-11.
Th e numb er of intermediate weld 1''''-1 lntenne diate wetd
.~ passes (Ire used tofill
passes (or fill passes) required depends .= the weld joint.
on th e wall thi ckne ss , the gr oo ve
angle, the size of the electrode, and
the welding pro cess used. Interme-
diate weld passes are deposited with INTERMEDIATE WELD PASSES
larg e diameter electrodes and are in-
tended to fill the weld joint. See Fig-
ure 27-12. Each intermediate weld pass
penetrates compl etel y into the previ -
ou s weld be ad . Wh en intermediate
o theTheformerly
term intermediate weld pass replaces
used terms hot pass and fi ll
weld pa sses are made usin g SMAW, pass. Intermediate weldpass identifies each
pass deposited aj ter the m ot pass and be-
the slag produced must be entirely re- fore the cover pass.
moved after eac h pass.

ROOT PASS \ INTERMEDIATE

WELD PASS
INTERMEDIATE KEYHOLE ~~
WELD PASS

ROOT PASS

CROSS SECTION FIRST INTERMEDIATE WELD PASS

Figur e 27-11. The [irst intermediate weld pass jills the undercut keyhole created hy the root pass.

Pipe Welding ~ 325


A pipe weld should
be fi nishe d with a
final co ver pass .
Cover Pass
A cover pass is the final weld pass de-
posited. The cover pass provides maxi-
mum reinforcement to the weld j oint
and gives the weld a neat appeara nce.
Th e cover pass should ha ve a slight
crown extending abo ut V16" above the
surface of the pipe. The cover pass is Cove r Pass 160 - 180
usually made using a weaving motion
• the ideal current is within lI1e ranges show n. The best quality is
to provide a complete co ver for and a obtained at the lower end of each range
t in amps
neat appearance to the weld . A slant t Weld root pass at 24 to 26 arc volts and 10 to 16 ipm arc speed

Ftg u r e 27-13. Th e fili al cover
pa ss adds reinfo rce me nt to the
weld and provides a 1Ie«t uppear -
ClIICl:', The co ver p,U.f .flullIlc1 fo rm
a sliglu crown above the surfa ce
of tile pipe.
Uo wnh ili welding
should be used 10
we ld thin-wall pipe.
or se mici rc ular moti on can be used ; Figur e 27-14. Electrode size is reco mmended based
the weld IJa.u lind required weld strengt h.
l UI
however, it must be w ide eno ug h to
cove r the entire weld joint. The cove r
pass also provides the weld reinforce- PIPE WELDING TECHNIQUES
ment required for strength and protec-
Pip e welding is recogni zed as a spe-
tion. See Figure 27- 13.
c ia lty within th e welding tr ade. Al-
though man y pipe welding skills and
COVER
practices are similar to other types of
PASS we lding, pipe we lders must deve lop
INTERMED IATE
WELD PASSES
\\----L~~.L
r 'A," CROWN
certain techniques that are characteris-
tic to pipe welding alone. Pipe welders
have to pass certain tests to be certified
because public health , enviro nmental
restrictions, and safety concerns are in-
ROOT PASS vol ved (especia lly in welding cross-
cou nt ry t ra ns missio n p ipe li nes and
CROSS SECTION high- pressure lines that convey steam,
o il, air, or co rrosive mat er ial s). See
ROOT
KEYHOLE PASS Fig ure 27- 15.
Pipe weldin g techn iqu es vary de-
pending on the welding conditions and
the type of pipe being used. Pipe weld-
er s shou ld be profic ie nt in we lding
techniques such as, downh ill welding,
uphill welding, roll weld ing, and posi-
tion welding.
COVER PASS INTERMEDIATE
WELD PASSES
COVER PASS Downhill Welding
Downhill welding is used to weld
thin-wa ll pipe. Sma ll-d iamete r pipe is
typically welde d with GTAW or
Electrodes
GMAW. Downhill welding is preferred
Most shielded metal arc pipe welding is fo r we ldi ng cross-co untry pipel ines
done with E-60 I0 or E-60 11 electrodes, because it is a fast welding technique.
exce pt where high strength weld s are Afte r th e pipes are sec urely tack
required . Wh en hi gh strengths are welded, a root pass is depo sited com-
needed, es pec ially on low-all oy stee l pletely arou nd the joi nt. The electrode
pipe, electrodes in the E-70XX series are is held in approximately the same posi-
used. See Figure 27-14 . tion as when making the tack welds.

326 @o Welding Skills


The arc is struck slightly ahead of the
weld to preheat the area where the weld
bead will be started. After the arc has
stabilized, the electrode is lowered into
the root openin g and moved along the
groove. Intermediate weld passes are
usually made with a side-to-side (weav-
ing) motion and consist only of a light
bead deposit. The electrode should pause
at the end of each stroke to ensure good
fusion at each edge of the weld. As the
electrode reaches the bottom of the weld
a semicircular or horseshoe weave is
used . See Figure 27-16.
Intermediate weld passes are made
with the same diamet er electrode used
for th e root bead but with slightly
higher current.
ONE ELECTRODE
DIAMETER
~_ _,/ PAUSE
DIRECTION
OF WELDING
SIDE- TO-SIDE
(WEAVING)
Figu re 27-16. Two motio ns used to make intermediate weld passes are the side-to-side (weaving) motion and
the horseshoe wea ve.
Figur e 27·15. Pipe welders must
be certified in specific pipe weld
j oint positions .
The Li"<,,,/,, Electr ic Co mp;my
For downhill welding, follow the pro-
cedure:
I . Deposit four tack welds to hold the
pipe in alignment.
2 . Start welding the root pass in the
12 o'clock posit ion.
3. Carry th e root pass weld down -
ward to the 6 o'clock position .
4 . Follow same procedure on the other
side of the pipe. See Figure 27-17.
If the electrode sticks and fai ls (0
glide smoothly because of built-up
heat, a slight side-to-s ide osc illating
motion will usually correct the prob-
lem . After the root pass is completed ,
additional wel d pa sses are deposited.
The number of passe s depend s on the
thickness of the pipe.
HORSESHOE WEAVE
Pipe Welding ~ 327
Figure 27-17. Downhill weldillg is
nJ/lwl /11l/y used to weld thin -wall
pipe,
A CAUTION
When restartin g the arc,
completely tie together the
welded sec tion with the
next section.
71/(' ends of the weld
must always be lied
together.
328 ~ Weldin g Skills
12 O'CLOCK
9 O'CLOCK - ---/if- - ,-
CD WE LD FOUR TACKS
o
" " CARRY WELD DOWNWARD
TO 6 O'C LOC K POSITION
One problem encountered in down-
hill weldin g is controlling the heat
input. Lack of heat input co ntro l is
es pec ia lly a probl em whe n weldin g
sma ll-d iame te r pip e where heat does
not di ssipate fas t enough and exces -
sive heat buil ds up in the weld zo ne.
Heat in put can usu all y be re g ul ated
using a small diamete r e lectrode and
reducing the curre nt setting.
Another problem in downhill weld-
ing is maintaining proper control of the
weld pool. The molten metal tends to
flo w downward in the same dir ection
the arc is mo vin g. If the flow is not
co ntro lle d , pen etration cannot be
achi eved and s lag becomes entrapped
in th e molten metal , produ c ing slag
inclu sion s in the weld. Sla g inclusion
is only a problem when welding with
, 3 0 'CLOCK
®2
START W ELDING AT
12 O'C LOCK POSITION
t4' FOLL OW SAME PROCEDURE
'0! O N O PPOS IT E S ID E
SMAW. Co ntro l of the molten weld
pool is accompli shed using a fast travel
speed a nd a hi gh -current se tt ing to
keep the arc ahead of the weld pool.
Starting and Stopping. There is a cer-
tai n amount of starting and stopping
du r ing we ld ing d ue to the need to
c hange e lec trodes o r weld po sition .
Wh en we lding must be stopped and
then restarted . the ends of each weld
bead must be tied together. To restart a
weld . the arc is struck about Vz" back
of the bead and then mov ed forw ard
with a long arc . As soon as the arc is
stabilized, the electrode is momentarily
buried in the crat er of the last bead to
regenerate the molt en weld pool. The
electrode is then rais ed slig htly and
the weld co nti nue d. When the weld
approaches the end and must be tied
into the other deposited bead , the elec-
trode is moved up the sloping side of
the previous bead , and th e directiou
of travel is briefly reversed after the
molten pool blend s smoothly between
the two beads. The arc is then wit h-
drawn quickly by flicking the electrode
downward and away from the center.
Uphill Welding
Uphill weld ing is used for we ldi ng
thick- wall pipe. Welding progresses
upward on one side of the pipe an d
then upward on the opposite side. See
Fig ure 27 -18 . For uphill welding ,
follo w the procedure:
12 O'CLO CK
JA" LON G
~-"f __,;:
TACK W ELD
9 O'CLOCK - -l3f-
6 O'CLOCK
CD W ELD FOUR TACKS
rz-. CARRY W ELD UPWARD
o TO 12 O'CLOC K POSIT ION
I . Weld four tacks to hold the pipe in
alignment.
2 . Start welding the root pass in the
6 o'clock position.
3 . Carry th e weld upward to th e
12 o 'clock position.
4 . Follow the same procedu re on the
opposite side .
As in downhill welding, tack welds
are used to maintain alignm ent of the
pipes. The root pass is depo sited ju st
back of the bottom , or 6 0 ' cloc k,
po sition . The arc is struck a he ad o f
the 6 o'clock position and a long arc
is maintained for a s hort peri od to
Uphill welding
preheat the surface; then it is brou ght should be used on
back to the weld area and weldin g is thick -wall pipe.
be gun.
Figu re 27- IH. Uphill we lding
is used to weld thick -wall pipe .
Uphill welding s ta rts at th e
6 n ' clock position lind works
upward Oil ho th sides of the
pipe.
- - 3D'CLOCK
" 5- TO 10'
TRAVEL ANGLE
o
(.;\ START W ELDIN G AT
6 O'C LOCK POS ITION
In uphill welding, the
root pass should be
startedjustbackofthe
6 ()'clock position.
t4' FOLLOW SAM E PROCEDURE
\:V ON OPPOS ITE SIDE
Pipe We/dinl{ @ 329
 While the root pass is being
deposited, no electrode weaving motion
is nece ssary. The electrode is simply
advanced at an angle of SO to 10° with
a slow and uniform movement along
the joint. As the electrode approaches
the upper part of the pipe , the molten
metal beg ins to flow downward at a
fas ter rate. A slight whipping motion
help s to control the weld pool and
pre vent metal flow.
After the root pass is comp leted ,
one or mor e int erm ediate weld pass
layers are deposited followed by the
final cover pass.
Roll Welding
Roll welding is a welding procedure
that app lie s heat and pressure to
interlock the faying sur faces of the
weld. Roll welding is usua lly
performed with GMAW using a hand-
hel d welding gun . The roll welding
method requ ir es that two o r more
sections of pipe be lined up and tack
welded . Special pipe clamps hold the
pipe in alignment until they are
tacked. See Figure 27-19 . The weld
is then compl eted in flat po sition
while helper s rotate the pipe. After the
short pip e section s are welded, they
are plaeed in line with the existing or
pre viou sly installed pip e and welded
in a stationary position .
Figure 27-19. Pipe damps are
used to hold pipe in alig nme nt
until tack welds are made . PIPE CLAMP
Position Welding
Position weldin g (stove pipe welding)
con si st s of lining up each sectio n,
length by length, and welding each
330 § Weldin g Skills
joint while the pipe remains stationary.
S ince the pipe is not rotated, the
weld in g ha s to be don e in variou s
po sition s-fl at, horizontal , vertical,
and overhead. See Figure 27-20 .
The lincoln EleClri(' CompWly
Figu re 27 -20. Position welding requires tliat the
pipe he welded in various positions aro und station-
ary pipe .
PIPE WELDING STANDARDS
Standard s ensure pipe welding qual-
ity. Pipe welding standards have been
established by the American Petroleum
Institute (API ), the Americ an Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and
the American Welding Society (AWS)
for specifying material requirements,
preparation , welde r profi ciency, and
weld testing. Other agencies may adopt
these standards for spec ific applic a-
tions . For example, the U.S . Depart-
ment of Defe nse has adopted several
standards published by the AWS.
Welder Certification
Certification of we lder s is based on
the proficiency of the welder making
welds in specific positions. Pipe weld
joint positions are identified as test po-
sitions. Because pipe weld s are usu-
ally groove welds , they are identified
by the letter G, for groove weld. Test
po sitions are I G, 2G, 5G , 6G, and
6GR. There is no 3G or 4G test posi-
tion in pipe welding. The axis of the
pipe may vary ± 15° for the IG, 2G, and
5G test positions, but only ±5° for the 6G
and 6GR positions. See Figure 27-21.
 PIPE
og
ROTATED\
FLAT WELDING POSITION
(lG)
PIPE NOT .»
ROTATED---
PIPE NOT
ROTATED
HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION
INCLINED POSITION
6G
Figure 27-21. Tile American Weldi ng Society (AWS) lias identified weld positions f or pipe and Tubing welding as test 1'0,\";(;011.\ I G. 20, 50. 6G,
and 6GR.
IG Position. Test position IG is the
nat welding test position. The axis of
the pipe is in horizontal position. The
axis of the weld is in nat position. The
weld is comp leted in flat posi tio n as
the pipe is rotated. The axis of the pipe
should be with in 15° above or below
the horizontal. Test position IG qualifies
a welder to weld in flat position.
2G Position. Test position 2G is the
horizontal position. The axis of the pipe
is in vertical position and the axi s of
the weld is in horizontal position. The
weld is compl eted in vertical position .
The axis should be within 15° on any
side o f vertical. Test po sition 2G
qualifies a welder to weld in flat and
horizontal positi ons.
5G Position. Test position 5G is the
multiple welding test po sition . The
axis of the pipe is in horizontal posi-
tion. The axis of the weld is in vertical
position. but the pipe is not turned or
rolled durin g welding. The weld is
completed in flat. vertical, or overhead
fixed pos ition s. Th e axis should be
within 15° above or below the hori-
zontal. Test po sition 5G qualifies a
welder to weld in flat, vertical . and
overhead pos itions .
MULTIPLE WELDING POSITION
(5G)
RESTR ICTER
RING
1S'
2G PIPE NOTj
ROTATED
MULTIPLE WELDING POSITION
WITH RESTRICTION RING
6GR
6G Position. Test posi tion 6G is the
inclined position. The pipe is fixed in
pos it ion an d is not rotated d uring
welding . The weld is completed with
the axis of the pipe at a 45° angle ±5°.
The axis of the pipe is set and the pipe
is not rotated while welding.
6GR Position. Test position 6GR is
mu lt iple position welding with a
restriction ring. Restricted accessibility
is often added by placing a restric tion
ring near the weld. Test posi tion 6GR
requires the axis of the pipe to be
positioned at a 45° angle. ±So. The pipe
is fixed in position and is not rotated
during welding.
Most pipe welding
WELDING METHODS jobs require tha t the
Welding methods used for pipe are the welde r be ce rtified.
same as are used for other welding pro-
cesses. The method used depends on
the pipe material, diamet er, and func-
tion of the piping system. The compo-
sition of the pipe determines the filler
metal and welding proc ess used . For
examp le, welding stainless stee l pipe
with a 3fs" wall thickness requires deep
penetration. Pipe in a critical applic a-
tion may be purged with shielding gas.
GTAW is used to ensure weld purity.
Pipe Welding €l' 331
 Most pipe welding is done with ei-
ther SMAW or GMAW. The advantage
of GMAW over S MAW is tha t wit h
GMAW. no slag occur s in the we ld .
A lso . the ga s pro tection shield over
the weld area preve nt s at mospheric
co nta mi na tio n of the we ld . S ince
GMAW requires no slag removal. less
welding time is required. The re is no
s ig n ific a nt d ifference in weld in g
te c h niq ues and procedures between
SMAW and GMAW. General descrip-
tion s of pipe welding processes apply
to both SMAW and GMAW.
GTAW ma y be used wh en sho p
welding small-diameter pipes. GTAW
is also so metimes used to dep osit the
root bead of large-d iameter pipe jobs.
Pipe we ldi ng is co mmonly performed
using ma nua l. semiauto matic. mech a-
nized , or automatic welding.
Manual Welding
Manu al we/din g i s we lding w it h a
torch . weld ing gun or electrode holder.
held and manipulated by hand. Manual
we ld ing usin g OAW wa s co mm onl y
used for man y years to weld pip e. It
worked we ll for thin-wall pipe. but
thick-wall pipe required too much time
and was difficult to weld. Although not
co mmon ly used. some thin-wall pipe
is still welded with OAW.
SMAW is a manual welding process
co mmo nly used for welding pip e be-
cause of the flexibility and mobilit y of
the equipment. and the accessibility to
the weld area.
Semiautomatic Welding
Se m iautomatic weldin g i s manu al
we lding with eq uipment that co ntro ls
one or more welding condi tions auto-
maticall y. Se miauto ma tic we lding re-
q uires a we lder to manua lly we ld
while equipment controls one or more
welding co ndition(s). A co nstant volt-
age we ld ing machine provid e s th e
pow er and a wire feed er deli vers the
electrode to the weld pool while the
332 ~ Welding Skills
we lde r co ntro ls th e we ld ing gun
manually. See Figure 27-22 . Commo n
semiautomatic weldi ng processe s are
GMAW and FCAW.
ES.-4.B " ( MinK(/rid ClIl/ing PrrxhIro
Figu re 27-22. Gas metal arc welding is oft en used
10 join small-diameter pipe "h ill' the welder controls
the weldi nM g un.
Mechanized Welding
M echanized weldin g is a weldi ng
proc ess in which the we lding process
is aut omat ic . but the op e rato r must
mak e pro cess adj us tme nts manu ally.
In mech ani zed we ld ing , the mac hine
controls the welding gun. The welding
gun move s along the weld at a set
height. If the seam is not flat or straight.
the operator must adjust the equipment.
The o pera to r mus t o bse rve the
progress of the we ld ing g un or
electrod e holder and make adjustments
as necessar y.
Automatic Welding
Auto matic welding is a we lding pro-
cess that requires minim al observa tion
of the welding process by the operator
and no manual adj ustme nt of the con-
trols. The welding equipment automati-
ca lly contro ls one or mo re we lding
conditi on (s). T he auto ma tic we lding
system moni tor s the arc vo ltage and
adj usts the height of the welding gun
from the ba se metal to ma int ain a
consistent distance and a quality weld. External Welding. The external weld-
Most large diameter (24" and over) ing proce ss includes a root pass , inter -
pipe is welded using an automat ic mediate weld pass , and cover pa ss .
GMAW process. Passes are made with special welding
Automatic GMAW machines speed units that travel aro und the extern al
up the weld ing process and produce perimet er of the pipe on pre-positioned
welds without slag inclusions, which circumferential pipe bands . Two weld-
are a con stant problem with SMAW. ing machine s, sometimes referred to
Unlike conventional pipe welding pro- as bug s, move simultaneously on the
cedures where the root bead is depo s- pipe . See Figure 27-24. One bug starts
ited externally, in automatic welding the at the 12 o'clock position and travel s
root pass is depo sited inside the pipe . downward to 6 o'clock. The other bug
A special bevel is made on the pipe starts at the 3 0 ' clock position and stops
for thi s purpose . Se e Figure 27 -23. at the 9 o'clock position. The bug is
Usually, four welding head s mounted then moved to the 12 0' clock position
on an internal line-up clamp are used to complete the pass at the horizontal.
to make the int ernal root bead in a External welds are made with 100% CO2
single pass. because it has a higher deposition rate
The internal welding unit is and better penetrating qualities.
self-propelled along the inside of the
pipe and held in place at the weld site
by c lamp shoes . Welding heads are
positioned preci sely over the joints by
means of special aligner block s. Onc e
the unit is correctly po sitioned, the
next sec tio n of pipe is sli pped over
the reach rod of the un it. The joint is
properl y spaced a nd ano ther set of
clamp shoes is actuated to hold th e
joint in plac e for welding . A contro l
box mounted on the handle of th e
reach rod co ntro ls the start ing and
stopping of weldin g. Each welding
head weld s a 90 ° arc. All welds are
made downhill with two head s
moving clockwi se an d the other two
moving counterclockwi se. Shielding ItHd J;w/i/lg Co rp
Figur e 27-24. External welding hugs ar c used to
gas for internal welding con si sts of make inter med iate and cover passes while posi tioned
75% argon and 25 % CO 2 . outside the pipe.

AUTOMATIC - SOLID LlNE--

INTERNAL PIP E WALL
CON VENTIONAL - DOTTED LINE - - - - -

Figure 27-23 . The bevel 011 a pipe ca n he adapted f or automatic welding to al low for differences in
penetration of the welds.

Pipe Weldin g @o 333

 PIPE WELD TESTING
Pipe weld testing ca n be co nd uc te d
using nondestructive examination and
destructive testing. Testing methods for
pipe are similar to those used for other
type s of metals.
Destructive Testing
Destructive testing is used primarily in
the qualification of welding procedure s
and are often used to test welder per-
formance. In destruc tive testing, a test
speci men is analyzed using the tensile
test or the guided bend test. A test speci-
men is a section of welded metal that
includes the weld area. In the tensile test,
the test specimen is subjec ted to force
in opposit e di rect ion s. The tensi le
stre ng th ac hiev ed is co mpa red with
weld strength requirements. See Figure
27-25 . In the gu ided ben d test, a test
specimen is used in a guided bend tester
to identi fy points of fail ure when the
test specimen is subjected to a bending
force . The gu ide d be nd test requires
two test speci mens, a face bend speci-
men and a root bend specimen.

( EDGE OF WIDEST
REDUCED SECTION " FACE OF WELD
LI~-----":""
I3,4"
L
,-----
",iPg;:: -0
1A"

MACHINE MINIMUM AMOUNT

TO OBTAIN PLANE PARALLEL
FACES OVER ~" W IDE REDUCED ~---....::....I
lY SECTION MACHINED.
PREFERABLY BY
MILLING
VERTICAL (5G) WELD

SECTION EDGES MAY

BE FLAME CUT

TENSILE TEST
FACE BEND ROOT BEND FACE BEND

ROOT BEND / ROOT BEND

FACE BEND
HORIZONTAL (2G) WELD VERTICAL (5G) WELD

GUIDED BEND TEST MALE DIE

~----- 6" MIN I SPECIMEN
T
' 1>"
----.i
- U'17"-j
GUIDED BEND
-,-T

ROOT BEND FACE BEND

TEST SPECIMEN VO R MAX ALL CORNERS FEMALE DIE
GUIDED BENDTEST SPECIMEN SPECIFICATIONS

Figur e 27-25. Tensile anti guided bend tests (Ire used for destructive testin g of p ipe welds.

334 ~ Weidill l{ Skills

 Th e face-bend specimen is checke d Nondestructive exam inati on meth od s
for inc om plete penetrati on , porosit y, include liquid penetrant, radiographic,
incl us io ns , o r oth er defec ts . Th e ultrason ic, and vis ua l e xa mina lio n.
spec ime n is placed in the g uided See Figure 27 -26.
bend tester w ith the face side do wn.
The root-bend spec imen is tested for
complete penetration . The speci men
is placed in the guid ed bend te ster
with the roo t side down. After bend-
ing, the test specimen is inspec ted for
cra cks.

Nondestructive Examination
Nondestructive examina tion (NDE) is
the devel o pment and application of
methods to exa mine materials or com -
ponents in way s th at do not impair
their usefulness or serviceability.
No nde st ru c ti ve e xam ina tio n is TIt<- ljf><'"l" Ek e/ric C..m/~m.I'
used to determine we ld quality with- A welder mus t he able to weld pipefrom various positions around the pipe since most
out affectin g perform ance of the we ld. pipe cannot be rotated.

NONDESTRUCTIVE
EXAMINATION
- NON DEST RUCTIVE
Letter EXAMI NATION
Method Desionation SYM BOL
LOCATION \
Acoustic emission AET
Electromagnetic ET

r~-
Leak LT
Magnetic particle MT
Neutron radiographic NRT
Liquid penetrant' PT
Proof' PRT
Radiographic' RT
Ultrasonic* UT
Visual' VT
'methods use<llorlestmg pipe wek:Is

Figure 27-26. Nondestructive examination does 1101 adversely affect the performance of the weld.

Pipe Weldin g ~ 335

 I. Small-diamet er pipe with a wall thickness of less than 1/ 8" is typically not beveled.
2. Tack weld ed pipes should be properly aligned before welding .
3. The root pass should co mpletely penetrate into the root of the joint.
4. Inter mediate weld passes are used to fill the joint.
5. A pipe weld should be finished with a final cover pass.
6. Downhill welding should be used to weld thin-wall pipe.
7. Uphill we ldi ng should be used on thick -wa ll pipe.
8. In uphill welding. the root pass should be started j ust back of the 6 o'clock positioo .
9. The ends of the we ld mu st always be tied togeth er.
10. Mo st pipe weldi ng jobs require that the welder be certified .

I. How is thin-wall pipe distinguished from thick-wall pipe?

2. As a ru le, how many tack welds are made on pipe?
3. What is the functio n of a hacking ring?
4. If the electrode sticks in the groove when makin g a tack weld. what shou ld he done?
5. Wh y is a proper root ope ning very important in pipe welding?
6. What is a root pass?
7. What is the function of the first intermediate weld pass?
8. What is the function of the co ver pass?
9. Why is a whipping action of the electrode sometimes used?
10. Why should each layer start and stop at different point s?
I I. What electrode motions are used to make intermediate weld passes?
12. The exte rna l we ldi ng process includes what passes?
13. Which electrodes are used for most shielded metal arc pipe we lding?
14. How is welding performed when started at the 6 o'clock positio n?
15 . What is the difference between uphill and downhi ll welding?
16. What are some of the problems that may be encountered in down hill weldin g?
17. Downhill welding is used for welding what kind of pipe?
18 . How are the ends of a weld tied together ?
19 . At what ang le should the electrode be held for downh ill welding?
20 . What is the starting position for thin-wall pipe welded with the downhill technique?
2 I. Wh y do pipe we lder s usually have to mee t cer tification requirements?

336 0 weldi ng Skills

Production welding ref ers to welding techniques used ill the fab rication of goods ill mass production.
lndustri es invol ved ill manufacturing use welding processes that allow the joining of metal rapidly and
automa tically. Since production techniques depend 0 11 the nature of the goods made, the weldin g process
and equipm ent used vary [rom one industry to another:

Special weldin g machin es are (iftell designed for a particular industry. All aircraft company may need a
spotwelde r designed to join ce rtain types of a luminum structures, while all auto mo tive ma nufacturer
lIIay require a resistance-type sea m welder specially made to weld structural steel. Other applications
nUlY require a stud-welding gun to fas ten studs Oil metal components.

Weldill g processes used fo r production welding include resistan ce welding (RW), gas metal arc welding
(GMAW), stud welding, electron beam welding (EBW),friction welding (FRW). laser beam welding (LBW).
plasma arc welding (PAW). submerged arc welding (SAW). ultrasonic welding (USW). elect rogas welding
(EGW). and adhesive bonding (A B). Other welding pmcesses that lIlay be used fo r production welding are
explosion welding (EXW). fo rge welding (FOW). roll welding (ROW). and cold welding (eW).

RESISTANCE WELDING • Wh en the wo rkpieces, heated to a

Resistance we lding (RW) is the most
commonly used of the production weld-
ing processes. Resistance welding (RW)
is a group of welding processes in which
fusion occurs from the heat obtained
by resistance to the flow of welding cur-
rent through the metals joined. All RW
processes are based upon the foll ow-
ing funda mental principles:
Heat is ge nerated by the resistance
of the workpieces to be joined to the
passage of a heavy electrical current.
Th e heat at the junc tu re of the
workpieces changes the metal to a
plastic state.
plastic state, are combined with the
co rrec t amount of pressure, fusion
takes place .
RW machiner y is similar whe ther
the machine is a si mple or co mplex
design. The main difference is the type
of jaw s or electrodes that hold the ob-
ject to be welded. See Figure 28-1. A
standard resistance we lde r ha s four
principal elements :
• The frame is the main body of the
machine. which differs in size and
shape for stationary and port able
type s.
• Th e el ectri cal c irc ui t, which in -
cludes a step-down transformer that

337

Spot welding is a
form of RW with
wide application in
industry,
reduces voltage and proportionally
increases current to provide the nec-
essary heat at the point of welding.
• The electrodes include the mecha -
nism for making and holding con-
tact at the weld area .
• The timing controls use switches
that regulate the amount of current,
current duration, and the contact
period .
The most common types of RW are
spot welding, seam welding, projection
welding, multiple-impulse welding,
flash welding , and upset welding.
Spol Welding
Spot welding is the most commonly
used RW process. The material to be
joined is placed between two elec-
trodes, pressure is applied, and a
charge of electricity is sent from one
electrode, through the material, to the
other electrode.
There are three stages in making a
spot weld. First, the electrodes are
brought together against the metal and
pressure is applied before the current
is turned ON. Next , the current is
turned ON for a short time. The third
step is the hold time, in which the cur-
rent is turned OFF but the pressure con-
tinues. The hold time fuses the metal
while it is cooling.
Spot welding usually leaves slight
depressions on the metal that are un-
desirable on the " show side" of the
finished product. Depressions can be
minimized using large-diameter elec-\
trode tips on the " show side" . )
Spotwelders are made for both di-
rect current and alternating current.
The amount of current must be con-
trolled. Too little current produces a
light tack and provides insufficient
strength to the weld. Too much cur-
rent causes excessive heat.
To dissipate the heat and cool the
weld as quickly as possible to prevent
overheating, the electrodes that con-
duct the current and apply the pressure
for spot welding are water-cooled. The
electrodes are made of low-resistance
copper alloy and are usually hollow

FiJ.,JUrl' 28-1. RW machinery is simi-

fa" whether the machine is a simple
or complex design.

ELECTRODE

PunJjiri.l, Inc.

338 ~ We/ding Skills

to facilitate water-cooling. Electrodes
must be kept cl ean and in the correct
shape to produce good results. For ex-
ample, if a '; ." dia, e lec tro de faee is
allowed to increase to 3/ 8" by wear or
mushroomin g , th e cont act area is
doubled and , co rres pondingly, the cur-
rent den sit y decreases. A cur rent den-
sity d ecrease resul ts in weak w elds
unless the dec rease is co mpensa ted for
by an inc rea se in current setting. Ad -
ditional fac tors tha t cause poor welds
are mi sali gnment o f e le c tro des , im -
prope r elec trode pressure, and convex
or con ca ve e lec trode surfaces.
Two basic types of spo twe lders are
sing le-s po t and multiple- spot. A
sing le -s po t has two long horizontal
horns, eac h holding a sing le electrode,
with the upper ann providing the mov-
ing action.
Multiple-spot spotw e lde rs have a
series of hydraulic- or air-operated
weldi ng guns mounted in a frame -
work or header but usc a common (or
bar) mandrel for th e lower electrode.
The g uns ar e co n ne c ted by flexible
bands to individual transformers or to
a co m mo n bu sbar attached to the
transformer. Two or four guns can be
attac hed to a tr an sforme r.
Alt ho ug h man y sp o t welders a re
stationary, portabl e spotwelders are be-
coming more po p u la r. A portabl e
spotwelde r, or spo t-weldi ng gun, con-
sists of a welding head co nnected to
the transformer by flexibl e cables. Th e
jaws of the we lding head can be op-
era te d m anu all y. p neumati cally, or
hydra ulica lly.
The se lf-contai ne d po rt able sp ot -
welder cont ain s a buil t-in timer, elec-
trod e cont act ors , a nd tran sform er,
and requires onl y a 115 V power con-
nection. S ee Fi gure 28 - 2 . With thi s
appa ra tus, spo t w eld s can be m ade
on irregul arly shaped objects. A self-
conta ined portabl e spo twc ld e r is es-
peciall y suitab le for shee t metal and
auto body weldi ng.
Figure 28-2. A setf- co ntuined
po rta ble spotwelder contains II
built-in tim er, electrode COlI!a clo r.\",
and a transf ormer:
Spotwetders are
available 10 produce
single-spot welds Of
multiple-spot welds.
Spotwelders a re u sed e xtensivel y
for welding stee l. When equipped with
an electronic timer. spotwelders can be
used for other co mmercial metals such
as aluminum , co p pe r, and sta in le ss
stee l. They are al so very effective for
welding galvanized metal.
Seam Welding
Seam welding is similar to spot weld-
Sl'lI11/ weldin g pro-
in g exc ept that the weld s o verl ap, dUCl' S (/series of
making a co ntinuo us weld sea m . In overlapping spot
seam welding, the met al pi eces pa ss welds. thereby lIIt1k-
ing 1I co ntinu ous-
between roll er-typ e electrodes. As the weld seam.
electrodes revolve, the c urre nt is auto-
matically turned ON and OFF at inter-
va ls co r res po nd ing to th e speed at
which the part s mo ve . With prope r
control, it is possible to obtain airtight
sea ms su ita ble for co ntainers suc h as
barr el s, wate r heaters, and fuel tan ks.
Wh en a n int ermitt ent c ur re nt is used
and the spo t we lds are not overlapped
lon g en ou gh to produce a continuous
weld , the proc ess is referred to as roller
spo t we ld ing . See Fi gure 28 -3.
Seam welding is an effective welding
method becau se of its sho rt current
c ycle . The roll ers may be co oled to
prevent overheating, with consequent
wh eel dressing and replacement prob-
lem s redu ced to a min imum. Cooling
is accompli shed by internally circulating
Production We/dinK :@: 339
 wate r or by an external spray of wa-
ter o ver th e e lec t ro de roll ers. See
Fig ure 28-4 .
Since the heat input is low, very little
of th e weld ed area is hard ened , and
the yield point is not materially af-
fected . Very lillie grain growth tak es
place durin g se a m welding. wh ich
mak e s sea m weldin g appli c able to
corros ion-resistant alloys such as fer-
ritic stainless steels and other ferr itic
stainless stee ls whos e met al proper-
tie s are mod ified by gra in growth.
Flg urc 28-3. III a con tinuous spot
weld. welds 11111.\"1 be ctosetv spaced
10 p rol'i.1l> a ll a irt igltt sealll. I II
intermittent .~I'(/t welding, II sea m
weld i.\" produce d in which the spot ROLLERS
welds art' spaced apart,
- CLOSELY·
) / A · SPACEo
~=;.~ SPOT WELDS
Projection Welding
Proj ect ion we ld ing (P lV) is a welding
process that produces a weld using heat
obtain ed from resi stance of the
workpiece to the welding current. The
PW process is similar to spot welding.
The point where welding is to be per-
formed has one or mor e projection s
that have been formed by embossing,
sta mping, ca sting, or machining. The
PW process consists of placing the pro-
je ction s in contact with the workpiece
and aligning them bet ween the elec-
trod es. See Figur e 28-5. Th e projec-
tions serve to concentrate the welding
heat at the weld area and cause fusion
without requiring high current. Single
or multiple projection s can be welded
simultaneously.

•
DIRECT ION

...- OF WELDING

CONTINUOUS CURRENT

PROJECTIONS
BEFORE WELDING
DIRECTION
OF WELDING

INTERMITTENT CURRENT

Figure 28-4. Seam weldillg is lIlI

advantageous welding method
because of its short currenl cyc le.
Tilt' rollers lila)' be cooled 10 pre~
\' (' 111 overheating,

MOLTEN
PROJECTIONS
FUSE TO
FORMWELO
AFTER WELDING

F ig ure 28·5 . 1/1 /, W. p roj ec tio /ls ctJ llcellfrale heal

[ ram the resis tance to the weldin g current.

340 ~ Weldin g Skills

 Th ere are many variables involved
in PW such as metal thickness, type of
met a l. a nd numbe r of p roj ectio ns,
which make it impossible to predeter-
mine the correc t curre nt setting and
pres sure required. Only by trial runs
follow ed by care ful inspection can
proper control settings be established.
Not all metal s can be welded with
PW. Brass a nd co ppe r do not len d
thernsel ves to PW because brass and
coppe r projec tio ns usu all y colla pse
under pressure. Aluminum PW is lim-
ited to extruded part s (shapes formed
by forcing metal through a die) . How-
ever, ga lvanized iron and tin plate, as
well as most other light-gauge steels,
can be succ ess fully welded with PW.
PW is also wide ly used for attac hing
fasteners to structural members.
Multiple-Impulse Welding
Multiple-impulse weldin g is a form of
resistance welding in which welds are
made with repeated electrical impulses.
In regular spot welding, interruption of
the flow of welding current is controlled
manually; with multiple-impulse weld-
ing the current is regu lated electroni -
cally to go on and off a given number
of times during the making of one weld.
See Figure 28-6 . Multiple-impul se
welding permits thicker materials to be
spot- welde d. The int errupted current
helps keep electrodes cooler, minimiz-
ing electrode distortion and reducing the
tendency of the weld to spark, as well
as increasing the life of the electrode.
Flash Welding
Flas h we ld ing (F W) is a resi stance
welding process that produ ces a weld
at the faying surfaces of a joint by the
intense heat of an arc that occurs when
the work pieces are co ntacted and by
the appl ication of press ure after heat-
ing. The weld is completed by a rapid
upsettin g of the workpieces.
- PRESSURE
Figur e 2K-h. In multiple -impulse
welding, the nlrH ,,,t is regulated
by precise electronic COil/mi .
t
PRESSURE
PW is widely used
ill att aching f as ten-
en 10 s tructura l
members.
Th e work pieces to be joined are
clamped in copper alloy dies shaped to
fit each piece that conducts the electric
current to the work. The ends of the two
workpieces are moved together until an
arc is established. The flashing action
across the ga p, cau sed by very high
current densities at small contact points
between th e wo rkpi eces, melts th e
metal, forcibly expels material from the
joint, and creates fusion as the two mol- In multiple-impulse
welding. the current
ten ends are moved together. See Fig-
is regulated 10 go 0 11
ure 28-7. The current is turned OFF as and offa numher of
soon as the fusing action is completed. li mes durin g the
welding p rocess.
For some operations the dies are water-
coo led to dissipate the heat fro m the
welded area. Parts to be flash weld ed
must be prec isel y a ligned. Misali gn-
ment results in a poor joint and pro-
duce s uneven heat and tele scopin g of
one piece over another.
FW is used to butt - or miter -weld
sheet, bar, rod, tub ing, and extruded
sec tions. It has almos t unlim ited ap -
plication for both ferrous and nonfer-
ro us meta ls , but it is no t ge ne ra lly
reco mme nded for weldin g cast iro n,
lead , or zinc alloy s.
Production Weldin g ~ 341
Ftgure 28 -7. In F\V. an intense
arcing -s-caused by the elec trica l
current flo wing through the 1\1"('
.. - ; -. :
.
wo rk p ieces be ing broug hr 10-
geth er-s-melt s the metal lind ere -
ates fusion. CLAMPING ELECTRODES
SLIGHT CONTACT
CAUSES ARCING
A problem in FW is the bulge (flash)
or increa sed size that re sults at the
weld. If the profile of the finish area of
the weld must be smooth, then the flash
must be removed by grinding or ma-
chining after weldin g.
Upset Welding
Upset weldin g (U W) is a resist ance
welding process that produces a weld
on the faying surfaces by the heat ob-
tain ed from resistance to the flow of
current through the surface contact ar-
eas while under constant pressure. The
metal s to be weld ed are brou ght into
contact under pressure, an electric CUf-
rent is passed through them, and the
edges are softened and fused together.
UW differs from FW in th at con-
stant pressure is applied during the
he atin g proce ss, which e limina tes
flashing. The heat generated at the point
of contact result s entirely from resis-
tan ce . A ltho ug h the operation and
control of the UW process is almost
342 ~ Welding Skill s
CURRENT FLOW
STO PPED
QUICK PRESSURE AND
CURRENT STOPPED, FUSING
THE METAL
identical to FW, the basic difference is
that less current is used and more time
mu st be allo wed for the weld to be
completed. See Figure 28-8 .
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC SPOT
WELDING
Gas tungsten arc spot welding is an arc
welding process that produces localized
fusion similar to resistance spot weld-
ing but does not require accessibility to
both sides of the joint. The gas tung-
sten arc spot welding process has many
applications in fabricating sheet-metal
product s with joints th at ca nnot be
welded using RW because of the loca-
tion of the weld, the size of the parts, or
where welding can be made from only
one side. Gas tungsten arc spot weld-
ing provides a deeper, more localized
penetration compared to conventional
RW. See Figure 28-9. Heat is generated
from resistance of the work to the flow
of electrical current in a circuit of which
the work is a part.
 Ffgure 28-8. UlV involves { JiIS S-
ing hi gh c urre nt throu gh ,he
workpiece s while continuous pres -
sure is applied.

CLAMPING ELECTRODES

/ CURRENT FLOW
CURRE NT FLOW V CONT INUES

CONTACT PRESSURE FORGING PRESSURE

(TO PREVENT ARCING) (WHEN WELDING POINT IS REACHED)

Gas Tungsten Arc Spot Welding

DEEp, NARROW Equipment
PEN ETRATION
Any DC welding machine that provides
up to 250 A with a minimum open cir-
cuit voltage of 55 V can be used for gas
tungsten arc spot welding.
The tungsten arc welding gun has a
nozzle that holds a tungsten electrode.
Various shapes of nozzles are available
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC
SPOT WELD to meet particular job requirements.
See Figure 28-10 . The standard nozzle
WID E, SHALLOW
can also be machined to permit access
~~"".~.L_ PEN ETRATION
in tight comers or its diameter reduced
to weld on item s such as small hold -
ing clips .
For most o peratio ns , a l/ S" diam-
eter electrode is used. The end of the
elec trode should normally be flat and
of the same diameter as the electrode.
RESISTANCE However, when working at low cur-
SPOT WELD
rent setting s (100 A or less), better re-
sults are obtained if the end of the
Figure 28-9. Gas lung.~len arc spot welding provides
a dee per "lid more loca li zed penetration co mpared electrode is tapered slightly to provide
to that obtai ned by conve ntional res ista nce welding . a blunt poi nt approximately one -half
Production We/dinx :@: 343
Fig ure 28·10. The gas tungsten
arc spot welding no zzl e nlll he
shaped or machined for a variety
(!!' wel ding j obs.
~
When gas tung -
•~ '~'lm arc sp.ot weld-
.= IlIg, set the curreflf
based on the thick-
ness of the metal
to be spot welded.
344 €l' Weldin g Skills
• - • I
NOZZLE
WORKP IECES
th e diameter of t he electrode . The
blunt point help s to prevent the arc
from wandering . If the end of the elec-
trode balls excessively after only a few
welds ha ve been made, it is usually
an indication of excessive current ,
dirty material , or insufficient shield-
ing gas. Helium used as a sh ielding
gas produces greater penetration than
ar gon, although argon produce s a
larger weld diameter. Gas flow should
be set at approximately 6 cubic feet
per hour (cfh).
Gas Tungsten Arc Spot Welding
Procedure
To make a spot weld , the end of the
weldin g gun is placed agai ns t the
workpiece and th e trigger is pulled.
Squeezing the trigger starts the flow
of cooling water and shielding gas and
ad vances the electrode to touch the
workpiece. As soon as the electrode
touches the workpiece , it automatically
-.
)
retracts, establishing an arc. The arc is
extingui shed at th e end of a preset
length of time. The welding gun is usu-
ally preset at the factory to provide an
arc length of 1/ 16 ", whi ch is satisfac-
tory for most weld ing applications.
The current required for welding is
determined by the thi ckness of the
metal to be weld ed. The major effect
of inc rea sing the current when both
workpiec es ar e approximat el y the
same thickness is to increa se penetra-
tion. However, it also tends to increase
the weld diameter. Increasing the cur-
rent when th e bottom workpi ece is
con siderably hea vie r th an the top
wo rkpiece re sults in an inc rea se in
weld diameter with little or no increase
in penetration. See Figure 28-1 1.
o Manu al gas tungsten arc spot welding can
be pe rformed using automatic sequencing
controls to set the gas and waterflo w rates,
control arc star ting and intervals. and pro-
vide necessa ry postweld shielding gas and
wate r flow.

INCREASED
PENETRATION
INCREASED CURRENTI
WORKPIECES SAME THICKNESS
INCREASED
DIAMETER
PENETRATION
REMAINS ALMOST
UNCHANGED
INCREASED CURRENT!
BOTTOM PIECE THICKER
Figure 28-11. The thickness of the workpieces being
welded has an effect 011 weld diameter and penetra -
tion when the current is increased.
Weld time is set on the dial of the con-
trol panel. The dial is calibrated in 60ths
of a second and is adjustable from 0 sec
to 6 sec. The effect of increasing the weld
time is to increase the weld diameter.
However, by increasing the weld diam-
eter, penetration is also increased.
Mill scale, oil, grease, dirt, paint,
and other foreign materials on or be-
tween the contacting surfaces prevent
good contact and reduce weld strength.
The space between the two contacting
surfaces resulting from these surface
conditions or poor fit-up acts as a bar-
rier to heat transfer and prevents the
weld from penetrating into the bottom
workpiece. Consequently, good surface
contact is important for sound welds .
See Figure 28-12 .
o Stress relieving is used with GMAW to
prevent distortion that occurs throu gh lo-
calized heating. Stress relieving methods
include electric resistance heating blan-
kets, induction coils , and special furnaces.
Figure 28-12. Good surfa ce Cot/ -
PROPER FIT-UP tact is important to ma k ing a
ALLOWS PENETRATION sound spot weld.
GOOD SURFACE CONTACT
IMPROPER FIT-UP
Gas tungsten arc spot welding can
be done from one side only so the bot-
tom workpiece must have sufficient
rigidity to permit the two workpieces
to be brought into contact with pres -
sure applied by the welding gun. If the
thickne ss, size, or shape of the bottom
workpiece is such that it does not pro-
vide enough rigidity, then some form of
backing is required. Backing may be ei-
ther steel or copper.
GAS METAL ARC WELDING IN
PRODUCTION WELDING
GMAW is an economical and effective
method of JOInIng light -gauge,
hard-to-weld metals such as nickel ,
stainless steel, aluminum, brass, copper,
titanium , columbium , molybdenum ,
Inconel " , Monel", and silver, as well
as structural plates and beams. GMAW
may be performed semiautomatically,
mechanically, or automatically.
Semiautomatic GMAW uses weld -
ing equipment that controls only the
filler metal feed . An operator controls
the welding speed. When the trigger
of the welding gun is pr e ssed , the
shielding gas, current, and filler metal
Production Weldin g ::§: 345
 automaticall y begin to n ow. See Fig-
ure 28-13 . The ope rator simply keeps
the weld co ncentrated in the designated
area of the workpiece and maintain s
the proper tra vel speed.
Ftgure 28-13. With a portable
GMA \V we ld ing gun. the gas.
current, ami wire fee d uutomasi-
caliv begin to flow when the trig-
ger is pressed.
Milia "-"1,,,,·' rk M",m/a"'"r ;,,!? Company
Mech anized GMAW uses welding
equipment that performs the welding
operation under the constant observa-
tion and contro l of the o perator. The
weld ing head is stationary rather than
portable . Th e we ld ing head is either
mounted on a carriage that travels over
the workpiece or it is in a fixed position
and the work pieces 10 be weld ed are
moved beneath the unit.
Automati c GM AW uses we lding
equipment th at perfo rms the e ntire
we ld ing o pe ratio n w ith out co ns tant
observation and adj ustment of the con-
trol s by the operator. The controls are
set to the spec ifie d we lding schedule
and the mac hine performs the entire
operation .
STUD WELDING
Stud weld ing is a form of electric arc
weldin g. Stud we lding is a term used
for the process of joining a metal stud,
or s im ilar part, to a workpie ce. Two
method s of stud welding have been
developed, the Nelson method and the
Graham method , each with a different
prin cipl e of operation .
346 @' Weldin g Skills
Nelson Method
Th e Nelson method uses a nux and a
ce ra mic guide o r fe r ru le . Welding
equ ipmenl co nsis ts of a welding gun,
a lim ing device thai co ntrols the DC
we lding c urre nt, s pec ia lly de sign ed
studs, and ce ramic ferrules. Stud s are
available in a variety of shapes, sizes,
and types to meet many ap plications.
The studs have a recess in the welding
e nd, whic h con ta ins th e fl ux. The
flu x acts as an a rc stabi lizer and a
de o x idi z in g age nt. A n indi vid ual
porcel ain ferrule is used with each
stud when weld ing. T he ferrule is the
most import ant part of the operation
beca use it concentrates the heat , acts
(w it h th e flu x) to prevent air from
cont actin g the molten metal , co nfines
th e molte n me ta l to the weld ar ea ,
shields the glare of the arc, and pre-
vents charring of the workpiece through
which the stud is being welded.
A stud is loaded into the chuck of
the welding gun and a ferrule is posi-
tioned over the stud. When the trigger
is dep ressed , the current energizes a
solenoid coil, which lifts the stud away
from the workpiece, causing an arc that
melt s the end of the stud and the area
on th e wor kpi ece . A limin g device
shuts the curre nt O FF at the proper
time. The solenoid releases the stud, a
spring action plunges the stud into the
weld pool, and the we ld is made. See
Figure 28- 14.
Graham Method
The Graham method uses a small cy-
lindrical tip on the joi ning face of the
stud. The di ameter and len gth of the
tip vary with Ihe diameter of the stud
a nd th e workp iece . Th e Graham
method o pe rates on AC c ur rent and
requires an air source that can supply
about 85 tb of air pressure.
The welding gun is air-operated with
a collet (to hold the stud) attached to
the end of a piston rod . Co nstant air
pressure holds the stud away from the

· - . .
CHUCK
STUD
FERRULE
BASE
METAL
GUN ARC CREATED
POSITIONED
CHUCK
workpiece until it is sufficiently heated;
then air pressure drives the stud against
th e wo rkpiece . Wh cn the small tip
touches the workpiece, a high-curren t,
low-voltage discharge results, creatin g
an arc that melts the entire area of the
stud and the corresponding area of the
work. Arcing time is about one milli -
second (.00 1 sec); thus a weld is com-
pleted with little heat penetration, no
distortion, and practically no fillet. The
stud is driven at a velocity of about 31"
per second and the explosive action as
it meets the workpiece clea ns the area
to be welded . A minimum workp iece
Ftgure 2&-14 . A stud is loaded
into the chuctc of the gun and a
fer rule is positioned orer me stud.
Af ,/'1: stud contacts the workpiece,
un (Ire is star ted that melts the
end of the stu d and an a rea 011
the workpiece to which the Mud is
welded.
STUD PLUNGED
INTO WELD POOL
STUD FERRULE
thickness of .02" is preferred, particu-
larly if no marking on the reverse side
is required. See Figure 28- 15.
Both meth ods of stud welding are
adaptable for welding most ferrous and
nonferrous metals, (heir alloys, or any
com bination of them .
o In stud welding. f errules must be positioned
exactly as required. Locating fixtures and
equipment are used to accurately place fer-
rules in the proper location . A template
can locate a ferrule to within ± ~2H of
the specified location . A spacer on the
templa te ensure s accu rat e spa cing be -
f1.1,'een ferrules.
Production Welding :@: 347
Ftgu r e 28· 15. 0 11 CO il tact. ion-
ization takes place, cleaning both
surfa ces. All arc results that melts
the [u ll diame ter of the stud and
a co rresp ondi ng a rea of the
workpiece. A sharp hlow drives tile
two together, compteung the weld.
EBW is a fusion pro-
cess where a high -
power-density beam of
electrons isfocuscd on
the area to be joined.
348 ~ Welding Skills
-fJ ARC
ARC MELTS
STUD AND
WORK AREA
~eJ
~~
b "- -
_I
ElECTRON BEAM WELDING
Electron beam welding (EBW) is a weld-
ing process that produces coalescenc e
with a co ncentrated beam, composed
primarily of high-velocity electro ns ,
impinging on the joint. EBW is per-
fo rmed without s h ie ld ing gas and
without exerting pressure on the weld.
EBW is es sentially a fu sion welding
process. Fusion is achieved by focusing
a high-power-density beam of electrons
on the area to be join ed. Upon striking
th e metal, the kineti c e ne rgy of the
high-velocity electrons changes to thermal
energy, causing the workpiece to melt
and fu se.
Electrons are emitted from a tun g-
sten filament heated to approximately
3630°F (2000°C ). Since the filament
PREi URE
SHARP BLOW
DRIVES PIECES
TOGETHER
<,
would qu ickly oxidi ze at thi s tem-
pe rature if it we re ex posed to nor-
mal atm os phere, we ldi ng mu st be
done in a vac uum c hambe r. There-
for e, a vacuum chamber is necessary
to prevent the electro ns from co llid-
ing with molecul es of air that would
make the el ectron s sc atte r and lose
thei r kin etic ene rg y.
EBW can be used to j oin metal s that
range from thin foil to 2" thick. It is
part icul arl y adaptabl e for welding re-
fractory metal s such as tun gsten , mo-
lybdenum, columbium, and tantalum,
and metal s that ox idize readily, such
as titan ium, be ryllium, and zirconium"
It can also be used to j oin dissimilar
metal s, a luminum, standard stee ls,
and ceramics.
EBW Processes
Electron beam welding is done using ei-
ther of two processes: the vacuum cham-
ber process or the beam-in-air process .
The vacuum chambe r process uses a
controlled vacuum environment where
the welding gun and the workpieces are
enclosed. See Figure 28-16. Because the
vac uum chamber is fre e from atmo-
spheric co nta minants, the vacuum
chamber proces s produces a cleaner
weld without a shielding gas. The weld
is more pre cise because the beam is
much narrower in the vacuum chamber.
Sciaky. It,,' .
Figure 28-16. The welding gun and workpieces are
enclosed in the vacuum chamber of an electron heam
wel ding mach ine.
The beam -in-air proces s uses a gun
that has a vacuum ch amber that sur-
rounds the area wh ere el ectron s exit
from the welding gun; weldin g is done
in the open atmosphere. To shield the
weld area from atmospheric contami -
nants, argon is used as a shielding gas.
T he we lds produ ced by the beam-
in-a ir proce ss ar e simi la r to we lds
made using GTAW.
EB W has se vera l advantages over
oth er pro cesse s. It welds with a lo w
total-energy input. Workpiece distortion
and effects on th e prope rtie s of th e
workpiece are reduced. The weld size
and location can be controlled relative
to the energy input, but it is relatively
narrow. EBW is chemically clean and
facilitates welding without contamina-
tion of the work-piece. Using the beam-
in-air process allows greater welding
speed than GTAW.
EBW is often as soci ated wi th the
joining of difficult-to-weld metal s. It
is used in aerospace fabrication where
new metal s require more e xact in g
joining characteristic s; however , ad -
aptation of the process to commercial
appli cation s is increas ing . There is
every indication that thi s gro wth will
continu e.
One of the major limitations of EBW
using the vacuum ch amber process is
that the piece must be small enough to
fit into the vacuum chamber. This limi-
tation is being reduced to so me extent
because large chambers ar c now
manufactured to accommodate a vari-
ety of product sizes. Another limita-
tion is that when the workpiece is in
the chamber in a vacuum it becomes
inaccessible. It mu st be manipulated
using special control s.
EBW Equipment
An electron gun consists of a filament,
cathode, anode , and focusing co il. The
electrons emitted from the heated fila-
ment carry a negative charge and are
repelled by the cathode and attracted
by the anode. Th e ele ctro n s pas s
through the anode and then throu gh a
magnetic field gen erated by the elec-
tromagnetic focu sin g coil. An opt ical
viewing or num eri cal control sy ste m
determine s the path o f th e electron
beam centerline to the weld area. See
Fig ure 28-1 7.
By varying the current to the focus-
ing coil, the op erator can focu s the
beam for g un- to-w o r k di stan ce s
ranging from '/2" to 25". The electron
beam can be co ntro lled with a focus-
ing coil to produce a spot diameter
of less than .00 5".
Production Weldi ng :€) 349
 HIGH VOLTAGE

!r
CAB LE RECEPTACLE

FILAMENT

~ E L E C T RO N BEAM GUN

GUN HOUSING

ANODE

COL UMN HINGE

ELECTRON BEAM

COLUMN
VENT VALVE

ALIGNMENT
ADJUSTMENT
SCREW

MAGNETIC LENS

MAGNETIC LENS
SHUTTER
OPT ICAL
DEFLECTION COIL
, '~~
,,,
VIEWING
SYSTEM
,
WATER CONNECT ION ,,, VENT TO
,,,
""~\
VAC U

,
:u_....._---, L _ _ _" "
VIEWING
WINDOW
, ,
WATER COOLED ,,,
HEAT SHIELD ,
i: WORKPIECE •
C HA MBER ~ ,
"

WOR K TABLE

Figure 28-17. In the electron beam column, file electron s pass through an aperture in the anode and then through a magnetic f ield generated by
the electromagnetic focusing coil. An optical viewing system provides a line of sight down the path of the electron beam centerline to the weld area.

350 ~ Welding Skills

 A vacuum chamber has heavy glass
windows to permit viewing the work.
A work table in the chamber is ar-
ranged so it can be operated either
manually or electrically along the x-
and y-axes. T-slots are provided on the
table to attach fixtures or workpieces
for welding.
A vacuum pumping system is de-
signed to clean and dry the vacuum
chamber in a relatively short time. The
capacity of the pump required is de-
termined by the volume and area of the
vacuum chamber and the time required
to evacuate the chamber. The pumping
equipment is usually completely auto-
matic once setup is completed.
Necessary electrical controls include
setup controls and operating controls .
Setup control s include instruments re-
quired for the initial setup of the weld-
ing operation, such as meters for beam
voltage, beam current, focusing current,
and filament current. Operating controls
consist of stop-and-start sequence,
high-voltage adjustment, focusing
adjustment, filament activation, and
work table motion.
EBW Procedure
The workpiece is positioned on the work
carriage in the vacuum chamber. The
electron gun and the work-to-gun dis-
tance are aligned manually and visu-
ally using the optical system. Work
travel or welding gun travel, depend-
ing on the type of welding facility used,
is aligned. The vacuum chamber is then
closed. Vacuum controls are started and
the chamber is pumped down to the re-
quired vacuum, which is prescribed in
the weld schedule.
Beam voltage, beam current, fila-
ment current , and focusing current
controls are set ba sed on the weld
schedule. The weld schedule is usu-
ally determined by a welding engineer.
Once the control settings have been
checked , the beam current is switched
ON for an instant and OFF again for a
weld spot alignment check. The weld
or weld area is viewed by opening the
shutter only when the beam current is
turned OFF. If the shutter is opened
when the beam current is ON, the op-
tical system can be severely damaged.
After all controls and settings have
been checked and all switching made
operative, welding is begun by turning
the sequence start switch to the ON po-
sition. The weld is made automatically.
FRICTION WELDING
I,e:::::::: l in FRW, hear result-
Friction welding (FRW) is a welding pro-
-§ ingfmm the parts be-
.= ing rotated together is
cess that joins two metal parts that rotate usedtofuse flu> pieces.
or are in relative motion with respect to
one another when they are brought into
contact and pressure is applied between
them. Friction, or inertia, welding is a
process where stored kinetic energy is
used to generate the required heat for
fusion. The two workpieces to be joined
are aligned end to end. One is held sta-
tionary by a chuck or a fixture, and the
other is clamped in a rotating spindle.
The rotating workpiece is brought
up to a certain speed to develop suffi-
cient energy. The drive source is dis-
connected and the pieces are brought
into contact under a computed thrust
load. At this point , the kinetic energy
contained in the rotating mass converts
to frictional heat. The metal at and im-
mediately behind the interface is soft-
ened, permitting fusion to take place
between the workpieces.
FRW has several advantages over
conventional FW or UW. It produces
improved welds at higher speed and
lower cost, less electrical current is re-
quired, and costly copper fixtures are
eliminated. With FRW there is less
shortening of the components , which
often occurs with FW or UW. Addi-
tionally, the HAZ near the weld is con-
fined to a very narrow band. See
Figure 28-18 .
FRW can be used to weld dissimi-
lar as well as similar metals. Weld
strength is normally equal to that of
the original metals.
Production Welding €l' 351
Figure 28 - 18. 011 friction -
welded workpieces, the HAZ is
nil/filled to II rei )' IIll,.,OW blind.
Laser beam welding
(LBW) is a welding
process that pro :
duces coa lescence
with the heal from a
laser beam imping-
ing 011 the joint.
352 ~ Welding Skills
~ , r HAZ
~_--"'O ~i'---'"o
GEAR TO SHAFTS
HAZ
STAINLESS STUDS TO
MILD STEEL PLATE
HAZ
HYDRAULIC ROD TO YOKE
HUBTO BELL
LASER BEAM WELDING
Laser beam welding (LBW) is a weld-
ing process that produces coalescence
wit h the heat from a lase r beam im-
pinging on the joint. Laser beam weld-
ing is used without shi elding gas and
without ex ertin g pre s sure on the
weld . Fu sion is achieved by directi ng
a highly concentrated beam to a spot
about the diameter of a homan hair.
The highly co nce ntrated beam gener-
ates a power inte nsity of I bi llion or
more wall s per square ce ntimeter at its
point o f foc us . Becau se of its excel-
lent heat input contro l, LBW can be
used near glass or varnish-coated wires
without damaging the glass or the insu-
lating properties of the varn ish.
Since t he heat in pu t to th e
workpiece is extremely sma ll in co m-
parison to other welding processes, the
size of the HAZ and the thenna! damage
to the adjacent pa rts of the we ld are
minimized . It is po s sible to we ld
heat-treated a lloy s wi thout affecting
their heat-treated condition, and the
weld can be held in the hand immedi-
ately after welding is completed.
LBW can be used to join dissimilar
metals such as co pper, nickel, tungsten.
aluminum. stainless steel, titanium. and
columbium . Add iti on ally, the laser
beam ca n pas s throu gh tran sparent
subs ta nces with out affectin g them,
mak ing it possible to weld metal s that
are sealed in g lass or pla stic. Because
the heat so urce is a light beam, atmos-
pheric cont amination of the weld joint
is not a problem .
LBW is used in the aerospace and
el ectro n ic indu stri es where ex treme
control of th e we ld is req uired . A
major limitation of LBW is its shallow
penetration .
The durat ion of the beam is usually
about .002 sec, with a pulse rate of one
to 10 pulses per second. As each point
of the beam hits the workpiece, a spot
is me lted that reso lidifies in microsec-
onds . The weld line consi st s of a se-
rie s of round, so lid, o verlapping weld
pool s . The workpiece is moved be-
neath the beam or the energy source is
moved across the weld . The beam is
focu sed on to the workpiece usin g an
opti cal syste m and the welding energy
is controlled by a switc h.
Laser Beam Theory
Atom s have been made to g ive off
energy by exc iting them in such com-
mon devices as fluorescent lights and
tele vi sion tube s. Fluorescence is the
ab ility of certa in ato ms to emit light
when th e y ar e ex po sed to ex ternal
radiation of sho rte r wavelength s.
In LBW, th e atom s tha t are ex-
cited to produce the laser light beam
are produced in a sy nthetic ruby rod
3/B" in diameter. The ruby rod is iden-
tical to a nat ural ruby but has a more
perfect cry stall ine str uc ture. About
.05 % of its weight is chromium ox-
id e . T he chromium ato ms g ive the
ruby it s red co lo r because they ab- PLASMA ARC WELDING
sorb green light from ex te rn al light
Pla sma arc weldin g (PAW ) is an ar c
sources. When the atoms ab sorb thi s
welding proce ss that u se s a con -
light ene rgy, so me of the ir electrons
str icted arc between a nonconsumable
are ex cited . Thus, gree n light is said
tungsten electro de and the weld pool
to pump th e c h ro mium atom s to a
(transferred arc). or bet ween the elec-
higher energy state.
trod e and constri cting nozzle (no n-
The excited atom s e ventua lly re -
tran sferred arc).
turn to the ir ori ginal sta te . A s th ey
The electrode and part are shielded
do , a portion of the extra energy the y
by ionized ga s (plasma) issuing from
pr eviousl y abs or be d (as gr een light)
the torch , which may be supplemented
is g iven off in the form of red fluo-
by an aux iliary shi elding gas. PAW
rescen t light. When the red light emit-
uses a central pla sma core of extre me
ted by on e exci ted atom hits another
temp erature surrounded by a sheath of
excited atom, the second atom giv es
cool ga s. See Figure 28-20. The re -
off addition a l red ligh t. Th e addi-
quired heat for fusion is generated by
tional re d li gh t is in phase w ith the
an electric arc that has been highly in-
collidin g red light wave, increa sing
tensified by the injection of a gas into
th e inte ns ity of the light. In oth er PAW uses an electric
the arc stream. T he superheated arc col- arc that is highly in-
wo rds, the red li ght from th e fi rst
umn is conce ntrated into a narro w tensified hy the injec-
ato m is amplified becau se more red tion (~f gas into the
stream, and when directed onto a
light exactly like it is produced . arc stream, wh ich
workpiece, can mak e a groove weld results in a jet ofhigh
By using a very intense green light
1jz" thick or more in a single pass with- current density:
to exc ite the chromium atom s in the
out filler metal or edge preparation .
ruby rod, a larger number of its atom s
can be exci ted and the chance s of

. ..
~
colli sion s are increased . To further Figure 2M- 20. PAW uses {/ ('01-
tral plasma core of ex trem e tem-
enhan ce thi s effect , the parallel ends - perature surrounded hy a sheath
and the sides of the rod are mirrored of cool gas.
tu bounc e the red light back and forth - TUNGST EN
ELECTRODE
within the rod. When a certain critical
intens ity of pumping is reached (the
th reshold ene rgy ), the chain rea ction INNER SHEATH
co ll isio ns become numerous eno ugh CENT RAL V (HOT)
PLASMA ......-- OUTER SHEATH
to cause a bur st of red light. T he lens CORE / (COO L)
at the front end of the rod is only a par- __ WORKPIECE
tial reflector. allowing the burst of light +
to escape throu gh it. See Figure 28-19 .

Fig ure 28-19. The LBlV machine

ha s a concentrated beam that is
PUM PING fo cused on the workpiece with all
SOURC E
optica! system.

RUBY ROD
(LASER CRYSTAL)

Production Weldi ng :€1 353

 In some respects, PAW may be con-
sidered an extension of GTAW. Th e
main difference is that in PAW, the arc
column is constr icted . T his constr ic-
tion produces a much higher heat
transfer rate .
The arc plasma actually becomes
a jet of high current density. The
pl asma gas, upon strik ing the
workpiece, cut s or keyholes, entirely
through the workpiece, producing a
sm all hole th at is carried along the
weld . During thi s cutting act ion , the
melted metal in front of the arc flows
around the arc column, then is drawn
together imm ediately behind the hole
by surface ten sion force s, reforming
in a weld bead .
WATER SUPPLY
WATER RETURN
DC POWER SUPPLY
CONTROL CONSOLE
F igure 28·21. Tilt' PAW welding ci rcuit includes (J DC power source, control console. wate r supply, plasma gas and shielding gas supply,
welding cables, and torch,
354 ~ Weld ing Skill s
o Plasma arc weldin g can be used to weld
sta inless steels, ca rbon steels, Mon el",
. tnconet", titanium, aluminum. copper, and
brass allo ys. Filler metal is typi cally not
needed; however, a continuous filler wire
can be added.
PAW Equipment
A regular heavy -duty DC rec tifier is
used as the power sourc e for PAW. A
special control con sole is required to
prov ide the neces sary operating con-
trols . A water-cool ing pump is usually
needed to ensure a controlled flow of
cooling water to the torch at a regu-
lated pressure. Proper cooling prolongs
the life of the electrode and the nozzle.
See Figure 28-21.
SHIELDING GAS
 Torches specially designed for PAW
can be hand-h eld or mounted for sta-
tionary or mechanized applications. See
Figure 28-22. Th e shielding gas sup-
ply should be ei ther argon or helium.
In some applications, argon is used as
th e plasm a gas a nd he lium as th e
shielding gas. However, in many oper-
ations argon is used for both shielding
and generating the plasma arc.

Figure 28-22 . To rches spe cially

ClIII be hand-
tlt'.figllt'd f or [JAW
"del or mounted for stationary or
mechanirrd appli cations.

HAND·HELD
TORCH ______

FILLER METAL
ADDED FOR
Fll lETWE lDS ----.

HAND-HELD

PLASMA
TORCH

MOUNTED
Thrmt(11Arr. Q d"';~UHl <>/ TJr..rmad.ln r {,.J,m ri... , J,....

Prod uction Weld ing :§: 355

 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an
arc welding process that uses an arc
between a bare metal electrode and the
weld pool. A blan ket of granular nu x,
supplied from the electrode, form s a
layer of slag that protects and shields
the arc and we ld pool fro m contami-
nation . The granulated nux shields the
tn SA\V, the electric welding action and covers the molten
a rc is co mpletely
hidden ben eath a
metal. The weld is submerged beneath
flux. the n ux and slag. Pressure is not used
on the we ld during SAW. See Figure
28-23 .
SAW can be e ither semiautomatic
or auto matic . Th e welding unit used
with the automatic process is set up to
move over the weld area at a controlled
speed . Se e Fig ure 28-24 . On some
machine s, th e weldin g head moves
and the wo rk rem ain s sta tionary. In
others, the head is stationary and the
wo rk mov e s. Semiautomatic SAW
No ine rt shielding gas requires th e use of a special welding
the cent er of the we ld, develo ping a
weak area. Very little edge preparation
is necessary on metal less than 'h" thick.
Generall y, backing is esse ntia l when
welding thick steel. Welding positions
arc limited because of the large amount
of fluid molten metal.
The di fference between SAW and
GMAW is that no ine rt shielding gas
is required. The welding gun is pointed
over the we ld area and the tr igger is
pre ssed. As soo n as th e t ri gger is
pr e sse d, the we ldi ng wire is ener- )
gized and th e arc is sta rted . At the
sa me time , flux begi ns to fl ow.
Weldin g is then carried out in the same
mann er as GMAW.

tI
.e
•-
is required f or SAW
e::::::: S;/I ('(' th e flux com-
plete ly su rrounds the
electric arc.
gun .
SAW can be used for metals from
VI6" thick. It is usually used for weld-
ing thick metal s and where deep pen-
etration is required. For exa mple, it is
possibl e to weld 3" plate in a single
Figure 28·24. The welding unit used with the (lUIO -
pass. Ho wever, cautio n is nec essary is .\'et up /0 movr (w eI' the weld area at
mati c pro('e,fS
as impurities in the weld collect toward a con /rolled speed,

Fi~u n= 28·23. A cutaway ,·jew of

{111 SAW machine shows how the AUTOMATICWIRE FEED
g ranulated flux shields the weld- FROM FLUX HOPPER
TO WELD POWER SUPPLY
ill,': action and covers tile molten
metal.
FLUX FEED TUBE

FLUX SHELF,
SOU D SLAG '\

WELDING JOINT
GROUND
CLAMP
,

~ \:N~ED
BASE METAL

WELDING WIRE

RUNOFF WELD METAL·

TAB
BACKING

356 ~ Welding Skills

SAW Equipment
The welding equipment required for
SAW includes a power source , wire
feed and drive assembly, welding gun ,
and flux deliver y system. Any regular
GMAW DC weld ing machine can be
adapted for SAW. Since SAW is usually
automated , the power source must be
capable of an output and a duty cycle
th at c an match the operation be in g
perform ed . T he metal thi ckness dic -
tates the required current. Light-gauge
metal requires as little as 300 A, while
thick metals may require 1000A or more.
A co nsta nt-vo ltage power source
sets the voltage and holds it relati vely
constant. Current is determined by the
feed speed of the electrode wire. As
the wire feed speed is increased, more
current is required to bum off the wire.
Conversely, when the wire feed speed
is decreased, less current is required,
With a co nstant-c urr ent power
sou rce, a voltage -se nsing wire feeder
may be used . A voltage-s ens ing wire
feeder increa ses the speed of the wire
feed motor when the arc voltage in-
creases and reduces the spee d of the
wire feed motor when the voltage de-
creases, maintaining a fairly constant arc
voltage and len gth . Howe ver, it does
not provide a consistent deposition rate.
Wire feed systems used for GMAW
or FCAW ca n be used for SAW, pro-
vided they can feed the required wire
size at the proper speed. For semiau-
tomatic SAW, a standard wi re feeder
is normally used. When using a constant-
current power source, special wire feed-
ers that change feed rates in response
to arc voltage changes are sometimes
used. Burnback controls may be used
for both semiautomatic and automatic
SAW to pr ev ent the e le c trode wire
from sticking to the weld pool at the
end of the weld.
The welding wire should be clipped
to a sharp po int as clo se to the flux
cone as possible. Once the voltage and
current are set, the welding gun is' po-
sitioned over the jo int. As the welding
wi re is fed into th e weld zon e, th e
welding gun depo sit s the granulated
flux over the weld pool and completely
shields the welding action . The arc is
not visible since it is buried in the flux,
thu s there is no flash or spatter. The
portion of the granul ar flux im-
mediately aro und the ar c fu ses and
covers the molten metal, but after it has
solidified, it can be tapped off easily
with a ch ipping hammer.
Flux can be deli vered to the weld
pool by either the gravity fe ed or
forced-ai r feed method . The gravity
feed method is de si gn ed for short-
duration weld s that are easily acces-
sible. It is limited by the amount of flux
that the operator can handle in the flux
canister.
The forced-air flux feedin g method
is common ly used for semiautomatic
weld ing. A conventional wir e-feeding
unit feeds the welding wire to the weld
pool. A pressurized storage tank that
holds approximately 100 lb of flux and
a hand -held weldin g gun with a high-
pres sure air feed attac hment are also
used. An air supply is attached to the
flux storage tank. The tank 's regulator
adjusts the pressure that feeds the flux
through the tubin g to the weldin g gun
and the weld pool.
Th,' Li'lColn tJe Clric Coml'ony
An automatic submerged arc welding machine is designed to move ova the weld
area white depositing the weld in.f7at position.
Production Welding €>= 357
 ULTRASONIC WELDING
US lV is a process
where vibra tory en- Ultraso nic weldin g (USW) is a weld-
erg)' disp erses the
mo isture. ox ide, and
ing process that produces a weld by ap-
surfa ce irregularities plying high-frequency vibratory energy
between the pieces, to workpieces that are held together
thereby bringing the
surfaces into dose
under pre ssure . Theoretically, if two
(xmlact to fonn a per- workpie ces with perfectly smooth sur-
manent bond faces are brought into clo se co ntac t,
the metal atoms of one workpiece will
unite with the atoms of the other piece
to form a permanent bond . However,
regardl ess of how smoo th suc h sur-
faces are a sound metalli c hond nor-
mall y doe s not occ ur becau se it is
impossible to prepare surfaces that are
absolut ely smooth.
Whatever method is used to smooth
surfaces, they still possess peaks and
valleys (as seen by a microscope). As a
result, only the peaks of the workpieces
th at come into close contact unit e,
produ cing no bo nd in th e va lleys .
Also, smooth surfaces are never com-
pletely clean . Oxygen molecules from
the atmosphere react with the metal to
form oxides. These oxides attract water
vapor, forming a film of moisture on
the ox idized metal surface. Both the
moi sture and ox ide fi lm a lso ac t as
barriers to pre vent close cont act.
Ffgure 28-25. An ultrasonic can-
tinuous-seam welder is of ten used
f or complete seal ing of rompo-
. - .
"e llis use d ill elect ronics.
COUPLER
TRANSDUCER
358 0 Weldin g Ski lls
In USW, to ove rco me the bar riers
to fusion , the interface be tween the
wo rk pieces is plast ica lly de formed.
Thi s is don e by mean s of vibra tory
energy, which disperses moisture and
ox ide and level s an irreg ular surface
to bring the surfaces of hoth workpieces
i nto c los e contac t and fo rm a solid
bond . Vibratory e nergy is ge nerated
by a tra nsducer. See Figure 28-2 5.
USW Equipment
The welding equipment used for USW
con sists of two units: a power source
or frequency converter, which converts
60 Hz line power into high-frequency
electrical power; and a transducer. The
co mpo nents to be j oin ed are simply
cl amped bet ween a we ldi ng tip and
supporting anvil with just enough pres-
sure to hold them in close contact.
USW Procedure
High -frequency vib ratory en er gy is
tran smitted to the joint for a required
peri od . Bondin g is accom plis hed
without applying external heat or add-
in g filler met al. Weld ing var ia bles
such as power, clamping for ce, weld
CLAMPING FORCE APPLIED ~
THROUGH MOUN T ~-
VIBRATORY
ENERGY ~
.,....- TIP
WORKPIECE
INTERFACE
PLASTICALLY
DEFORMED
ANVIL
time for spot welds or welding rate for
continuous-seam welds can be preset
and the cycle completed automatically.
A switch lowers the welding head, ap-
plies the clamping force, and starts the
flow of ultrasonic energy.
Successful USW depends on the
proper relationship between welding
variables, which is usually determined
experimentally for each app lication .
Clamping force may vary from a few
gram s for very thin metals to several
thousand pound s for thick metals.
Weld time may range from .005 sec to
I sec for spot welding and a few feet
per minute (fpm) to 400 fpm for continu-
ous-seam welding. The high-frequency
electrical input to the transducer may
vary from a fraction of a watt to sev-
eral kilowatts .
USW is particularly adaptable for
joining electrical and electronic com-
ponents, hermetic sealing of materials
and devices , spl icing metallic foil ,
welding alnminum wire and sheet, and
fabricating nuclear fuel elements. Spot
welds or continuous-seam welds can be
made on a variety of metals ranging in
thickness from .00017" (alum inum
foil) to .10". Thick sheet and plate can
be welded if the machine is specifically
designed for them. High-strength bonds
are possible on similar and dissimilar
metal combinations.
ELECTROGAS WELDING
Electrogas welding (EGW) is a weld-
ing process that uses an arc between a
filler metal electrode and the weld
pool , using approx imately vertical
welding and a backing bar to control
the weld metal. EGW can be used with
or without shielding gas and without
exerting pre ssure on the weld. EGW
uses a ga s-shielded metal arc and is
de signed for single-pass welding of
vertical joints on steel ranging in thick-
ness from 3/8 " to 11/2".
The welding head is suspended
from an elevator mechanism that pro-
vides automatic control of the vertical
travel speed during welding. This
mechanism raises the welding head
automatically at the same rate as the
advancing weld metal. The welding
head is self-aligning and can follow
any alignment irregularity in the metal
or in the joint.
Once the equipment is positioned
on the joint, welding is completely
automatic . The wire feed speed and
the current levels remain constant. At
the end of the weld, the process stops
automatically. The EGW technique is
especially adaptable for shipbuilding
and fabrication of storage tanks and
large-diameter pipes.
ADHESIVE BONDING
Adhesive bonding (AB) is used to join
parts with an adhesive placed between
the faying (mating) surfaces. AB is use-
ful for joining dissimilar metals, plastics,
and composites in manufacturing and
repair operations. AB can be used to re-
duce the number of fasteners required
and to strengthen joints prone to failure
from vibration. See Figure 28-26.
Figure 28-26 . A dhesive bonding
is used to join dissimilar materials
and strengthen. joints pron e to fa il-
ure f rom vibration.
Fd -Pm Chemi,.,,1 Prod,, "t .'·
Production Weldin g @ 359
 Thin metal s subject to heat di stor-
tion can be joined with adhesives. For
example, auto body panels joined with
adhe sives do not ha ve depre ssi on s
ca used by resista nce we ld ing heat.
Wor kp iece joi nt dimen si on s do not
affect bonding stre ngth.
Thin metals can be joined with thick
metals. Adhesives fill the voids between
workpieees without bre akin g surface
contours. The flex ibility of adhesives
also allow s distortion without failure .
Joint types for AB require large con-
tact areas for adhe sion, as in braziog
and so ldering.
AB requires proper surface prepa -
ration . applica tion, and curing proce-
dures. Th e fay ing sur faces mu st be
clean and free of forei gn matter. Ad-
hesi ve s are se lected by the mat erial
and a pp lic a tion of the part s to be
joined . See Figure 28 -2 7. Adhesiv e
application processes ca n be manual ,
se m ia uto ma tic , me chan ized , a uto -
mat ic, and robo tic, dependi ng on the
equipment avai lable. Equipme nt re -
quired for ad hesive bonding varies
depending on application and curing
meth od s. Adhesi ves ar e c ure d by
ch emic al ac tion using ca ta lys t cure
(two parts) , evaporatio n, ultraviolet
(UV) light, heat, pressure, or both heat
and press ure.
Adhesives are available in various
viscosities . Viscos ity is the resi stance
of a subs ta nce to flow in a fluid or
semi-fluid state. Low-viscosity adhesives
are liquid in form, and Ilow readily into
small spaces. High-vi scosity adhesives
range from ge ls to plastic-like forms. '\
In some application s, an adhe sive )
functions as a sealant. A sealant is a
product used to sea l, fill vo ids, and
waterp roof parts. Adhesive selection is
based on the material and application
of the parts to be joined.
Adhesive Types
Adh esiv es can be bro ad ly cl assifi ed
by chemi ca l content or ba se as
acryli c, anaerobic, cyanoacrylate, ep-
oxy, hot me lt, po lyurethan e, poly-
s ulfide, s ilic one, so lve nt- bas e, or
wat er-base adhesiv es.

ADHESIVE BONDING
Void- Heat Cold Thermal Water Metal
Adhesive Components Cure Time Viscosity Filling Flexibility Resistance Resistance Res istance Resistance Bond ing

Two-part
O ne-parI Med ium
Acrylic Medium Good Good Good Good Good Good Good
(UVor 10 Fast
Heat cure)
Poor to
Anae robic One -par t Medium Low Good Good Good Good Good Fair
Fair
Poor to Poor 10
Cyanoacrylate One -part Fast Low Fa ir Fair
Fair Fair Goo d Fair Good

Two-pa ri
Epoxy Slow to Medium
One-pa rt Excellent Fai r Go od Fair Good Good Good
(heal cure) Medium to High
Fair to Poor to
Hot Melt One -part Fast High Exce llent Fair Fair Good Fair
Good Fair
On e-pa rt
Polyure thane
Two-pa rt
Med ium Medium Good Good Fair Good Good Fai r Good

O ne-pa rt
Potysulfide
Two-part
Med ium High Excellent Good Good Good Excellent Good Good
On e-part
Silicone Two-part Medium High Excellent Excellent Exce llent Excellent Excell ent Excellent Fair

So lvent-base One-part Med ium Low to Poor to Good Good Good Good Good Good
Medium Fair

Water-base One -part Med ium Low to Poor to Poor to Fair Fair Poo r Poor Poor to
Medium Fair Fair Fair

Ftgure 28·27. Adhrsivcs a n' selecte d based 011 tne material and application of the parts 10 be joined.

360 ~ Welding Skills

 An acrylic is a one-part UV (heat
cure), or a two-part adhesive that can
be used on a variety of materials. It
has a fast setting time and excellent
tlexibility. An anaerobic adhesive is
a one-part adhesive or sealant that
cures due to the absence of air which
has been displaced between mated
parts. Low -viscosity anaerobic adhe-
sives are commonly used for locking
metal parts together such as screws, nuts,
and other fasteners. High-viscosity
anaerobic adhesives are used for join-
ing parts that have large gaps between
faying surfaces .
A cyanoacrylate adhesive is a
one -part adhesive that cures instantly
by reacting to trace surface moisture
to bond mated parts. Cyanoacrylate
adhesives have common names such
as instant glue or super glue and have
a low resistance to high temperatures,
moisture, vibration, and shock. Epoxy
is a two-part adhesive that cures when
resin and hardener are combined.
Some epoxies are heat-cured .
A hot melt adhesive is thermoplas-
tic material that is applied in a molten
state and cures to a solid state when
cooled . A hot melt adhesive is not as
strong as epoxy but is very fast set-
ting. Polyurethane is a one- or two-part
adhesive with excellent flexibility that
cures by evaporation, catalyst, or heat.
A polysulfide adhesive is a one- or two-
part adhesive or sealant that cures by
evaporation or catalyst. It is commonly
used in the aerospace and building ma-
terials industry.
Silicone is a one- or two-part adhe-
sive or sealant that cures by evaporation
or catalyst. It has high temperature
resistance and excellent sealing
characteristics. A solvent-base adhesive
is a one-part adhesive with a rubber or
plastic base that cures by solvent
evaporation. It is commonly used as
contact cement for bonding large sur-
face areas and lamination applications.
A water-base adhesive is a one-part ad-
hesive that cures by water evaporation .
A water-base adhesive is low in flex-
ibility and is primarily used for wood
and paper products.
OTHER WELDING PROCESSES
Other welding processes approved by
the AWS may be used for particular
applications. These processes include
explosion welding, forge welding, roll
welding, and cold welding.
Explosion Welding
Explosion welding (EXW) is a welding
process that produces a weld by ex-
treme impact of the metals through
controlled detonation . Coalescence
occurs from the explosive force of the
impact on the heated surface . EXW
forms a strong bond between many
metals, including dissimilar metals that
cannot be joined by arc welding. EXW
is commonly used for cladding steel
with thinner metals.
Forge Welding
Forge welding (FOW) is a welding pro-
cess that produces a weld by heating
the meta ls to welding temperature and
applying forceful blows to cause de-
formation at the faying surfaces. FOW
is one of the oldest welding procedures,
commonly used by blacksmiths for
joining metals. The metals are heated
to a red-hot temperature and a ham-
mer and anvil are used to deform the
surface. Flux is often applied to aid in
bonding the joint.
Roll Welding
Roll welding (ROW) produces a weld
by applying heat and pressure using
rollers to cause deformation at the
faying surfaces. ROW is similar to forge
welding except that the weld is formed
by rollers rather than a hammer. ROW
is commonly used for welding pipe and
for cladding mild- or low-alloy steel
with high-alloy steel.
Production Welding :@: 361
 Cold Welding
Cold welding (C W) is a welding pro-
cess in whic h a weld is produced us-
ing pre ssu re at room temper atur e to
ca use de for mati on at the jo int. Coa-
lescen ce occ urs becau se of the pres-
sure th at is applied . Surface ox ides
and co nta mina nts mu st be re moved
before CW takes place. Powe r brush-
ing is the bes t met hod to clean the
surface. Many soft meta ls tha t can-
not be welded, as well as many dis-
similar metals such as aluminum and
coppe r or iron and co ppe r, can be
joined usin g Cw.

I. Spot welding is a form of RW with wide application in industry.

2 . Spotwelders are available to produce sing le spot welds or multiple spot welds .
3 . Seam welding produces a series of overlapping spot welds, thereby making a continuous-weld
seam.
4 . In multiple-impulse welding, the current is regulated to go on and off a number of times
during the welding proce ss.
5 . When gas tungsten arc spot welding , set the current based on the thickness of the metal to be
spot welded.
6. EBW is a fusion process where a high-power-density beam of electrons is focused on the area
to be joined.
7. In FRW, heat resulting from the parts being rotated together is used to fuse the pieces.
8. Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding process that produces coalescence with the heat
from a laser beam impinging on the jo int
9. PAW uses an electric arc that is highly intens ified by the injection of gas into the arc
stream, which results in a jet of high curren t density .
10. In SAW, the electric arc is comple tely hidden beneath a flux .
II. No inert shielding gas is requ ired for SAW si nce the flux completely surrounds the
electric arc.
12. USW is a proce ss where vibratory energy disperses the moisture, oxide, and surface irregu-
larities between the workpieces, thereby bringing the surfaces into close contact to form a
permanent bond .

I. What is the basic principl e of resistance welding ?

2. What is projection weldin g?
3. What is meant by multipl e-impulse welding?
4. How does upset weldin g differ from flash weldin g?
5. What is the advantage of gas tungsten arc spot welding over conventional resistance spot welding?
6. What are some adva ntages and limitations of electron beam weldin g?
7. What is the principle of friction welding?
8. In laser beam welding, how is the high-intensity laser light beam generated?
9. How does PAW differ from regular GTAW?
10. What is SAW and what are some of its advantages?
I I. How is fusion of metal accomplished in ultrasonic welding ?
12. Wha t are some advanta ges of adhe sive bonding?
362 ~ Weld ing Skills
Automation in production welding offers greater efficiency and weld quality control to manufacturers and
fabricators. Automation requires that some or all of the steps of an operation be performed in sequellce
by electronic or mechanical means. Many welding processes can be automated for production welding
that requires consistent, rapidly repeated welds. Automatic welding is most commonly used in automa-
tion systems. Automation in production welding can be broadly classified as fixed automation and flexible
automation. Fixed automation uses mechani cally directed movement s of the torch and workpiece.
Flexible automation uses programmable movements of a robotic torch and the workpiece. Automated
welding equipment is used to achieve the accuracy and speed needed in a production environment.

AUTOMATION IN PRODUCTION Fixe d auto ma tio n eq uipme nt uses

WELDING
Automation in produ ction welding of-
fers greater eftic iency and weld quality
contro l to manu facturers and fabri ca-
tors. Production welding processes have
evolved as new welding technology has
been devel op ed . Produ cti o n we lding
processes used for automation in weld-
ing are mech ani zed , se mia uto ma tic,
and automatic weldi ng processes. Au-
tom ati c wel ding is most co mmo nly
used in automation sys tems. Automa-
mech ani ca l and e lectrical mean s to
guide the torch and the workpiece. Fixed
autom at ion equipment provides more
arc-on time, better accuracy and speed,
and lower cost than manual welding pro-
cesses. The torch may be fixed and the
workpiece moved about the torch, such
as on a pipe weld; or the workpiece may
be fixed and the torch moved, such as
on a seamer. See Figure 29- 1.
Ftg u re 29-1. Fix ed a utomation
equipment is des igne d for a spe-
~~,.. FIXED
cific p ro t/Ile'lion / 11I/('1;011.

tion in prod uc tion weldi ng ca n be , AUTOMATION

broadly cla ssified as fixed automation EQU I P 7

and flexib le automation.

Fixed Automation Systems

A fixed automation system is a sys-
tem that uses machines desig ned for
a specific produ cti on fu nction. Fixed
auto ma t io n systems are prim aril y
used for s i mp le pr odu cti on path
welds suc h as c ircles, linear seams,
or radi al seams. A fixed aut omation
system is ge ne ra lly used in produ c- FABRICATED
PRODUCT
tion facili ties dem and ing high volume
and repeated we lds . "m"ljiri.\'. Jill'.

363
 Si nce the weld ing e qu ip me nt is
mechanic al, the opera tor must adju st
the mechanical path to make changes
to the torch movem en t. Adjustme nts
requi re time to re too l the equipment
for the next weld. The single-purpose
design of the equipment makes intri-
cate welding ap plica tions pro hibitive
if not imposs ible . Fixed automation
welding sy stems eq uipme nt com -
monl y include s operator con tro ls, a
torch positioner/holder, and a workpiece
po sitio ner/holder.
Operator Contr ols, Operator controls
are used to start and stop the weld ing
cy cle . T he operato r co ntro ls may be
conn ect ed to a pro gr ammabl e lo gic
contro ller (PLC), which in turn con-
trol s the positi oner s and the weldi ng
equipment. The PLC sequences through
the weld cycle , co ntro lling wh en to
move the torch , start the arc , feed the
wire, and turn on the shielding gas, as
well as other welding sequences. Some
welding equipment uses internal con -
trol s rath er than PLCs to control the
weldi ng equipment.
Torch Positioner/Holder. Fixed auto-
A torch positioner is
mation equipment such as seamers and
"fired-path mechani-
cal ap paratus th at orbital welders use a torch position er,
mm 't's the torch in a or holder. A torch positioner is a fixed-
specified path.
path mechanical apparatus that moves
the torch in a specified path. A seamer
is design ed to we ld linear seams in
rolled tubes or nat plates. When a torch
positioner is used on a seamer, it keeps
the torc h on a linear path along the
j oint and maintains a constant rate of
A robot is a pro-
grammed pa th device speed. See Figure 29-2. A PLC or some
used to position th e other auto mated control ler is typically
torch "JIllat times the used to direct the weld seq uence.
workpiece.
Workpiece Positioner/Holder. T he
de si gn o f a wo rk p iece pos itione r/
holder needs to be quite sophisticated
and elaborate to ensure that the simple
path required by th e tor ch can be
maintained . T he wor kpiece positioner
must hold the work pieces without in-
terferin g with the path of the torch.
364 €l' Welding Ski lls
PunJj ins. 1111:.
Ftgure 29-2. A torch positioner used 011 a sramer
keeps the torch on (/ linear path along the joint wrd
maintains a constant speed.
Workpiece positioners can be controlled
manuall y, pneumaticall y, or hydrauli-
ca lly. The workpiece positi oner may
rotate or tilt by means of an elec tric
motor that allows eas ier access to the
weld sea m.
o The pu rpose ofautomation is to reduce
rnanufuctu ring costs bv increasing pro -
ductivity and quality.
Flexible Automation Systems
A fle xible automation system is a sys-
tem th at uses pr ogr ammabl e move-
ments of the torch and sometimes the
workpiece. In tlexible automation, pro-
gra mmed equipment guides the torch.
The most common type of programmed
device is the robo t. A robot is a pro-
gram med path device used to position
the torch and at time s the workpiece.
A robot ca n perform complex move-
me nts in order to fo llow a complex
path. The robot can provide the fab-
ricator with extended arc-on time .
With the advances in electrical mo-
tors and moto r control circuits, robots'
speed s have almost matc hed those of
fixed auto matio n equipment, and the
air cut time of the robot sys tems has
been reduced, Air cut time is the time
that a piece of eq uipme nt spends in
th e nonpro du cti ve ac tiv ity of mov-
ing from one we ld to ano ther. In the
pa st, fi xe d a utoma tio n e q ui pment
pro vi ded mu ch fast er move ments
than fle xi ble au tomati on equipment. accurate movement than the stepper
T he bigg est advantage that fle xible motors used in the past. Stepper mo-
automation has over fixed automation tor s would rotat e 3600 in stepped in-
is the reprogrammability of the robot crements, with an accuracy of .5°. AC
mov ement, allowing for varied move - servomotors can be controlled with an
ment of the robot. This feature makes it accuracy of . 1°, without the need for
easier and quicker to change weld set- the complex dri ving circuits associated
tings , locati on s, and workpiece posi- with stepper motors.
tion s. Th e robot is capable of stor ing The robot controll er directs the start-
weld programs, which can quickly be ing and stopping of the servomotors
changed, permitti ng a variety of parts as well as the rate of speed and accel-
and welds to be efficiently mad e by eration of each se rvomotor. See Fig-
The mho! controller
one robot.
In the pa st , fle xible auto mation
equipment was much more expensive
ure 29-3. The robot controller not only
controls mov em ent of the manipula- I]
.~
.=
controls the move -
ment of the manipu-
lator from point to
tor s from point to point but also con-
point ami the path of
th an fixed automation equipment. trols the path of the torch from point the torch from paint
However, with the incr ea sed variety to point. Controlled mo vement path s to po int .
and availability of flexible automation may be linear (straight line) or circular
systems , the costs have become com- (curved line).
parable. A flexible automation system
typically incurs additional costs for the
fixture designs and tooling associated Ftgure 29-3. ;\ mho! contr oller
with flexible automation systems. is used /0 direct the sta rling, stop -
pin g, spee d. and acceleration (~r
An additional cost to the user s of
the servomotors.
flexible automation systems is the cost
associated with training. Operators, pro-
grammers, and maintenance per sonnel
all must be trained in the proper use of
the robot. In each case , the most effi-
cient and beneficial training is to train
process experts- we lders - on how to
operate and program the robot.
The components of a robot welding
system (robot cell) used for flexible au-
tomation consist of a robot controller, ro-
bot manipulator, teach pendant, operator
controls, and workpiece positioner. - • (
• • •
Robot Con t roller. The robo t control-
ler pro vides the control for the servo-
mo tors a nd communica tes with th e
we lding equipme nt and other equip-
ment in the sys te m . A servomoto r is
an AC or DC motor with encoder feed-
back to indicate how far the motor has
rotated. AC servomotors provide higher
speeds and torqu es than DC servomo-
tor s and are the preferred method of
The !.it"' ol" Elel'lri,' Com!,,,,,y
control for robotic sys tems . With en-
coder feedba ck technology, AC servo-
motors prov ide faster an d more
Automation & Robotic Weldin,; :§: 365
 A robot controller may control more
than the servomotor in the manipula-
tor. it may also control servomotors in
the wo rkpi ece po sition er and other
equipment in the robot ce ll. Some ro-
bot cont rollers can control as many as
operation. An articulated co nfiguration
allows the arm link and wrist j oints to
be sma ll a nd co mpact. A s ma ll and
co mpact jo int can be eas ily maneu-
vered into tight areas .

-
16 se rvomo tors simultaneo us ly for a
sy nchronized motion . The robot con-
troll er must accelerate and decelerate
. - ..
each servomotor individually to main-
tain the controlled path at the tool cen-
ter point (TC P). Advanced software and '\
digital hard ware are typically required )
to conti nually adj ust the ser vom otors
to the co rrect speed, accel eration, and
decel er ati on.
Robot Manipulator, Th e ro bo t ma-
The robot monipula- nipulator is the robot arm. A servomo-
tor is the mbot arm tor moves the robot manipulator from
and consists ofa base
and severollinks and one point to another. Th e rob ot ma-
joints (o r a.res). nipulator con sists of a ba se and sev -
eral links and joints. The base provides
the mounting for the robot manipula-
tor, much like a human torso. The links
are the arm structures, similar to a hu-
man upper arm and forearm. The joints
slide and rotate to allow the movements M" '""'ulI, l,,c
of the links, ju st like the human shoul-
de r, elbow, or wrist. Th e joints of the Figure 29·... A common config uration fo r a welding
robot manipulator are referred to as robot is a six -axis articulated robot manipulator:
ax is joints. Thu s, a six-axi s robot will
have six ax is j oint s. Welding ma nipula tors are usually
Th e robot manipulator is the most only req uired to lift small, light loads,
important part of the robot cell design . but they must be able to move the loads
Manipulators can be found in man y qui ckl y and with hi gh rep eat abil ity.
different configur ations, s iz es, a nd Most manipulators can return to a pro-
speeds. Early robot manipulators, such grammed point within app roximately
.004 ", which gives the man ipulator a
as the rectilinear robot manipul ator,
A reach pe nda nt is .004" repeatability factor.
the inpu t me th od were designed for easy control. These
that the robot pro- robot manipulators were large and Teach Pendant. The teach pendant and
grammer uses to ere - slow, but eas y to design and contro l. the robot controller are the brains of
art' robot movement
programs. Rectilin ear robot manipulators are still the robot welding system. A leach pen-
used for so me spo t welding applic a- dant is the device that the rob ot pro-
tion s, but are limited in their access to grammer uses to create ro bo t move-
va rio us we lding posit ion s. ment programs. See Figure 29-5. The
T he most co mmo n con fi guration programmer uses the teach pendant to
fo r a weld ing ro bot is a six-ax is ar- move th e ma ni p ulato r in e ithe r the
ticul ated rob ot manipulator driven by axis plane or the Cartesian coordinate
AC servomotors. See Figure 29-4. The plan e. Se e Figure 29-6. Axis motion
se rvo motor provide s the s peed and is creat ed by each axi s se rvo motor
rep eatabi lit y needed fur the welding indiv idu all y creatin g mov ement to
366 ~ Welding Skill s
posr tron the T CP at th e point pro-
grammed. Points in the Cartesian plane
are found using the Cartesian coordi-
nate system. The Cartesian coordinate
system is a syste m of locating points
in space define d by perpendicular
---
. - .. Figure 29 ·6 . Robot manipulator
move me nt is produced by axis
motion specified using the Ca rte-
sian coordinate system.

planes . The Cart esian coordinate sys-

tem uses a three-dimensional box with
a horizontal X direction, a vertical Y di-
rection, and a depth Z direct ion. The
robot controller control s all of the axis
servomoto rs simultaneously in order
to maintain a straight-line X, Y, or Z
direction when moving the man ipu-
lator. This type of motion allow s the
programmer to easily position the TCP
to the point programmed because the
movement is similar to that of a human AXIS MOTION
welde r.

DIRECTION OF
MOVEMENT

z+

DIRECT ION OF
MOVEMENT

DIRECTION OF
MOVEMENT z-
MOiOnUln. Illc.
CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
Figure 29·5 . The teach pendant is the input method
that the robot program mer uses to move the robot
and create robot programs.

New er robot sys te ms use off-l ine

o Three method s of programming, or teach-
ing, a robot are the lead through metho d,
off- line programming, and the walk through
method. The lead through method is used
for teach ing most robots. Off-line program -
m ing req uires an experienced p rogramme r.
Walk through programming is rarely used
any longer.
programming softw are to create ro-
bot programs. Off-line pro grammin g
software is run on a PC, which simu-
lates the robot work cell. See Figure
29-7. When the program is com plete,
the programmer do wnload s the pro -
gram to the robot to be ver ified and
Automation & Robotic Welding :@: 367
 run . This type of programming re - the torch system. Some workpiece
duces the amount of downtime needed holders are manually operated whil e
to program or modify a robot. others are pneumatically or hydrauli-
cally controlled.
Operator Controls. Operator controls
Some workpiece positioners may be
are the switches and buttons used by
controlled by the robot controller.
the operator to control the operational
These systems provide a tightly inte-
sequence of the robot. These control s
grated robotic system that allows the
set the robot into automatic mode or
programmer infinite positions for the
teach mode . The operator may use
workpiece. Some systems allow the
these controls to initiate or change
welding cycles or programs. Some
manufacturers refer to the operator
controls as start stations because the
robot operational sequence is started
from the se panels using a start
pu shbutton.
The most important part of the op-
erator controls is the emergency stop
button. Each operator control panel
must have an emergency stop button
to stop the robot immediately in case
of a dangerous situation.
Workpiece Positioner. The addition
of workpiece positioners allows more
efficient positioning of the weld joints
for higher speeds and better weld qual-
ity. See Figure 29-8. Due to the simple
paths of th e torch positioner, the
workpiece positioners/holders can be-
Pwuijiri.l. Inc.
come quite sophisticated and elaborate.
Figure 29-8. \lhrkpie("C posuioners all ow more effi-
They need to hold the workpieces cient positioning of the weld j oints f or higher speeds
without interfering with the path of and bette r weld qualilY.

Figure 29-7. 0i rline prcgromming Il i§l,jHM hifi!M Mfffli

softwa re is used to create robot
pr og ra ms IIU/I rep licate the mo -
tions a robotic system must mak e.
ID "" g 11_00 ::::J J III 0. 1m I t~I" II I ••••• I ~ III i!f I "" '" ~ I ""

S" '"ib world

j i; 'PQlrob_eltl

I ~
"'~
, .. ~
.."'"
I _"'~ worldhame
...
i- -' -· , ~
IB"" base
l;J.i, rbale
I 8 5 _00
: e --S' 'PQlrOCUIrl
I I
I
8 ·5 _ob_~
~"'S' spolrol
; ,,-- i t polrol
I:..i; T-s,
eechet
spolrOCLRIO

I.. ,a box

p;o.970. M-7 .'f10. 5-0.000 !d

M"lOmlln, I",.'.

368 ~ Welding Skills

workpiece positioner to move at the
same time that the robot is moving and
still maintain a straight line or circular
welding path. Thi s typ e of moti on is
sometimes referre d to as synchronized
motion . The motion is similar to hold-
ing a clipboard in one hand and a pen-
c il in the other hand and drawin g a
perfectly straight line .
Adaptive Controls. The robot system
may include optional equipment to aid
in adapting the robot control s to par-
ticular weld eovironment factors. Ro-
bot s cannot see . feel , or hear lik e a
human weld er. If the operator or tool-
ing cannot plac e the part to the same
position repeatedl y. equipment capable
of adj usting the we ld is needed. Ad -
justments may be made to the welding
pro cess or to the motion path of the
roboti c system. Adju stments are made
throu gh a robot interface.
The addition of a robot interface cre-
ates a close coupling between the robot
controller and the welding equipment.
The robot ioterfac e provides the com-
munication path for the robot control -
ler to the welding power source. gas
solenoid. and wire feeder. Man y robot
inte rfac es are capab le of adjustin g
the weldi ng par ameter s to maintain
a co nstant voltage at the weldi ng arc.
Co ns ta nt- vo ltage weldin g co ntro ls
adapt to the changing conditions of the
we ld by continu ally monitoring th e
weld voltage and adju stin g the weld-
ing current to maintain a set arc length .
The se types of systems are used in
most robotic GMAW welding pro-
cess es . A con stant- voltage weld con-
troller c an adapt th e pr oc e ss to
o vercome small deviations in the weld
joint. Similar controls are used in the
robotic pul sed GM AW proc ess . Some
adva nce d ada ptive co ntroll ers e limi -
nate the need for an interface panel and
provide all the necessar y inputs and
outputs to the robot system.
In adaptive pulsed GMAW, several
of the pulsed parameters must be manu-
a lly changed in ord er to mainta in a
co ns ta nt arc len gth . Process adjust-
ment s are the preferred method for
ada pting the robo tic welding syste m
to en viroomental de viati on s, as the y
usually do oot affect the welding cycle
time of the robotic system.
Some weldin g e nviro nme nts re-
quire greater adju stments than can be
obtained through the welding process
parameters. These welding environ-
ments require adju stments to the mo-
tion path of the robotic system through
a touch sensor system. A touch sensor
system can identify the amount of de-
viation from the position to which the
workpiece was initi all y pro grammed.
Touch sensors use a probe or the weld-
ing w ire to tou ch the surface of the
wo rkpiece to identify the de viati on
from the programmed point. When the
deviation is identified, the robot co n-
troller alters the original programmed
points to match the workpiece devia-
tion. The laser location system uses a The mimi interf ace
laser beam to locate the workpiece in- provides the ('011111I(1·
nication path for the
stead of a probe or the welding wire. robot cont roller to the
A laser location system reduces errors welding powersource.
cau sed by bending of the probe or the gas so lenoid, and
wire feeder.
welding wire .
The application of tou ch sensors
slows the cycle time of the weld pro-
gram, which is generally not acceptable
in high-production facilities. However,
the tooling needed to maintain the weld
joint in position and within tolerance
may be prohib itively costly to the weld
producer. These cost factors may force
the weld producer to slow the weld
cycle and introduce a touch sensor into
the system.
Thru arc se am trackers and laser
seam trackers help identify any dev ia-
tions of the weld scam while the robot
is we lding . Wo rkpiece wa rpage dur-
ing the we ld ing proc ess ca us es the
welding seam to move. creatin g a de-
viat io n fr om the o rig inally pro -
grammed welding path. Thru arc seam
tra ckers identify these deviation s by
monitoring the we lding current and
voltage. As the weldin g torch weaves
Automation & Robotic Weld ing :§: 369
 alon g the weld j oint, the current and
voltage change, ca using a specific pat-
tern of increased current and voltage.
The seam trac ke r fo llo ws the pattern
and adj usts the weld path to repeat the
patt ern of a " known good weld."
The thru arc sea m tracker monitors
the deviation s in current and voltage
by weaving along the weld joi nt dur-
ing welding and sending sig na ls (cur-
rent and voltage measurements) to the
ro bot contro lle r. The we ave pattern
m ust be programmed int o th e robo t
by the pro grammer. Whil e the weave
pattern allo ws the robot to relearn the
program a nd a lte r it s tr aje ct ory to
maintain a quality weld, the weaving
action s lows the welding process and
may cau se undercut to the joint. La -
ser seam trackers use a laser beam to
sweep ac ross the weld path looking
for weld seam deviations. Laser seam
trackers do not need to weave the
welding wire along the weld joint,
which allows for an increased weld-
iog speed and reduced chance of uo-
dercut from the weaving action . The
la ser sys tems require more care and
maioteoance to prevent dama ge to the
optical laser len s and receiv er.
Roboti c GTAW and PAW sys tems
may also include motorized torch adjust-
ments. Th ese sys tems monitor the arc
voltage and adjust the height of the torch
by moving the torch up and down on a
Th e majority of arc slide mounted betwee n the torch mount
welding rob ot s are
d esign ed for the and the torch. Th ese sys tems usually
GMA \V process. which add bulk to the torc h and thu s redu ce
provides arc control the ability to access certain weld joints.
ond filler wire control
simultaneously.
AUTOMATIC WELDING EQUIPMENT
Automatic welding equipment used for
automatic weldiog and robotics is gen-
Automatic welding erally semiautomatic equipment outfit-
equipment includes ted to perform automa tic operatioos.
a welding po wer For ex ample, for the GMAW process,
source. wireferdet;
torch, and shield - automatic welding equipment includes
ing gas syste m, a welding po wer so urce , wire feeder,
torch , aod shielding ga s system.
370 ~ Weldil1MSkills
Th e pow er so urce used is typically
the same type of power source used for
semiautomatic welding. The wire feeder
is modifi ed to accommodate the se-
quence comm ands needed for the auto-
mated welding process. Robotic systems
use torches and a shielding gas system
specifically designed to be mounted and
operated on a robot manipulator.
Torch mountin g includes breakaway
plates or crash detect ion mounts so the
torch breaks away or the robot stops if
the torch hits something while moving.
Torch mounts protect the robot manipu-
lator fro m severe damage.
Many robot co ntro llers provi de the
signals for the gas solenoid, wire feed
speed, a nd we ld ing vo ltage through
arc start and arc end param eters pro-
grammed into the co ntroller. These sig-
nal s need to be commun icated to the
welding equipment. Some welding sys-
tem s integrate the power source, wire
feeder, and shielding gas system into
one pie ce of equipment. For example,
submerg ed arc flux delivery and recov-
ery sys tems are adde d to the robotic
system to pro vide solid flu x for SAW.
Extra equi pm ent, suc h as add itional
torches or multiple shielding gas sys-
tem s, may be required for so me auto-
mati c welding processes.
The American Welding Society main-
tain s sta ndard AWS / NEM A D16.21
D 16. 2M , Guide for Components of
Robotic lind Automa tic Arc We lding
Ins tallations , whic h det ails the com-
ponents wit hin ro botic and automatic
welding systems .
Welding Process Parameters
The majority of arc weldi ng robots are
designed for the GMAW process. The
GM AW proces s provid es arc co ntrol
and filler wire co ntro l simultaneously.
Se e Figure 29-9 . T he weld program-
mer onl y needs to co ntro l the place-
ment of the wire in the weld jo int and
en sure the use of the correct welding
paramet er s.

FlJfI/K RobotiN Nonh AllU"riclJ
Figure 29-9 . The GMAlV process provides arc co n-
lrol and ji lin wire ctmlml 10 'he robot sim ultaneously:
The GMAW proc ess in automated
weldin g is slightly different from the
GMAW process in manu al weld ing.
Th e goa ls in automati c we lding ar e
high travel speed with maximum weld
pene trati on and minimum weld spat-
ter. The main welding parameter that
must be controlled is the weld travel
speed. In manua l weld ing, weld travel
speed s rar ely exceed 15 inches per
minute (i pm). In automatic weldi ng,
manufacturers strive for 30 ipm to 40 ipm
and with special GMAW processes may
attain 50 ipm to 60 ipm.
To achieve these goals in a practice
setting, some of the GMAW welding
paramerer s must be adjusted to opti -
mize the weld. The angle of the torch
must be adj usted to a 15° push angle to
a llow for maximum pen etrati on at
maximum weld travel speeds. The wire
fee d spee d a nd th e we ld ing voltage
must be adj usted for the ma teria l to
be welded and the weld joint to pro-
duce a GMAW spray tra nsfer arc at
manual weldi ng trave l speeds . Afte r
a good arc at manual weldi ng travel
speeds is achieved, the weld travel speed
ca n be increased to produ ction speed
levels. These weld parameters offer the
speed and deposition rate of the GMAW
spray transfer process with the penetra-
tion and contro l of GMAW short cir-
cuit ing tran sfer. Th e arc produces a
distinctive sound that some have termed
a "GMAW production spray."
WORK AREA AND SAFETY
The robot work area poses potential
danger s for mainlenance personnel,
operators, a nd programmers. Robot
operators, programmers, installers, and
manufaclorers must be aware of po-
tential dan gers. A primary haz ard
posed by the robot is through mechani-
cal movement of the robot. The robot
may hit, trap, or crush a person. A safe-
guarded space is established to protect
personn el from hazards. Protecti on is
usually provid ed by perimeter guard-
ing devices such as fencing and safety
gales 10 prevent access to the safe-
guarded space without conscious ac-
tion . See Fig ure 29- 10. Addition a l
pre sence -sen sin g devi ces, s uc h as
safety mats, should be installed within Robotic we lding
the perimeter guards to ensure that no
personnel enter the safeguarded space
during operation of the robot. Protection
I
.~
.=
('q uip me nt (' W I b e
dangerous, always
follow the .w~rety re-
quirements [ound in
from welding is provided by screens. rlU' Robotic Industries
All personne l require protection Association ( RIA)
standard ANSI/RIA
from the poten tial ha zards that may RIS.rM, Ind ustrial
occur as a result of interactions with Ro bots and Robo t
the robot. The Robotic Industries Asso- Sy st em s -Sa fe ty
ciation ( RIA), in conjunction with Requirements.
ANS I, ma intain s ANSI /RIA RI5 .06,
Industrial Robots lind Robot Systems -
Safety Requirements. All compani es in-
volved with robotic s should foll ow
these safe ty requirement s.
Th e ANSI/RIA standard se par ates
the robot work area into the operating
space of the robot, the restricted space,
and the safeguarded space. The operat-
ing space is the space where the robot
runs the processes associated with the
robot. In the case of welding, this work
area includ es the workpiec e and tool-
ing. The restr icted space is the space
thai the robot operates in with limiting
devices attac hed to the system. With-
out limitin g devices, the robot would
move in its maximum space , or wo rk
envelope, which is the space enco m-
passing the maximum movement of the
robot, the end-effector, the workpiece,
and the attachments. The safeguarded
space confines the mechanical hazards
Automation & Robotic Welding :§: 371
Figu r e 29·10. Prote ction from
the robot work area is provided
by perimeter guarding de vices
to p re vent access to the safe -
ROBOT
guarded sp ace without CO/l -
WORK AREA
scions action,
from all personnel not operating or
teaching the robot. The safeg uarded
space cannot be smaller than the re-
stricted space.
T he ANSI/RIA standard call s for
proper training of all personnel. Train-
ing includes safeguard training, teacher
training, operator training, maintenance
training , and installer training. The end
user of the robot and robot system is
responsible fo r training their employ-
ees and maintaining training docu -
mentation . With proper training and
protection , robot system hazards can
372 § Welding Skill s
WORKPIECE
1'h~ l.in <"o}" '':In/ric Cn mp<l1ty
be significantly reduced or eliminated.
Guidelines for the level s of quali fica-
tion and safety and health con sider-
ation s may be fo und in AWS D I6.4,
Specifi cation [or the Qualification of
Robotic Arc Welding Personnel.
The American Welding Society also
publishes AWS DI6 .3M/DI6. 3, Risk
Asses sment Guide .for Roboti c Arc
Welding, which includes guidelines for
risk as se ssmen t, robot classi fication ,
and potential hazards primarily asso-
ciated with arc welding robots and ro-
botic arc welding systems.
I . A torch positioner is a fixed-path mechanical apparatus that moves the torch in a specified
path .
2. A robot is a programm ed path device used to position the torch, and at times the workpiece.
3 . The robot controller control s the movem ent of the manipulator from point to point and the
path of the torch from point to point.
4 . The robot manipulator is the robot arm and consists of a base and several links and j oints (or
axes).
5 . A teach penda nt is the inpu t method that the robot programmer uses to create move ment
prog rams.
6. The robot interface provides the communication path for the robot co ntroller to the weldin g
power source , gas solenoid, and wire feed er.
7. The major ity of arc weldin g robots are designed for the GMAW process, which provides arc
control and filler wire control simultaneously.
8. Autom atic welding equipment includes a weldin g power source, wire feeder, torch ,
and shielding gas sys tem.
9. Robotic welding equipment ca n be dangerous, always follow the safety requirements found in
the Robotic Industries Assoc iation (RIA) standard ANS I/RIA RI 5.06. Industrial Robots and
Robot Systems-Safety Requi rements.

I. What are the two categories of automation?

2. What manual welding process is most commonly adapted for robot ic welding?
3. What is the purpose of torch mounts')
4. Why is fixed automatio n preferable to manual welding processes?
5. What are the co mponents of a robotic welding syste m?
6. What are the two torch motion patterns?
7. Why is a robot interface added to a robotic welding system?
8. How does the mechanical movement of the robot pose hazards to opera tors, pro-
grammers, and other person nel?
9. How are personnel protec ted from the hazards posed by the robot?

Automati on & Robotic Welding :@: 373

374 ~ Welding Skills
Welding is often used to fasten parts in the fabrication of plastic products. Welding can be used for
assembling such products as storage tanks, boxes, and other containers. Instal/ation of plastic pipe and
ductwork with welding is also common. The manufacture of many custom plastic products is made
possible by plastic welding techniques.

TYPES OF PLASTICS stro ng e r th an th e mat eri al s bein g

bonded . Compressed a ir is best for
Most plastics are ide ntified by trad e weldin g PVC and several other types
name s or by the principal compound of plast ics. Both the ga s and com-
from which they are made. Plastics are pressed air are contro lled by regul a-
broadly grouped as thermosetting plas- tor s to pro vid e the co rrect pressure
tics and thermopl astics. flow. See Figure 30- 1.
Thermosettin g plastics soften only
o nce whe n ex po se d to he at. On ce
th ermose tt in g p lastic s ha ve been Ftgu re 30-1. The welding gas
mo lde d int o a part icu lar shape and used is determined by the 1)1'" of
cured (hardened), no subsequent heat- thermoptasric material to be
welded.
ing can soften the m ag ain. Thermo-
Weldi l'g Welding
setting plastics are not weldable. They Temperature' Gas
a re joine d by mech ani c al me th od s,
principally adhesive bond ing. Typical 525 Air
550 Nitrogen
thermos etting plastics are ureas, phe-
575 Nitrogen
no lics, me la mi nes , pol yest ers, sili- 600 Air
con es, epoxie s, and urethanes. 500 Nitrogen
T he rmo pla stics ca n rep ea tedl y 575 Air
so fte n whe n heat is a ppli ed . Th ese
plastic s can easily be we lded. There
a re ma ny kind s of the rm opl asti cs,
such as acry lic s, polysty re nes, poly -
PLASTIC WELDING TECHNIQUES
am ide s, pol yfl uorides , an d viny ls.
Generally the more common thermo- Plasti c we ldi ng is similar to metal
pla stics used where we ld ing is in - welding in that localized heat is used
vo lve d are pol yeth yle ne, pol yvin yl to produ ce fusion. Joint prep ar ati on
chlor ide (PVC) , a nd pol yp rop ylen e. requirements such as proper fit-up and
Welding these types of plastics pro - root open ing, joint design, and bevel-
du ces sea ms tha t are as stro ng or ing are required in plastic welding as

375

Bevel all edges to se-
cure a proper we ld
joint, Inte rlocking
tire co rners pro -
d uces til l' best re-
sults 0 11 corners.
in metal welding. with one significant
difference. In metal welding. a sharply
defined melting point develops and the
base material and fille r materi al melt
and n ow together to form th e we ld
joint. However, plastics are poo r heat
conductors. and consequently they do
not read ily melt and n ow. To achieve
a perm anent bond. the filler materi al
and base materials must be heated to a
point at which the materials will fuse
together, but not so high that the plas-
tic decomposes.
Joint Preparation
The types of joints used in plastic weld-
ing are the same as those used in metal
welding -butt, come r, edge. lap, and
T. The edges of the joints are beveled
to prov ide a sufficient area on which
to fo rm a good bond . T he bev eled
edges should have a groo ve angle of
60° with a root opening between V.."
and 1116" , a lthough the root openi ng
may be deeper if a larger filIer ma-
terial is requi red . See Figure 30-2. /

Ftg u...c 30-2 . The typ es of j oints

1I .~ ed forl, llI .~ / ic .I'eldill g -blll'. • •" . I - : •" "
com er, edge. lap , ami T-llre the
same as ,110.\'1' used fo r welding
metal.
ROOT OPENING
~Y""j"",-=L:.., ROOT OPENING

Double·V Single-V
BUTT

1k4" TO V16"
ROOT OPENING

Fillet Single-V
CORNER

Single-V Double Fillet

EDGE LAP

V&a"' TO V 16 H
ROOT OP ENING
.ll. WARNING I ROOT OP ENING
So me plastic materials. such
as vinyl. produce He l gas
or obnox ious odo rs.
Pol yvinyl ch loride
produces poisonous fumes.
Precautions must be taken Double Bevel Single Bevel Double Fille t
to avoid inhaling these
fumes. If necessary. a
T
respirator should he used.

376 ~ Weldin g Skills

Welding Procedure from the base material nor will it be
Use fi //er material
possib le to pry the filler materi al out of the same compo-
Select the correct shape tip and insert
of th e we ld when coo led. A cross- sition as th e ba se
in the gun. Guns should be able to sup-
sec tio n of the tes t we ld also reveals mareriat.
ply a temperature varying from 400°F
whether complete penetra tion has oc-
(204°C) to 600°F (3 16°C) or more (up
curred. See Fig ure 30-4 .
to 925' F 1496°C]). Different materials
Plas tic we lding should always be
and differe nt plastic thicknesses have
done in a well-ventilated area. Follow HHd plastics only in
differing heat requirements. a well-ve ntila ted
the manu facturer's recommendat ions
Se t the air or gas pressure accord- area. If a ventilation
for safe practices when weldin g spe- systemis110 1 in place.
ing to the plast ic man ufacturer's rec-
cific types of plastics. The basic weld- portable ventilating
ommendations. Although the wattage equipment should be
ing processes used for plastic welding
of the heating element determines the used to ensu re ad-
are hot gas, heated-tool, and induction. eq uate vent ilu tiu n
range of hea t, the air or gas pressure
With some restrictions, friction weld- during weldin g.
determin es the actual amount of heat
ing ca n also be used.
at the tip. See Figure 30-3.

AIR PRESSURE SETIINGS

Element'
320
Air
Pressure! Temperature*
2-3 400
- . . .. Figu re 30·-" A cross-section cut
through (l te.,'t weld snows the
1HIIOU fll of penetration that has
occurred.

340' 2-3 410

350 2 %-3% 430
450 3-4 540
460' 3-4 600 CORRECT
550 4- 5 700
W ELD CAN BE
650 4 '/2-5 '12 800 PULLED APART
750 5-6 860
800' 56 900
• Note: Three-heal unrt with a rotary heal seector SWItch:
(ioW) low - 340 W, Medium - 460W, HlQh-600 W

'''"
*·F ¥..." trom up

Fig u re 3(k'. The air or Km I',.e.~"," re selling deter -

mines ,IIl' ClII/O/lllt of heat at the lip duri ng weldin/:. INCORRECT-NO BOND
MATERIAL
Duri ng the welding cycle, 3 psi to IS CHARRED /) 0 riot allow t Ill>

5 psi of pressure should be applied to surface to char or

di sco /Of:
ensure weld integrit y. Exerting exce s-
sive pressure on the filler materia l may
cau se excessive stretch ing, particu -
larly when weld ing vinyl. The length
of the filler used should be the same
as the length of the weld. Equally im- INCORRECT-BURNED WELD
po rta nt is to avo id overhe ating the
weld area as the filler material and the
base mater ial can char and discolor,
HOT GAS WELDING
res ulti ng in a n un acce pta ble we ld .
Underheati ng is a lso objectionab le Hot gas welding is accomplished with
since it produces a cold weld that has a specially designed gun containing an
poor tens ile strength. electrical heating unit. A stream of com-
Check the weld by bendi ng a test pressed air or inert gas (nitrogen) is
we ld 90 °. If the we ld is made prop- directed over the heated elem ent,
erly, the weld beads will not separate which then flows out of the nozzle and
Plastic Welding ~ 377
 onto the surface of the material being
bonded. The gun permits the use of sev-
eral different tips for different we lding
operation s. The type of tip used depends
on the plastic welding app lication. Four
types of tips are designed for high-speed
wel d in g: tac ke r, ro und, flat, and V-
shaped. The increased speed of a high-
speed tip is achi eved by the design of
the tip, wh ich holds the filler ma teri al
and applies the needed pressure as the
we ld is mad e. A tack er tip is used for
tack we lding. See Figure 30-5.
Hand Feed Welding
Th e technique for han d fee d we ldi ng
o f plastic is similar to o xyacety lene
welding of metal s. The gun is held in
one hand and the filler material is held
in the other. The correct filler mater ial
is selected and cut. T he filler material
s ho uld be of th e s ame ba si c co m-
position as the base material. Either flat,
round , or triangular strips may be used.
Tri an gul ar str ips are particularly ad-
vantag eous in V or fille t welds since
the area can be fille d with one pass.
One-pass weld ing reduces welding time
Figure 30-5 . Severa l types oj tips 0" _ I - " " "
are avaitabte fo r not RaJ welding •
of plastic.
TACK ER ROU ND
378 ~ Welding Skill"
and minimizes the chances of lack of
fusion, which may occur with multiple
passes of round strips. See Figure 30-6.
Th e hand fee d operati on for welding
plastic is as follow s:
I . Hold the tip of the gun abo ut 3ft6"
to '/2" away from the start of the
we ld and begin a fan ning motion.
Place the filler material in a verti-
cal positio n so the heat from the
gun is di rected on bo th the filler
material and the base mater ial.
2. When both the base mater ial and
the fille r materia l become tacky.
press the filler firmly into the jo int
and bend it back at a slant with
the point away fro m the direction
of we ld ing .
3 . As the g u n is moved along the
sea m, co ntinue to exert pressure
on the filler material to force it into
the groove. Main tain a constant
fanning motion at a 45 ° angle so
both the tiller material and the joint
ar ea a re he ate d equa lly . W hen
we lding heavy-ga uge plast ic with
filler ma terial. most of the heat
shou ld be d irec ted on the joint.
FLAT V-SHA PED
 High-Speed Welding
Useajanning motion
The speed of making welds can be sub- to ensure un ifo rm
stantially increased using the high-speed heal distributionover
the fi ller rod and the
welding process. As-welded, round, and edges ofthe joint.
triangular filler materials are often used
for high-speed welding. Filler material
must be cut into the required lengths, with
one or two inches allowed for trimming.
See Figure 30-7. The high-speed weld-
ing procedure is as follows:
I. Insert the filler materi al into the
high- speed tip. Start the weld by
holding the tool at a 90° angle and
tamp ing the broad shoe of the tip
on the surface until the first inch
of the filler adheres firml y to the
~
N
HOLD GUN ¥16 TO W' FROM START OF
~ WELD. HEAT BASE AND PLASTIC IZED base material. Hold the high-speed
FILLER MATER IAL welding tool at a 45° angle to the
work and press the end of the filler
into the weld. Feed the filler ma-
terial manually until the weld bead
has been sufficiently started.
2. Ma intain an angl e of 45 ° whil e
movi ng forward along the seam.
Once the welding operation is un-
der way, a firm downward pre s-
sure of 3 lb to 5 lb is placed on the
gun to automatically feed the filler
material into the preheated tube .
3. Keep the gun mov ing at a suffi-
cient speed. Correct speed can be
observed by the formation of flow
® PRESS FILLER FIRMLY INTO JO INT AND
BEND BACK AWAY FROM WELDING lines on both sides of the filler ma-
terial. Insufficient speed causes the
filler material to stretch because of
built-up excessi ve heat. Thi s con-
dition can be correc ted with a
quick tamping motion of the shoe
as used in starting the weld.

® EXERT PRESSURE ON FILLER MATERIAL

Figure 30·6. When the base material and the filler

ma terial become tacky, press the filler firmly into the Kamwdd Technologies. tnc.
joint, continuing to heat the area and exert pressure Parts to be join ed hy high-spee d welding shou ld be jirmly damped to prevent move-
as the weldi ng p rog resses . ment out of position.

Plastic Welding o@ 379

High-Speed Plastic Welding Procedure
Figure 30-7

II ! r HIGH-SPEED TOOL
DOWNWARD
PRESSURE

BROAD SHOE START OF

WELD
' 0

START OF WELD
f7\
\.0
HOLD TOOL AT 90' ANGLE TO SURFACE AND TAMP BROAD
SHOE O F TIP ON SURFACE UNTIL STRIP ADHER ES TO BASE
f2\ DROP GUN TO 45 ' ANGLE WHILE MOVING
\V ALONG SEAM
PLASTICIZED
STRIP

BROAD
SHOE

BASE MATER IAL

I.
END OF WELD

o MOVE GUN AT SUFFICIENT SPEED

{;;\ LIFT TOOL UNTIL STRIP PULLS TH ROUGH FEEDER
~ TUBE. CUT STRIP WITH SPECIALLY DESIGNED KNIFE

Ftgurc 30-7. Spedal tips ('(I ll In' used f or lligll"spad wd di"K to hold the f itter material in the correct pos ition ; however. the p mp a procedure
m/ u l also he us ed to ('/U I/Fl' sufficient penetration ami strength,

Tack Welding HEATED-TOOL WELDING

Tack welding is used to fuse mate rials
together prior to welding in order to
eliminate the use of clamps or fixtures.
A tacker tip is used for tack we lding
and is used with all type s of joints to
be welded . See Figure 30-8.
Ftgurc 30-8. Common lack weld-
ing techniques used to eliminate CONTINUOUS
TACKING
'he need fo r clumps and fixtures
during weld inK include continu-
ous flI ckillg and .1'1'01 tac k i ng ,
In the heated-too l (heated surface)
we lding process , heat for we lding is
generated in a hot tool. The edges to
be joined are heated to the proper tem-
peratu re, then brought into contact
and allowed to cool under pre ssure.
The edges of the plastic sheet are soft-
ened with so me heat-producing unit
such as an electrical strip or bar heater,
hot plate, or resistance-coil heater. The
hea ter shou ld be aluminum or nickel
since hot steel and copper have a ten-
de ncy to deco mpose plastic . T he
heated-tool welding techni que is com-
monly used fo r jo ining sectio ns of
pip e and tubing and in the asse mbly
of many molded articles.

380 ~ Welding Skill"

Heated-Tool Welding Procedure As a rule. welds made by the induc-
tion process are not as strong as those
Th e heated-tool weld ing procedure is
obtain ed by other heating method s.
a ma chine proce ss in which heat is
appl ied by holding the edges in con-
tact with the heating unit until the sur- FRICTION WELDING
face is softe ned . When the material
Fr icti on weldin g. or sp in- we ld ing .
has reached a molten sta te. it is re-
consists of rubbing the surfaces of the
moved from the heater and the edge s
parts to be joined until sufficient heat
are quickly pressed together. The pres-
is developed to bring them to a fus-
sure on the pieces should be enough
ing temperature. Pressure is then ap-
to fo rce ou t air bubbles and for m a
plied and maintained until the unit is
so lid co ntac t. Nor mall y. pressures of
cooled. In friction welding. one piece
5 Ib to 15 Ib pro du ce goo d bonded
is held in a fixed. locked position and
joints . Pre ssu re ca n be applied by
the oth er is rotated . When sufficient
hand or, in production work. with jigs.
melt occurs. the spi nning is stopped
The pressur e must be maintained un-
a nd the pr essure is incre ased to
til the weld has cooled. The most im-
squeeze out air bubbles and di strib-
port ant factor in se c uring so und
ute the softened plastic uniforml y be-
we lds by th e heated-tool technique.
tween the surfaces.
out side of proper softe ning of mate-
The principal advantages of friction
rials and firm contact , is the elapsed
weld ing are the speed and simpli city
tim e betw een remo ving the pieces
of the process. However, friction weld-
from the heating unit and joining them
ing is limited to circular areas and
together. The e laps ed time interval
sma ll items. Somet imes friction weld-
should be as short as poss ible to pre-
ing produces a flashing out of soft
vent any degree of solidification be-
material beyond the weld area. but
fore the edges come in contact.
usually the excess !lashing can be di-
rected to the interior of the part if the
INDUCTION WELDING weld is properl y designed . Ex cess
!lashin g can also be avoided by pre-
In indu cti on weld ing. or sonic weld-
venting the parts from overheating and
ing, heat is ge ne ra ted by ca us ing a
by maintaining the proper pressure .
high-frequency current to flow into a
metal insert placed between the areas
to be j oined. Alth ou gh in d uc tio n
welding is one of the fastest methods
of joinin g plastic. its greates t limit a-
tion is that the metal inse rt must re-
main in the weld.
Met al inse rts us ua lly co nsist of
metalli c fo il, wire coi l, wire sc ree n.
metalli c conducting particles. or some
other config uratio n of co nduc tive
met al. Insert s must be placed in the
interface so they are not ex pos ed to
air; otherwise, rapid heating is induced.
which may cause the insert s to disin-
tegrate. Fusion occurs only in the area
immediately ncar the insert. When' the
edges become soft. uniform pre ssure
is applied to bond them together. A tack weld ('(III he used ill plastic welding to eliminate the needfor clamps andfixtures.

Plastic' We/din/i ~ 381

 I. Bevel all edges to secure a proper weld joint. Interlocking the corners produces the best
results on corners.
2. Use a filler material of the same composition as the base material.
3 . Use a fanning motion to ensure uniform heat distribution over the filler material and the edges
of the joint.
4. Do not allow the surface to char or discolor.
5 . Weld plastics only in a well-ventilated area. If a ventilation system is not in place. portable \
ventilating equipment should be used to ensure adequate ventilation during welding. )

I. What is the main difference between plast ic welding and metal welding?
2. Why are thermosetting plastics not weldable?
3. At what range of temperatures are plastics generally welded?
4. What governs the degree of heat that is to be used in plastic welding?
5. What is the particu lar advantage of using triangular filler material over round?
6. How far from the surface should the gun be held when welding plastics?
7. Why is a fan ning motion necessary in manipulating the gun over the weld joint?
8. Why should excessive pressure on the filler material be avoided?
9. What happens if insufficient heat is used when a welder is making a plastic weld?
10. What test can determine if a weld is made properly?
II. What precautions should be taken when welding plastics?
12. How does the high-speed plastic welding technique differ from the regular hot gas welding technique?
13 .When using high-speed welding, why should the filler material not be allowed to remain in the
feeder tube?
14. How is the heated-tool welding technique accomplished?
15. What is one of the main limitations of induction plastic welding?
16. How are plastic joints bonded by friction welding?

382 § Welding Skills

se ctio n S eve n Weld Evaluation and Testing

Destructive testing involves taking sample portions of a welded structure and subjecting them to loads
until they fa il. The nature of the test is dictated by the service requirements of the fi nished product. De-
structive testing is performed on welds to qualify both welders and welding procedures; to develop manu-
facturing quality control acceptance specifications; and to determine if electrodes and fi ller metals meet
the requirements of the specifications. Destructive testing is also used to measure residual stresses asso-
ciated with welds. Several types of standardized destructi ve tests are used. Destructive test types and the
Iocationts} of specimens in the weld joint are indicated in the controlling fabri cation code or standard.
Specimen preparation techniques are necessary for reliable test results.

DESTRUCTIVE TEST TYPES Requirem ent s vary between fabrica -

Destructiv e tests are used to measure
qualit y, strength, ductility, toughne ss,
a nd hardness o f welded joints. De-
structive tests are relatively expensive
since they involve preparing materials,
maki ng welds, cutting and often ma-
chin ing, and testin g of specimens to
fail ure, followe d by interpretation of
tests by qua lified personn el.
Tests are used in specific applica-
tions to qu alify we ldi ng pro cedures
and welders. To qualify a welding pro-
cedure or welder, welds are made to
we ldi ng pr oce dur e s pec ific atio n
(WPS) parameters, cut into sta ndard-
ized sizes and sha pes, and tested to
des truc tio n. The we ld ing process,
fill er meta ls, a nd welding technique
are se lected to make the weld in the
pos ition require d on the ba se metal
used . Weldin g joint details and mate -
rial thicknesses may not be exactly as
used in makin g the production weld .
The C/lrrellf edition
tion codes and standards so that test
spec ime ns are not alw ay s the same,
nor are they taken from the same lo-
cat ions in a test weld . It is essential
I
.~
.=
oj the co ntroll ing
fabrication code or
s tan da rd mu st be
followed when mak-
ing test welds and
that the current edi tion of the control- test specimens. and
lin g fabrication co de or standa rd be when conducting de-
followed when making test welds and structive tests.
test specimens, and when co nducting
destructive tests. Destructi ve tests con-
sis t of ten sile, shear, bend , hardness,
tough ness, and break tests.
Tensile Test
A tensile test is a destructive test that
measures the effects of a tensile force on
a material. Tensile testing involves the
placement of a weld specimen in a uni-
versal testing machine and pullin g the
piece unt il it breaks. Tensile force oc-
curs when a mechanical load is applied
axially (parallel to the axis) to stretch a
test specimen. See Figure 3 1-1.

383
 Th e spec ime n is c ut e ither from an
all -weld area or from a we lded butt
j oint for plate and pipe. The specime n
for an all-weld area should conform
to specific dimensions and it should
be cut from the welded section so its
redu ced a rea contains only we ld
metal. See Figure 3 1-2.
The transition from the ends of the
ten sile spec imen to the redo ced sec-
tion is either shouldere d or made with\
a fill et. Sho ulde rs and fill et s mini )
mi ze stress conce ntra tio ns. T h is is
parti cul arly important for brittl e ma-
terial s becaose they are mor e likel y
to fail ca tastro phically at a region of
Tini.... Ofst>n r" JlinX M"" -hi.... O J.. Im__.
high stress co nce ntration. T he longi-
Figure 31·1 . A uni versal testi ng machine is used w
perform a tensile test 0/1 weld specimens. .weh as a tud inal ax is of the specimen and the
boll . to determine the tensile strength of tile welds. spec imen grips are symmetrical along

~
D I STAN C E BETWEEN
SHOULDER
' 0" APPROXIMATELY
DISTANCE OF ~
REDUCED AREA --I I-- WELD REINFORCEMENT S SHALL BE
T I I %:L
THE SE

b~1J
MACHINED FLUSH WITH BASE META EDGES
MAY
BE FLAME

q~-~=:-
CUT

," I_!!
~'+ f..%"1 'J
DIAMETER
FILLET OR WIDTH v. 2"R ~ v. O F WIDEST
\1 EDGE OF
FACE
+ WELD
GAUGE w = 11f.t ' ± 0 0 1"IFT
LENGTH DOES NOT EXCEED 1"
FILLET THIS SECTION MACHIN ED.
W=1 "'±O.01'"I F T PREFE RABLY BY MILLING
EXCEEDS"
f = A SURFACE CONTROL SYMBOL

r
PLATE
/(""'
,..v / ,
....;:.-::: ~ /
..
,.. '" ,..
· ,t '0
d,..
10" APPROXIMATELY
. ~ ...-: , C
. .- 1/
, / :" / THESE EDGES MAY
:,.. l ,
1/: ,.
. Wi BE FLAM E CUT

:0 o//IF-== ~~~
~ ,

~ ' r : ,..
~./. J/
/' "

- v.,j
FOR GAS WELDING. OM IT BACKING.
DOTTED LINES SHOW POSITION FROM WHICH
SPECIMEN SHALL BE MACHINED

THIS SECTION MACHINED.

~ 5' - -+1 5'--1 PREFERABLY BY MILLING

PIPE
"
ALL,WELD AREA BUTT JOINT
Fi ~ure 31-2 . A fith'l is IHn / on tile tens ile test specimen 10 remove stress concentrations. Spe cimen s for all -weld areas must cOf/fo rtll 10 specifi c
dimensions. Butt wdd.~ art' used [or teneit e tests (/ 1/ p/at e lind pipe.

384 €l' Weldin g Skills

the longitudinal ax is of support to
avoid the introduction of bending loads
during the test. The gauge length (dis-
tance over which the elongation mea -
surement is made) is always less than
the di stance between the shoulder s.
The most common gauge lengths are
2" and 8". The gauge length is nor -
mally marked on the speci men using
a pair of center punch marks spaced a
pre scribed di stance apart. The gauge
marks are always an equal distance
from the center of the length of the re-
duced section. The weld in a welded
tensile specimen is always located at
the center. Before the specimen is
placed in the tensile machine, an ac-
curate mea surement should be taken
of the gauge length.
Data recorded from weld tensile tests
on a welding procedure qualification
record (PQR) are maximum load, tensile
strength, and failure location. In certain
cases, percent elongation and percent re-
duction of area are also reported.
In addition to qualifying welding
procedures and welders, the tensile test
also provides information on the load-
bearing capaciti es, join t efficiencies,
strain-hardening properties, and duc -
tility of welded joints. Tensile test re-
sults provide quantitative data that can
be compared or analy zed and used in
the design of welded struct ures. Frac-
ture surface appearance at the failure
location provides information on the
presence and effects of discontinuities
such as incomplete fusion , incomp lete
joint penetra tion , porosity, inclusions,
and cracking.
A tensile test machine is a testing
machine composed of two major
components that are the means of ap-
plying the load to the specimen and the
mean s of measuring the applied load.
Some machines are designed for one
type of testing only, for example ma-
chines that test chain and wire. Univer-
sal testing machines apply loads to test
specim ens in tension or compression.
In a univers al testing mach ine, the
Tensile specimens
loa d is ap plied mechanically to the
speci me n by means of a screw a nd
gears, or it is appli ed hydraulically.
I
•~
.=
obtained frvmwelded
joints art' typically
rectungulat; unless
takenjnnn a locution
The applied load is mea sured by a
where it is not pos -
dynamometer (load cell) for mechani - sible to obta in a
cally driven machines and by a Bour- sample (if rectangu-
lar cross section.
don tube for hydraulically driv en
machines. A load cell is a device that
uses the elastic deformation of a spring
or diaphragm that is calibrated to indi-
cate the mechanical load applied to the
specimen. A Bourdon tube is a coiled
flui d-conta ining tube that straightens
out as the intema l pressure on the fluid
is increased. The motion of the tube is
used to rotate a po inter over a scale
that is calibrated to read the hydrau lic
load applied to the specimen .
Tensile speci mens are usua lly dog-
bone shaped in that the central portion
of the specimen is reduced in cross sec-
tion compared with the two ends. This
shape causes the test specimen to fail
in the narrower central portion rather
than at the ends , where the gripping
devices affect the stress configuration.
Tens ile specimens have a ro und
cross section (round specimen) or a
rectangular cro ss sect ion (rec tangular
specimen). In general, tensile speci -
me ns ob tained from welded joints
are rectangular, unless taken from
locations where it is not possible to
obtain a spec imen with a rectangular
cross sec tion, such as when testing
filler metals .
The shape of the ends of the speci-
men is determined by the spec imen
gripping device that is used. The ends
of round specimen s are either pla in,
shouldered, or threaded . Rectangular
specimen s ar e genera lly made with
plain ends , but occasionally pin end s
are used. A pin end is a rectangular
specimen that contains a hole for a pin
bearing. See Figure 31-3.
The tensile test procedure con sists
o f fixing the specimen firmly in the
grip s of the testing machine . An ex-
tensometer, which is a device fo r
Destructive Testing :@: 385
 mea suring th e ex te ns io n o r e longa-
tion of the test spe cime n, is fitted to
the spec imen across its gauge length.
See Fig ure 3 1-4.
The specimen is stretched to failure
at some steady rate. Unless otherwise
specified, the rate of straining is be-
tween .05" and .5" per min. Differences
in the rate of stra ining could result in
te stin g inco ns iste nc ies. Te ns ile test
procedu re is described in ASTM E 8,
Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials.
As the test specimen is stretched,
a load-extension (stres s-st rai n) curve
is pl ott e d ; th e ex te nsome ter is re-
moved befor e the speci me n breaks.
See Figure 3 1-5.
li"i.., 0I. t'" Tt'~'li"K Mm:hi1lt' c.... Inc.
The lo ad-e xten si on c urve s ho ws Figure 3 1-4. All e.t tell,Hlme le r measures the zrten-
load and extension limit s for metals. sion or elongation of the tension tes t specimen,
Point A is the proportional limit.
The proportional limit is the maxi- o The tensile strength of metals is typically
high, with tensile strengths of60,OOO psi or
mum stress at which stress is directl y
70,000 psi common. A large machine would
propo rtion al to strain. Between point s be needed to test a [uli-size part: so small
A and B, the line starts to curve. Up to test specimens are tested instead. A section
point B, the tensile speci men will re- is cut and tested, and the result is multiplied
by a size ratio to fi nd the tensile strength
turn to its original length if the load is equivalent.
remo ved. Point B is the elastic limit.
Ftgure .11·3. A variety of tens ile
test specimen l'IIlI,\' may he used to

ensu re that the testing machine

se cur ely and uniform ly x rip s the
test ,Hlmp!e.

PLAIN SHOULDERED THREADED

END END END

ROUND

PLAIN PIN
END END

RECTANGULAR

386 0 We/din g Ski lls

 Figure 31-5. The loud -extension
curve shows the load and exten -
F F-.., sion limits for metals .

G
G
C

w
if)
UJ
a;
~
o
9

o EXTENSION (STRAIN) o EXTENSION (STRAIN)

CURVE FOR LOW- CURVE FOR
AND MEDIUM-CARBON STEELS OTHER METALS

Elastic limit is the maximum stress to
which a material is subjected without
any permanent strain remaining after
stress is completely remo ved. Beyond
point B, strain is perman ent , or th e
s trai n in the spe c im e n is plastic.
Plastic strain is strain that remains
permanent after the stress is removed.
Beyond point B, the shape of the curve
varies for different metals.
Low- and medium-carbon stee ls
show a jog in their curve, which peaks
at point C, or the yield point. Yieldpoint
is the location on the stress-strain curve
where an increase in strain occurs with-
out an increase in stress . Yield point
beh avior leads to Luders bands
(ripples) on the test specimen. Stretcher
strains (elongated markings) are ob-
serv ed in low-carbon steel pre ssings
when deformed to the yield point. Yield
point behavior is only exhibited by
low- and med ium-carbon steels.
Between points C and D the curve
falls, ind ica ting a pla stic stra in. The
curv e continues down to point E, the
Between points F and G, the specimen
begins to neck down or develop a pro-
nounced wai st. Point G is the po int
of failure , the point at which fracture
occurs. With all materials , the slope of
the load-extension curve decreases and
peaks at point F, with failure occurring
at point G. With brittle metals, fracture
may occur while the load is increasin g
toward point F.
When the tensil e test is completed,
the broken specimen is removed from
the testing mach ine. The percent of
elongation can be found by fitting the
broken ends of the two pieces together
and measuring the new gauge length .
The new, increased gauge length and
the reduced diameter at the narrowest
point are measu red. Measurement can
be made on either sid e of the break.
See Figure 31-6 .
Figure 31·6. The increased gauge
REDUCTION OF
length and reduced diameter at

lower yield point. The curve eventually

C:OSSSECT~~ - -,/ ~']" the narrowest point are measured

f ~ _ and used to calculate the percent

regai ns its upward mo vemen t and oj elongation and the pacem of

peaks at point F. Point F is the ultimate ' ~ 4G~~~-G-E---- red uction in area.

ten sil e stre ngth. Ultimate tensile

strength is a measure of the maximum LENGTH AFTER
TESTING
stress (load) that a metal can withstand.
Destructive Testing €): 387
 Tensile Strength Measurement. The For example, what is the percent elon-
actual ten sile strength is found by di- gation of a tensile specimen that has
viding the maximum load needed to an initial gauge length of 2" and a fi-
break the piece by the cross-sectional nal length of 2.45"'1
area of the specimen. The cross-sectional 2.45 -2
area is determined by multiplying the %E = x 100
2
width of the bar by its thickness.
Tensile strength is an imprecise value .45
%E = -xIOO
because the original cross-sectional 2
area is not the same as the reduced %E=.225x 100=22.5
cross-sectional area that actually ex-
ists at the maximum load. Tensile
%E=22.5% 1
Percent elongation is calculated/
strength is measured in thousands of from the gauge length. The longer the
pounds per square inch (ksi) or gauge length, the less the effect neck-
megapascals (MPa). ing down of the specimen has on final
The standard 1/2" diameter tensile length, resulting in lower a percent
specimen is referred to as a "50S" be- elongation. When the gauge length is
cause a diameter of .505" has an area made equal to k,!A, where k is a con-
of .2" . To permit easy calculation of stant equal to 4.47 and A is equal to
stress from loads , specimen diameters the cross-sectional area of the specimen,
of .505", .357", .252", .160" , and .13" the percent elongation value remains
are convenient because computing of practically constant for different gauge
stress or strength may be done using lengths. The most common gauge
the multiplying factors 5, 10, 20, 50, length in tensile testing is 2". To find
and 100, respectively. For rectangular percent reduction of area of a tensile
specimens the cross-sectional area is specimen, apply the formula :
calculated from the product of the
width and thickness of the specimen. %RA = Do - Df x 100
Do
where
711e manufacturer of a base metal typi -
cally performs tensile testing and reports %RA = percent reduction of area
the results.
Do = original diameter
Percent Elongation and Percent Re- Df = final diameter
duction Measurement. Percent elonga- 100 = constant
tion and percent reduction of area are For example , what is the percent re-
measures of the ductility of a tensile duction of area of a tensile specimen
specimen. Measurements are used to with an original diameter of .505" and
calculate the percentage of elongation a reduced diameter of .350"'1
and reduction in area of a material. They
indicate the amount of plastic deforma- %RA .505-.350 x 100
.505
tion prior to fractore of the test speci-
men. To find percent elongation of a %RA = .155 x 100
tensile test specimen, apply the formula: .505
%RA = .307 x 100
%E Lf-LgXIOO
Lg %RA= 30.7%
where Round tensile specimens must be used
to calculate percent reduction of area.
% E = percent elongation
Rectangular specimens have signifi-
Lf = final length cant rounding of their corners during
Lg = gauge length the test, making measurement of the
100 = constant cross-sectional area less accurate .

388 €1 Welding Skills

 Failure location is the region of the
specimen at which final failure occurs.
Failure location is categorized as base
metal, heat-affected zone (HAZ), or
weld. Failure location is recorded on the
PQR. Fabrication codes and standards
usually require that failure location be
in the base metal and not in the HAZ or
in the weld. Percent elongation and per-
cent reduction in area values are not usu-
ally provided for routine weld testing
because the bend test is most often used
to indicate ductility.
Shear Test
A shear test is used to determine the
shear strength of fillet welds, brazed
joints, and spot welds. Shear occurs
when some force causes a material to
separate, parallel to the load . An ac-
ceptable shear strength is usually at
least 60% of the minimum specified
tensile strength of the base metal. A
shear test specimen is prepared to pre-
vent it from rotating during the test.
If the specimen were to rotate, inter-
ference from other types of stresses
would be introduced into the test.
A fillet weld shear test is a shear
test in which a tensile load is placed
on a fillet weld specimen so that the
load shears the fillet weld in a longitu-
dinal or a transverse direction. The
longitudinal test measures the longi-
tudinal shear strength of the specimen
for loads parallel to the axis of the weld.
The transverse test measures the trans-
verse shear strength of the specimen
for loads normal to the axis of the
weld. To prevent rotation and bend-
ing stresses during testing, transverse
shear specimens are tested as double
lap joints. The two shear test types
are tension shear test and peel test.
o Refer to AWS C/./ and AWS CUM,
ommended Practices for Resistance Weld-
ing ,p)r shear test specimen dimensions, test
fixtures, and evaluation methods.
Tension Shear Test. A tension shear
test is a shear test in which a prepared
specimen is pulled to failure in a ten-
sile testing machine. Specimens can be
pulled from fillet welded, brazed, or
spot-welded assemblies . The shear
strength of the material is calculated
from the load at failure.
To check the shear strength of a trans-
verse weld, a specimen is prepared,
placed in a tensile testing machine, and
pulled until it breaks . Dividing the
maximum load in pounds by twice
the width of the specimen will indi-
cate the shearing strength in pounds
per linear inch. If the shearing strength
in pounds per square inch (psi) is de-
sired, the shearing strength in pounds
per linear inch is divided by the throat
dimension of the weld.
The types of tension shear test are
the brazed joint tension shear test and
the spot-weld tension shear test.
The brazed joint tension shear test
is a shear test that determines the
strength offiller metal in a brazed joint.
The specimen is composed of two
single '/R" thick sheets joined by braz-
ing with a tiller metal. The parts should
be fixtured during brazing to maintain
accurate specimen alignment. The
shear strength of the tiller metal is cal-
culated from the tensile load at failure
di vided by the brazed area.
The spot-weld tension shear lest is
a shear test that determines the
strength of arc welds and resistance
spot welds. The specimen is made by
overlapping materials of suitable size
and creating an arc or resistance spot
weld in the center of the overlapped
area. The load on the weld causes
bending and rotation of the weld , re-
sulting in failure around the edges of
sheet thicknesses less than about
.040". On thicker sheets, the base
metal resists bending and the spot will
Rec- fail at or near the weld. With specimen
thicknesses of . 19" or larger, the grips
of the test machine are offset to reduce
loading on the weld.
Destru ctive Testing €}: 389

Bend test specimens allow inspection of all shit's of a weld joint to determine the
ductility and plastic def ormati on capa bilities ofa weld.
Peel Test. A peel test is a shear test in
which a specimen is gripped in a vise
and then bent and peel ed ap art with
pincers to reveal the weld . Th e peel
test is an inexpensive alternative to the
spot-weld tension shear test. The weld
size is measured and compared to that
required for the joint. If the weld size
is equal to or exceeds the standard size
for the design, the production weld is
acceptable. The peel test may not be suit-
able for high-strength base metal or for
thick sheets of metal. See Figure 31-7.
Bend testin g is an Bend Test
tI
.~
.=
eco nomical way of
j udging weld quality
to qual ify u proce-
dure or welder:
A bend test is a destructive test used to
determine the ductility of a weld by
bending a welded specime n around a
standardized mandrel. Bend tests pro-
vide qualitative information for a spe-
cific procedure qualification record
(PQR) on the acceptability of a weld .
Bend tests are also used for welder per-
formance qua lification (WPQ) .
Bend tests provide information on the
plastic deformation capabil ity of a
welded joint. The plastic deformation
capability is shown through the ability
of the weld to resist tearing. The weld
orientation and the bend location must
be specified for bend tests.
A bend test may also reveal discon-
tinuities on the surface and can be used
to expose incomplete fusion and delami-
nation. Fabrication codes and standards
specify the maximum allowable size for
390 ~ Welding Skills
di scontinuities in welding procedure
quali ficati on or welder performance
qualification bend tests. The most com-
mon bend test used for groove welds is
the guided bend test.
Peel Test
Figure 31·7
WELD TO
BE TESTED __________
TEST
SPECIMEN
)
CD SP ECIMEN IS GRIPPED IN VISE
SPECIMEN
BENT BELOW
WELD
f2\ SPECIMEN IS BENT AT A POINT BELOW
~ T H E W ELD
SPECIMEN
PEELED TO
WELD FAILURE __________
f3\ SPECIMEN IS PEELED THROUGH WELD
\V AREA
Figure 31-7. A pal test is an inexpensive anema-
tire prod uction control tool [or testing shear strength
ill a weld joint.
Guided Bend Test. A guided bend test
is a bend test in which a rectangular
piece of welded metal is bent around a
U-shaped die and forced into a U
shape. The weld and the HAZ must be
completely within the bent portion of
the specimen after testing. The guided
bend test is the most commonly used
ductility test for groove welds, surfac-
ing welds, and fillet welds.
Guided bend te st fi xt ures ca n be
bottom guided or bottom ejecting. The
bottom guided bend fixture is designed
to support the specimen in the die as it
is bent. The bottom ejecting guided
bend fixture allows the specimen to be
ejected from the die after it is bent.
Both types of testing are described in
ASTM E 190 , Meth od fo r Guided
Bend Test for Ductility of Welds. See
Figure 3 1-8.
Two specimens must be used for the
guided bend test. A face-bend speci-
men is used to check the quality of fu-
sion, or whet he r the weld is free of
defect s such as porosity a nd inclu-
sions. A root -bend specime n is used
to check thc de gree of weld penetra-
tion. See Figure 3 1-9.
To perform a face-bend test, the test
specimen is placed in a tcst jig with
the weld face down and forc ed by a
plunger into a U- shape d die . The
specimen is substantially bent through
180°. but when it is removed from the
die the spec ime n wi ll spring back
slightly and no longer exhibit a perfect
180° bend. The specimen is removed
BonOM GUIDED
BonOM EJECTING
and evaluated. If upon examination
711e guided bendfest
crac ks greater than '/s" appear in any is the most co m-
direction , the we ld is con sidered to monly used ductility
have failed. The localized overstrain on test f or grvoV(' welds.
surfac ing welds,
the convex side or the U-shaped bend andfilter welds.
reveal s the presence of we ld defec ts
such as lack of fusion. The convex side
of the specimen is inspect ed for slag
inclus ions , poro sit y, and c rac ks . If
these exceed the requireme nts of the
applicable fabrication code or standard,
the weld must be rejected .
In a root-bend test, the test specimen
is placed in a jig with the root down, or
in the reverse position of the face-bend
piece. To be an acce ptable we ld, the
specimen must show no cracks.
o grinding
When preparing guided bend test coupons,
and polishing may make it hard
10
distingui sh the location ofthe weld. An acid
etch may be needed to (ocate the weld area.
l'iJ!;ure 31-8. Gui ded !J('//d test fix-
lu res ma y be bottom guided or
bot tom ejecting,
Destructive Testing :0 391
Figure 31-9. Face-bend and mo /-
hend specimens are specifi ed fo r
pipe and plate, Fac e-bend speci-
mens check the quality of f usion
and roo t -bend spe ci mens check
the degree of weld penetration.
392 ~ Welding sun,
THESE EDGES MAY BE FLAME CUT AND
MAY BE MACHINED OR NOT (AS DESIRED)
T -=~~~~=·[}Et:::~~~::::=:::JI·T
1O".J
FACE- AND ROOT-BEND SPECIMEN FOR PIPE
TH ESE EDGES MAY BE FLAME CUT AND
MAY BE MACHINED OR NOT (AS DESIRED)
~~====-';;;;;;:====~~
WELD REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE
MAC~:.~-~~~SH-~~~~-~-~-~-~~:E-~ETA:
o/,T c_________________________ ____________ i --------------------------------------'T y," MIN MATERIAL
FACE- AND ROOT-BEND SPECIMEN FOR PLATE
Wraparound Guided Bend Test. A
wraparound guided bend test is a bend
test in which a specimen is bent around
a st at iona ry man d rel a spec ifie d
amo unt to expose weld discontinuities.
O ne e nd of the specimen is fixed to
prevent it from sliding during bending
and a roller is used to force the speci-
men to bend around the mandrel. The
weld and the HAZ must be completely
within the bent portion of the speci -
men after testing. The test specimen is
removed from the bend fixture whe n
the ou ter ro ll has moved 180 0 from
the starting po int. See Figure 3 1- 10.
T he ben d location may be on the
face. the root, or the side. A face-bend
test is made with the weld face in ten-
sion. A root-bend test is made with the
we ld root in tension . A side- bend test
WELD REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE MACHINED
FLUSH WITH BASE MATERIAL
'AI'" MIN MATERIAL
I
------------- --- --- ---- ---- --- -- - ----, TO BE REMOVED
)
R.W' MAX ~
10
,I~ ~~NR~~6\~~L
TO BE REMOVED
is made with the weld cross section in
ten sion. Side-bend tests are useful for
exposi ng d iscon tinuitie s near th e
mid-thickness of the weld that might not
be see n in face- or roo t-bend te sts.
Side-bend spec imens are normally used
for relatively thick sections (over 'Ys").
See Figure 3 1-1 I.
Transverse face -bend s pec ime ns
have a longitudinal axis that is perpen-
dicul ar to the we ld and bent with the
w eld face in ten s ion . Long itud ina l
face- bend spec ime ns ha ve a longit u-
din al axis that is parallel to the we ld
and bent with the weld face in tension.
Transverse root -bend spec imens
have a longitudinal axis that is perpen -
dic ular to the weld and ben t with the
root surface of th e we ld in ten sion .
Longitudinal root-bend specimens have
 Figure 31 ·10. A wraparound
guided hem l fest use s a roller to
ensure that the specimen bends to
the correct radius around the
mandrel.
~ TH I CKN ESS (T)
~

MANDREL

CLAMP

a longitudinal axis that is parallel to the

weld and bent with the root surface of
the weld in tension.
Transverse side-bend specimens have
a longitudinal axis that is perpendicu-
- FACE
APPLIED
PRESSURE
ROOT

lar to the weld and is bent with the SUf-

face that sho ws the most significant
discontinuities in tension. Transverse
side-bend specimens are used for plate FACE
or pipe that is too thick for a face-bend
APPLIED
or root-bend specimen and are recom- PRESSURE
mended for welds with a narrow fusion
zone. If the thickness of single- or
double-groove joints is more than 1112" ,
the specimen may be cut into equal strips
between 3/l' and IV2" wide, which are
ROOT
then bent to the required radiu s deter-
APPLIED
mined in the bend test. PRESSURE
The length of a surfacing weld speci-
CROSS SECTIONAL
men is perpendicular to the weld direc- VIEW OF WELD
1I!f':~.J-.."
tion for transverse bend specimens and
parallel to the weld direction for longitu-
dinal bend specimens. A minimal amount "
SIDE
of surfacing weld is removed from the
face-bend specimen surface to obtain a
Figure 31-11. The bend location in (J guided bend
smooth surface. The minimum thickness test nw )' he on the [ace , the root, or the side of the
of surfacing after finishing is Ys". specimen.

Destru ctive Testing :€) 393

 T he spe c ime n thi ckne ss and be nd
radius are chosen according to the duc-
tility o f the met al being tested . Mo st
qu alificatio n tests of low-carbo n ste el
req uire that the spe ci me n be be nt
around a mandrel having a diameter four
times the thickness of the spec ime n.
Ca lcu latio n of stra in in the guided
bend test or wraparound bend test on
the outs ide surface of a bend spec imen
is given, approx imately, by the follo w-
ing for mu la:
lOOt
e= - -
2 R+t
where
e == strain, in perce nt
t = bend test specimen thickness, in in.
r == inside bend rad ius, in in.
For e xa mple, w ha t is the percent
stra in whe n a "Is" (.375) speci me n is
bent aro und a 1.5" diam e ter mand rel
using a guided be nd test?
metal. A more severe test of the weld
resu lts, and failure may occur because
the weld me ta l duc ti lity is e xceed ed
and not beca use of a defect in the weld.
See Fig ure 3 1-12.
When test in g we lds in d iss im ila r
st re ng t h m et al s, suc h as med ium-
carbo n stee l or lo w- ca rbon stee l, the
uneq ual stre ngt h ca pa bilities of the
m eta ls may c a use th e s pec i me n to
slide sideways in the g uided bend te';;t
f ixture . J
MATCHEO
WELD AND
BASE METAL
STRA IN

100(.375) WELD AND BASE METAL

e EQUAL STRENGTH
2( 1.5) + .375
EXCESS
e = _--::.3.:,:
7.:5__
::. STRAIN ON
BASE METAL
2( 1.5) + .375

e = --,3::..7: ",.5=---
3 + .375

37.5
e= - -
3.375
e = 11%

STRONGER NOTE
Low -carbo n steel we lds ca n eas ily WELD DIFFERENCE IN
STRETCHING
achieve the II % strain value. Ho w- OFWE LDS
ever, if weld defects are present, the bend EXCESSIVE
test specimens will consistently fail. WELO ZONE
STRAIN
Wh e n the deposit ed wel d me ta l is
stronge r than the base met al, bending
wi ll beg in in the base metal, resulting
in more bending there and little, if any,
bending in the weld meta l. In this situ-
ation the severes t test region is the fu-
sio n zone be twee n th e we ld and th e
base metal. WEAKER WELD
When the dep o sited we ld metal is
weaker tha n the ba se metal, ben d ing
}'i ~ ure 31·12. Problems associa ted with the guided
begin s in the weld, resu lting in more bend test relate 10 the relative strengths of the weld
be ndi ng in the we ld tha n in the base and bast' metal, lind the applied loads duri llK resting.

394 § Welding Skills

Hardness Test
The hardness of a material is its resis-
tance to deformation (particularly per-
manent deformation), indentation, or
scratching. A hardness test is a destruc-
tive test used to determine the relative
hardness of the weld area as compared
with the hase metal. See Figure 31-13 .
-
~ _.
~~
I measured to obtain the hardness value
Budd,", Lid
Figure 31·13. A hardness test is performed usin g a
hardness teste r, such as a mi crohordness tester, to
determine the relativ e hardness of the weld area as
compa red with the base metal.
Hardness testing is sometimes used
instead of the more expensive tensile
testing methods in heat-treating opera-
tions since comparable results can be
obtained. Hardness tests are a widely
used quality control tool in metal pro-
ces sing operations such as heat treat-
ment because they are sensitive, rapid ,
and relatively nondestructive. Hardness
tests are less commonly used for welds
because the critical area for hardness
testing , the HAZ, requires special
preparation. Additionally, hardness
testing does not provide adequate in-
formation on the physical quality of the
weld compared with other tests such
as the guided bend test. Hardness is in-
dicated by values obtained from vari-
ous hardness testing machines.
Hardness testing can provide infor-
mation on metallurgical changes
caused by welding . In alloy steels or
medium-carbon steels, a high hardness
value in the HAZ might indicate in-
sufficient preheating or postheating.
Welding may significantly reduce the
HAZ hardness in cold -worked or
age-hardened alloys by annealing or
over-aging, respectively, which re -
duces the overall strength of the joint.
Indentation hardness testing is most
often applied to weld testing and uses
the surface impression produced by a
standardized-shape indenter and stan-
dardized load to determine hardness.
The depth or size of the impression is
for the test specimen.
Indentation hardness tests for welds
consist of Brinell , Rockw ell , and
Vickers tests, which provide informa-
tion on the bulk properties of the metal,
and microhardness tests, which pro-
vide information on the weld and the
HAZ in the metal. Converting hardness
numbers hetween different tests must
be done carefully.
BrineU Hardness Test. The Brinell hard-
ness test is an indentation hardness test
that uses a machine to press a 10 mm
diameter, hardened steel ball into the
surface of a test specimen. The Brinell Hardness testing,
hardness test is used to determine base although considered
destructive, does not
metal hardness. The load must remain necessarily require
on the specimen 15 sec for ferrous ma- that the specimen be
terials and 30 sec for nonferrous ma- cut into pieces, and
is thus convenient
terials. Sufficient time is required for and relatively rapid.
adequate flow of the material being
tested; otherwise the read ings will be
in error. See Figure 31-14.
Hardness is calculated by dividing
the load by the area of the curved sur-
face of the indentation. The Brinell
hardness number is found by measur-
ing the diameter of the indentation and
then finding the corresponding hard-
ness number on a calibrated chart. The
test is described in ASTM E 10, Brinell
Hardness Testing of Metallic Materials.
Destructive Testing :@: 395
 - GAUGE
I.
WEIGHT
TO BALANCE
DESIRED LOAD
OIL
PRESSURE
Th e Brinell ball makes the deepest
and widest indentation of any hardn ess
test, so that it indicates an avemge hard-
ness value over many grains of the metal.
Consequent ly, the Brine ll hardness test
is the least affected by surface irregu-
~ ~_-ll--+_P~UMP larity or inhomogeneity. Sometime s it
PLUNGER is nece ssary to grind a Oat spot on the
surface to improve the diam etrical mea-
INDENTER surement. The Brinell test is not suitable
TEST for very thin, case-hardened, or hanl-faced 'l
SPECIMEN
components. J
ANVIL
HANDWHEEL

ELEVATING \L-'-'-'----~
SCREW -

Figure 3 1- 14. A Ilrinell hardness fest applies a loud

f or a specific period and C/lU Sf' .\' WI inde ntation ill
the metal ' /1lI1 is used to calc ulate hardness.

The Brinell hardness number fo l-

lowed by the abbre viation HB indicates
a hardness value made under sta ndard
cond it ions usi n g a 10 mm d iamet er
ha rden ed stee l ball , a 30 00 kg load ,
a nd an indentat ion time of 15 sec to
30 see. Howe ve r, the load applied to
the steel ball depends on the type of
metal under te st. A 500 kg steel ba ll
is used for alum inu m casti ngs and a
3000 kg stee l ba ll is used for ferrous
me ta ls . T he d iamete r of the indenta-
tion is measur ed to .05 m m usin g a
low-magnificat io n portab le micro-
scope. Care mu st be taken to mea sure
tbe exac t diameter of the indentati on
a nd not the appare nt d iamete r ca used
by edge effects that result in a ridge or
depression enc ircl ing the true inden-
tation . See Figure 31- 15.
A code is used when other test con-
diti on s are required . For example, 75
HB 10/500/30 indicates a Brinell hard-
ne ss number of 75 obtained in a te st
using a 10 m m diameter hardened stee l
ball with a 500 kg load app lied for 30
seconds. For ex tremely hard metals, a
tun gsten carbide ba ll is substituted for
the steel ball, allowing read ings as high
as 650 HB.
DIAMETER
SOFT METAL
ENCIRCLING
RIDGE
DIAMETER
HARD METAL
Ffgure 3 1-15. Careful mea suremelll ,mISt be taken
after a Brinel! hardness test to accuratetv determine
the si:e of indentations ;/1 soft ami hurd metals.
Rockwell Hardness Test. The Rockwell
hardness test is an indentation hardness
test that uses two loads, supplied sequen-
tially. to form an indentation on a metal
test specimen to determine hardness. The
Roc k well hard ne s s te st is the mo st
commonly used and versa tile hardness
test. The Rockwell ha rd ness test is
com mo n ly used for weld and base
metal measuremen t. T he Rockwe ll
testing machine has a variety of attach-
m ents that enable it to me asure th e
hardness of a wide rang e of materials.

396 @o We/ding Ski lls

 A '/16" diameter steel ball and a
120-diamond cone are the two types
of indenters. A minor load of 10 kg is
applied that helps seat the indenter and
remove the effect of surface irregulari-
ties. A major load, which varies from
60 kg to 150 kg, is then applied. See
Figure 31-16.
The amount of the major load de-
termines the type of indenter used.
For example, a steel ball is used with
the 60 kg load and a diamond cone
with the 150 kg load . The difference
in depth of indentation between the
major and minor loads provides the
Rockwell hardness number. This num-
ber is taken directly from the dial on
the machine. The Rockwell hardness
test is de scribed in ASTM E 18,
Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Super-
ficial Hardness 'd' Metallic Materials.
Several types of Rockwell hardness
scales are used for measuring hard-
ness. T he designation system has a
hardness number followed by HR, fol-
lowed by another letter that indicates
the specific Rockwell scale. The two
most common scales are Rockwell B
(HRB) and Rockwell C (HRC).
MAJOR~
\ -
ii
LOAD • •
MINOR
o·
MINOR LOAD
LOA D ~ APPLIED
INDENTER~
TEST
~ ~
SPECIMEN ~ .
ANVIL ELEVATING
SCREW -
CD DIAL IS IDLE
® DIAL SET
AT ZERO
Figure 31-16. The Rockwell hardne ss test uses two toads. a mino r road and a major load, which are applied sequentially to determine hardness.
The Rockwell B scale uses a '/16"
diameter steel ball and a 100 kg load
for relatively soft materials . It is used
on annealed low-carbon steel, which
may exhibit a hardness of approxi-
mately 85 HRB.
The Rockwell C scale uses a diamond
cone and a 150 kg load for relatively hard
materials. For example, a quenched and
tempered medium-carbon, low -alloy
steel usually exhibits hardness between
30 HRC and 45 HRC, depending on the
tempering temperature. See Appendix.
For Rockwell hardness testing, both
sides of the test specimen must be
clean, scale-free, dry, and parallel. Spe-
cial jigs help support round or oversize
test specimens to ensure immobility
during the test.
Vickers Hardness Test. The Vickers
hardness test is an indentation hard -
ness test that uses an indenter with a
136 0 square-base diamond cone , and
that may be used to test hardness in
the base metal and weld metal. The ap-
plied load varies from I kg to 120 kg.
The Vickers hardness number is deter-
mined from the load divided by the
surface area of the indentation.
\·
i
MAJOR
MAJOR LOAD
• LOAD WITHDRAWN
APPLIED MINOR
MINOR
LOAD
LOAD WITHDRAWN
APPLIED
f3\DIALREADS
\::J MAJOR LOAD
f4\ DIAL READS
'-;V ROCKWELL ® DIAL IS IDLE
HARDNES S
NUMBER
Destru ctive Testin g "§: 397
 To conduct a Vickers hardness test,
the specimen is placed on an anvil and
raised by a screw until it is close to the
point of the indenter. The starting lever
is tripped, allowing the load to be
slowly applied to the indenter. The load
is released, the anvil lowered, and a fi-
lar micro scope is used to measure the
diagonals of the square indentation to
±.OO I mm. Diagonal measurements are
averaged to obtain the Vickers hard-
ness number, which is followed by the
letters HV. The Vickers hardness test is
described in ASTM E 92, Vickers Hard-
ness Testing of Metallic Materials.
Th e Vick er s hardness te st allows
e xtrem e ly accurate read ing s to be
tak en . Addition ally, one type of in-
denter cov ers all types of meta ls and
surface treatments. However, test speci-
men preparation is cri tica l because a
poor surfac e fin ish makes the mea -
surement of the diagonals extre mely
difficult. A fin e e me ry fini sh is t he
coarsest face allowable.
Microhardness Test. A microha rdness
test is a type of inden tation hardness
test that uses light loads of less than
200g . Mi ero hardne ss tests are at the
opposite end of the scale to the Brinell
or Rockwell hardness tests. A polished
surface, coupled with the ligh t loads,
allow s the hardn e ss of indiv idual
grains of meta l or ot her microcon-
stituents to be measured,
To cond uct a microhardness test,
the test speci men is placed unde r the
microscope of th e mierohardness
tester. The area of interest is positioned
at the intersection of the cross wires .
The indenter is swung into place and
the load appli ed for a set period . The
load is then removed, the microscope
swung back , and the length of the di-
agonals of the indentation mea sured.
The microhardness reading is obtained
from the mea surem ents and from a
c hart. Microhardne ss te stin g is de-
scribed in ASTM E 384, Test Method
for Microhardness of Metals.
Microhardne ss testing of welds is
usually done on ground and polished,
or ground, polished, and etched cross
398 €1 Weidilll( Sk ills
section s of a weld. Measurements can
be made in any specific area, but they
are mo st freque ntly made as a series
of regularly spaced indentation s across
the base metal. HAZ. and weld metal
for single- or multiple-pass welds. The
space between readin gs is usually be-
tween V16' and V8". See Figure 31-17.
~:J
QUARTER· NEAR
THICKNESS SURFACE
TRAVERSE
............
' TRAVERSE
~~-----.:~ ;,;,,;;
INDENTIONS ,
SPACED ACROSS I CENTER
METAL TRAVERSE
WELD
CENTERLINE
TRAVERSE
Figure 3 1~ 17 . Micr oliardnrss t1Il'llsu re ments ar e
taken al regular inter vals across II ground . polished,
and etched cross section of u weld.
Regular conversion between differ-
ent hardness scales should be avoided
unless there is a large amount of experi-
ence and data available to justify mak-
ing such correlations. Indentation
hardness readings are based on a com-
bination of propertie s such as friction.
elasticity. and viscosity of the indenter
and the specimen. The se vary with the
type of specimen and test. The distribu-
tion of plastic strain in the test specimen.
which is caused by the particular type of
indenter. is also an important factor.
Separate convers ion tabl es are re-
qu ired for different a lloy famili es.
ASTM E 140, Standard Hardness Con-
version Tables f or Metals (Relationship
between Brin ell Hardn ess, Vick ers
Ha rdness, Rockwell Hardn ess,
Rockwell Sup erficial Hardn es s, and
Knoop Hardness), co ntains hardness
co nversion table s for se ve ral major
families of alloy s. Pocket-si ze conver-
sion charts supplied by ve ndors are
usually an extrac t from the steels por-
tion of ASTM E 140. See Appendix.

Toughness Tests
Toughness tests measure the ability of
material s to ab sorb e ne rgy at hi gh
strain rat es and deform plastically
rather than fracture in a brittle manner,
particularly in the presence of stress
raiser s such as cracks and notche s, A
roughness test is a dynamic test in
which a specimen is broken by a single
b low and the en ergy absorbe d in
breaking the piece is measured in foot-
pounds (ft-lb). The purpose of the test
is to co mpa re the tou ghness of the
weld metal with the base metaL It is es-
pecially significant in determining
wheth er any of the mechanical prop -
erties of the base metal have been de-
stroyed due to weldin g, Toughness of
welds is an important property because
structural metals must be able to deform
and give warning of impending failure,
Th e mech ani c al prope rtie s o f a
metal arc strongly affected by the rate
of straining. A metal tested at a low
strain ra te may br eak with a large
amount of strain (elo ngat ion), but a
metal tested at a high strain rate may
break with little or no elongation. The
metal is tough and ductile at the low
strain rate and is brittle at the high strain
rate, See Figure 31-18,
Toughn ess is also affec ted by the
test temperature and presence of stress
raisers in the specimen. The toughness
STRONGER BUT
BRITTLE METAL
FRACTURE
.»
so "'' ' ' - WEAKER BUT
.' DUCTILE METAL
'"a:
ur
t;;
HIGH STRAIN RATE
LOW STRAIN RATE
STRAIN
Ffgure 31-18 . Metal tested at (J low strain rare is
ductile compared with the .willie metal tested at (/
hiRh strain rate.
:E=I
of certain metal s de cr eases sign if i-
Toughness testing
cantly below a characte ristic tem pera- I'~ n'qu;rements depend
ture. Stress raisers in weld s, such as a 011 the
specific a"pli-
sharp chan ge in we ld profile at thc cable fabrication
surface or internal inclu sion s, may code or standard.
decrease toughnes s,
Toughness tests include the Charpy
V-notch test, plane -strain fracture
toughness test, and nil-ductility transi-
tion temperature test.
Charpy V-Notch Test. The Churpy
v-notch test is a toughness test that uses
the en ergy produced by a dynami c
1'.' ~ I The Charpv V-notch
test uses the ene rgy
produced by a dy -
load, and measures the energy needed namic load. and
measures the ell -
to break a small machine-notched test
a~y needed to break
speci men. The Charpy specimen is a a ,H 11ll 11 machine-
sq uare-s haped bar cont ainin g a ma - I/o(e lin!testspecimen:
chined V-shaped notch, T he purpose
of the notch in the test specime n is
to facilitate fr acture in a co ntro lled
locat ion , Th e result ing measurem ent
is an indi cator of toughne ss.
A Charpy V-notch test is performed
in a universal pendulum impact tester.
See Figur e 31-19 . The specim en is
placed horizontally again st the two
supports at the bottom of the tester. The
pendulum is rai se d to a sta ndard
height , giving it a potenti al energy of
240 ft-lb [325 joules (J)] , The pendu-
lum is released and the specime n is
struc k and broken as th e pendulum
swings through its arc, The swi ng of
the pendulum after it strikes the speci-
men indic ates the energy absorbed on
impact a nd is me asured in fo ot -
pound s or joul es. When struck by the
pendulum, tough ma terials absorb a
si eeni fi cant a mo u nt of energy a nd
brittl e mat erials fractu re with re la-
tivel y littl e ene rgy absorbed. Tou gh
materi al s ca us e th e pendulum to
travel a shorter di stan ce after strik-
ing the test spec imen. With br ittl e
materi al s, the pendulum tra vel s a
longer distance after impact.
o ASTM 23, Notched Bar Impact Testing of
Metallic Materials. girl'S requirements for
the Charpy v-notch test, which is the most
commo1l impact test used.
Destructive Testing :§: 399
Ftgu r e 31-19. The Charpv V-
notch test requ ires rery small
specimens, allowing for millt iple
orientations of a test to be per -
formed Oil a part. The swing (d
the pendulum after strikillX the
spe cimen indicates the cncrgv
- program s it is often necessary to check
for properties in orientations that
would exh ibit the lowest toughness.
For example, with plate products, a test
specimen with a tran sverse orientation
absorbed on impa ct .
et==="=-~::;":'::<45' usually exhibits lower quality, or lower
mechanical properties . With welds,
f1\ CHARPY V,NOTCH SPECIMEN IS PROPERLY
~ P R EPAR ED specimens that have notch locations in
the weld metal, HAZ, or base metal may
CHARPY
exh ib it signi ficantly different notch .

..
V,NOTCH
SPECIMEN toughness values . See Figure 3 1-20. ",
SPECIMEN
SUPPORTED HAMMER
HORIZONTALLY

-
BY ANVIL

V,NOTCH
CENTERED WELD SAMPLE
NOTCH
f2\ SP ECIM EN IS SUPPORTED IN TE STER BY
~ ANVIL

PENDULUM AT REST \
STA N DA R D~
PENDULUM ~~' , - ,
AFTER -- ' -'~i'-
STRIKING / -u u
TEST / '
SP ECIMEN 1 k ' / BASE METAL
~/ NOTCH WELDED SAMPLE

BASE~7' STRIKING
EDGE Figure 31 ·20. Cha rry v-no tch test sp ecimens ma -
ANVIL chined fro m differ ent locations in a weld ma.. . exhibit
PENDULUM
SPECIMEN DURING dif feren t notch toughness rallies.
SWING

f3\ PENDULUM IS RELEASED AND STRIKES

VV SPE CIMEN
The Charpy V-notch test is widely
used because it requires a small specimen
size and it permits correlating the results
of a large body of tests with service
expe r ience, The simple method of
specimen support allows testing to be
performed over a range of test tem-
peratures, Specimens are heated in a
furnace or cooled in a refrigerator to
th e te st temperature, removed, and
then rapidly tested with minimal tem-
perature change.
Th e small spec imen size required
for th e Charpy V-notch te st is also
convenient becau se specimens may be
cut at variou s orientations or locations
within a part. Since the properties of
metal s may vary according to orien -
tation or location , in quality control
The behavior of metals in Charpy
V-notch testing is dependent on the rate
of loading, test temperature, and type
of notch. These variables make it diffi-
cult to translate the absorb ed energy
values into design criteria. Nevertheless,
the long history of Charpy V-notch
testing allow s acceptance or rejection
limits to be placed on large quantities
o f materials . For e xamp le , some
specification s require a minimum
Charpy V-notch requirement for steel
products of 15 ft-lb at the minimum
expected service temperature. How-
ever, th is does not mean that a test
specimen exhibiting 60 ft-Ib is four
times tougher than the minimum. The
main value of the Charpy V-notch test
is as a criterion of acceptance of mate-
rial when reliable service behavior has
been established,

400 ~ Welding Skills

 Notch toughness testing requirements
depend on the specific fabrication code
or standard. When applicable in the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
they are known as supplementary es-
sential variables. For example, notch
toughness testing may be required for
carbon and low-alloy steel equip -
ment subject to cooling in service,
such as through operation upsets or
auto-refrigeration. Auto-refrigeration is
cooling that occurs when gas expands,
as in the sudden release of gas from a
pipe or piece of equipment. Materials
whose properties are enhanced by heat
treatment may also require notch
toughness testing.
Notch toughness values may be al-
tered with an increase in heat input
during welding. Conditions that may
contribute to higher heat input include
higher welding heat input; higher maxi-
mum interpass temperature; longer
postheat time at temperature; reduction
in base metal thickness; change to an
uphill progression in vertical welding;
change from stringer bead to weave
bead welding ; and the physical loca-
tion of specimens taken from some
pipe test samples . A welding procedure
specification must be established that
accounts for these variables to ensure that
the notch toughness properties of the
weld metal and HAZ are not reduced.
Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness
Test. The plane-strain fracture tough-
ness test is a toughness test that mea-
sures the resistance of metals to brittle
fracture propagation in the presence
of stress raisers such as weld defects.
High stress concentrations may occur
at the tips of internal di scontinuities
(such as lack of fusion) in some met-
als and produce a running (brittle)
crack.
The fracture toughness of a metal
at a given temperature is proportional
to the stress level, measured in thou-
sand pounds per square inch (ksi) or
megapascals (MPa) , and the square
root of the crack length, measured in
inches or meters. The unit of measure
for fracture toughness is ksifu (ksi
root inch). Plane-strain fracture tough-
ness test data are used in the design of
structures, as when determining the
allowable internal size of a disconti-
nuity that might lead to a catastrophic
failure .
Various types and sizes of speci -
mens are used in the plane-strain
fracture toughness test. A compact
tension specimen is a block contain -
ing a machined notch that is placed
in a fatigue-testing machine to pro-
duce a small fatigue crack at the root
of the machined notch . The tip of the
fatigue crack extending from the root
of the machined notch is a localized
region of high stress intensity.
The test specimen is pulled to fail-
ure in a testing machine and the load
is plotted against the opening of the
notch . The load and crack extension
at the sudden failure of the test speci-
men are measured and used to calculate
the fracture toughness of the material.
The test method is described in ASTM
E 399, Plane-Strain Fracture Tough-
ness Testing of Metallic Materials.
Fracture toughness testing is used to
determine the critical stress intensity,
which is a measure of the resistance of
a metal to brittle fracture propagation
in the presence of flaws and cracks .
Pressure vessels , storage tanks, air-
planes , and ships are examples of
structures that are designed and manu-
factured in accordance with fracture
toughness principles.
Nil Ductility Transition Temperature
Test. The nil ductility transition (NDT)
temperature test is a toughness test that
measures the temperature at which the
fracture behavior of a metal changes
from ductile to brittle in the presence
of a stress raiser. This temperature is some-
times referred to as the ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature (DBTT). Some
metals, especially carbon and low-alloy
steels, show a sharp transition in tough-
ness when temperature decreases.
Destructive Testing :@: 4tH
 The change in toughness capability
may be the controlling factor in deter-
mining a metal' s serviceability. Carbon
steels lose ductility below a certain tem-
perature, leading to brittleness. Large
stee l sto rag e ta nks have failed ca ta-
strophically in cold weather because the
NOT temperature of the plate material
was higher than the atmospheric tem -
perature at the time of failure.
Th e Cha rpy V-notc h test and the
drop weight test are used to determine
th e NOT temperatu re. T he Cha rpy
V-notch test determines the NOT tem-
perature by testing specimens over a
range of temperatures. The results are
plotted as impa ct strength aga inst test
temperature.
The drop weight test is a more reli-
able method than the Charpy V-not ch
test for measuring NOT. The specimen
is a slab or plate that is up to 'YaH thick.
A weld bead made from a brittle alloy
Urcok tests are also
rapid methods of 0 .\' · is laid down the center of the plate. The
sessillK weld quality plate is brought to the test temperature
and may he called out and placed in the test fixture. It is sup-
hy specific industries.
ported along both ends parall el to the
weld, with the weld side facing down .
A weight located vertica lly above the
center of the plate is allow ed to drop,
causing the plate to bend .
li"iu.• 0 1....11 k<fillK M tu-hi,U' Co., /11£.
Electromechonicol tensile testing machines can he used to perform tension, comp res-
SiOIl , andjlcx tests on a specimen.
402 ~ Welding Skills
Cracking of the weld bead is initi-
ated at 3° of bend. After that point the
weld bead co ntinues to crack, which
initiates a fracture in the plate. To en-
sure the strain induced in the plate is
elastic, a stop is placed below the weld
bead. The stop limits the amount of de-
flection of the plate to 5° of bend. See
Figure 3 1-2 1.
If the tem per atu re of the plate is
below the NOT temperature, the crack )
runs and the plate breaks in two . At
any temperature above the NOT tem-
pera tu re, the crac k sto ps be fore it
sprea ds throu gh the plate. Th e NOT
temp erature is the lowest temperature
at whi ch the plate will not break in
two. The drop weight test is described
in ASTM E 208, Drop Weight Test 10
Determine Nil Ductility Transition Tem-
perature of Ferritic Steels.
-
WE IGHT
DROPPED FRACTURE
OCCURS AT
TEST SPECIMEN 3' OF BEND
(PLATE)
FIXTURE
G) WEiGHT DROPPED ON TEST SPECiMEN
~
5· BEND --.....L
STOP
® TO ENSURE ELASTi C STRAIN. A STOP is
PLACED TO LIMIT DEFLECTION TO 5'
OF BEND
Ftgure 31-21. The dro p weight le st is tl reliable
indicator fo r measur ing NDT tempe rature.
Break Tests
Break tests are a rapid and convenient
method of eva luating certain types of
welds and are used for welder qualifi-
cation . Break tes ts include the nick -
break test and the fillet weld break test.
Nick-Break Test. The nick-break test is
conducted by saw cutting a small notch
in a weld assembly or specimen, fol-
lowed by breaking it with hammer
blow s, stretching, or bending. A test
specimen is prepared and placed on
supporting members. A load is applied
to the specimen until it breaks. The sur-
face of the fracture is then exam ined
for defects such as porosity, slag inclu-
sions, overlaps, etc. See Figure 31-22.
CD SAW CUT A NOTCH IN A WELD ASSEMB LY OR SPECIME N
, ,- - - - ---,-
® STRIKE BOTH SIDES OF SPECIMEN WITH A HAMMER
For a more accurate check of the weld,
the fractured pieces should be subjected
to an etch test. The nick-break test is used
primarily in the pipeline industry, as de-
scribed in American Petroleum Institute
(API) standards such as API Standard
1104, Standard for Welding Pipeline and
Related Facilities. The nick-break test
may also be used to evaluate fu sion
welds, flash butt welds, pressure welds,
or friction welds in pipe or plate.
Fig ure 3 1-22. A nick -break test
CI"L\j.\/S of notching 11 welded
specime n and fracturing it with
hamm er blows.
NOTE: NICK·BRE AK TE ST
MAY BE CUT OUT AND
NICKED WITH TORCH.
DO NOT REMOVE WELD
Yo" DEEP SAW CUT REINFORCEMENT.
FLAME CUT
- STRIKE SPECIMEN ON BOTH SIDES
Destructive Testing €} 403
 Specimens for nick -break te sting
are either a full-size welded piece or a
spec imen cut from a full -si ze pi ece .
Tbe weld region is notched and then
firmly supported at one or both ends.
Once the specimen is supported, it is
fractured by a hammer blow. One side
is hit twi ce and then the specimen is
turned 180 0 and the other side is hit
twice. This proc edure is continued
until th e spec ime n breaks. Alterna-
tively, the specimen may be fractured
by load ing in ten sion or by thre e -
point loading on a universal te sting
machine. The method of breaking the
spec ime n is not significant because
the sole purpo se of the nick-break test
is to cau se failure through the weld
zone to determine the presence of
discontinuities or defe cts.
Slag inclusions on steel may have a
glass -like appearance or a dark con-
toured appearance . T he nick -break
fracture will travel from the cut metal
to the slag inclu sion and through the
center of the inclusion. The loc ation
o f a s lag inclu sion is sometimes
smooth becau se the slag has been dis-
lodged by the force of the hammer
blows breaking the specimen. It is use-
ful to match the two broken specimens
tog ether and rotate in good li ght to
identify di scontinuitie s. Sometime s
discontinuities arc easier to read on the
fra cture surface than the other match-
ing side .
Poro sity may be spherical or cylin -
drical in shape and may be isolated or
groupe d in clu st ers. Th e key to th e
identification of porosity is the shape
and the absence of nonmetallic solid
material. Poros ity ha s a bright white
or s ilve ry appearance on steel if it
is not e xpos ed to th e atmo sphere .
Surface-connected porosity usually has
a black oxide appearance. The sound
metal surface has a gray color without
void s.
The ob servation of incomplete fu-
sion depends on the joint design. If the
joint is a single- V groove, base metal
404 ~ WeldinK Skills
incomplete fusio n would be plana r in
shape, showing the area on the groove
face that is not fused . In some cases
the grind mark s on the original groove
face can be identified .
It is helpful to pla ce the two bro -
ken ni ck -break spec ime ns to gether
and ide ntify the location of the first
weld pass and the last, as well as the
weld reinforcement area. If th e di s-
co ntinuity is located on th e groove>
fac e or between weld pas se s and ~
planar in shape, it co uld be incom-
plete fu sion .
Inc o mp le te joint pen etration is
easy to identify in that it is always lo-
cated at the weld root and is planar in
sha pe . Incompl et e joint penetration
ca n be detected in the nick-break
specimen before it is brok en .
Th e broken ni ck -break spec imen
shows how deep the incomplete j oint
penetration extend s into the weld
metal. On steel , incomplete joint pen-
etration is black to bluish in color.
In steel, cracks are flat and have a
silvery color if they occur after weld-
ing is completed. If the fractured sur-
fa ce of a crack s hows a blu e oxide
color, the metal cracked before the fi-
nal weld passes were completed and the
crack surface was heated to the temper
color range by subsequent weld passes.
Fillet Weld Break Test. A fillet weld
break test is a break test in which the
specimen is tested with the weld root in
tension. The fillet weld break test is used
for the qualification of welders and is
the only test required to qualify as a tack
welder in accordance with AWS 01.1,
Structural Weldil1 K Code-Stee l.
Tack welding is a vital part of many
fabrications such as fabrication of pres-
sure vessel s or structures . Exce pt for
fully automatic welding o per ations,
most con struction codes or stan da rds
have qualification rules for tack weld-
ers. A high-heat-input, mechanized pro-
ces s may be selected for the welding
application, but the tack weld may be
applied manually leading to very rapid
cooling and a brittle, crack-sensitive
structure, commonly at the root of the
weld. Subsequent weld passes with the
high-heat-input process do not remove
the cracks, but help them propagate fur-
ther into the base met al and/or weld
metal. Poorly applied tack weld s are
also the cau se of entrapped slag, po-
rosity, lack of penetration, and cracks.
If the WPS is qualified with preheat-
ing and postheating, the tack weld
should be similarly qualified within the
ran ge spec ified . Most con struction
codes require tack welds of any length
10 follow a qualifi ed WPS for the fol-
lowing reasons:
• tack weld is to be removed or left
in place
• tack weld is attaching a component
to the piece to be welded
• tack weld is incorporated into the
weld as a tack in the root
To perform the fillet weld break test,
a welder places a filIet weld on one
side of a T-joint specimen. The speci-
men is placed in a press and bent to
produce fracture at or near the weld.
Th e fracture surface is examined for
ev ide nce of fusion with the root and
absence of incomplete fusion or po-
rosity larger than %2" in its greates t
dimension. See Figure 3 1-23.
SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Fabrication codes and standards indi-
cate how to obtain sp ecimen s from
welds for mechanical testing. Good
s pe c ime n preparation en sures that
und esirable surface features are not
introduced that have an undesirable
effect on th e test results.
Mechanical test specimen prepara-
tion is described in AWS B4.0, Stan-
da rd Methods Jar Mechanical Testing
oj Welds. Spec imen prepar ation may
vary acco rding to the type of weld .
Safety practices must be followed when
preparin g specimens to prevent injury
from grinding wheels, hot surfaces, or
sharp edges.
- LOAD APPLIED UNTI L
SPECIMEN BREAKS
Figure ]1-23. The fi lle t weld
break lest is used by em inspec-
lor to qualify lad: II"eM.f.
TACK WELDS
Groove Welds
When using groo ve weld specimens.
specific information must be record ed
to document the results of the testing .
When a double -groove weld specimen
is used, identification stamps must be
used to mark the side of the joint from
which the test spec imen was tak en .
Samples may be removed from specific
locations in groove weld test plates and
pipes to ensure representative specimens
are obtained. See Figure 3 1-24. Groove
weld specimens include tension speci-
mens, root-and face-b end specimens,
hardness specimens, fracture toughness Specimen prepa ra-
specimens, and nick-break specimens. tion must pro vide a
smooth surface for
Tension Specimens. Tension specimens tes ting , Nicks or
for groove welds may be rectangular or sharp edges (IT(' 1lI1-
round . Deep machine cut s or surface desira ble because
they introduce loca l
tear s must be avoided during sur face stress raisers that
preparation as they can cause invalid test might CClUS!' prema-
results. Imperfections that are present in ture failure.
the gauge length that are incidental to
welding do not need to be removed.
Rectangular specimens may be taken
from plate or from tubing greater than
2" diameter and with wall thi ckn ess
greater than 3fs". The weld orientation
may be longitudinal or transverse. For
tubing les s th an 2" di ameter, onl y a
full- section spe cim en may be tested .
Destructive Testing €>= 405
Ffgure 31·24. Spec imen.'! fo r de-
structlve testing are bala nced 10

r
obta in representative samples
and results throughout groove-
welded pla te, groove-we lde d IMPACT SPECIMENS TEN SION SPECIMEN
pipe, and th ick: g roove-welde d AND WELD METAL
plate. TENSION SPECIMENS,
WHEN REOUIRED
if! DISCARD

SIDE·BEND
SPECIMEN

DISCARD
GROOVE·WELDED PLATE

FACE·B END
SPECIMEN FACE·BEND SPECIMEN

TEN SION RooT·BEND

SPECIMEN SPECIMEN
GROOVE·WELDED PIPE

ROUND T ENSION
S PEC I ME NS ~ .>
SIDE.BEND A~
SPECIMENS
REDUCED
SECTION
TEN SION
SPECIMENS

THICK GROOVE·WELDED PLATE

406 ~ Weld ing Skills

When the thickness of the test weld is
greater th an the ca pac ity of the test
equipment, the weld may be di vided
through its thickness into as many speci-
mens as necessary to cover the full weld
thickness and still maintain the specimen
size within the equipment capacity. Usu-
ally, the results of partial-thickness speci-
men s are averaged to determine the
properties of the full-thickness joint. For
speci me ns taken tran sversel y to the
centerline of the weld, only the ultimate
tensile strength is determined because of
possible material or structural inhomo-
geneities.
Round, all-weld metal specimens
with the largest possible diameter that
ca n be machined from a location are
used. Specim ens smaller than 114' di-
ameter should not be used unless there
is no other way to obtain the sample.
Minor variations in the surface finish
and test mach ine alignment may lead
to irrep rodu cible result s due to the
small size of the sample.
Bend Specimens. Bend specimens are
used for welding procedure qualification
and weld er performance qualifi cation
tests. Similar preparation requirements
are usually specific to groove weld and
surfaci ng weld bend specimens. Bend
spec imens are prepared by cutting the
weld metal and the base metal to form a
rectan gular cross-section specimen. At
least VB" of material must be mechani-
cally removed from thermally cut sur-
faces to prevent the influence of heat on
the test results. Longitudinal surfaces may
be no rougher than 125 microinches (3
micron s). Grin ding or sanding marks
should run parallel to the directi on of
bending to prevent them from acting as
stress raisers that can lead to premature
failure. Additionally, the corners of the
specimen should be radiused to relieve
excess ive stresses .
Weld re info rce me nt and backin g
must be removed to be flush with the
specimen surfac e. For welder perfor-
mance qualific ation testing, undercut s
may be rem oved , provided sufficient
material remains to maint ain the re-
quired spec ime n dim en sion s. Wh en
testing weld joint s between base met-
als that have differin g thicknesses, the
spec ime n is redu ced to a cons ta nt
thickness using the thinner base metal.
The surfaces pe rpendicular to the
weld axi s are desi gnated as the sides
of the spec imen. The othe r two sur-
faces are designated as the face or root
surfaces . Transverse weld specimens
may have the side, face, or root of the
weld as the bend surface. Longitudinal
weld specimens may have the face or
the root of the weld as the bend surface.
The acceptability of a bend specimen
is based on the size and/or number of
defects that appear on the bend surface.
The main purpose of the bend test for
welding procedure qualificati on is to
determine the ductility of a sound weld.
Governing fabrication codes or specifi-
cations dictate exact acceptance or re-
jection criteria.
A discontinuity does not becom e a
defect until it exceeds the limits allowed
by the relevant code. A Project Engineer
can ignore discontinuities that are less
than the maximum, but all discontinuities
must be recorded. AWS D l.l, Structurai
Welding Code-s-Steel, allows a total ac-
cumulation of discontinui ties of % 2'.
With the ASME Boiler and Pressure Ves-
sel Code, bend specimens may have no
open defects in the weld or the HAZ ex-
ceeding lis" measured in any direction
on the convex face after bending.
A BUEHl.ER
RlU'hl, rLl J
A cross-sectioning system is used to p repare cross-sectioned specimens for welder
performance qualification rests.
Destructive Testing 0 407
 Etching may be required to determine
whether the discontinu ity is in the weld
or the HAZ. Open discontinuities on the
corners of specimens during testing are
not considered unless there is evidence
that they result from lack of fusion, slag
inclu sion s, or other internal weld
discontin uities.
Hardness Specimens. Hardness speci-
mens for groove welds and surfacing
welds are grouud, machined, or polished
depending on the type of hardness test
to be performed. Surface preparation
requi rements become increasingly
stringent as the size and de pth of the
indentat ion decreases . At the very
minimum, it is necessary to remove
rust and scale from the surface. Exces-
sive heat m ust be avo ided when pre -
paring the test area of the spec imen.
Weld metal hardness tests are only
permitted either on we ld joi nt cross
section samples or on local areas of
we ld reinforcement that are ground
smooth before testing. The edge of the
ind e ntati o n m ust be no cl oser than
three times the majo r dimension of the
indentation from the edge of the ground
area of the reinforcement on wel ded
assemblies . Specimen s mu st be sup-
ported to prevent rocking under the
Figure 31·25. A mi nimum sepa-
ration offou r diameters (4 d) fo r
the Brineil hardness test lind 2V2
diagonals (2Vz [)J fo r the Vickers
hardness test must he main tained
to pr event distu rban ces bet ween
the base m etal and we ld m eta l
zones. d- -c============.;~============t--d
4d
MINIMUM
SEPARATION BRI NELL TEST
OF INDENTATION S
408 €l' Welding Skills
tester. It may be necessary to grind the
backside of the spec imen to make it
flat. The indenter should be perpen-
dicular to the specimen. With a round
specimen such as bar, it is usually nec-
essary to grind a small area flat to make
a test. The sp ecimen must be thick
enough so that an anvil effect (bulge)
does not appear on the opposite side
when the indentation is made. For the
Rockwell and Brinell hardness tests, \
the speci men should be at least IV
I
times as thick as the depth of the im-
pression. For the Vickers hardness test,
the test specime n sho uld be one and
one-half times as thick.
For eva luation of weld metal hard-
ness, the edge of the indentation must
be within the weld metal and no closer
than VB" from the weld metal interface
with the base metal. The minimum
sp ac ing between ind e n ta t io n s de -
pends on the type of test. If th e in-
dentations are too close toget her, there
will be disturbed zones of metal. Th e
minimum separatio n between inden-
tations shou ld be four diameters (4 d
center to center) for the Bri nell and
Rockwell hardness tests and two and
o ne -ha lf diagonals (2 '/2 0 center to
cen ter) for the Vickers hardness test.
See Figure 31- 25 .
d = diameter
=
D diagonal
 Mor e than o ne reading mu st be
taken to a llow for surface irre gulari-
ties and test spec imen inhomogeneity.
The mini mum numb er of readings re-
qu ired for a specific test is determin ed
by e xpe rie nce. Fo r the Brinell te st ,
three read ings are usuall y taken and
av eraged . For th e Rockwell and
Vickers tests, three to five readings are
usuall y taken and averaged .
Fracture Toughness Specimens. Frac-
ture toughn ess tests may be perform ed
to indicate the performance of the hase
metal , the HAZ, or the weld metal. A
fracture toughness test uses a specimen
that has a notch cu t into it. The speci-
men is then tested to determine the frac-
ture strength of the metal.
When the tes t is perform ed on the
hase metal or in the HAZ, the location
of the not ch is spec ified to be in the
applicable region of the j oint. Wh en
the test is performed on the weld metal,
the width of the we ld metal must be
equal to or greater than the thickness
of the specimen.
Wh en spec ime ns fr om double-
groove weld s are used , ide ntification
letters or numbers are stamped on the
spec ime n to indi cate the s ide of the
joi nt from which the test spec imen was
taken. T he locati on of identifica tion
stamps must not influence the failure
of the speci me n by crea ting a notch
effec t. Fracture tou ghn ess specime ns
for groove welds are made for Charpy
V-notch te st s, plan e-st rain fra cture
toughness tests, and drop weight tests.
The geometry and surface area of
the notch are critical. Machining and
finishing operati ons on the notch must
adhere to applicabl e ASTM test stan-
dard s. Nonstandard meth od s of notch
prep arat ion such as saw cutting may
see m to be easier or chea per, but they
int roduce va riables into the test that
co uld affect test re sult s, and must
never be used .
Nick-Break Specimens. Nick- brea k
spec imens fo r groove weld s are pre-
pared by mach ine c utti ng or flam e
cutting. The joint and base metal are
cut to form a rectangular cross section.
Th e weld is notch ed with a hacksaw,
band saw, or thin abrasive wheel. Small
we ld asse mblies may be tes ted usin g
the eomplete asse mbly as the speci-
men. The notch is made at the weld
edges to a depth of approximately 1/s"
and into the we ld rein for cement to a
depth of approximat ely 1/ 16" .
Fillet Welds
Fillet weld specimens include tension
she a r s pec ime ns , bend spec ime ns ,
nick -break spec ime ns, and hardness
spec imens.
Tension Shear Specimens. Tensi on
shea r specimens for fillet we lds con -
s is t of lon g itudin al she ar stre ng t h
s pec ime ns and trans verse s hear
streng th spe c ime ns . Both typ e s are
se ns itive to prepar ation procedure s.
The stress concentration at the root of
transverse fillet welds increases with
increasing root opening and variations
in root opening may lead to incon sis-
tent test results. Both tran sverse and
longitudinal specimens are sensitive to
HAZ cracking, undercut, and bead sur-
face contour. The longitudinal edges of
tra nsverse te st spec ime ns should be
mac hi ned to e limi nate crack effec ts
and to pro vide smoo th surfaces. Cor-
ners should be lightl y rounded.
A longitudinal shear strength speci-
men is made usin g two identical
welded specimens that are machined
and tack welded to gether to prev ent
bending during testing . The surface
contour and size of the fillet welds must
meet applicable fabri cation codes or
standa rds . A transver se ten sion shear
specimen is made by cutting from plate
con taining lap-welded patches on both
sides. Wider plate widths may be used
to obtain mu lti pl e te st spec imens.
When multiple specimens are prepared
fro m a sing le we lde d asse mb ly, the
re sults for each indi vidual spec ime n
are reported.
Destru ctive Testin g :0 409
 Bend Specimens. Bend specimens for
fillet welds are prepared for the longi-
tudinal guided bend test or the wrap-
arou nd guided bend test. T he be nd
spec ime n is prepared by makin g two
fillet welds on a T-joint and machining
the specimen to allow acco mmodat ion
in the test jig. The specimen is posi-
Prop er perso na l tioned in the test jig and bent at ambi-
protective equipment
ent temperature . Deformation should
including eye lind ear
protecti on and co r- occur in 30 sec to 2 min.
rectlv tinted goggles
Nic k- Brea k S pe ci mens. Nick-break
must be WOnt to ob-
sene welding. specimens for fillet welds can be pre-
pared for pi pe branc h we ld s. pipe
sleeve we lds , and pla te fi llet we lds.
Pipe br an ch we ld nic k-break spec i-
men s are mac hine c ut or flame cut
samples taken from the crotch (point)
area and at 90° from the crotch area .
Nick-bre ak s peci me ns are a pprox i-
mately 2" wide and 3" long.
Pipe sleeve weld nick-b reak speci-
men s can be either flame cut or ma-
chine cut. Sp ec im en s are eq ua ll y
spaced around the circumference of the
pipe and must be at least 3" wide and
6" long.
Plate fill et we ld speci mens can be
either flam e cut or machine cut from
th e lap joint. Fille t we ld spec ime ns
must be at least 3" wide and 6" long.
Hardness Specimens. Hardness speci-
mens for fillet welds are prepared simi-
larly to hardness specimens for groove
weld s. S pec ime ns fo r fille t we lds
may be grou nd, machin ed , or pol -
Residual stress mea· ished , depending on the hard ness test
suremenr is II method to be performed. Rust and scale must be
of mea suring the
stress ill mat erials removed from the surface. Excessive
produ ced by man u- heat must be avoided when preparing
f acturing process es the tes t area of the specimen. Speci-
such as welding.
men s must be supported to preven t
roc kin g during testing . If necessary,
grind the backside of the specimen flat
to prevent roc king.
Specimen Preparation Safety
Specimen preparation safety rules must
be ob served to pr event inj ury from
sharp edges, hot metal, falling object s,
410 0 Welding Skills
or e lectrica l item s. In areas wh ere
grinding, burn ing, or welding are per-
formed, there is a potential for toxic or
flammabl e atmo sp he res that ca n be
hazardou s to the skin, eyes, and hear-
ing. Such areas should not be entered
without pro per authori zation.
Pro per perso na l protec tive equip-
ment must be worn, including eye and
ear pro tec tio n and correc tly tint ed
glasses to observe welding in prog ress.
Personnel should watch for trip pin v
hazar ds and imp ro pe r hose co nnec-
tions. Electrica l cab les and hoses that
may be lying loose on a floor can be a
tripping hazard. Hoses under pressure
can break loose and inflict injury.
RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENT
Residual stresses are locked-in stresses
in mat er ial s that result from ma nu-
fac turing processes such as cas tin g,
weldin g, form ing, or heat treatment.
Residu al stre sses ca n be detrimental,
and when coupled with normal service
stresses can be the predomin ant factor
in fatigu e and other mech anical fail-
ures. Residual stresses can also lead to
stress corrosion crack ing of some ma-
teri al s in spec ific co rros ive enviro n-
ments. For example, we lde d carbon
stee l equipment and piping ope rating
in hot caustic service must be given a
stress relief heat treat ment to prevent
caustic stress cracking at welds, which
are regions of high residual stress. The
insidious aspect of resid ual stresses is
that their presence generally goes un-
recogni zed. Residu al stres ses may be
measured. The most widely used tech-
nique to measure residu al stres ses is
the hole-drilling method.
o The Mathar-Soete drilling tec hnique lim!
the Gunnert drilling technique ar e th e
two types of ho le-drilling methods used
to measure residual stresses.
Hole-Drilling Method semi-destructive if, as in many cases,
it does not impair the structural integ-
The hole-drillin g method is performed
rit y of the component, or if the hole
per ASTM E 837 , Method fo r Deter-
can be welded up without introdu cing
mining Residual Stresses by the Hole-
detrimental residu al stresses. See Fig-
Drilling Strain-Gauge Method. A special
ure 3 1-26.
three-elem ent stra in gauge rosette is
placed on the specimen to be tested and.
Figure 3 1-26. The hole -drilling
using a milling guide, a VI." or Vs" di- me tho d is sem i-destructive if it
ameter hole is drilled on the geometric does 1I0t impa ir the structural in-
tegrity of the component.
ce nter of the strain gauge rosette to a
dept h equal to the hole diameter. The
relieved strains measured by the three
radially oriented elements of the strain
gauge provide information to calculate
the maximum and minimum principal
residual stresse s and their orientati on.
The hole-drilling method requires
that a blind hole be drilled into a speci-
m en or co mpo nent. Ho we ver, th e
hole-drillin g me th od is co ns ide re d fi nill_" 0/ ",'1 Tes/in? Machine Co.. Inc.

I . The current edition of the con trolling fabrication code or standard must be followed when
makin g test weld s and test specimens, and when conducting destructi ve tests.
2. Tensile specimens obtained from welded joints are typically rectan gular. unless taken from a
location where it is not possible to obtain a sample of rectangular cross section.
3 . Bend testing is an economical way of judging weld quality to qua lify a procedure or welder.
4 . Th e guided bend test is the most commonly used ductility test for groove weld s, surfac ing
welds, and fillet welds.
5 . Hardness testing, although considered destructive. does not necessarily require that the speci-
men be cut into piece s, and is thus convenient and relati vely rapid.
6 . Toughness testing requirements depend on the specific applicable fabrication code or standard.
7 . Th e Charpy V-notch test uses the energy produced by a dyn ami c load , and measu res the
energy needed to break a small machin e-notched test spec imen.
8. Break tests are also rapid methods of assessing weld quality and may be called out by specific
indu stries.
9. Specimen preparation must pro vide a smoo th surface for testing. Nicks or sharp edges are
undesirable because they introduee local stress raisers that might cau se prema ture failure.
10. Proper personal protective equipment, including eye and ear protection and correctly tinted
gogg les must be worn to observe weldin g.
I I . Residu al stress measurement is a method of measurin g the stress in materials produ ced by
manufacturing processes such as welding.

Destru cti ve Testing :§: 411

 I. What artificial value is created for metal s that do not ex hibit a yield point ?
2. Which has a lower value in a tensile test, yield point or ultimate tensile strength?
3. What are the two measures of duc tility obtained in a tensile test?
4. What types of welds are usually assessed in a shear test?
5. A peel test can be applied to what type of weld?
6. Is a bend test a qualit ative or quantitative assessment method ?
7. What is a common test used for qua lifyi ng we lding procedures and we lders?
8. What types of weld orientatio ns may be specified in a bend test? )
9. What types of ben d locations may be specified in a bend test? -.-/
10. Why is hardness testing com monly used to meas ure properties of materials?
I I. What is the most co mmo n method of hardness testing?
12. What are the main types of indentation hardness tests?
13 . Wh at are static and dynam ic co nd itions durin g toughne ss testing?
14 . What is the most common toughness test for welded samples?
15. Is a material with a Charpy value of 60 ft-Ib four times tougher Ihan a material with a Charpy
value of 15 ft-lb?
16 . What is the name used 10 describe the transition of a material from ductile to brittle behavior
and vice ve rsa?

412 ~ Weidillii Skills

Nondestructive examination is used to evaluate a part or weldment without destroying it or necessarily
remov ing the pari fro m service. Nondestructive examination discloses common surfa ce and internal
defects that occur with improper welding procedures or practices. A variety of testing devices are avail-
able that provide effective data about the reliability of a weldment. These devices are often more conve-
nient to use than regular destructive testing techniques, particularly on large and costly welded units.

NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINA-
I' =I Aj/awisnor
indication interpreted to be cau sed by
TION (NDE) TERMINOLOGY a discontinui ty at a location where no
.~
necessur-
i(vadt:k(tA.Jlmvmay
di scontinuity actually ex is ts. Fa lse .= he relevant Irrquiring
Nondestructive examination (NDE) is indicat ion s arc nonrelevant indi ca- evaluation by nonde-
th e dc vclopm ent and application of tions. Sec Fig ure 32- 1. structive testing),
techni cal methods to examine materi - nonrelrvant (rejection
A defect is one or more indications is not necessary after
als or components in ways that do not whos e agg reg ate size, shape, ori enta- evaluation). or false
impair their future usefuln ess and ser- tion, or location fail to meet the accep- ( I/O discontinu itv ac-

vicea hility. NDE techniques for weld s tually exists).

are used to detect, locate, and measure
discontinuiti e s. Di scontinuit ie s in
we lds appea r as flaws (ind icatio ns) .
Ap pea ra nce of the fl aws va ries de-
tance criteria of the applicable fabrication
code or staodard. Defects are cause for
rejection of the part o r co mponent.
NDE is performed by an exa miner,
Nondestructiverxomi-

pend ing o n th e N DE pro ce ss. N DE
resu lts arc co mpared with the allow-
ab le discontinui ty limits in the appli-
ca ble fabr icat ioo code or standard to
determine accept anc e or reject io n of
the we ld.
A fl aw (ind ication ) is a disco nti-
nuity th a t c an be det ect ed th rou gh
NDE tech niqu es. Ind ication s are ca t-
ego rized as rel evant , non relevant, or
false . A relevant indication is an NDE
indi cation caused by a di scontinu ity
that requires evaluation. A nonrelevant
indication is a n N DE indi c at io n
cau se d by a di sco ntinuity that , afte r
eva luatio n, does not need to be re-
je cted . A [alse indication is an ND E
tI
w ith the resul ts eva luated by an in-
.~ 'lillhHl isl'n fom wtlby
specto r. Qualification and certification .= all exanuner; who is a
requ ire me nts fo r exami ne rs and in- person qualified to
spectors ar e describe d in the appl i- conduct ywcific NDE
processes.
cab le fabrication code or standard. An
examine r is a person who is qualified ,
or q ual ified and ce rtified, to co nduct
ce rtain types of NDE processes. Ex-
aminers are quali fied an d ce rtified to
Ame rica n Society of No nde structive
Testin g (AS NT) Recommend ed Stan-
dard SNT-TCIA. An inspector is a per-
so n who is qualified, or qualified and All inspector is a per-
SOI/ qualified to inter-
certified, to apply the result s of ND E p rt'l nondestructi ve
fla w c harac te riza tio n to dete rmi ne examina tion res ults
whether the flaws meet the acce ptance according to the con-
lrollillg code or Stllll-
crite ria of the app lica ble fab ricat ion durdfor III(' job.
code or standard. See Appendix.

413
Figu re 32-1. Nondestructi ve ex-
amination is used to detect
discontinuities in welds and de-
termine if they are accep table or NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
must he rejected.

Indication (flaw)
detected

I I
j I
False indication Relevant indication
noted noted

I
j
Evaluation of weld
(per applicable
fabrication standard
or code)

I
I I
Nonrelevant Relevant

I j
Accept Reject
weld [{1 weld IRl

NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION VT is generally used to det ermine

Common nondestruc- TECHNIQUES surface condition, alignment of mat-
[I
.~
.=
tive cxamincuion meth-
ods a re visual, liquid
penetrant, magnetic
Specifi c NDE techniques are selected
for the det ection of different types of
ing surfaces, conformance to specific
shape, or to locate leakage. Direct VT
particle, ultrason ic, requires sufficient access to place the
discontinuities . ND E techniques con -
radiographic, and elec- eye within 24" of the surface to he ex-
tromagnetic. sist of visual examinat ion (VT), liquid
amined, and at an angle of not less than
penetrant examination (PT) , magn etic
30° to the surface to be examined. Mir-
particle examination (MT ), ultrasonic
rors are used to improve the angle of
examination (UT), radiographic exami-
vision . Optical aid s such as a magni-
nation (RT), electromagnetic examina-
fying glass can be used to as sist in
tion (ET), and proof testing.
improv ing the quality of examinations.
VT requires illumination with natural
VISUAL EXAMINATION (V1) or supplemental white light at a mini-
Visual examination (VT) is application mum level of 50 fc (footc andles). The
of the naked eye, assisted as necessary light source used, a verification report,
Visual examination is by low-power magnification and mea- and the VT tec hnique used are docu -
used to check surface suring devices , to monitor weld qual - mented in the examiner's report.
condition; alignment
of mating surfaces; ity. A thorough examination of the The limitation of visual examination
conformance of the weldment may di sclose such surface is that there is no way to detect inter-
weld shape to a spe- defects as crac ks, shrinkage ca vitie s, nal defects in the weld area. The weld
cific code or stan -
undercut s, inadequate penetration, may appear satisfactory, yet cr ac ks,
dard; and to locate
leakage. Visual ex- lack of fusion, overlaps, and crater de- porosity, slag inclusions, or exc es sive
amination may be ficien cies. VT mea suring dev ices in- grain gro wth ma y be pre sen t in th e
used before, during, weld. VT is done before welding, dur-
or after welding.
clude rul ers , calipers, stra ightedges ,
and weld ing gauges . ing welding, and after weldin g.
414 ~ Welding Skills
Visual Examination
Before Welding
Visual examination before welding
consists of verifying the condition of
materials to be welded, the conformity
of partially assembled or tack welded
parts, and the physical setup of the
welding equipment.
Condition of Materials. The condition
of the materials to be welded is veri -
fied by checking for scabs, seams ,
scale, and other harmful conditions on
the base metal surface and for lamina-
tions in cut edges of plate . Conform-
ance with specified dimensions is done
by measurement and comparison with
the specification drawing.
Conformity of Parts . Conformity of
partially assembled or tack welded
parts is verified after they are in posi-
tion for welding. Joint dimensions,
joint preparation, tack welds, and
clamping must not impair the quality
of the welded joint and must meet
tolerances shown on the drawing. Joint
dimensions include root spacing and
offset. Joint preparation must ensure
that rust, dirt, oil, paint, and other con-
taminants are removed from the weld
area before welding.
Welding Equipment Setup. The physi-
cal setup of the welding equipment is
verified by examining the condition of
cables and connectors, how the cables
are affixed to the welding machine, and
how the ground cables are affixed to
the work. Tack welds and clamps must
maintain the root opening to ensure
adequate penetration and alignment.
Improper setup may lead to wasted
power and erratic behavior during weld-
ing, caused by the following:
• Loose connections at the power
source , work connector, or elec-
trode holder
• Poor quality repair splices in the
cable or a cable with broken strands
• Undersized cable for the required
current or duty cycle
• Excessively long cables that cause
an abnormal voltage drop
Visual Examination
During Welding
Visual examination during welding pro-
vides details of the work wbile fabrication
is in progress. VT during welding includes
root pass examination, welding param-
eter verification, welding sequence moni-
toring, and weld bead quality checking.
Root Pass Examination. Root pass ex-
amination is done to ensure the quality
of the root pass. The root pass is in-
spected for cracks, porosity, or blow-
holes, all of which sbould be ground out
before continuation of welding.
VT is used to check that slag depos-
its have been removed by chipping ,
grinding, or gouging before welding on
the opposite side of the groove. The
root opening must be examined as root
pass welding progresses because it may
close up from the effects of thermal
expansion and lead to lack of penetra-
tion. This is especially important for
branch and angle joints that arc more
difficult to inspect after the weld has
been completed.
Welding Parameter Verification. Al-
tering the welding parameters can af-
fect weld quality features such as
penetration or dilution. Portable meters
are used to ensure compliance with
specified welding current and polarity.
Compliance with preheat and inter-
pass temperature control parameters en-
sures that the metal temperatures are
achieved by heat soaking and not by
rapid surface heating.
All welders assigned to the weld-
ing job or joint should be identified and
their qualifications checked for con-
formance to the job requirements. If
the welder docs not appear to have the
necessary skill for the job, the inspec-
tor can, in consultation with the super-
visor, request that the welder pass
requalification tests.
Welding Sequence Monitoring. Weld-
ing sequence monitoring ensures that
welding is first done on the most re-
strained joints or, whenever possible,
allowing restrained joints a small amount
Nondestructive Examination §: 415
 of mo vement and a meas ure of stress
relaxation. The proper welding sequence
helps prevent warpage and distortion.
Weld Bead Quality Checking. Weld
bead qu ali ty c hec king may be done
usin g a wo rkma ns hip sta nda rd . A
workmanship standa rd is a section of
a joint similar to the one in manu fac-
ture in which portions of eac h succes -
sive we ld pass are shown . Eaeh bead
of the produ cti on we ld may be co m-
pared with the corres ponding bead of
the workmanship standard. Multiple-
pass weld bead s are exa mined for ev i-
dence of ropy. piled-up beads. or bead
Ftgure 32·2 . A lI'orkml1nsh ip
.~la,,(/tl Y(/jllh' II ·.\jl.\.I"e.\x/" t"" (if l"e
quality of intermediate /'lI.He.\" of .. _ . ... ..
•
1II1111;1,lt'·,JtlH welds.
POLISH AND ETCH
SURFACE ____
BUTT JOINT
DUPLI CATE FILLET
W ELDON
OTHER SIDE
2" MINIMUM
~
T·JOINT
41(, 0 Weldi,,~ Skills
rollover, which could trap slag. See Fig-
ure 32-2. Sinee workmanship standards
usu all y rep re sent id ea l co nd itio ns ,
there must be allowances for produc-
tion tolerances.
Visual Examination After Welding
Visual examination is performed after
welding or repair welding to confirm the
dimensional accuracy. weld appearance.
and base metal integrity of the material.,
VT is also used to verify application.of
postwelding procedures. VT for repair
welding ensures that a part meets the re-
quirements of the original fabrication .
MACRO SA MPLE
J
~ TACK MACRO SAMPLE TO
PLATE WITH ETCH ED
SURFACE UP
..< / POLISH AND ETCH
SURFACE
MACR O SAMPLE
1'" MINIMUM
J
~ TACK MACRO SAM PLE TO
PLATE W ITH ETCHED
SURFACE OUT
Dimensional Accuracy. Confirmation
of dimensional accuracy eusures that
distortion is within acceptable limits
and that all welding has been done in
accordance with the drawing. Weld re-
inforcement in groove and fillet welds
- FILLET LEG
Ftgure 32~3. A wel d gauge a l -
lows the dim ens ions (~f a weld to
he verified by the exami ner.

is checked to ensure that it complies

with the applicable fabrication code or
standard. Weld dimensions are checked
with a weld gauge. A weld gauge is a
device for measuring the size and shape
of welds . T he re are various kinds of
weld gauges. See Figure 32-3.
To dete rmine size of a convex fillet weld ,
place gauge against toe of shortest leg
Weld Appearance. Weld appearance is of fillet and slide pointer out until it tou ches
e xam ined for evidence of transverse structure

cracks, toe cracks, crater cracks, surface

porosity. incomplete root penetration, un-
dercut, underfill, overlap, joint misalign-
ment, incompl ete joint penetration,
excessive or insufficient weld reinforce-
ment, and excessive penetration.
Some weld regions are more sus-
ceptible to discontinuities. Edges where
fillet welds blend into base metal are
susceptible to toe cracking and must
be closely examined. Cracks are likely To determine size of a concave fillet weld,
place gauge against str ucture and slide
to be found in areas of starts and stops po inter out until it touches the face of
fillet weld
in the welding process and in welds
with high restraint. Intermittent fillet
welds are susceptible to crater cracks.
Undercut that exceeds specification
limits must be repaired by blend grind-
ing, or in extreme situations, more filler
metal must be added.
Base Metal Integrity. Base metal integ- To determine reinforcement of a groove
weld, place gauge so that reinforcement
rity must be maintained in areas where comes between legs of gauge and slide pointer
temporary attachments are welded on out until it touches the fac e of gro ove weld
G.AL Gal'/' Coml'ony
and subsequently removed, such as fit-
up lugs, handling lugs, and machining
blocks. After removal of these items, LIQUID PENETRANT
the attachment areas at the base metal
EXAMINATION (Pl)
must be ground smooth , and pits or
tears must be filled with filler metal and Liquid penetrant examination (PT) is an
ground. If indicated in the welding pro - NDE technique that uses dyes suspended
cedure, preheat, interpass temperature in high-fluidity liquids to penetrate solid
control, and postheating are required materials and indicate the presence of
when thermal cutting or welding is discontinuities. Application of a suitable
done in attachment areas. Arc strikes developer brings out the dye and out-
and spatter mu st be removed in accor- lines the defect. Very sm all and tight
dance with fabrication code or standard di scontinuities can usually be shown.
requirements. When properly applied, PT is a reliable

Nondestructive Examination :@: 417


Figure 32-4. Capillary actio" oc-
curs 11'11('11 a liquid , where it is ;1/
comact with a solid, is elevated
0" depressed.
Liquid penet rant ex-
amination is used 10
detect defects open
to the surface, par-
ticularly in nonfe r-
rous metals such as
alu minum, which
cannot be examine d
by magnetic particle
testing.
418 ~ Weldin g Skills
me thod for detecting di scontinuities
open to the surface. However, it cannot
be used on materials with excessively pa-
rous surfaces, such as sintered metals.
Liquid penetrant examination uses the
force of capillary action, which draws
the liquids into all surface defects. See
Figur e 32-4.
GLASS SLIDES
'--------'t: CAPILLARY
ACT ION FORCES
LIQUID UP
BETWEEN SLIDES
Liquid Penetrant Examination
Procedure
The PT procedure co nsists of several
steps requiring a cleaner, penetrant,
and developer. See Fig ure 32 -5. A
clean er is used to ensure that the sur-
face is clean and free from d irt. oil,
grease. or other materials that may ad-
versely affect the test.
A penetrant is a solution or suspen-
sion of dye. Penetrants for PT have low
surface ten sion and a high cohe sive
force (high capillarity). If the disconti-
nuity is small or narrow, such as a sur-
face crack or surface porosity, capillary
action assists the penetration. When the
opening is gross, such as a hot crack,
the liquid ma y be physically tra pped
as it llows over the surface rather than
bein g retained by capillary action.
Figu re 32-5. A portable visible-penet rant. soh'ell1-)
removable PT kit i.f useful in determ inin g illdico/
tions when the testin g needs 10 be done til a remote
loca tio".
A developer is a material that is ap-
plied to the test surface to accelerate
bleedout and enhan ce the contras t of
indic ation s. Capillary action again as-
sists the blotting action of the developer
as it draws penetrant from the disconti-
nuity. The penetrant appears on the sur-
face as an indication corresponding to
the location of the discontinuity.
To produce the best visibility of in-
dications . liquid penetrant contains ei-
ther a colored dye easily visible in white
light. or a lluorescent dye visible under
black (ultraviolet) light. Liquid penetrant
dyes visible in white light are available
in a variety of colors. althou gh red is
most common. Some liquid penetrants
have dual sensitivity, meaning they are
visible in white light or black light. To
perform liquid penetrant examination
(PT), follow the procedure:
I . Clean the surface to be examined.
2. Dry the surface to be exa mined.
3 . Apply penetrant to the surface. Al-
low sufficie nt time for penetrant
to see p into discontinuities.
4 . Remove ex ce ss penetrant from
surface.
5 . Apply developer to draw penetrant
back to the surface.
6 . Visually examine the part to locate
pen etrant ind ica tions th at have
form ed in the developer coating.
On ce ex am ina tio n is co mp le te d.
the part can be cleaned to remove the
penetrant and de vel oper residue. See
Figure 32-6.

~ C L EA N E R
CD APPLY CLEANER TO SURFACE
o APPLY PENETRANT TO SURFACE
DEVELOPER
CD APPLY DEVELOPER TO DRAW
PENETRANT TO SURFACE
The method of applying and devel-
oping fluorescent dyes is the same as for
liquid dye penetrants; however, the tluo-
rescent penetrant must be viewed under
nltraviolet (black) light. Ultraviolet light
causes the penetrants to tluoresce (glow)
to a yellow-green color, which is a more
clearly defined color than regular dye
penetrants . Fluorescence is the emission
of visible radiation by a substance as a
result of, and only during, the absorp-
tion of black light radiation.
Surface Precleaning. The surface of a
part must be completely clean and dry
before administering liquid penetrant
Figure 32-6. Liquid penetrant ex-
amination consists of six steps. f ol-
lowed in a set sequence to ensure
accuracy and reproducibility.
® DRY SURFACE
(4\ REMOVE
EXCESS PENETRANT
~ FROM SURFACE
f6\ VISUALLY EXAMINE PART TO
'V LOCATE INDICATIONS
examination. Surface precleaning opens
up surface discontinuities to penetration.
Precleaning methods are detergent clean-
ing, vapor degreasing, steam cleaning,
solvent cleaning, ultrasonic cleaning,
rust and scale removal, paint removal,
and etching. Precleaning methods that
close up surface discontinuities must
not be used.
Cleaning chemicals, such as sulfur
I
The surface of a part
and chlorine, must not have an adverse .~ must be completely
effect on the materials of construction. . = clean and dry before
administering liquid
Nickel alloys may be damaged by penetrant examina-
degreasers containing sulfur; titanium tion.
alloys and stainless steels are affected
Nondestructive Examination :€): 419
 by de greasers contai nin g c h lo rine .
Cracking ma y re sult if degr ea ser s are
not co mplete ly re moved from test ar-
eas that are subs equently ex posed to
heat or high-temperature se rv ice .
Penetrant Application. Penetrant appli-
cation is don e by immersion , spraying,
or swabbing (brushing) on dry parts over
the areas to be examined . The surface
of the we ldme nt is coated wi th a thin
film of the pen etrant, which is allowed
to remain on the surface for a pre de-
tennined amount of time , known as the
dw ell time. Dwell time is the total time
penetrant is in con tact with the co m-
pon ent surface, including a pplica tio n
and dra in times. See Figure 32-7. Dwell
time is direct ly related to the size and
sh a pe of ant ic ipated di sco nti n uities
since discontinuity size determines the
rate 0 r pen etration
. . For examp' tC,/IIg' ht
cracks req uire more tha n 30 mi n fo r

DWELL TIME
Solvent-
Water-Washable Post-Emulsified Removed
Material Form Type of Penetration Penetration
Discontinuity Penetration
Time*t Time -' Time *t
Porosity 5- 15 5' 3
Cas tings
Cold Shuts 5-1 5 5' 3
Extru sion s & Forgings Laps NR§ 10 7
Aluminum Lack of Fu sion 30 5 3
Welds Poro sity 30 5 3
Cracks 30 10 5
All Fatigue C rack s NR§ 30 5
Poro sity 15 5' 3
Castings
Cold Shuts 15 5' 3
Extrusion s & Forgi ngs Laps NR§ 10 7
Magnesium Lac k of Fusion 30 10 5
Welds Poro sity 30 10 5
Cracks 30 10 5
All Fatigue Crack s NR§ 30 7
Poro sity 30 10' 5
Casti ngs
Cold Shuts 30 10' 7
Extru sion s & Forgings Laps NR§ 10 7
Steel Lack of Fusion 60 20 7
Welds Poro sity 60 20 7
Cracks 30 20 7
All Fatigue Crack s NR§ 30 10
Porosity 10 5' 3
Castings
Cold Shuts 10 5' 3
Extru sions & Forgings Laps NR§ 10 7
Brass & Bron ze
Lack of Fusion 15 10 3
Brazed Part s
Poro sit y 15 10 3
All Crac ks 30 10 3
Pla stic All Crac ks 5- 30 5 5
Glass All Crack s 5-30 5 5
Lack of Fusi on 30 5 3
Carbide-tipped Porosity 30 5 3
Tool s
Cracks 30 20 5
Titanium &
High-temp All NR§ 20-30 15
Alloys
Stress or Intergranul ar NR§
All Metals 240 240
Corrosion
lo r part s 60 F (16 C) to 125 F (25 C)
t in min.
I precision caslings only
§ not recommended

Figure 32·7 . Penetrant dwell rime is relat ed ((I the size and sha pe of ttse discon tinuities expected.

420 ~ We/dilll( Skills

penetration if an adequate indication is Solvent-removable penetrants re-
to be achieved. On the other hand, gross quire a solvent designated by the pen-
discontinuities may be suitably pen- etrant manufacturer for effective
etrated in 3 min to 5 min. After allow- penetrant removal. Solvents should not
ing time for the penetrant to flow into be substituted without consulting the
the defects, the part is wiped clean. Only manufacturer. Excess penetrant is first
the penetrant in the defects remains . wiped from the test surface with clean ,
Ambient temperature and humidity lint-free , solvent-dampened towel s.
can affect dwell time. Generally, the Solvent is never applied directly to the
higher the ambient temperature, the surface because it might wash out or
shorter the dwell time. Excessively high dilute the penetrant in a discontinuity.
temperature or excessively low humid-
Developer Application. After the pen-
ity can cause penetrant to dry too rap-
etrant ha s been su ff ic ie ntly wiped
idly. This makes the subs equent steps
clean, an absorbent material called a
of PT difficult, if not impossible. For
developer is applied to the weldment
reliable PT, the penetrant must remain
and allowed to remain until the liquid
wet. In some cases rewetting of the test
from the imperfection flows into the
surface is required. If penetrant has been
developer. Developer application con -
allowed to dry, the test must be started
sists of coating the test surface with a
again, beginning with surface prepara-
material to accelerate bleedout and en-
tion . Heating the part is not recom-
hance indication contrast. Developer
mended . Although heating of the part
acts as a blotting agent, accentuating
accelerates penetration and shortens
the presence of penetrant in a discon-
dwell time, it also causes evaporation
tinuity . Developer also serves as a
of penetrant and reduces sensitivity.
color-contrast background for the dye.
Developer cau ses the penetrant within
o Dwell time is determined by the type of an-
ticipated discontinuities and the recommen-
a discontinuity to seep over a greater
dation of the penetrant manufacturer.
area so that the size of the indication in
the developer is larger than the actual
size of the discontinuity. See Figure
Penetrant Removal. Penetrant re- 32-8. Once the developer is applied ,
moval must ensure that all penetrant is the dye clearly outlines any defect s.
removed from the surface without dis- Developer is selected according to the
turbing any penetrant that has entered manufacturer's recommendation for
a discontinuity. Penetrant removal is the type of penetrant used.
done after dwell time is complete, or
after dwell time plus emulsification
time. Complete penetrant removal is
required to prevent the formation of
false indications.
Penetrants used in water-rinsable
PT have a built-in emulsifier to permit
removal of the penetrant with a water
rinse. Water-rinsable penetrants are
sometime s call ed self-emul sifiable
penetrants .
Post-e mulsified penetrants are re- PENETRANT
moved with a water rinse after comple-
tion of dwell time plu s emulsification Figure 32-8. Developer causes the penetrant 10 bleed
within the discontinu ity, causing it to seep over a
time. Light scrubbing may be required gre ater area , nlaking the in dication appear larger
for complete penetrant removal. than the actual disco ntinuity.

Nondestru ctive Exam ination ::@:: 421

 PT Examination. Examination of the test
surface occur s after sufficient develop-
ing time has been allowed. Developing
time is the elapsed time between the
application of the developer and the
examination of the part . Insuffi cient
dev eloping time doe s not allow indi-
cations to fully devel op . Exce ssive
developing time causes indicat ions to
blur or di stort. Co rrec t developing
tim e dep end s on the developer used .
Generall y, de ve loping time is about
half of dwell time.
S/<1rk Tnhllim"l. I" c,
Mag netic pa rticle examinatio n may be 1I.\""d on a magnetic stainless steel to locat e hoi
cracks near the surface of the weld.
Ftgure 32-9. Rele vant indica -
tiolls!l.lll;nllJ .w:l,t'rulctllexories:
continuous line, intermittent or ." ," . -. - "• . ..
broke" fine. small dots. or round.
CONTINUOUS LINE INTERMITTENT OR BROKEN LINE
FAINT
422 ~ Weldin g Skills
False or nonrelevant PT indications
occur when the surface contour of the
weld contains sharp depressions between
weld beads that interfere with complete
cleaning and compl ete penetrant re-
moval. Such surfaces should be ground
smooth before examination. Since smooth
grinding may not be co st -effective ,
other NDE methods may be preferred.
Diffused or weak indications appear-
ing over a larger area are usually false
indic ations and indicative of improper
cleaning.
Nonrel evant indication s are cau sed
by surface discontinuities from the fab-
rication proce ss o r part ge ome try,
which have no bearin g on the service
life of a component. Nonrelevant in-
dication s may appear o n press fit ,
keyed, splined, or riveted obje cts, or
on castin gs conta ining an adhere nt
scale or burned-on sand.
Relevant indications are cau sed by
discontinuities. Rel evant indications
are categorized as continuous line, in-
termittent or broken line, small dots.
or round. Indication s may also be cat-
egori zed as faint or gross, depending
on their dimen sion s. See Figure 32-9.
Relevant indication s must be evalu-
ated against the requirements of the
applicabl e fabrication code or standard.
. . - -. ...
GROSS
All possibilities that the indication is Figure 32 -10. Magnetic particle
examination consists of magne-
nonrelevant or false are first eliminated, tizing the area to he examined and
after which the cause of the indication applyinR magnetic particle s to the
SPECIMEN surface.
may be determined . It is then deter-
mined whether the indication is allow-
able per the applicable fabrication code
or standard.
Recording Liquid Penetrant
f1\ CLEANER APPLIED
Examination Results ~ AND WIPED OFF

PT results are recorded by the exam-

YOKE
iner in a format that records the PT
method, base metal, filler metals, weld
procedure identification, and location
and interpretation of discontinuities .

MAGNETIC PARTICLE YOKE PLACED PERPENDICULAR

EXAMINATION (Ml) ® 2 TO DIRECT ION OF SUSPECTED

DEFECT

MAGNETIC
Magnetic particle examination (MT) is FIELD
Magnetic panicle ex-
an NDE method that uses a strong mag-
amination is used to
netizing current and a finely divided detectsurfaceor near-
powder to detect defects. Magnetic par- surface discontinuity
indications in ferro -
ticle examination uses magnetic leakage
ma gneti c metals.
fields and suitable indicating materials
to detect surface and near-surface dis-
o
( ; \ YOKE ENERGIZED TO FORM
MAGNET IC FIELD IN SPECIMEN

continuity indications in ferromagnetic

metals.
MT consists of magnetizing the area
to be examined and applying magnetic
particles to the surface . However, not
all materials can be magnetized.
Magnetic particles concentrate at the 1""4' MAGNETIC POWDER OR
'C) LIQUID APPLIED
defect. Impurities or discontinuities in
the magnetized material interrupt the MAGNET IC POWDER
lines of magnetic force, showing the SHOWS DEFECT
SIZE AND SHAPE
size, shape, and location of defects.
See Figure 32-10. The patterns are
usually characteristic of the type of
discontinuity detected . MAGNETIC FIELD
INTERRUPTED
MT detects surface discontinuities BY DEFECT
and defects resulting from very fine
cracks, lack of fusion, and inclusions
or internal flaws that are slightly be-
® MAGNETIC PARTICLES CONCENTRATE
AT DEFECT

low the surface of the weldment, in-

cluding those too fine to be seen with
the naked eye. All types of surface
cracks can be detected using magnetic
particle examination since it is one of
the most reliable techniques for non-
destructive examination.
Magnetic sensitivity is greatest for
surface discontinuities, but diminishes
rapidly for subsurface discontinuities with
increasing depth. Typical discontinuities
detected by MT include cracks, over-
lap, and laminations.
Nondestructive Examination €) 423
 Maximum se ns itivity w ith MT is
obtained from linear discontinuities ori-
en ted pe rpe nd ic ular to the line s of
magnet ic flux , Fo r thi s reaso n, each
area should be examined twice, with the
lines of mag netic flux during the sec-
ond exami nation approx imately perpen-
dicul ar to the lines of flu x durin g the
first examination. See Figure 32- 11.
Figure 32 -11. Mox im um sensi-
tivity is obtained when the lilies
oj magnetic flux ore perpendicu -
lor to the ori entation of thl' dis -
continuity.
LINES OF MAGNETIC FLUX
PARALLEL
(MINIMUM SENSITIVITY)
LINES OF MAGNETIC FLUX
PARALLEL TO DISCONTINUITY
A magneticfield lIlay
beinduced;1I1he1'0 11
by circular magneti-
cation or longitudi -
nul magnetization.
L NES OF MAGNETIC FLUX
PERPENDICULAR
(MAXIMUM SENSITIVITY)
LINES OF MAGNETIC FLUX
PERPENDICULAR TO DISCONTINUITY
Magnetic Particle Examination
Principles
A magnetic field can be ge nerated by
th e flo w of e lectricity (m ag ne ti zing
curre nt) through a conductor, The gen-
erated magnetic field reveals the pres-
ence of disco ntinuities when magnetic
pa rticles are appl ied to the surface.
The magnetic field is the space within
and aro und a magnet ized part or con -
ductor carrying current in which a mag-
netic force is exerted . Ferromagn etic
424 § Weldillg Skills
material s are influen ced by mag netic
fields. A fe rromag netic material is a
mat eri a l tha t can be mag ne tized or
strongly attracted by a mag netic fie ld.
Ferromag netic materials include carbon
and low -a lloy ste els; martensiti c an d
ferritic stainless steels; and tool steels,
When a magnetic field is established
in a piece o f ferro magn et ic mat erial
containing one or more discontinuities,
minute magnetic poles are set up at the
d iscontin uit ie s. Dis co nt inuity s ites
have a stronger attraction for magnetic
particles than the surroundi ng area of
material. A magnetic particle is a finely
divided fe rro magnetic material that is
capable of being individu all y magne-
tized and attrac ted to distort ion in a
magnetic fie ld.
When a part with discontinu ities is
magnetized, a magnetic leakage field
is produ ced at the discont inuities. The
magnetic leakage fie ld is the magnetic
fie ld that leaves or ent ers the surface
of a part at a discontinuity or change
in sectio n co nfig ura tion of a magnetic
circuit. See Fi g ure 32 - 12. Mag netic
particles co ngregate at leak age field s
and indicate the approximate shape of
a discontinui ty. Ma gn eti zing c urre nt
used for MT is circular or longitudinal.
~.o
~
0,- -0;--;
/ MAGNETIC
. .. ..
: : :' :: :', LEAKAGE FIELD
Figure 32 -12 . A dis rup tion ill the mag ne tic field
cause." {f magnetic leakage fie ld as the magnetic fie ld
lilies ente r or leave 1I discontinuity, resulting i ll an
accumulation of magnetic particles til tile location of
the discontinuity.
Circular Magnetization . Circular
magnetization is a concentric magnetic
field produced by a straight conduc-
tor, such as a piece of wire, carrying
an electrical current. Circular mag-
netization is produced by a contact
head, central conductor, or prods. See
Figure 32-13.
PART
~CONTACT HEAD
CURRENT /
(HEADSHOT)
CENTRAL CONDUCTOR
A prod is a set of hand-held elec-
trodes used to transmit the magnetizing
current from the source to the material
being inspected. Prods are used where
the size or location of the part does not
permit the use of contact heads . The
magnetic field is distorted by the interac-
tion of the fields produced by the prods.
Figure 32-13 . Circula r magneti-
ration is prod uc ed by contact
heads. prods. and ce n tral con -
d ucto rs.
1
CIRCULAR FIELD
PART
CIRCULAR
FIELD DISTORTED
BETWEEN PRODS
Nondestructive Examination :§: 425
 Longitudlnal Magnetization. Longitu-
dinal magnetization is a magnetic field
produced when the current-carrying con-
ductor is coiled and the magnetic field is
parallel to the axis of the coil. The mag-
netic field strength produced within a coil
increases in proportion to the number of
loops within the coil. Longitudinal mag-
netization is achieved by coil or yoke .
See Figure 32-14.
A coil is used when the length of the
part is several times larger than its di-
ameter. The coil is constructed by wrap-
ping the electrical wire around the pan.
A yo ke is a temporary horseshoe mag-
net made of soft. low-retentivity iron that
is magneti zed by a small wire wound
around the hori zontal bar. When cur-
rent is passed through the wire . th e
magnetic flux lines flowing between the
head s of the yoke in contact with the
pall induces a magnetic field in the pall.
No current flows through the pall with
the coil or yoke methods.
With hoth circular magnetization and
lon gitudin al magnetization. the mag -
netic field orientation must be perpen-
dicular or nearly perpendicular to the
discontinuities to produce indications.
The best results are obtained when the
magneti c field is at right angles to the
di scontinu ity and the current n ow is
parallel to the discontinuity.
Figure 32·14. l.ongitudinat
eo e_ e . e •• - ••
n/lIKll et;ZlI(iml l.\" (fc·IIil'\'l't/lIxinK •
(/ coil or y oke.
COIL
IRON CORE
'i8j{~~(~~~\~~DloNGIT UDI NAL FIELD
CURRENTJ
CURRENT
426 ~ Welding Ski lls
Magnetic Particle Examination
Procedure
MT procedure requirement s are steps
that must be followed to create an ef-
fecti ve MT examination . MT proce-
dure requirements inclu de sur face
preparation, MT method identification.
and demagnetization . ,
Surface Preparation. Surface !)(epara-
"'-
tion must ensure that the test surface is
dry and free of dirt, paint , grease, lint,
scale, weld flux, weld spatter, oil, and!
or other ex tra neous matter that might
interfere with the formation or interpre-
tation of magnetic panicle indications.
For welds. the area to be prepared must
include the we ld and at least I \/{' of
base metal on both sides of the weld,
measured from the toe of the weld.
MT Method Identification. MT
method identification determin es which
proce ss to use for MT ex amination.
The method of magneti zation (continu-
ous or re sidual) and the state of the
magnetic particles (wet or dry ) to be
used determine the method.
The continuous magn eti zation
method is an MT examination technique
in which the magnetic particles are ap-
plied while the magn eti zin g force is
maintained. The current continues to flow
the entire time the magnetic particles are
~MAGNETIC FIELD
YOKE
applied and excess magnetic particles
removed. If the current is turned off be-
fore excess particles are removed, the
only indications remaining will be those
held by the residual magnetic field.
The residual magnetization method
is an MT examination technique in
which magnetic particles are appl ied
after the magnetizing force has been
disconnected. The residual method re-
lies on the amount of residual magne-
tism retained in the test specimen . The
accuracy and sensitivity of the residual
method depends on the strength of the
residual magnetic field. The residual
method cannot be used on materials
with low retentivity, such as low-alloy
steel. Retentivity is the ability of a ma-
terial to retain a portion of the applied
magnetic field after the magnetizing
force has been removed .
The dry magnetization method is an
MT examination technique in which the
magnetic particles are in a dry powder
form. Tbe wet magnetization method is
an MT examination tecbniqne in whicb
the magnetic particles are suspended in
a liquid medium. Particles for the wet
magnetic method are available in red or
black. Red improves visibility on dark
surfaces. Sensitivity of the wet method
may be increased by coating the mag-
netic particles with a dye that fluoresces
brilliantly under ultraviolet (black) light.
Demagnetization. Demagnetization is
the elimination or reduction of residual
magnetism created by MT. Demagne-
tization is only necessary if the residual
field interferes with subsequent ma-
chining operations or arc welding, or
on structures where sensitive instru-
ments may be affected.
Demagnetization is mandatory for
engine and machine parts that have been
strongly magnetized. Filings, grindings,
and chips resulting from operational
wear are attracted to magnetized parts
and interfere with performance. De-
magnetization is also mandatory- in
aircraft construction for all steel parts
in close proximity to the compass.
Selecting Magnetic Particle
Examination Methods Magnetic powder
may be applied by
th e dry magnetiza-
Portable MT units are used for most weld
tion method or the
testing. The MT method is determined wet magnetization
by the size and shape of the workpiece method.
and the expected discontinuities. MT
methods commonly used for weld test-
ing are dry continuous using the prod
method and dry continuous using the
yoke method.
Prod Method. The prod method is a
wet or dry continuous method in which
portable prod-type electrical contacts
are pressed against the areas to be ex-
amined to magnetize them. Arcing
may cause burns and cracking of the
base metal. To prevent arcing, a remote
control switch may be built into the
prod handles, allowing the current to
be turned on only after the prods have
been properly positioned .
Wet or dry magnetic powder is ap-
plied to the surface while the magne-
tizing current is switched on and the
prods are in contact with the surface .
For efficient coverage of welds, the
prods must be crisscrossed. See Fig-
ure 32-15.
Figure 32-15. For efficient cover-
age of welds when using the prod
4" method, prods must be crisscrossed
and spaced appropriately.
-rr:-i
~8B"
6"
(15 CM) (20 CM)
L ••
A C
WELD
Demagnetization is
mandatory for parts
in critical service ,
such as engines and
aircraft, that have
been stronglymagne-
tized. Filings. grind-
ings, and chips
Yoke Method. The yoke method is a resultingfmmopera-
dry continuous method of MT for de- tional wear are at-
tection of surface discontinuities. tracted to magneti zed
parts and interfere
When the energized yoke is placed on with performance.
the part, the flux flowing from the
Nondestructive Examination :@: 427
 yoke's north pole, throu gh the part, to
the south pole induces a local longitu -
dinal field in the part. If magnetic pow-
der is applied sparingly to the ar ea
betw een the poles, surface discontinu-
ity indi cations are ea sily seen. How-
ever, the magn etic fie ld produced by
the yoke does not lie entirely wi thin
the par t. An external field is present
that is a deterrent to locating subsur-
fac e di scontinuities.
After the test surface is prepared ,
the yoke is positioned o n the surface
and the current is turned on. Magnetic
powder is lightly dusted on the surface
being examined and the excess removed
with a gentle air stream . The parti cle
pattern is observed for indications. Af-
ter examination is complete, the cur-
rent is turned o ff. The e xamina tion
procedure is rep eated with the yo ke
turned at approximately a right angle
to its former position. The yoke is then
re pos itioned over the next area with
s uffic ie nt ov erlap to en sure 100%
co ver age of the area to be examined.
After ex amina tio n and recordin g of
discont inuities, the test surface is com -
pletely wiped clean with a cloth.
&u;.., Tnt/tlIt
A cracked truck suspension ;.'1 tested b)' magne tic particle examination. The magnetic
yoke is attached 10 the failed part am /the yellow magnetic powder is drawn 10 , and
identifi es. the crack.
428 ~ Welding Ski/Is
e Magnetic particle lest indications are com-
monty preserved with the MT results. The
most common method of preserving indi-
cations is the transparent rape transfer tech-
nique. Othe r methods that may be used are
the lacq uer tran sf er techn ique and the
nonfluorescent orflu orescrn t photographic
techniq ues.
Magnetic Particle Exami~tion
Indications
Magneti c particle examination ind ica-
tions are examined after the magnetic
particles have been allowed to interact
with any disconti nuitie s. For MT ex-
amination fo llow the procedure:
I. Identi fy ind icat ion s.
2 . Reject false indications.
3 . Interpret rele vant indications ac-
cording to applica ble fabrica tion
code or standard to determine if they
are cause for rejection or repair.
4 . Record re levant ind ication s.
Crack types detected by MT are cra-
ter crack s, tran sver se cra cks, and toe
cracks. MT indic ations for crack-type
di scontinuiti e s a re sha rply defi ned ,
tightly held, and usually heavily bui lt
up with powder. The deeper the crack ,
th e heavier th e magn etic powd er
buildup. Crater cracks can be a single
lin e in any direction or star-shaped.
MT indic ation s for subs urface crack s
a re fu zzi er a nd their s ha rpne ss de-
creases with an increase in crack depth
below the surface.
Th e magn eti c powder patt ern s of
subsurface porosity detected by MT are
fu zzy and not pronounc ed , yet are
readily distingui shed from ind ication s
of surface porosity. MT det ect s slag
incl usions as a pattern similar to sub-
surface porosity when high magnetiz-
ing field strength is used.
Incompl ete fusion appears as an ac-
cumulation of powder at the edge of a
weld. The pattern is sharper the nearer
the discontinuity is to the surface. In-
:kn kn. I"...
complete fusion is rarely visible at the
surface and so the magnet ic powder
indication will not be clear and sharp.
Incomple te pe netration may ex hib it a
mag ne tic po wde r pattern si m ilar to a
subs urface c rack. lt will be wide and
fuzzy, but the pa tte rn sho uld be linear.
M T may produce fa lse indic atio ns
that have no sig nificance for we ld q ual-
ity. Fal se indi cat ions arc mostly att rib-
uted to ph y si c al co nto ur e ffects or
magne tic characteristic cha nges. Physi-
ca l co ntour effects include a cha nge in
section thickness or a hole in a part. Thc
magn e tic particle patte rns for ph ys ical
co ntour effects are usuall y easy to iden-
tify by th eir loc ati on and the sha pe of
the part at the location.
MT is not recommended for d is-
s imilar met al welds . When two mate-
ria ls wit h diffe ring ma gn eti c properti es
are joined, such as carbon stee l we lde d
w it h au st eniti c s ta in les s stee l filler
metal, an indi c a ti on de vel ops at the
junction. The ind icatio n is diffi cu lt to
di stinguish from a crack.
Recording Magnetic Particle
Examination Results
The record fo rm for MT indi cati ons
shall contain a sketch showing the ge -
o metry o f the part, cable arrange me nt
and connec tio ns , and areas of exam i-
nation wh ere ad equate field stre ng th
was o bta ined . T he informati on sho uld
be accompa nied by the res ults of the
exam inatio n s uc h as a sketch or per-
man ent record .
ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION tun
Ultrasonic examination (UT) is an N DE
method that i ntrod uce s ultra s o n ic
wave s ( vib ratio ns ) into, throu g h , o r
o nto th e sur face of a part a nd det e r-
m ine s various a tt ributes of th e m ate-
rial fro m its effec ts o n the ult raso nic
waves. Ultrasonic exami nation is ve ry
se ns itiv e , and is capab le of locating
very f i ne s u r face a nd s ubs ur fa c e
cracks, as we ll as o the r internal defec ts.
Hi gh -frcquenc y v ib rat io ns or w a ve s
are used to locate and measure de fect s
in bot h ferrous and no nfe rro us materi-
als . A hi gh -frequenc y so und bea m is
d irec ted into a part o n a predi c table
path . Th e sound beam is re flected back
when it encounters an interruption in the
continuity of a material. T he rellccted
bea m is detected and an alyzed to define
the presence and loc atio n of the discon-
tinuity. See Figure 32-16.
Figure 32-16. Ultrasonic examine-
tion ra n h(' 1/.let! to j iml .l'IIh.l'wj i./{·('
disccntinuitic s such as incomplete
penetration.
If a high -frequen cy vibration is sent
through a sound piece of metal , a sig-
nal will travel through the met al to the
other s ide, be rellect ed back , and be
shown on a calibrated sc ree n of an os-
cilloscopc. An y di scont in uit ics wit hin
a struc ture interrupt the sig na l a nd re-
fleer it back soo ne r th an the sig na l of
the so und pie ce of m ateri al,
The rellection is sho wn o n th e o s-
cill oscope scree n a nd i nd icates the
de pth of th e de fect. Onl y o ne s ide of
the we ld me nt need s to be tested.
The primary purpo se of UT for welds
is to det ect laminar di scont inu ities such
as cracks or lack of fusion that might be
more diffi cult to de tec t with o the r NDE
techniques. A laminar discontinuity is a
di scontinuity that is relati vely thin and
flat. UT can also be used to detect lam i-
natio ns , shr inkage vo ids, po ro sity, s lag
incl usion s, incomplete joint penetration,
and othe r discon tinuiti es in we lds . With
the pro per technique, th e position a nd
depth of thc di scontinuity can be deter-
mined, an d in some cases, the size o f
the discontinui ty. All types of joints can
be evaluated by UT and the size and lo-
cation of defects can be measu red .
Nondestructive Examinatio n ::§: 429
 Ultrasonic Examination
Principles
Th e principles of ultra son ic examina-
tion are based on the ab ility of ultra-
so nic waves (v ibra tio ns) to pass
throu gh metal and to be reflected at a
discontinuity. A search unit is used to
send and receive the ultra sonic waves.
A couplant is required to improve trans-
mission of ultrasonic energy. Electronic
components are required to generate the
ultra sonic waves and record testing in-
format ion .
Search Unit. A search III/it (p robe) is
an electroacoustic device for transmit-
ting or receiving ultra soni c energy, or
both. A crystal (transdu cer) is the pi-
ezoelectric element in a search unit that
converts electrical energy to ultrasonic
energy and vice ver sa.
When excited wit h high-frequency
electrical energy, the crystal prod uces
mechanical vibrat ions. The crystal also
receive s reflec ted vibrations, tra ns -
for ming them into low-energy electri-
ca l impu lses .
Search un it confi gurations in weld
testing are straig ht beam and angle
beam. A straight beam is a vibrating
pu lse wave traveli ng perpendic ular to
the surface. An angle beam is a vibrat-
ing pul se wave traveling other than
perpendicu lar to the surface .
Couplan t A couplant is a liquid substance
used between the search unit and the test
surface to permit or improve the trans-
mission of ultrasonic energy. A gas inter-
face such as air reflects almost all of the
ultrasonic energy it receives. The purpose
of the couplant is to exclude air between
the tran sducer and the test surface.
Couplants consist of liquids such as wa-
ter, glycerin, light oil, or cellulose gum
powder mixed with water. After exa mi-
nation, couplants must be completely re-
moved with an acceptable solvent if heat
is to be applied to the test surface at a
later stage.
The weld metal or base metal must
be smooth and llat to allow close con-
tact with the search unit if required by
430 ~ Weldin g Skills
the UT procedure. If the search unit is to
be placed on the weld itself, removal of
the weld reinforcement by grinding may
be necessary. Weld spatter, slag, or other
irregularities must be removed where the
search unit might contact them.
UT Electronic Components. Electronic
components required for UT intlude:
• An electroni c signal ge nera tor- to
provide bursts of alternating voltage
A sending tran sdu cer (c rys tal) to
emit a beam of ultrasonic wa ves
when the AC voltage is applied
A receiving tran sdu cer to convert
the sound waves to AC voltage (the
receiving tran sduc er and the send-
ing tran sducer may be combined).
• An electron ic device to amplify and
demodulate or otherwise change the
signal from the receiving transducer
• An elec tron ic timer to control the
operation
• A CRT display to characterize or
record the output from the test piece.
The CRT disp lay uses A-scan pre-
sentation. Sec Figure 32-17.
~
SIGNAL GENERATOR
(PULSER)
ELECTR ON IC TIMER
AMPLIFIER DEMODULATOR
SWEEP DELAY
ATTENUATOR
/ SWEEP LENGTH
CATHOD E RAY
TUBE (CRT)
TEST PIECE
SEND ING AND RECE IVING
TR ANSDUCER(S) (CRYSTAL)
Figure 32- 17. The bll.\.;c equipment components re-
quired for UT are (/ signul g t' lIt' m tlJ/; sending and
recei ving transducers, {III amplif ier/demodulat or. a
CRT display, and (1/1 electronic timer.
 A-scan presentation is a method of
data pre sentation using a horizontal
base line that indicates distance or time,
and a vertical deflection from the base
line that indicates relative amplitude of
th e returni ng signa l. Th e sc ree n is
graduated in both horizontal and ver-
tical directi ons to facilitate measure-
ment of pulse display s.
Ultrasonic Waves. Ultra soni c waves
(vibrations) can be passed through par-
tic es that make up liquids, solids, and
gases. Ultrasonic waves are above the
audibl e range , with fre q ue nc ies o f
about 22.5 kHz and higher. Ultrasonic
waves used in weld testing are longi-
tudinal waves and she ar waves . See
Fig ure 32- 18.
NOTE: INTERNAL ARROWS REPRESENT THE
PHYSICAL MOVEMENT OF PARTICLES
WITHIN THE MATERIAL
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
SHEAR WAVES
Figure 32-Ut Longitudinal waves and shear waves
are Iypically used for ultraso nic weld testi ng.
A longitudinal wave is a compres-
sion wave that represents wave motion
in which the particle oscillation is in the
same dir ect ion as wave prop agation .
Longitudinal waves can travel through
solids, liquids, and gases.
A shear wave is a tran sverse wave
that represents wave motion in which
the particle oscillation is perpendi cu-
lar to wave propagation di rection.
Shear waves are more easily dispersed
than lon gitu dinal wav es a nd onl y
trav el through solids, since they can-
not be propagated in liquid s or gases.
Shear waves have a lower velocity that
allows easier el ectronic timing and
greater sensitivity to small indications. Ultrasonic waves
used in weld testing
Shear waves are more effective than are Iong ltudlnul
longitudinal wave s at det ecting weld lvaves and shear
di scontinuities because they can fur- waves .
nish three-dimen sional coordinates for
discontinuity location, orientation, and
characteristic s. Shear wave sensitivity
is about double longitudinal wave sen-
siti vity for th e same frequency and
search unit size.
Longit udina l wa ves and shear
waves compl ement one anoth er in
weld testing . The bas e metal zo nes
adjacent to a weld are first tested with
longitudinal wave s to ensure that the
base metal does not contain disconti n-
uiti es that would interfere with shear
wave evaluation of the weld.
o Amplifier controls include amplification
control (sensitivity, gain, and uncalibrated
gain), attenuation (att enuator, calibrated
gain), f requency control (frequency, MH z),
and displ ay con trol (display control, recti-
fie d trace. unrectified frace, B-scan trace).
Ultrasonic Examination
Procedure Requirements
UT procedure require ments defin e
how the instrumentation is set up and
used for weld testing. UT pro cedure
requi rements for weld testin g consist
of pulse-echo mode, amplifier controls,
calibration standards, and instrument
calibration procedures.
Pulse-Echo Mode. Pu lse-echo mode
is a UT examinatio n in which the pres-
e nce and po sit ion of a re flecto r are
Nondestructive Examination €1 431
 ind icated by the echo amplitude and
time . The pu lse -echo mode produces
repeated burst s of high -frequency
sound from the crystal with a time in-
terval between burst s to receive sig-
nals from the test piec e and from any
di scont inuitie s in th e we ld or base
met al. Ea ch pul se sets off a wave of
mechanical vibration s. The initi al dis-
tortion and subseq ue nt vibration s of
the crystal are fed to the amplifier and
cau se a pip on the CRT.
The ultrasonic unit senses reflected
impul ses. amp lifies them. and presents
them as spikes. called pips. on the CRT.
Th e horizontal location of a reflector
pip on the screen. such as from a flaw.
is pro port ional to the di sta nce the
so und ha s traveled in the tes t piece .
This makes it possib le to determi ne the
location of rellectors suc h as llaw s by
using horizontal screen grad uations as
a distance-measuri ng ru ler.
Calibration Standards. Reliable infor-
mati on can be o btai ne d abou t th e
speci me n o n the CRT by co mpa ring
signals from the specimen with those
obtai ned from spec ia lly mach ined
blocks. known as calibrat ion standards .
A calibration standard is a calibration
blo ck or a reference block .
A ca lib ration b lo ck is a piece of
material of specified composition, heat
treatment, geometric form , and surface
fini sh. by which ultrasonic equipment
can be assessed and calibrated for the
exa minatio n of mat erial of the same
ge ne ra l c o nd it io n, A c alibration
bl ock may be a s im ple ste p wedge
of a particular mat erial to allow the
time base to be calibrated for accurate
thickness measurement. A ca libration
block may a lso he a more co mplex
blo ck, a ll o w ing ca libration of time
base, search unit angle, reso lution, in-
dex , and o ther feat ure s, A refe rence
block is a test piece of the same mate-
rial, shape, and sig nificant dimensions
as a particular object under examination,
and which may contain natural or artifi-
cial discontinuities or defects .
432 ~ We/dillK Skills
Ultrasonic Examination Methods
Applicable standards for UT of we lds
are detailed in ASTM E 164, Standard
Practice for Ultrasonic COlitact Ex-
amination of wcldment s. Th e stan-
dard cover s exa mina tio n of spec ific
we ld confi gurat ion s in wro ug ht fer -
rou s and aluminum a lloys to d~'0
weld di sc ontinuiti es. Rec ommended
procedures fo r test in g butt, corner,
and T-joints are give n fo r we ld test
piece thickn esses from .5" to 8". Re-
quired procedure s fo r calibratin g
equipment and appropriate ca libration
blocks ar e included in the standard.
UT of Base Metal. UT of the ba se
metal is done on eith er s ide of the
we ld over a band that ext ends as far
as a full skip for the shallo wes t ang le
probe, usually a 70 ° probe. plus half
the we ld reinforcemen t width . A f ull
skip is one complete rell ection of the
ultra son ic heam . By c hecking the
base metal thickness. actual thickness
va lues are ob ta ined fo r subsequent
shear wave ca libra tion s rat her tha n
the nomi nal thick ness obtained from
the pr ints ,
Systema tic scanning of base metal
in the band wh ere subseq ue nt shear
wave scans will be mad e allows de-
te ction o f la m in a t io ns. which , a l-
though they ma y not affect the
strength of the struc ture, mi ght inter-
fere with the shear wave beam . A large
lamination ca uses the beam to reflect
up to the weld reinforcement, givi ng
a sig na l tha t might he mistaken for a
normal root head. At the same time ,
the lamination ca n cause the beam to
mi ss a discontinuity suc h as lack of
pen etration .
UT of Root Pass. UT of the root pass
is carried out from both sides of the
weld. when ever possib le, usin g a suit-
able ang led probe , UT of the root pass
de tects incomp lete penet ratio n or in-
co mp le te f usion . Scann in g lines are
marked at half skip distance hack from
the origi nal root face on eit her side of
the we ld . A guide is then placed so
th at when the heel of the se lec ted
angle probe is butted a ga ins t the
guide , the probe index is on the scan-
ning line. Flexible mag netic strips are
useful guides for magn etic material s
such as stee l. See Fig ure 32- 19.
Ultrasonic Examination
of Root Pass
Figure 32-19
AA~
HALF·SK IP BEAM PATH
DISTANCE
TEST ANGLE WELD BEAD SIGNAL
ADEQUATE PENETRATION
DETECTED
AA
TEST ANGLE DEFECT SIGNAL
LACK OF PENETRATION
DETECTED
F i ~u ...e 32- 19. UT oj the weld root is carried mil
using WI angled probe lind is performed fro m both
sides of the weld whenever posslb!r,
Ultrason ic Ex a m ina ti on of Fusion
Fa ce and Weld Bod y. Ultrasonic ex-
amination of the fusion face and the
weld body requires exa mining the en-
tire weld vo lume. The probe is posi-
tioned to produce full skip distance to
the nearest edge of the weld reinforce-
ment. The probe index is located at a
distance from the weld centerline equal
to full skip distance plus one- half the
full we ld rei nfo rceme nt wid th. T he
base metal is marked with two lines,
parallel to the weld centerline, on both
sides of the weld. The lines are at half
skip and full skip distances and mark
the boundaries of the scanning pattern.
See Figure 32-20.
- : ~. -, - ;;-
'---v-"'-v-1
FULL " - - REINFOR CEMENT
SKIP
Fig u re 32-20. UT of the fusion face and the weld
b ody cons ists of examining ' he ell/ ire weld 1'01-
ume, ~dl ;dl is a f ull skip dista nce plus one -half the
weld reinforcement widt h.
The initial probe angle for the weld
bo dy sc an de pe nds upo n th e we ld
bevel ang le. For maxi mu m response,
the probe angle selected should meet
any sid ew all lack of fusion at right
ang les . The requi red angle is calcu-
lated by dividing the we ld beve l angle
by 2 and subtrac ting from 90 °. For a
weld bevel angle of 60° the probe angle
is 60° (90 - 6% = 60).
Recording Ultrasonic
Examination Results
Record ing of UT results consi sts of
docume nt ing th e inspect ion back-
ground, equipmen t used , equipme nt
calibration, UT techn ique, and results.
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
(RT)
Radiographic examination (RT) is the
use of X rays or nuclear radiation
(gamma rays) to detect var iou s typ es
of intern al and ex terna l discontinuiti es
in mat erial. RT images are prese nted
on a recording mediu m. RT requires a
source of radia tion, a recording device
enclosed in a light-tight holder, a quali-
fied radio grapher to produce a satis-
factory e xposure , and an exam ine r
qua lified to interpret radiographs. RT
is used extensively to examine we lds
for internal discon tinuities by expos-
ing them to penetrating radia tion.
Nondestructive Examination :§: 433
 o When performing RT in the field. mOSI op-
erations mu st be shut do wn until RT is com-
pleted. For this reason, RT is commonly
performed at night or Oil weekends when
fewer personnel will be affected.
Radiographic Examination
Principles
X rays and gamma rays are two types
of electromagnetic waves used to pen-
etrate opaq ue material s. A per mane nt
record of the intern al struc ture is ob-
tain ed by placin g a sensitized film in
direct co ntac t wi th th e back of th e
weldment. When the X or gamma rays
pass through a weldment of uniform
thickn ess and structure, they fall upon
the sensitized film and produce a nega-
tive of uniform density. If the weldment
contains gas pock et s, slag inclu sions ,
or cracks or has a lack of penetration,
more ray s will pass through the les s
dense areas and will register on the film
as dark areas, clearly outlining the de-
fects and showing their size, shape, and
location . RT principles are governed by
penetration and ab sorption, radio-
graphic ima ge qu ality, RT personnel,
and radiation safety.
tI
Rudiographicfitm is
•~ ptucrd 0 11 the oppo - A radiograph is a perm anent, vis-
.= site side of the test ible image on a recording medium pro-
specimen 10 reco rd
the internal image of
duced by penetrating radiation passing
the component. through a mat eri al being tested. Se e
Figure 32-2 1.
,-----
Fllximm X-my C" r/"",rlJl;""
Tilt' radi og rapher 1111Ut consider all pa rts of the image, including areas thai may he
unavoidably distort ed. 10 ens ure correct interpretation of tile radiog raph.
434 €l' Weldinli Skill s
RADIATION
SOURCE
'RADIATION
PASSES
THROUGH
SPECI~
MATERIAL
BEING
TE STED
DARKER AREAS
tWHEN PROCESSED)
Figure 32-21. The tess material abso rbs radiation.
but less absorption takes place where there is a void,
leading to darker areas ('" tlse processed radiograph.
Radiographic film is placed on the
opposit e side of the test specim en to
record thc internal image of the com -
ponent. The recording medium can be
photographi c film, se ns itize d paper,
a fluore scent screen, or an electronic
radiation detector. Phot ographic film
is the most commonl y used method .
Since more radi ati on pas se s
throu gh thin sections or locations co n-
tainin g void s, the co rres po nd ing ar-
eas of the film are darker. The relative
po siti oning of the so urce and film in
relation to the part or weld affec ts the
sharpness , density, and co ntrast of the
rad iograph. Th e radiog rap h image
quality is affected by image enlarge-
ment, image sharpness, and image dis-
tortion.
Im age di sto rtion occurs when the
plane of the part and the plane of the
film are not parallel. To minimi ze im-
age distortion, the radiation beam must
be directed in a direction perpendicular
to the plane of the film. If distortion of
the film image is unavoidable, the ra-
diographer must take into consideration
that all parts of the image are distorted;
otherwi se, the radi ograph may be in-
correctly interpreted . See Figure 32-22.
 Ft gure 32-22 . tmag e distort ion
occurs when the ptane of the film
is IIOT perpendicular /0 the radia -
I _ _- - I AXIS OF
t, PART
uon beam.
NORMAL TO
SOURCE FILM PLANE

FILM IS NOT
PERP ENDICU LAR
PART TO AXIS O F
RTBEAM

FILM IN TILTED PLANE

Radiographic Examination STEEL THICKNESS LIMITATIONS

Figu re 32-1.'. The l't'lIetwbiliry
of X rays from the X-ray machine
Procedure FOR X-RAY MACHINES ;IlW the part depends (If! the \'01,-
-
aMI' applied across th e elements
Radiog raphic examina tion proc edure Maximum of the X-m y tube. Maximum 1'011-
requirements are necessary to ensure Maximum Steel Thickness! aRes are established bas ed O il the
Voltage' thickness of the metal (0 1'1(' teste d.
the correct application of RT for weld in. mm
examina tio n. RT procedure require- 100 .33 B
ments may be influenced by applicable 150 .75 19
codes and standards. RT requirements 200 1 25
are governed by radiation source type. 250 2 50
isotope camera. inte nsi fying sc ree ns 400 3 75
and filters, image quality indicator, lead 1000 5 125
ide ntification ma rkers. film type and 2000 B 200
film processing met hod . . ~ KV
t approximate
Radiation Source Types. Rad iation
sources for weld inspection may be X
rays from X-ray machines and gamma
ray s fro m radioactive isotopes. Both
types have extre me ly sho rt wave-
le ngth s, ena b ling the m to pen etrate Ga m ma ra ys a re pro du ced from
materials that abso rb or refle ct light. portabl e sources and are used exten -
Although the wavelength and radiation sively for field-test ing of welds. The
produced can be quite different, both gamma ray source is made as sma ll
X and gamma rays behave similarly as possible in the shape of a cy linder
for RT purposes. whose diameter and length are approxi-
The wavelengths of X radiation are mately equal. The cylindrical shape per-
dete rmined by the voltage applied be- mit. the use of any surface of the source
twee n the ele ments of an X-ray tube. as the focal spot since all surfaces, as
Higher voltages produce X rays of viewed from the test specimen. are equal
shorter wavelengths and increased in- in area. The wavelength of the gamma
tensities, resu lting in deeper penetr a- rays (energy level) is determined by the
tion capability. The penetrating abi lity nature of the source. Gamma rays have
of X rays de pends on the X-ray ab- different ranges of energy and different
sorption pro perties of the parti cul ar thickness limitations for materials exam-
metal. See Figure 32-23 . ined. See Figure 32-24.
Nondestructive Exa minat ion :@: 435
Figure 32·24. Radiois% pe,l" have
different IWI X l ',\ (~r energy. mak- STEEL THICKNESS LIMITATIONS FOR RADIOISOTOPES
ing tltrtn suitable fo r differ ent
,hh·fm(',\".\"t'.\' of 1I1l'1lI!.'".
Equivalent
Radio isotope X-Ray Machine kV'
Iridium-192
Cesium-137
Coba lt-60
• app rcemate
Iridium-1 92 is equivalent to the out-
put of an gOO kV X-ray machine. It is
used for the rad iog raphy of steel. The
radioisotope is supplied in the form of
a capsul e. The relatively low-energy
radiation and hig h spec ific gravity of
iridiu m- 192 co mb ine to make it an eas-
ily s h ie lded, s tro ng radia tio n so urc e
wi th a sma ll foca l spot size.
Ce sium- I37 is equivalent to the out-
put of a 1000 kV X-ray machine. Th e
radioiso tope is supplied in the form of a
capsule and is used on a limited scale for
low-density metals such as aluminum.
Cobalt-60 is equiva lent to the output
of a 2(XlO kV X-ra y machin e. Cobalt-60
is used for the radiography of steel, cop-
pe r, bra ss, an d o ther medi um-densi ty
me tal s. Because of its penetr atin g ra-
di ation, cobalt-60 req uires thick shie ld-
ing with result ing we ight and hand ling
di fficulty.
'I"' 'I .'..-
I!
mm
HI
~
1
fiu im ", X-m ,)' C" rpmy.llwn
Till' results of rud iag rapltic: rest ing ar e downloaded to II computer f o r storag e and f uture
I"('/ e /"{'I/( '(' .
436 ~ Weldill!! Skills
Maximum
Steel Thickness'
in. mm
800 .5 2.5 12-65
1000 .5- 3.5 12 90
2000 2-9 50 230
Isotope C a m er a . The isot ope camera
consists of the equ ipment need ed for
sa fe handling a nd s to rage o f an is o-
tope source.
Image Quality Indicator (IQI). An
imag e 'lilalit)' indicator (IQI) is a de-
vice or co mbi nation of devic es whose
demo nst rated im age de term ine s ra-
di ograph ic qualit y and se nsitivity. T he
im age o r im ages de mo ns tra ted by an
IQ I pr o vid e vi s ua l data, quanti ta tive
da ta, or bo th to determine the radio-
grap hic qu ali ty. An IQ I is not intended
for use in ju dgin g size of, or acce pt-
abl e limits for, discontinuitie s. An lQ I
is al so ca lle d a pen etram eter, o r
penny. Eac h IQ I is iden ti fi ed by a n
iden ti ficat io n number that gives th e
max im u m thi ckness of materia l for
whic h the IQI is norm all y us ed . See
Figure 32-25 .
The lQI is placed on the source side
of the part to provide a built-in disco n-
tinuity o f know n thick ne ss conta ining
three hole diameters. The IQl measures
the abili ty of the RT technique to show
contra st (IQ I thic kness) a nd de finition
(hole images) .
Shim stock is sometimes used in RT
of we ld s because the area of interest
(the weld ) is thicker than the part thick-
ne ss. S hi ms are se le c ted so that the
t hickne ss of the s h im(s) equal s the
thic kne ss added to the specime n by the
we ld in the area of interest. Shim stock
is p laced underneath the IQI. be tween
it and the part. In this way, the im age
of the IQI is projected through a thick-
ness o f materi al eq ua l to the thi ckn e ss
in the area of interest. T he shim stoc k
len gth and width arc grea ter than those
of the IQl. See Fig ure 32-26.
 Ftg u re 32-25. All image qualitv
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATOR (IQI) SIZES indicator ( IQ I), or penetrometer:
determines the radiographic qual-
Applies to Design
10 "T"t: 11 Hole 2T Hole 4T Hole ily tevet tsensitivity}: nit! I QI ,hid .-
Material Thickness'
No. Diameter! Diameter! Diameter! 1/l' U (" T");s 2% of the thickness rif
(Tm) up to and including
the parr being radiographed.
inches!
v. 1.251 25 .005 .01O§ .020§ .040§
'Yo (.375) 37 .008 .010§ .020§ .040§
V2 (.5) 50 .010 .010 .020 .040
% (.625) 62 .013 .013 .025 .050
% (.75) 75 .015 .015 .030 .060
% (.875 ) 87 .018 .018 .035 .070
1 (1) 1 .020 .020 .040 .080
1" (1.125 ) 1.1 .023 .023 .045 .090
1114 (1.25) 1.2 .025 .025 .050 .100
1'h (1.5) 1.5 .030 .030 .060 .120
• Dellned as the thickness ollhe malarial (TAll upon wtuch the thickness 01the 10 1is ba sed. For welds . Tm sha ll be the thickness 01100
strength member
I in ''1.
t 101 thiCkness
§ Hole size required by standard coes not correspood directly 10 10 number or 101 thickness

NOTES:
Chart extends in v....' increments up to 2lh" , then in 12" increments up to 8". and then in 1"
increments.

STANDARD 101 FOR 1" MATERIAL

Figure 32-26. Sh im .rlod . 1II(1)'

br 1I.H!d TO compensate for ,he
addi tional rhic knl'H of a II'l'Id
compared with the base metal.

101(PENNY)
SHIM STOCK

'\:FILM

Nondestructiv e Examination :§: 437


c irig; double-wa ll RT for pipe or tubi n~
1M Lim.-..In E::1....'r;,: Compww
Nondestruct ive examination is of tell used f or stmcl ure,f thai ml/.H remain ;11 service both
du ring and after testing.
Lead Identification Markers. Lead
identificat ion marker s are placed on
the source side of the part to provide
a clear record of the test or test loca-
tion. These marke rs consist of a letter
and numbers and mu st not int erfere
with subsequent interpr etation of the
ra diograph by mask ing potentia l in-
di cations.
Film Type. The film type selected is
base d on the need for radiog raphs of
specific co ntrast and defi nition qual -
ity. RT film consists of thin. transpar-
ent plastic shee ting coated on one or
both sides with an emulsion of gelatin,
approximately .00 I" thick. containing
very fine crystals of silver bromide.
When exposed to X rays, gamma rays,
or visible light, silver bromide crystals
undergo a reaction that makes the m
more susceptible to the chemical pro-
cess of develop ing that converts them
to black-metallic silver. The greater the
a mou nt of ex pos ure, the greater the
blackening effect on deve lopment.
Radiographic Examination
Methods for Welds
Selection of RT methods for welds re-
quires consideration of how the expo-
sure can be set up for the type of part.
438 €l' Welding Sk ills
Some RT methods for weld s include
single-wa ll RT for plate, pipe. or tub-
less than 114" ID (inside diameter); andx;
double-wall RT for pipe or tubing from
114" to 2'12" 10.
RT exposure setup conditions are
ba sed on th e following factors that
influence the radio graphic image
fo rmation :
• Obtainin g best co verage of the
weld in the shortest expos ure time
• Detec ting im age di scontinuities
most like ly to be pre sent
• Usin g multip le perpendi cular ex-
po sures ra ther th an on e or more
ang led exposures to cover a ll ar-
eas of interest
• Using single- or double-wall ex-
posure s with a pipe we ld
• Ad herin g to all radiation sa fe ty
re quire ment s
Single-Wall RT for Plate and Pipe or
Tubing. Single-wall RT for plate, pipe,
or tubing welds is relatively simple to
achi eve becau se the crit ical areas of
the weld are clearly defi ned in terms
of their length . width . and thick ness.
See Figure 32-27. The film is placed
in direct contact with the part on the
side opposite to the source with an ex-
posure angle of 90 °. Si ngle-w all RT
should be used whenever possible for
flat or c ircular obj ect s. Subject con-
trast is small and exposure calculation
is relativ ely simple.
Double- Wall RT for Pipe or Tub-
ing Less than I lAW ID. Double-wall
RT for pipe o r tubin g we lds le s s
than I W' 10 is don e with an ellipti-
cal shot. An e lliptic al shot involves
placing the so urce at an an gle less
than 90 ° to the pla ne o f the part to
view th e fu ll c irc umfe re nce of the
we ld on the film as an e llipse . The
exact a ng le is determined by the
pipe or tu bin g d ia mete r. T hre e e l-
lipt ical expo sure s s ho uld be made
to provide suffici ent co ve rage. See
Figu re 32-28 .

•. .. ..
1
M IN.3S"
SOURCE·TO· PART
LEAD BACKING J
TO STOP BACKSCATTER
PIPE OR TUBING
Double" Wall RT for Pipe or Thbing
l'Aw to 2W" ID. Double-wall RT for pipe
or tubing welds from 114" to 2Vi' ID is
done with a 15° elliptical shot. As with
pipe or tubing less than 114" diameter.
two IQl s should be used. Six elliptical
Figure 32-27. Single -wall NT for
plate, p ljU! , or tubing is relati vely
eusv 10 achieve becaus e tile criti-
cal ar cus of the weld ar e dearly
defin ed .
_ ~ .
i-----90' EXPOSURE ANGLE
,
PLATE
I
~-
PRIMARY BEAM
1--- - DISTORTION.
IMAGE MISALIGNMENT DUE
TO DETAIL GEOMETRY AND
DIVERSIONARY BEAM ALIGNMENT
1- + - DO NOT EXCEED THIS AREA
OF COVERAGE ON CIRCUM·
FERENTIAL DETAILS
" - FILM PLACEMENT
I " OVERLAP- SINGLE WALL
~ MIN. SIX EXPOSURES.
MORE ON LARGE·
CIRCUMFERENCE TUBING.
SPHERES, TANKS, ETC.
shots provide sufficient coverage of the
entire circumference and reveal discon-
tinuity orientation. In addition. two 90°
opposing, superimposed shots should be
taken to show discontinuities in the per-
pendicular position. See Figure 32-29.
Nondestruc tive Examina tion :@: 439
Double-Wall Radiographic Examination for Pipe and Tubing Less Than 1Y." 10
Figure 32-28
EXACT ANGLE DETERMINED
BY PIPE O R TUBING DIAMETER

ANGLE DETE RMINED BY TUB E

DIAM ETER TO PROJECT TOP
PORTION OF W ELD OUTSID E
OF BOnOM PORTION
101 PLACE ME NT
SIZE= 2% DO UBLE·WALL \ 101 PLACEMENT
SIZE= 2% SINGLE-WALL

FILM CO NTACTS
TOP PORTION OF Bo n OM PORT ION OF SIDEWALL
W ELD PROJE CTED WELD PROJECTED

Figure 32·28. The ,\'(11/1"("(' angte fo r dauhle-wall RT of pil'e or ltlhing less tlian 11/4" ID is de/ermined hy the pipe or tubing JI> 10 ensu re the top
portion of the weld projects outside of tile ho /fo!/l port ion.

~ 9()" SHOTS (2)

~~- -A'\~ ELLIPTICAL SHOT

2 lOis REOUIRED :
ONE 2% OF DOUB LE-WALL
ONE 2% OF SINGL E·WALL 1--15" \ I-
DOUBLE-WALL 101 \ ,.;, -
I ~/r-
~ SOU RC E.To-PART DISTANCE
!
'"
MIN SIX VIEWS AROUND
AREA OF INTEREST
~< ADJACENT TO FILM
If5
z
SING LE-WALL IQI
~

/
1W' TO 2lh:"I D
FILM CO NTACTS
SIDEWALL
\.- AREA OF INTEREST

Figu re 32-29. RT of 1';1'(' or tubing from J If,'" to 2 /12" If) requ ires if 15 ° ellipticol ,\"h Ol and two 90° shots.

440 ~ Weldill~ Skills

To evaluate a radiograph, follow the
procedure ;
I . Co mpare the identification of the
radiograph aga inst accompanying
record s for accuracy.
2 . Det erm ine the weld desi gn a nd
wel ding procedure used .
3. Determin e the radiographic set-up
procedure and the co rrec tness of
tech nique attr ibutes .
4 . Review film under optimum view-
ing co nditions.
5. Identify any film artifacts (see be-
lo w) and requ est re-rad iogr aph y
if necessary.
6 . Identi fy any surface marks or un-
so und ness on the part not associ-
ated with the weld and verify their
type and presence .
7 . Evaluate and propose disposition
of di scontinuities revealed in the
radiograph.
S. Prepare complete radiographic report.
RT for fill et weld s is difficult to
se t up and int erpret. Fillet weld RT
require s a gre at degree of skill and
in-depth know led ge of the welding
conditions. Also, it is diffi cult to place
the film ideally to obtain good reso-
lution of di sc ontinuitie s in fillet
we lds. Th er efore, RT is not usuall y
viable For fillet welds.
Identification of Discontinuities
RT reveal s both surface and subs ur-
face we ld d iscontin uit ies in cl ud ing
crac ks and incomp lete fusion; slag in-
clus io ns and tun gsten inclu sion s; po-
rosity and worm holes; incomplete joint
penetratio n; undercut; exc ess ive we ld
re info rce me nt; an d insufficie nt weld
reinforcement. RT docs not reveal very
narrow di scontinu iti es that are not
closely aligned (parallel) to the weld.
Crac ks appear as fine dark lines of
sig nificant len gth , but without gre at
width. Som e crater cracks may be de-
te cte d by RT if o f s ufficie nt s ize.
Cracks may not be detected if they are
small or not aligned with the beam .
Incompl ete fusion has a similar ap-
pearance to cracks, but usually appears
at the boundary between the weld and
base metal.
Slag inclusion s usuall y appear as
irregularly shaped dark area s and have
so me width . Slag inclusions are ge n-
erall y observed at the junctions between
weld passes. Tungsten inclusions appear
as highly co ntraste d light areas (white
spo ts).
Po ros ity appears as nearly ro und
voids recognizable as dark spots whose
radiographic co ntras t varies directl y
with the diameter of the pores.
Wormholes appear as dark rectangles
if their lon g axis is perpendi cul ar to
the beam and as concentric circles if
the long axis is parallel to the beam .
Incompl ete joint penetration is ob -
served as a very narrow dark line near
the cent er of the weld .
Undercut appears as a dark zone of
varying width along the edge of the
fusion zon e. The darkness or den sity
of the line is an indicator of the depth
of the undercut.
Exc essi ve weld reinforcement is
seen as a lighter zonc along the center
of the weld se a m. Th ere is a sha rp
change in image den sity where the re-
inforcement meets the base metal, and
the edge of the reinforcement image is
usuall y irregul ar.
Insuffici ent we ld reinforcement is
seen as the opposi te of excessive weld
reinforcement. that is, a darker zone along
the center of the weld scam. The change
in image density is not as pronoun ced
as with excessive weld rein forcement,
Arti facts, An artifact is a nonrelevant
indi c ati on th at ap pears o n a radi o-
graph. Artifacts may occur during ex-
posure or during handling or processing
of the film , if handling or processin g
has been don e improperl y. Artifact s
a lso may occur becau se of vario us
ca uses in cludin g e lec trostatic di s-
charge, pressure marks, and film pro -
ce ssin g defects . Arti fa ct s mu st be
avoid ed .
Nondestructive Examina tion :@: 441
 \.

Elec trosta tic di scharge duri ng film Electromagnetic Examination

handling exposes the film to light and Principles
causes an easily recognized pattern of Elec tromag ne tic exam ination prin-
sharp b lack lines on th e rad iograph. ciples are based on th e phenome no n
Press ur e mark s resu lt from loc ali zed of e lect romagnetic indu ct ion , meaning
pr essure on pre-processed fi lm whe n that an e lectric curre nt flows, or is in-
the film is being processed . du c ed , in a cond uc to r s u bjec t to a
F ilm p ro c e ss ing d efe ct s le ad to c h a ng ing m ag ne tic f ie ld . T he fre-
many kinds of artifacts. Colore d stai ns qu en c y of th e m a gn eti c fie ld varies
or blisters may result from an improper from 50 Hz to I MH z, dep ending on
acid stop bath applicatioo . Streaks may the type and thickness of the materials
result fro m improper agit ati on duriog tested . In weld testing, ET is used prin-
devel opmeot. Fogging may he cau sed cipa lly in automatic produ cti on test ing
by overexposure of film to a sa felight of we lded pipe aod tub e.
lamp before fixing or by using old film .
Electromagnetic Induction. Elec tro -
Sta ins may be c aused by improperly
magn e ti c induc tion c rea tes differe nt
m ixe d or ex ha usted so lu t io ns , an d
responses in metal s accordi ng to the ir
water marks can resu lt fro m handl ing
e lectromagnetic properties. The part to
pa rtia lly dried film . Fi ngerp rints are
be inspected is placed within or adja-
cause d by imprope r handling of film.
ce nt to an elec tric co il throu gh which
Scratches result from ro ug h handling,
alt ernat ing c ur re nt (the exc iting c ur-
espec ially during pro cessing when the
re nt) is flo wing . The exc iting c urrent
emulsion is soft. Ch emi cal fog may be
ind uces a magneti c fi eld and ca us es
ca use d by o ve rdeve lop ing .
eddy currents to flow in th e part be -
Recording Radiographic cause of electromagne tic induction . An
Examination Results ed dy cu rrent is an e lec trica l c urre nt
cau sed to flow in a co nduc tor by th e
Recording of RT results is done on a
tim e or space variation, or both , of an
form co nsisting of a sketch identifyin g
a p p lie d ma gnetic fi eld . To ac hieve
the we ld locations, a description of the
e lec tro magnetic inducti on , the e lec tric
RT met hod used, and ide ntifica tion and
coi l may be an encircl ing coil or a n
interpretation of all discontin uities. RT
inside coi l. See Figu re 32-30.
result s may be rec ord ed in a standard
formal. T he ow ner of the part test ed
sha ll ret a in radiographs related to the Coils
ex am ination. Figure 32-30
COIL
ELECTROMAGNETIC
EXAMINATION (ET)
Electromag netic examination (ET) is an
ND E method that uses electrom agnetic
(I ·~
SPECIMEN
en ergy ha ving fr equenci es less than
visibl e light to yield information on the ENCIRCLING
qualit y of the part bein g tested . ET, also
ca lled ed dy current testing, uses e lec-
tro mag netic energy to de tec t
Elec tromagnetic en- discontinu ities in we lds and is effective SPECIMEN
ergy is used to de- in test ing both ferrous and nonferrous
INSIDE
tect surface 1I11l1 mat eri al s fo r porosity, slag inclusions,
internal quality of
intern al c rac ks , e xt ernal crack s, and
we lds in electro - Figure 32-30. Incomplete fusion ma), be detected in
magnetic testing. la ck of fus ion. ET is appli ed to both tubing as if passes through (11/ endrl'!i/lX coil or an
magn eti c and nonmagn et ic materials . insid e c(I;1 during electromagnetic exa mina tion.

442 ~ Weldillg Skills

 An encircling coil is wound so that
the test specimen passes through the
center of the coil, causing the eddy
currents to flow around the rod or tube
being tested. The specimen must be
centered in the coil for accurate test
results. This is because the flow of eddy
currents is zero at the center of the rod.
An inside coil is used to test steam gen-
erator tubes . Inside coils pass through
the inside of tubing and eddy currents
flow around the tubing . For accurate
test results, the coil and the test speci-
men should be close together.
The eddy current path is distorted
by the presence of a discontinuity. The
distortion is measured by a change in
the associated electromagnetic field.
Such changes have an effect on the
exciting coil or other eoil(s) used for
sensing the electromagnetic field ad-
jacent to the part. For example , the
change in flow of eddy currents caused
by incomplete fusion can be detected
as the tubing passes through the coil.
When fusion within the weld is com-
plete, the eddy current flow is sym-
metrical. As a section containing
incomplete fusion passes through the
coil, the eddy current flow is impeded
and changed in direction, causing a sig-
nificant change in the associated elec-
tromagnetic field, which is detected on
the measuring equipment.
o For electromagnetic examination, the in-
duced voltage of the exciting coil or the
adjacent coil is used to monitor the condi-
tion ofthe part being inspected.
Electromagnetic Examination
Requirements
Electromagnetic examination require-
ments indicate the parameters that must
be controlled and documented to en-
sure effective, repeatable applications.
ET requirements include ET inspection
equipment, ET equipment calibration,
and ET procedures.
ET Inspection Equipment. ET inspec-
tion equipment consists of a generator,
inspection coil, amplifier, detector, and
display. The generator supplies excita-
tion current to the inspection coil and a
synchronizing signal to the phase shifter,
which provides switching signals to the
detector. The probe may be an external
coil, as used for tubing inspection.
ET Equipment Calibration. An equip-
ment calibration standard is a test piece
that contains typical discontinuities that
demonstrate that calibration equipment
is detecting the discontinuities for which
the part is being inspected. Equipment
calibration standards for ET contain
natural or artificial discontinuities. The
discontinuities in the calibration stan-
dards can accurately reproduce the ex-
act change in the electromagnetic
characteristics expected when produc-
tion items containing discontinuities are
tested.
Equipment calibration standards are
necessary because ET does not detect
discontinuities, but rather the effect
they have on the electromagnetic prop-
erties of the part being inspected. It is
necessary to correlate the change in
electromagnetic properties with the
cause of the change. Equipment cali-
bration standards are used to facilitate
the initial adjustment or calibration of
the test equipment and to periodically
check on the reproducibility of the
measurements.
ET Procedures. ET procedures refer-
Ele ctromagne tic (~X ­
I
ence the type of equipment calibration
.~ amination procedures
standards that are required. Electro- .= must be standardized,
magnetic examination procedures must often usingfull-scale or
mo ck -lip ca lib ra tion
be standardized, often using full-scale standards with simu-
or mock-up calibration standards with lated discontinuities.
simulated discontinuities . Equipment
calibration standards must meet the
following requirements :
• Conform to the applicable specifi-
cation .
• Be easily fabricated .
• Be reproducible in precisely gradu-
ated sizes.
• Produce an indication on the ET
tester that closely resembles those
produced by natural discontinuities.
Nondestructive Examination :@: 443

Pmo! leslillg is 1I,\'ed 10
demonstrate the ubil-
ily (iflll(' welded s/nu"
ture 10 ca rry loads
equal to or illexce.. . . . of
Iht' amicil'aled service
conditions.
Ftaurc 32·31. To inspect tongi-
tudiuul weld q lll//i(', in welded
{,iJlt , or tubing. an energizing co;1
(/mJ (/ deft'I'lor coil a re required.
Ade q uate ve nting
11I1lS t be ens ured
du ri ng hydro static
testing 10 prevent col-
hII' ll' (sucking in) of
the rank.
444 €l' Weldinll Skills
Electromagnetic Examination
Methods for Welds
Electromagnetic examination methods
for welds are primarily applied to lon-
gitudinal welded pipe or tubing as a
production quality control tool.
ET of Longitudinally Welded Pipe or
Tubing. ET of longi tudinally welded
pipe or tubing is done using an encir-
clin g ex ternal e nerg izi ng co il and a
prob e-type di fferenti al detector co il.
The probe-type detector coil is located
at the longitudinal center in the inner
perimeter of the primary co il and is
arranged so that it inspects the outside
surface of the longitudinal weld.
Examination is performed by pass-
ing the pipe or tubing longitudinally
through the primary energizing co il,
causing the probe-type detector coil to
move across the longitudinal weld from
end to end . The primary coi l is ener-
gized with an alternating frequency that
is suitable for the part being inspected
and induces eddy currents into the part.
See Figure 32-3 1.
Th e DC co il is energized at high
curre nt levels to magnetically saturate
the pipe or tubing, improving penetra-
tion of the eddy current and cancelin g
the effects of magnetic variables. This
type of inspection is effective in detect-
ing mo st types of lon gitudinal weld
di scontinuities. su ch as ope n weld s,
weld crac ks , and hot c rac ks . Many
discontinuities may be detected at rela-
tivel y high speeds (speeds of 300 ftf
min are common) . The speed must be
constant to within ± I0%.
PROOF TESTING
Proof testing is the application of spe-
cifi c loads to welded structures, with-
out failure or perm anent deformation.
to assess their mech anical integrity.
Proof tests are usually designed to sub-
ject parts to stresses exceeding those
anticipated du ring service, but ma in-
tained below or at the specified yield
strength of the metal. Proof testing is
used to demonstrate the ability of the
welded structure to carry load s equal
to or in excess of the anticipated ser-
vice conditions. Proof tests must be de-
sig ned by an eng inee r familiar with
in -u se requirement s, a nd co ns is t of
hydrostatic testin g. pneuma tic testing,
spin testing, lea k testing, vacuum box
testing, and aco ustic emission testin g.
Hydrostatic Testing
Hydrostatic testing (hydrotest ing } is
proof testing of closed contain ers such
as vessels, tanks . and piping systems
by fillin g them with water and apply -
ing a predetermined test pressure. Hy-
dro static testin g is the most common
type of proof test.
Adequate venting must be ensured
during hydrostati c testin g to prevent
co llapse (sucking in) of the tank . See
Figure 32-32. For components built to
the ASM E Boi ler and Pressure Vessel
Code , this pressure is 150% of design
pressure. Fo r othe r components, the
te st press ur e may be ba sed upon a
fixed percentage of the minimum yield
stre ngth. Afte r a fixed holdi ng time,
the co ntainer is ins pec ted for sound-
ness by visually check ing for leakage,
or by monit oring the hydrostatic test
pressure for any drop.
Op en co ntainers suc h as sto rage
tank s ma y a ls o be hydro st ati ca ll y
te sted by fillin g them with wa te r;
ships or barges may be tested by par-
tially submerg ing them in water. T he
hydro stat ic pre ssure exe rted aga in st
an y bound ar y is go ve rned by the
head of wa ter.

NOTE : VENT NOZZLE MU ST BE LARGER
THAN WATER DRAIN VALV E
ROOF ENTRY OR
LARGEST ROOF NOZZL E
LEFT OPEN TO CHECK
FILL LEVEL AND VENT AIR
BLINDED OFF
OVERFLOW
o Three ques tio ns to consider before using
hydrostatic testing are (J) whether the f oun-
da tion or support is strong enough to hold
the container fi lled with wale,; (2) whether
energy in the fo rm of comp ressed air can
build up in the container. and (3) whether
there is adequate notch toughness to ensure
that sma ll leaks or discontinuities will not
propagate into a catas trophic f ailure.
Hydros tatic testing is a relat ivel y
safe operation becau se water is practi-
cally noncompre ssible and th erefore
stores little energy. A small leak results
in mean ingful pre ssure drop that lim-
its the driving force available to propa-
gate a crack.
Several important questions must be
asked before hydro static testing is car-
ried out to prev ent permanent equip-
men t dama ge o r catas tro phic fa ilu re .
The following sa fety issue s mu st be
co ns idere d:
• Ar e the fo unda tio ns and suppo rt
struc ture s tro ng e no ug h to hol d
the water-filled co ntaine r? This is
Figure 32·32. When performing
hydrostatic testing on an atmo -
spheric pressure stora g e tank.
there mu.I'! he adequate venting
to prevent the tank from collapse
(.l"Uckillg ill) when it is drained.
ATMOSPHERIC
VENT NOZZLE
MAX. FILL = 2" ABOVE
TOP ANGLE O R
TOP TANGENT LINE
WATER
SOUR CE
MANUAL WATER/
DRAIN VALVE
esp eciall y important if the founda-
tio n and support container were
originally de signed to hold a gas
or light -weight liquid.
• Are there any pocket s where en-
ergy can bu ild np in the form of a
compressed gas ? Pocke ts ma y in-
clude high points in the system that
are difficult to compl etely fill with
water.
• Is the water temperature above the
ductil e-brittle transition temper a-
ture of the steel or low-alloy steel?
It ma y be nec es sar y to warm the
water slightly to assure that a rela-
tively small leak or di scontinuity A WARNING I
will not propagate into a ca ta- During pne umat ic tes ting,
large amou nts of energy
strophic brittl e fracture. may be s tored in co m-
• Is the water of sufficient purity to press ed air or gas in a
large vo lume or under
avoid rapid localized pitting of stain- high pressu re, or both . A
le ss ste el ? Fab rication codes and s mall leak or rupture can
easily grow into a
standards usuall y limi t the chloride catastrophic failure, and
content of hydrotest water to ensure can endanger life and
adjacent property.
it is not damaging to stainless steels.
• Is the water drain ed and the equip-
ment dried out completely after hy-
dro stati c testin g ? This appli es to
Nondestructive Examination :@:: 445
 stainless steel equipment where stag-
nant water may lead to microbiologi-
cally induced corrosion . Fabrication
codes and standards usually allow a
maximum time of 72 hr for water to
be left in stainless steel equipment.
Pneumatic Testing
Pneumatic testing
Pneum ati c testing is a pro of te st in
must be used with
care (0 prevent a which air is pressurized inside a closed
catastrophic fa ilure vessel to reveal leaks. Pneumatic test-
caused by release of ing must be used with care to prevent a
the stored energy.
catastrophic failure from release of the
stored energy. Pneumatic testing is usu-
ally performed on small units that can
be submerged in water during testing.
The presence of air bubbles is a conve-
nient leak indicator and immersion in
water is an effective energy absorber in
case the component fails.
Pneumatic testing may be applied to
equipm ent such as equipm ent mounted
on foundations not able to support the
weight associated with hydrostatic tests,
and to equipment where water or liquid
may be harmful and cannot be removed,
for example a plate-fin heat exchanger.
Pneumatic testing acceptance is based
on freedo m from leakage. Small leaks
are seldom detected without some indi-
cating devices. If a unit cannot be sub-
merged in water, spraying it with a soap
or detergent solution and checking for
bubbl es is an effective alternative for
determining the location of leaks. This
procedure is called an air-soap test.
If both pneumatic testing and hydro-
static testing are to be done, the pneu-
matic test should be carried out first. If
done in reverse order, there is a possi-
bilit y that the larger water molecules
from the hydrostatic test will locate and
block fine leak passages and prevent
them being discovered by the smaller
air molecules during the pneumatic test.
446 ~ Welding Skill"
Spin Testing
Spin testing is proof testing of rotating
machinery done by spinni ng it at
speeds above design values to develop
de sire d s tres ses from ce ntr ifu ga l
forces. Visua l and other nondestructive
test in g plus dimen sio nal measure -
ments are employed to determine the
acceptability of the parts. Spin test ing
is conducted in a safe enclosure such
as a speciall y construc ted pit in case
the co mponent should rupture.
Vacuum Box Testing
VaCllllm box testing is the applicat ion
of a partial vac uum to one side of a
struct ure and exam ining for the pres-
ence of leaks. The test invo lve s ap-
pl yin g soap or detergent so lution to
an area such as a longitudinal weld,
placin g a transparent hox with an ad-
equa te seal over the area to be exa m-
ined, and e vac uating th e box to
achi eve partial vacuu m o f not le ss
than 2 psi. The area is exami ned for
bubbl es, which are the sign of a leak.
Vacuum box testing is quick and con-
venie nt.
Acoustic Emission Testing
Acoast ic emission tes tin g (AE) is a
pro o f test that co ns ists of detecting
acous tic signals produ ced by pla sti c
deformation or crack forma tion du r-
in g mech an ical loadin g or th ermal
stress ing of metals. Tran sducer s stra-
tegic ally placed on a structure are ac-
tivated by arriving acoustic signals and
allo w the locations of di scontinuities
to be identified . Once the discontinu-
ity location is identified, it must be ex-
amined by other techniques such as RT
or UT to describe and measure it.
I . A flaw is not necessarily a defect. A flaw may be relevant (requiring evaluation by nonde-
structive testing), nonrel evant (rejection is not necessary after evaluation), or false (no dis-
continuity actually exists).
2. Nondestru ctive examination is perform ed by an examiner, who is a person qualified to con-
duct specific NDE proce sses.
3 . An inspector is a person qualified to interpret nonde structive exam ination results accord ing
to the controlling code or standard for the job.
4 . Common nondestructive examination methods are visual , liquid pen etrant, magnetic par-
ticle, ultr asoni c, radiographic, and electromagnetic.
5. Visual ex amination is used to check surface condition ; alignment of mating surfaces; co n-
form anc e of the weld shape to a specific cod e or standard; and to locatc leakage. Visual
examination may be used before, durin g, or after weldin g.
6 . Liquid penetrant examination is used to dete ct defects open to the surface, partic ularly in
nonferro us metals such as aluminum.
7 . The surface of a part must be completely clean and dry before administering liquid penetrant
examination.
8 . Magnetic particle examination is used to detect surface or near- surface discont inuit y indica-
tions in ferromagnetic metals.
9. A ma gne tic fi eld ma y be induced in a part by c irc ula r ma gneti zation o r lon gitudinal
ma gn et ization .
10. Magnetic powder may be applied by the dry magnetization method or the wet magnetizat ion
method .
I I . Demagnetization is mandatory for parts in critical service, such as engines and aircraft, that
have been strongly magnet ized. Filings, grindin gs, and chips resulting from operational wear
are attra cted to magnetized parts and interfere with performance.
12. Ultraso nic waves used in weld testing are longitudin al waves and shear waves.
13 . Radiograph ic film is placed on the oppos ite side of the test speci men to record the internal
image of the component.
14. Electromagnetic energy is used to detect surface and internal qualit y of welds in electromag-
netic examination.
15. Electromagnet ic testing procedur es must be standardized, often using full -scale or mock-up
calibration standards with simulated discontinuities.
16 . Proof testing is used to demonstrate the ability of the welded structure to carry loads equal to
or in excess of the anticipat ed service condit ions.
17. Adequate venting must be ens ured during hydrostatic testing to prevent coll apse (sucking
in) of the tank.
18. Pneumat ic testing must be used with care to prevent a catastrophic failure caused by release
of stored energy.

Nondest ructive Examination :@: 447

 I. Can visual examination be used to find every type of cracking tbat a weld may exh ibit?
2. What types of checks may be performed on meta l before welding using visual examination ?
3. Why is visual exami nation important during we lding?
4. After we lding, how sho uld visual examinat ion be appl ied to di mensional acc uracy, we ld ap-
pearance , and base metal integrity?
5. What is the difference between penetrant and devel oper in liqu id pe netrant examinatio n?
6. Why must defec ts be open at the surface for liquid penetrant exa minat ion to be effect ive?
7. What is dwell time ?
8. Wh y is arc ing unde sirabl e when prod s are used for magn etic partic le ex amination?
9. Wh at is the purpose of co uplant used in ultrasoni c examination?
10 . Wh y is radiographic examination co mmonly used to assess weld qu ality?
I I. What types of artifacts may be present in radiograph s that detract from accurate assessment of
we ld qua lity?

448 ~ We/clillK Skills

Metallography is the visual examination of the microscopicfeatures ofmetal or weld surfaces that have
been specially prepared by cutting, grinding, polishing, and etching. Metallography is used in failure
analysis and as a quality control tool for production. In failure analysis, metallography is used to
compare the actual weld quality with the specification and to reveal contributing causes of the failure.
When used as a quality control tool, the tested specimen must be representative of the overall weld. The
control specimen is then compared against set standards. Metallography may reveal cracking at an
improperly made tack weld that progresses through subsequent weld passes. Metallography includes
microscopic examination and macroscopic examination used to analyze discontinuities, weld passes
and location, and metallurgical structure of the weld.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION thin-wall tubing, may be required to

Microscopic examination is concerned
with the microscopic features of mate-
rial surfaces. The putpose of microscopic
examination is to look for clues as to
how a metal was made and/or how it
performed under load or working con-
ditions. Microscopic examination is con-
ducted at high magnification. Small
specimens, representative of the compo-
nent, are required. The sequence of steps
in microscopic examination consists of
cutting and rough grinding; mounting
and fine grinding; rough and final pol-
ishing; and etching and examination.
Cutting and Rough Grinding
Cutting and rough grinding is per-
formed to obtain a representative met-
allographic specimen from the joint.
Specimen orientation must first be de-
termined. Special techniques, such as
preventing flattening when cutting
Microscopic exami-
preserve the specimen from damage
nation c onsists of
so that the essential features are not c utting and ro ug h
destroyed. For rough grinding, se- g rind ing ; mounting
quential cutting may be performed to ami fine g rinding;
mugh am/final pol-
obtain a suitably sized specimen . ishing; and etching
Rough grinding removes coarse ma- and examina tion.
terial and features that result from the
cutting process.
Specimen Orientation. The specimen
orientation is selected to obtain a repre-
sentative section of the joint. The most
common specimen orientation is trans-
verse. It can be used to investigate weld
profile, weld width, weld penetration
(depth of fusion), weld reinforcement,
and weld area. If a transverse section is
not cut exactly perpendicular to the
plane of the weld, errors in weld pen-
etration and weld area measurement
may be introduced. Except in the most
severe eases, errors introduced in sec-
tioning are likely to be lower than sam-
pling errors from variability along the

449
 length of the weld. Transverse sections
may be supplemented by longitudinal
sections. If add itio na l deta ils are re-
qui red, other s pec ime n orie nta tions
may be necessary. See Figure 33- 1.
where precision cuts are required. If a
diamond-tipped cutoff whee l is used,
the rough grinding steps are bypassed.
See Figure 33-2.

Cutting. Cutting is the most commo n

meth od of obtai ning specimens from
a co mponent. Large spec imens must
be re duced in si ze us ing fl a me or
plasma cutting. Subsequent cutting is
accom plished using a power hack saw,
ba nd saw, abrasive cutoff whee l, or
dia mond-tipped cutoff wheel. Power
hacksaws or band sa ws are used on
speci mens that are too large or awk-
ward to cut usin g an abras ive cutoff
wheel. Abrasive cutoff wheels are used
to obt ain specimens that are clo se to
R.."hl.., U d
the final size. Diamond-tipped cutoff Figure 33-2. D iamond -tipped mtofJ wheels a re used
whee ls are used on sma ll specimens on small specimens where precision Cllts a re required.

Figure 33- 1. Erro rs in measure-

mell1 ma y be introduced when a LONGITUDINAL

l
,ral1.H'{'r,\" e section is 1101 tak en {'X- CUTIING
actly perpendicular to the plane PLANE LINES r t TRANSVERSE
• CUTIING
of the weld. " // .' PLANE LINES
(
r '.
.
/'

ED = CORRECT PLANE OF SECTION

TRANSVERSE
SECTION

5.0 20 F::::::r-"K--o;;r i
;f.
<i
4.0 ~
0 3 .0
0:
0:
w
2.0
7
V
1. 0
~
l/
O.0
o 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
$. DEGREES e, DEGREES

450 ~ We'di"l1 Skills

 Overheating is microstructural dam-
age or change caused by cutting opera-
tions. Flame or plasma cutting must be
performed at a distance of 3Js" to liz"
away from the area to be examined to
prevent overheating, so that final cut-
ting can be done with less damaging
techniques. Cutoff wheels and saws use
a coolant at the cutting surface to pre-
vent overheating. Materials with hard-
ness values greater than 35 HRC may
require the use of an abrasive cutoff
wheel or a diamond-tipped cutoff wheel
for cutting operations.
Subsurface deformation is micro-
structural damage or change produced
by cutting and that occurs below the sur-
face of the specimen. Coarse cutting
tools and heavy applications of force
increase subsurface deformation that
must be removed by grinding to prevent
false interpretations of the microstructure.
Rough Grinding. Rough grinding pre-
pares specimens for mounting by remov-
ing subsurface deformation, unnecessary
roughness, and flash or scale caused
by cutting operations. Specimens are
ground flat on a wet abrasive belt
sander using an SO-grit or l50-grit belt,
or they are machined flat in a milling
machine. When a diamond-tipped
wheel is used to make the final cut,
rough grinding is usually unnecessary.
Mounting and Fine Grinding
Specimen mounting is usually perma-
nent, meaning that the specimen is per-
manently encased in resin. Some
mounts have a temporary clamping
device that holds the specimen flat and
rigid during fine grinding. Before
mounting, any burrs at the edges of
the specimen caused by cutting or
machining are carefully removed us-
ing a smooth file or coarse abrasive
paper or cloth.
Mounting prevents rounding of the
edges of specimens and allows han-
dling during the polishing and etching
stages. Selection of the correct mount-
ing resin is based on a combination of
factors. Fine grinding prepares the
mount for the final stages of specimen
preparation.
Hot Mounting. Hot mounting is usually
performed in a mounting press that en-
capsulates the specimen with a thermo-
setting resin under pressure and at an
elevated temperature. See Figure 33-3.
The specimen is placed face down in a
vertical, cylindrical mold in the mount-
ing press. A predetermined amount of
thermosetting resin is poured into the
mold and the mold is closed. The tem-
perature is raised and pressure is main-
tained while the resin cures, making
the resin hard and strong. After the
mold cools, the mount is removed
from the mold.
Ftgure 33-3. Mounting presses
use compression and heat to en -
consulate l it e specimen in a plas -
tic mounting resin.
I'
.. Ill!
.....~ ...;.
BuehlaUd
A suitable mounting resin must cure
at a temperature and pressure that does
not alter the microstructure of the speci-
men. The mounting resin selected must
resist chemical attack by the etchant,
which is applied to the face of the
mount to reveal microstructural fea-
tures . The mounting resin must pro-
vide good adhesion to the edges of the
specimen to prevent rounding of the
edges and entry of lubricant or etchant
during specimen preparation. Lubri-
cant or etch ant that enters the mount
Metallography ~ 451
 during preparati on wi ll flo w o ut afte r
final preparation and cause stai ning of
the spec imen as it dri es.
Th e mounting resin mu st fill pores
and c re v ices on thc ex pos ed facc of
the spe cim en to prevent staining . It
must also be elect rica lly conductive if
electrolytic poli shi ng or etc hin g is to
be used. If side view s of the specimen
are required , the mounting resin mu st
be transp arent. Sec Figure 33-4.
Cold Mounting, Cold mounting is an
alternative 10 hot mounting and is per-
formed when the specimen is too large
fo r thc mount in g pr ess or w he n th e
heal invo lve d mi ght alte r th e micro-
struc ture. Cold mounting is performed
in a vacuum to remove a ir bubbles
from the mount. Room temperature
and atmos pheric pres sure mu st be
maint aincd wh en pcrformin g co ld
mounting usin g a ther moplast ic resin.
6 Mounting is used to con veniently !lold the
specimen, to mount multiple specimens. Gild
10 More and label specimens. Mounting also
protects the edges of the specimen and pro-
vides the proper specimen orientation.

MOUNTING RESINS
Molding Conditions Heat-
Distortion Transparency Chemical
Plastic Type
Tempera- Pressuret Curing Temperaturetr Resistance
ture'" Time
Phenolic Not resistant
molding Thermosett ing§ 170 4000 5min t40 Opaque to strong ac ids
powder or alkalis

Acryli c
(polymethyl
Not resistant
methacrylate) Therm oplastic 150 4000 none 65 Water white
to strong acids
moldin g
powde r

Fair resistance to
Epoxy Clear but most alkalis and
acids; poor re-
casting Therm osettlnqt 20-40 - 24 hr 60' light brown
sistance to
resin in color nitric and glacial
acetic acids

Diallyl Not resistant

molding Thermosettinq' " 160 2500 6min 150 Opaque to strong acids
compound and alkalis

For mvar*
(polyvinyl Clea r but
220 Not resistant
formal) Thermoplastic 4000 none 75 light brown
to strong acids
molding in co lor
compound

Polyvinyl chloride
Highly
resistant
molding Thermoplastic tt 160il 3000 none 60 Opaque
to most acids
co mpo und and alkalis

"C
t in psi
t de termined by melllod in ASTM 0648-56, et a fibe r stre ss of 264lb1in.l
§ wood ·fil led grade , pre ler ably with k:lw filler con tent
• liquid epoK)' resin with an aliphatic enure hardener
• depends on curing schedule (can be as high as 110' C WIth heal Ctlring )
• • diallyl phl ha lale polymer WI1 h a mi nefa l filler
It stabili zed ndged PVC
It must nol exce ed 2OO'C

F iJ.:ure .13· 4. M Oll lltill g resins //111.\'t satisfv a variety of conditions 10 he acceptable.

452 ~ Welding Skills

Fine Grinding. Fine grinding is the last
stage before poli shin g of the mount. It
cons ists of ab ra di ng the mount on a
se ries of successively fi ne r abrasive
pape rs. Before fine grinding. any resin
on the face of the specime n or any re-
maining burrs o n th e ed ges a re re-
mo ved by a 120-grit abras ive paper or
clo th . During fine grinding, a series of
wat e r-lubricat ed pap er s, ranging from
240- grit to 600- grit , are used . The
mount is lightl y washed between abra-
sive papers or belts to prevent carryover
of co arse r abrasi ve material.
Two co m mo nly used typ es of fine
grinding are four-stage belt sanding and
four-stage w hee l grind ing. Four-stage
belt sa nd ing uses an assem bly of fo ur
strips of abrasive pape r of increa si ng
fi ne ne ss. The mount ed spec ime n is
moved up and down o n each grade of
paper without rocking the mount. Th e
mounted spec im e n is abraded back-
ward and forward with out rotation un-
til all sanding mark s from the previous
coarser abrasive paper have been elimi -
nated . See Figure 33-5.
Figure 33-5. Grinding ill four-stage bel t gr inding
starts with 2-10-1:ril and finishes 1\';,11 600-l:ril /1(/l'er.
Four-st age w hee l grind ing is per-
formed on a grinding wheel by changing
the abra sive mat eri al at each stage to
eliminate success ively fi ner scra tches.
Ample water lubrica tion must be used
to pre vent overheating.
With either four-stage belt sand ing
o r four- stage w he e l g r ind ing, the
amo unt of time spe nt on eac h abrasive
material is increased as finer grades of
mat erial ar e use d. Excessive sand ing
with any grade of abrasive pape r must
be avoid ed as it may cause subsurface
deformation that cannot be eliminated
by subseque nt grades of abrasi ve pa-
per and that lead s to artifac ts. Th e
mount is thoroughly washed and dried
after fine grinding is completed .
The direction of grind ing is changed
90° with each change o f abrasive pa-
per, so that co mple te rem ov al of the
pre viou s grind ing marks is ac h ieved.
See Figure 33-6 .
Rough and Final Polishing
Rou gh and f in al poli shin g pro ce -
dures are used to develop a scratch-
free mirror fi nis h o n th e speci me n.
T h e spe c i me n is poli shed u s ing
manual , mechanical , electro lytic , or
c h e m ica l te chniqu es . The s ur face
mu st he free from pits (s m all, sharp
depressions) and subs urface deforma-
tion effects that lead 10 artifac ts when
the specimen is etched. PiIs are ca used
b y th e po lishin g o peratio n tha t re -
mo ves tin y nonmet alli c particle s such
as carbides fro m the met al surface.
"hll (""1m"",,,
Micm .ln ,p;c exam ination procedures are typical!." performed ill ala" hy trained technicians.
Meta llograph y @o 453
Fjgure 33-6. The mount is rotated
90 0 and thoroug hly wa shed be-
tween successive papers to pre vent
carryover of abrasive materials.
--------.... DIRECTION OF GRIND ING
240-GR IT 320-GRIT
ABRASIVE ABRAS IVE
Rough Polishing. Rough polishing is
a polishing process that is performed
on a series of rotating wheels covered
with a low-nap cloth (cloth containing
a small amount of fiber). Successively
finer grades of diamond rouge (pol-
ishing powder) are applied to each
wheel, usually starting at 45 Il size. The
grades usually decrease from 30 Il to
6 Il to 1 u. A small amount of lubricant
is applied to the cloth to prevent over-
heating of the mount. The mount is
washed with liquid soap and water, al-
cohol, or acetone between each polish-
ing to prevent carryover of diamond
rouge.
Final Polishing. Final polishing is simi-
lar to rough polishing , but during final
poli shing very light hand pressure is
applied to the mount. After washing
and drying in a current of warm air ,
the mount is examined under a metal-
lurgical microscope for scratches. If the
mount is scratch-free, it is ready for
etching and examination under a met-
allurgical microscope.
Final polishing is done by rubbing the
mount against a medium-nap cloth that
has a .3 Il to .05 Il alumina slurry ap-
plied to it. If the specimen surface is to
be subjected to microanalysis, alumina
should not be used. The presence of alu-
mina during microanalys is may lead to
misinterpretation of the results of the
microanalysis . Microanalysis is chemi-
cal analysis of extreme ly small regions
454 0 Weldin g Skills
400-GRIT 600-GR IT
ABRAS IVE ABRAS IVE
of the specimen surface using tools such
as energy-dispersive X-ray analysis or
electron probe microanalysis.
Automatic Polishing. Automatic pol -
ishing is a process that establishes a
complex motion for the mount relative
to the rotation of the polishing wheel.
The rough and final polishing steps are
performed in an automatic polishing
machine . The machine setting is de-
termined from operator experience.
Automatic polishing is used for large
batches of repetitive work , for radio -
active specimens, and for poli shing
techniques that add corrosives to the
wheel. See Figure 33-7.
<
.
UCO Co rl'0 mlion
Ftgure 33-7. Au tomatic po lish ing in an automat ic
polishing machine establi shes a comp lex motion f or
the numn! relative to the rotation of the poli.\-hing wheel.
Electrolytic and Chemical Polishing.
Electrolytic polishing and chemical pol-
ishing are methods of preparation that
bypass the rough and final polishing
stages. Electrolytic polishing is a polish-
ing process in which the mount is the
anode (connected to the positive terrni-
nal) in an electrolytic solution and cur-
rent is pa ssed from a metal cathode
(connected to the negative terminal). The
current is passed through the electrolytic
solution between the anode and the cath-
ode. Th e current removes the rou gh
peaks on the speci men surface. If the
gra in struc ture is homogeneou s and
single-phase (consisting of one crystal-
lographic component), a mirror-polished
surface is obtained. See Figure 33-8.
Che mic al polishing is a poli shing
proc ess that uses chemi cal reactions
to remove th e rough peaks on the
spec imen surfac e. The mount is im-
mersed in a spec ific chemical that
dissolve s the high peaks on the speci -
men to produce a mirror-polished fin-
ish. Che mical poli shing is similar to
electrolytic polishing in that it removes
the rough peaks on the specimen sur-
facc and produces a mirror-polished
surface .
MOUNT
ROUGH PEAK S
ARE REMOVED
Etching and Examination
Etching, followed by examination of
the mounted specimen with a metal-
lurgical microscope. is the last stage
of metallograph ic preparation before
microstructural examination . Etching
is necessary to reveal the microstruc-
tural detail of the poli shed specime n,
assists in determining the feature s of
the weld, and makes visible the bound-
ary between the weld metal and the
base metal. The etched specimen is ex-
amined under reflected light in a met-
allurgical micro scope .
Etching a Specimen. Etching is the con-
trolled selective attack on a metal sur-
face to reveal the microstructural detail
of a poli shed specimen. Before etch-
ing, the specimen is examined with a
metallurgica l microscope in the as-pol-
ished condition. Beside s revealing mi-
nor scratches that must be removed.
etching also makes microstructural fea-
tures such as inclusions and porosity
easy to observe.
Fteure .'3·8. Hectrotytic polL\h -
removes nm gh peaks 011 a
;II /:
specim en 11';111 the flow of C/lrr ell!
between till anode and II cathode.
ELECTROLYTIC
SOLUTION
SPECIMEN
POLISHED
SURFACE
Metallography ~ 455

Etchin g nften re -
quires t!lc' use of
strong acids. ami all
saf et y precautions
must he observed. AJ~
way.... add acid to wa-
ter when diluting. not
vice versa .
Flgure 33-9. For optim um i'iewill!:
of the m icrostrllcturt·. the mOllllr
is etched unt il a "'Ollm (If'J'<'a H
011 the surface.
AWARNING~
Alway s add add t tl water
whe n diluti ng. Nitri c acid
ca uses stains and severe
burn s. Wash affec ted a reas
with water immediatel y if
the nitric acid mix ture
to uches the ski n.
When [ocu . . ing the
metallurgical micro-
scop e, cm llClct be-
tween tile lens ami tile
spec imen mu.... t be
avoided to pre vent
surface damllKc' to the
mounted specimen.
456 €l' Welding Skills
Th e spec ime n is then thorou ghl y
degreased, dried, and prepared for etch-
ing. Etching is the last stage before ex-
amination. Etchants selectively dissolve
speci fic microstructural components.
giving the as-polished surface a relief
appearance. Etchants are se lected to
di stingui sh va ri ous mi crostructural
component s to provide the best view
of the microstructural feature s.
Etching is usually performed hy
immersion. The specimen is immersed
with th e poli shed face upward in a
small dish of etching solution, which is
genlly swirl ed . The spec ime n is re-
moved when a bloom appears. A bloom
is a slight haze that appears on the sur-
face of the specimen and is evidence of
the first appearance of the microstruc-
ture. See Figure 33-9.
If necessary, further etching may be
performed after examination under a
microscope to strengthen any details .
However, over-etching may cause loss
of contrast. After etching , the specimen
is thorou ghly rinsed in running water.
Then aceton e or alcohol is sprayed
over the surface. The excess is allowed
to run off against a cloth that is held at
one side of the specimen. The speci-
men is then dried in a stream of hot
air. The specimen should be etched and
tin e polished at least twice to remove
flowed metal from the surface.
Specimen Examination. Metallurgi-
cal microscope examination uses light
refl ected from the specime n surface
to e xamin e micro stru ctural detail s.
The surface of the specimen must be
widely sca nned to gain a repre senta-
tive view of the microstructure . De-
tail s are re vealed becau se et ching
atta ck s the gra ins of metal at differ-
ent rate s , whi ch re sult s in variou s
shading e ffects. The proper amount
of etching is required for optimum
vi ewing of the microstructure. Im-
proper amount s of etching lead to
overetchin g or underetching, result-
ing in false effects. See Figure 33- 10.
The etched spec ime n is placed in
a metallurgical microscope and exam-
ined at low -power ma gni ficati on of
25x or 50 x to obtain an over all im-
pre ssion of the microstructure. It is
then ex amined at increasing magnifi-
cation s o f IOOx to IOOOx to reveal
fine detail. High er magnification s up
to 2500x cannot be achi e ved within
the air space avai lable between the
lens and the specimen .
Higher magnification s require the
use of water or oil immersion. A small
amount of water or oil is daubed on
the obj ective len s, which is lowered
towards the specimen. If water or oil
imme rsion is to be followed by lower
magnification work, the water or oil is
removed from the specime n and the
mount may require repolishing and re-
etchin g. Surface films on some alloy s
may require that specimens are repol-
ished and re -etched several times to
remove the affected surface layer and
reveal their true structure.
When focu sing the metallurgical
microscope, contact betw een the lens
and the spec imen must be avoided to
prevent surface damage to the mounted
specimen. The micro scope is focu sed
in two steps. First, the microscope stage
is gradually moved tow ard the objec-
tive lens using the coar se adjustment.
Second, when the image appears, the
focus ing is completed usin g the fine
adju stment.
 -, :-..
"
... . \
,

.} \ -<,0'
f
~I
)~
, ",

f.;.~
•.. ) . ",I
i
I,W
if
"''. ~ ,,;S
":4 .
.x ') "'> ...~
OVERETCHING UNDERETCHING

Figure 33-10. Properly etched spe cimens reveal true microstructural f eatures when viewed hy a metullurgivul microscop e.

Metallurgical microscopes vary from Interpretation probl em s such as ar-

small benchtop units to larger units that
have thei r own frame work. Some are
equipped with a video camera and moni-
tor that are used to view microstructures.
See Figure 33- 11. A me tallog raplt is a
metallurgical micro scop e equipped to
photograph microstructures and produce
photomicrogr aph s. Photomi cro graph s
are photographs of microstructures.
ti facts and surfa ce films may hinder
metallurgical mi croscopic ex amina-
tio n. An artifact doe s not correspond
to the true microstru ctur e and occ urs
during metallographic spec ime n prep-
aration . Artifacts result hom incompl ete
removal of a thin surface layer that has
been affected by the specimen prepara-
tion proce ss. For example, overheating

Figu re 33-11. TIl(' benchtop met -

allurgical microscope is commollly
used for specitnan ex amination.

':1_
._,
- - - - - »<:->:
{yeo Corporalio"

Metallography €l' 457

 during cutting may give the false im-
pression that the specimen was heat-
tre ated .
o Specimens may need to he repolished and
re-etched if interpretation problems occur
du ring preparation.
Illumination. Different types of illumi-
nation e nha nce the appearance of the
microstructural ch aracteri stics of the
spec im e ns . These include brightfield
illum ination . d arkfield illum ination,
polarized illumination, and Nomarski
illumination. See Figure 33 - 12.
Brightfield illumination is an illumi-
nation process in wh ic h the s ur fa ce
feature s perpendic ular to the o pt ical
axi s of t he m ic ro sc o pe appear the
brightes t. Brightfield illumination is the
most common form o f illu m inat ion
used wi th a me tallurgica l microscope.
The surface of the spe c imen is placed
perpendicular to the optical axi s of the
m icroscope and a white light is used.
Darkfield illumination is an illumi-
nation process that illuminates the speci-
men at suffic ient obliqueness (a narrow
angle to the s urface) so that the con-
tra st is com plete ly reversed from that
obtained with bri ghtfield illum ination.
Those area, that are bright in brightfield
will be dark in darkfield and vice versa.
Darkfield illum ination is useful for
highlighting microstructural feature s
(inclu sions, g ra in bound aries , a nd
cracks) that are dark and difficult to dis-
tingui sh under brightfie ld illumination.

FiJ.:llrl' .13- 12. Till' four illumina-

l ioll .ror"' ·~for/lli('roKrlll'''sll re
hriKh~ri"'d,
darkfictd. polarited. . -
... .... •

and Nomarski illumination,

':.,?;
, ' .'
c •

, ><
\

• r-

,
1
•
j

'"•~ ... , .- •

..,;
•• , ,
"

.'" I
,
, I
\.
t
;

BRIGHTFIELD DARKFIELD
\Vht'IJ examining mel-
ailographic samples
w it/era metallurgical
microscope. illumina-
tion techniques such
lIS brigiufietd. dark-
field, polarized. lind
Nomarski may be
"sed 10 nvrat micro-
st ructural features.

POLARIZED NOMARSKI
l.£CO COf{Wfd l io rr

458 0 Weldillg Skills

 Polarized illamination is an illumina-
tion process that reveals microstructural
features in metals that are optically aniso-
tropic. Optically anisotropic describes a
microstructural feature in which the mi-
crostructure has optical properties that
vary with changes in the viewing direc-
tion. The light is polarized by placing a
polarizer in front of the condenser lens
of the microscope and placing an ana-
lyzer behind the eyepiece. A polarizer
is a device into which normal light passes
and from which polarized light emerges.
Nomarski illumination is an illumi-
nation process that illuminates the
specimen using polarized light that is
separated into two beams by a biprism.
A biprism is two uniaxial, double-
refracting crystals. The beams are re-
flected back through the biprism off of
the specimen surface . The biprism
combines the beams into one beam,
which is run though an analyzer and
viewed through an eyepiece. Images
produced are three-dimensional and
vary in color. This variation in dimen-
sion and color is used to identify metals
and their various phases .
MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Macroscopic examination is used to re-
veal the general structure of large areas
of a specimen because they might not
be revealed under the higher magnifica-
tions used in microscopic examination.
Macroscopic examination is performed
with the naked eye or at magnifications
up to lOx using a binocular microscope.
Larger specimens are used for macro-
scopic examination than are used for
microscopic examination. A specimen
for macroscopic examination is usually
an entire section through a component.
These specimens are used to reveal gross
elements of fabrication quality, such as
size of weld.
Macroscopic examination consists of
specimen preparation; rough and fine
grinding; and macroetching and exami-
nation. Photography may be used to
document macroscopic examination.
Specimen Preparation
Specimen preparation for macro -
scopic examination consists of re-
moving a slice, by flame cutting or
sawing, in the plane to be examined.
Fabrication codes and standards may
indicate where cuts must be taken to
produce acceptable specimens for
macroscopic examination.
Rough and Fine Grinding
Rough and fine grinding procedures
are similar to those used in micro-
scopic examination. Fine grinding is
performed to a final finish with a
240-grit abrasive. Unlike microscopic
examination, the specimen is not
mounted.
o Applications of macmetching are to study
the weld structure; to measure joint pen-
etration; to detect lack affusion; and to de -
termine whether slag, flux, porosity, or
cracks are present in the weld and the heat-
affectedzone.
Macroetching and Examination
Macroetching differs from etching
used for microstructural examination
and requires the use of macroetchants.
Macroetchants are deep etchants that
Macroscopic exami-
are intended to develop gross features nation may be used
such as weld solidification struc- to examine speci-
tures. Macroetchants are designed to mens with large test
surface areas.
attack metal more deeply and more
quickly than metallographic etchants.
See Figure 33-13.
Different etchants, such as hydro-
chloric acid, ammonium hydroxide-
peroxide, or nitric acid, are used to
reveal specific types of microstructural
details. After the etching process, the
specimen is ready for examination in
~
Macros copic ex -
a metallurgical microscope. See Ap- amination consists
pendix. ~
- ofspecimen prepa-
ration; rough and
A hydrochloric acid solution should
fine grinding; and
contain equal parts by volume of con- macroetching and
centrated hydrochloric (muriatic) acid examination.
and water. Immerse the weld in the
Metallagraphy @o 459
 boiling reagent. Hydrochloric acid will
etch unpoli shed surfaces . It usually
e nlarges gas pock et s and disso lve s
slag inclusion s, enlarg ing the result-
ing cavities .
An ammonium hydroxide-peroxide
solution should co ntain one part am -
monium per sulfate (so lid) and nin e
parts water by weight. Vigorou sly rub
the surface of the weld with cotton satu-
rated with the ammonium per sulfate
reagent at roo m temperature.
Nitric acid etches rapidly and should
only be used on poli shed surfaces . It
will show the refined zone as well as
the metal zone. Mix one part concen-
trated nitr ic acid to three part s water
by vo lume. Eithe r apply the rea gent
Flgure 33· 13. Macroetciuuus are
dn'l' rtchants intended to develop
gross features such as weld .1'0 -
tidificanon structures. Etching Solution
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
10 9 (NH3)2S20 . (amm onium
persulfat e) + 100 mL H2O
15 mL HN0 3 + 85 mL H20 + 5 mL
methanol or ethanol
8 mL HN0 3 + 2 9 picric aci d + 10 9
(NH3),S,o. + 109 citri c acid + 10
drops (.5 mL) benzalkonium chloride
+ 1500 mL H2O
Aluminum Alloys
Tucker's reagent,
45 mL HCI + 15 mL HN 0 3 + 15 mL
HF (48%) + 25 mL H2O
Poulton's reagent,
60 mL HCI + 30 mL HN 0 3 + 5 mL
HF (48 %) + 5 mL H2O
Copper and Copper Allays
50 mL HN 0 3 + .5 9 AgN0 3 (silver
nitrate) + 50 mL H2O
Titanium Alloys
Kroll's reagent,
10-30 mL HN03 + 5-15 mL HF
+ 50 mL H2O
• surfa ce preparation: A, finishgrind; B, polish
460 ~ We/dill !! Skills
to the surface of the weld with a glass
stirring rod at room temperature or im-
merse the weld in boiling reagent, pro-
vided the room is well ventilated. After
etching, wash the weld immediately in
clear, hot water. Rem ove exc ess wa-
ter. Dip the etched surface in ethyl al-
cohol : th en rem ove a nd dry it in a
steady blast of warm air.
An iodin e a nd pot assium iod id e
solution is obtained by mixing one part
powdered iodine (solid) to 12 parts of
a so lutio n o f pota ssium iod id e by
weight. The pota ssium iodide solution
should co nsist of one part potassium
iodide to five parts water by weight.
Brush the surface of the weld with this
reagent at room temperature.
MACROETCHANTS
Surface
Comments
Preparation'
Swab; macroetch brings out fusion
B line, heat -affected zone, reheated
zones, columnar zones
Swab; macroetch brings out fusion
line, heat-affected zone, reheated
A,B zones, columnar zones; scrub
gently underrunning water to
remove any black residue
Immerse; highlights part ially
transformed regions in reheat
B
and heat-affected zones
(Ref 13)
Immerse or swab: use freshly
A, B
mixed general macroet ch ; all alloys
Immerse or swab; general
A. B
macroetch, all alloys
Immerse: general macroetch,
A,B
all alloys
Immerse; general macro- and
rnlcro etch ; increase HN0 3 and
B
reduce HF to bring out the fine
structures in weldrn errts
Macroetching. Macroetching is usually
performed by gently daubing the sample
with the macroetchant or by immersing
smaller specimens in the macroetchant
and gently swirling. Higher temperatures
accelerate the etching rate. Prolonged
etching is avoided because it leads to
darkening of the specimen . which ob-
scures detail. When the structural fea -
tures are developed. the specimen is
immediately rinsed in warm running wa-
ter. During rinsing, the surface should
be scrubbed with a soft bristle brush to
remove deposits formed during
macroetching. Deposits may contain re-
sidual macroetchant and may lead to lo-
calized overetching if the macroetchant
is not thoroughly removed. The washed
specimen is dried by squirting it with al-
cohol or acetone, which is allowed to
drain into a cloth that is held at one side
of the mount, and then drying the speci-
men in a current of warm air.
The surface must be preserved as
quickly as possible after drying, once
it has been determined that the amount
of macroetching is adequate . Preser-
vation consists of coating the surface
with a clear lacquer. If the surface is
not preserved it will oxidize and darken
with time and lose surface features.
Examination. Examination of macro-
etched samples may be performed with
the naked eye or under a binocular mi-
croscope. A binocular microscope is a
light microscope that provides a low-
magnification, three-dimensional view
of the surface. A binocular microscope
is limited to a magnification of 30x to
SOx for most work. The magnification
of a binocular microscope is limited by
the required depth of field. Depth orfield
is the total depth of the image that can
be maintained in focus within a lens. The
rougher the surfaces of a weld or its
macroetched face, the lower the useful
magnification and the greater the depth
of field required. Macroscopic examina-
tion is described in ASTM E 381 ,
Macroetch Testing, Inspection, and Rat-
ing or Steel Products, Comprising Bars,
Billets, Blooms, and Forgings.
Photomacrography is the documen-
tation of macroetched samples using
photography. Photomacrography is
performed using an overhead digital
camera. A ruler is placed alongside the
specimen to indicate scale . The rough-
ened surface attained through macro-
etching must be in focus to achieve
adequate resolution. Resolution is con-
trolled by the depth of field of the lens.
Depth of field is controlled by three
factors: the focal length of the lens, the
aperture (area) of the lens, and the dis-
tance between the surface and the lens.
Depth of field varies as the inverse
square of the focal length. For example,
if the focal length is reduced by one half;
the depth of field increases by a factor
of four. Depth of field doubles as the ap-
erture setting (f-stop number of the lens)
doubles. The f-stop indicates the aper-
ture size of the lens . Depth of field is
proportional to the square of the distance
of the surface from the lens. For example,
if the aperture size of the lens is increased
by a factor of three, the depth of field
increases by a factor of nine.
Lighting
Lighting has the greatest overall effect
on the appearance of a surface. Proper
use of lighting sources and lighting
methods permits key features and mor- Magnification, reso -
lution , and lighting
phology of the specimen to be revealed. are the three most im-
The four types of lighting sources are portant methods of
spotlight, diffused light, reflected light, photography used for
docum enting macro -
and flash light. See Figure 33-14. sc op ic examination
A spotlight is an intense lighting features.
source that uses a single bulb in a re-
flector. Diffused light is a lighting source
that use s a semi -opaque screen (such
as ground glass) to diffuse the light
source, reduce glare, and soften harsh
details. Reflected light is a lighting
source that bounces light off a white
card, wall, or ceiling. The effect pro-
duced is similar to the effect produced
by diffused light. A flashlight is a light-
ing source that provides a pulse of very
intense light. A flashlight is the best light
source (next to direct sunlight) for color
photography of uneven surfaces .
Metallography @o 461
 ..-- . . ' .
Figu re 33· 14. The jour types of
lig htin!: .HJIlrCt'.fare .fl'otlig1J t . •
dijJim'd light. reflected light . lind
J1tahligllt.
INTENSE
LIGHT
SOURC E
SPOTLIGHT
WHITE CARD
REFLECTED LIGHT J
REFLECTED LIGHT
The four types of lightin g methods
are main lighting, fill lighting, back-
light ing, an d bu ildup lightin g. These
light ing met hods use com bin ation s of
the four types of light sources to achieve
the des ired lighting effect.
Main lighting is a primary ligh ting
method that uses a light source at aver-
tical angle of 40° to 60° to the subject.
Fill lighting is a lighting method that uses
a small region of a brighter light to in-
crease detail on a dark area of a subject.
462 ~ Welding Skills
"'f i\
DIFFUSED
SEMI·OPAQUE
SCREEN
DIFFUSED LIGHT
/ PULSE OF
,/ INTENSE LIGHT
FLASHLIGHT
The light source for till lighting may be
spo tlig ht, diffused light, or re flected
light. Backli ghting is a lighting method
that uses a diffused light source to elimi-
nate or soften shadow detail. A light box
(lighted ground-glass screen) behind the
specimen is the most commo n diffused
light so urce for backligh ting. Buildup
lig hting is a lightin g method that com-
bines (adding or deleting) light sources
to achieve the desired ligh ting effect.
See Figure 33- 15.
 Figure 33-15. P roper selection
and U .H ' of fiX/u jrlK met hod s per-
mits key fe at ures 0 11 a fracture
surface 10 be revealed .
SPOTLIGHT,
1__
~~. LIGHT DIFFUSED LIGHT,
: 40'-60' SOURCE OR REFLECTED
~ LIGHT
MAIN
CAMERA " LIGHT
1 ' ,/

Y ,/
y SOURCE

/
SPECIMEN
1,/....-- SPECIMEN
I"'L
MAIN FILL

~ LIGHT
MAIN

GROUND·
SPOT·
LIGHT
GROUND·
Y WHITE
SOURCE

GLASS ~ S PEC I M E N GLASS CARD

SCREEN SPECIMEN
SCR9'~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
n iGHT LIGHT
BOX BOX

BACK BUILDUP

I . T he stages of meta llography include cutting and rough grinding, mounting and fine grinding.
rough and fina l polishing, and etching and examination.
2. Etching often requires the use of strong acid s, and all safety precaut ions must be observed.
Always add acid to water when dilut ing, not vice versa.
3. When focusin g the metallurg ical microscope, contact betwee n the lens and the specimen must
be avo ided to prevent surfac e damage to the mounted spec imen.
4. When examining metallographic sample s under a metallurgical microscope , illumin ation tech-
nique s such as brightfield, darkfi eld, polarized, and Nomarski may be used to reveal micro-
structural features.
5 . Macroscopi c examination may be used to exa mine spec imens with large test surface areas.
6 . Macroscop ic examinatio n co nsists of spec imen prep arati on ; rou gh and fine gri ndi ng ; and
macro etching and examination.
7. Magnifi cation, resolution , and lighti ng are the three most important method s of photo graphy
used for documenting macroscopic examin ation feature s.

Metallography ~ 463
 I . What types of weld attributes may be studied using metallography?
2 . Why must overheating be avoided when cutting specimens for metallographic examination?
3. What is the minimum distance the heat source must be kept from the area of interest when
burning is used to remove specimens?
4. What is the purpose of rough grinding for metallographic examination?
5. What is macroscopic examination?
6. Why are successively finer stages of grinding and polishing used to prepare a specimen for
metallographic examination?
7. Why must a polished specimen be etched before examination under a metallurgical microscope?
8 . What is the difference between microetchants and macroetchants?
9. What type of light does a metallurgical microscope use?
10. How does the magnification range of a metallurgical microscope compare with that of a binocu-
lar microscope?
I I. What is the meaning of depth of field when used in the examination of macroscopic specimens?

464 ~ Welding Skills

Weld discontinuities are interruptions in the structure of a weld and are not necessarily weld defec ts. Weld
discontinuities are caused by poor weld design, improper welding p rocedures, and improper welder
techniques. Weld discontinuities are grouped according to their nature.

Weld defects are weld discontinuities that fa il to meet the requirements ofthe codes or standards by which
the weld is made. A weld defect requires that the weld be rejected, or repaired and reexamined. Weld
defects are not permitted by controlling codes or standards because they can lead 10 premature failure.
Various nondestructive examination (NDE) techniques are used to detect weld defe cts and discontinuities
and measure their size and orientation.

WELD DISCONTINUITIES cabl e fabricat ion standa rd or co de to

A weld discontinuity is an interrupti on
in the typical structure of a weld. Weld
discon tinuities ca n occur in the we ld
metal, the heat-affected zo ne (HAZ),
or the base metal. Their location var -
ies dep ending upon the type of weld.
A weld discontinu ity is not always con-
side red a defect. Th e tran s ition poi nt
be twee n a disco ntinuity and a defect
depe nds upon the fabricat ion standard
or code that co ntro ls the we lded joint
design and qu alit y.
D isco nt inuit ies ar e de te cted hy
nond estruc ti ve exa mina t io n ( NDE).
Th e most co mmo n N DE techn iqu es
used a re vis ua l exam ination (V T) ,
mag netic particle exami nat io n (MT) ,
liqu id penetra nt examinatio n (PT), ra-
diog raphic examinatio n (RT), and ul-
traso nic examination (U T) . The most
appli cabl e N DE techniqu e or tech-
niques are selected to locate and mea-
sure the s ize a nd o rientatio n of th e
disco nt in uity. Th e di scontinuity si ze
and o rie ntat io n are the n compared
with wha t is a llowable in the appli-
A discontinuit y is
decide whethe r the di scontinuity is a
an int erruption in
defect and whether the weld should be the structu re of a
acc epted or rejected . weld . D ;SC0 1l1i,, -
uities are 1101 always
defec ts.
Weld Defects
Weld defect s res u lt from weld
discontinuiti es that by thei r nature or
their acc umulated effec t are unahl e to
meet the minimu m acceptable require-
men ts of the applicab le fa brication
standard or code. An unacceptabl e dis-
continuity under certain se rvice co n-
diti on s ma y be acceptabl e in a le ss
Discontinuities art'
demanding service or in another metal. classified (IS deject s
Refer to the requirement s of the fabri- when tlu'y exceed the
ca tio n co de or standard that governs min imum re qui re -
me1lts permitted by
the quality of the we lded jo int under the controlling code
considera tion. See Figure 34-1. A weld or standard.
defect requires rejec tion of the part.
o A discontinuity ;.'1 a crack, flaw: or imper-
fection in a base material or weld metal.
Discontinuities are classified b)' their 11(1·
rure (how they alter stresses in the weld)
and by their shape. which encompasses their
orienta tion with respect 10 the workingstress
and their location with respect to the weld.

465
 Types of Pipelin e s Power Boilers
Defect (per API Std. 1 10 4) (per ASME Section 1)

None allowed [except shallow cra ter cracks in the cover

Nooe Allowed None Allowed
pass with max imum length of ~1

• Maximum ot t " in length in 12'" of weld , or 8% of weld

Incomplete Penet ration
length it less tha n 12" None Allowed None Allowed
at root pass
• Maximum individual length of 1'"

• Maximum individual length of 2'"

Incomplete Penetration
• Maximum accumulated Ieogth 01 3'" in 12'" of continuous None Allowed None Allowed
due to high-low lit -up
weld

• Maximum ct t " in length in 12" of weld . or 8% of weld

Lack of FuSion
length if Jess than 12"" Non e Allowed None Allowed
at roo t pass
• Max imum ind ividual length ot t "
L.acX or Fusion at • Max imum individual length of 2"
gfOCl'v'e face or between • Maximum accumulated length of 2" in 12" None Allowed None Allowed
beads. "CCId lap" of conlinuous weld
Pipe Max im u m Max im u m
Dia mete r Defect Tot al
Men·t hrou gh Not Cove red Not Covered
less than 20/." 0 0
greater than or equal to 20/,'" 0 0
Y~'"
Y,'" '"
Win2"

If density 01 radiographic image of internal concavity is Shall not reduce weld thickness to less
Internal Concavity less tha n base met al, any length is allowable. If more than thinne r mate rial. Contour of Not Covere d
dense, the n see burn-t hroug h above conca vity shall be smoo th

• Ma ximum dept h Ya2" or 12 lf.o% wall thickness,

• For horizo ntal butt joints : maximum
wh ic hever is smaller.
Under cut at Root depth 'h2'"
o Ma ximum 2" length or % wall thickn ess, wh ich ever is ~" or 10% tt. w hichever is less
pass or co ver pass • For vertical butt joints: maximum
less, for depth of 1/"." to lh;o" o r 6% to 12'12% of wall
depth Yr.,"
thickn ess, whichever is less

o Maximum length is 2" and width V1S" Mat eri al Maximum

Material Maximum
o Maximum total length 2" in 12" of weld . Parallel slag lines Thickness Slag Length Thi ckn es s Slag Le ngth
Slag Inc lusions are co nsidered sepa rate if width of eithe r excee ds ~". less than or equal to %" '/~" less than or equa l to %" y~"

elonga ted, except as Isolated Slag Inclusions: %" to 2 V~R %It 0/." to 2Vl' %tt
note d • Maxim um widt h WI"an d lh" length in 12" of weld . great er than 2Y~R Y," grea ter than 2 Y~R Y,"
• No mo re than 4 isolated inc lusions of ~" maximum
wid th. Maximum length of tt in 12t t length Maximum total leng th of It in 12tt lerlQth

Spherical; Maximum di mension 'hi'"or 25% of wall

___
• For alig ned rounded ind ications, me o For aligned rounded ind icalion s, the
.-l-~ ~~

10 0 % X -Ray, Random X- Ray, a nd S pot X- R ay a re q uality level d e signations u sed by the ASME p re ssure vessel and ANSI p iping codes a nd are a lso u se d
whe n o ther NDE me lhods 01eva luation are used
t t '" weld thickness
t T '" thinner m ateria l thickness
§ w = weld width
I s e e U HT-20 fo r special heat- treated ferritic steels
, joint category A
00 joint categories B , C . and D

Figure J4~1. Fabrication standards and codes govern tile acceptahte qllality of a Ire/Jed jo int. and are the determinin g [actor ill 'he acceptance
or rej ection oj a weld . See Appendix,

Weld Stresses stress. If the load-bearing cross-sectional

Weld stresses "UIY be
concentrated or en-
hanced b..... the pres-
et/cecf discontinuities.
letll/in,:: tof ailure UII -
der load.
466 0 Welding Skills
Weld stresses may be increased or con-
centrated in a specific area by defec ts.
Weld stres ses are mag nified when
discontinuities reduce the cross-sectional
area of the weld that is avai lab le to
support the load. T he average stress
on a weld is in direct proportion to the
reduction of the load-bearing cro ss-
sectional area ca used by the disconti -
nuit y. The lowe r the load-bearin g
cross-sec tiona l area, the high er the
area of a weld is reduced sufficiently,
structural failure may occur under load.
See Figure 34-2.
Concentrated weld stresses occur at
discont inuitie s that create abrupt
cha nges of geo metry, result ing in a
notch effect. A notch effect is a stress-
co ncentrating condition caused by an
abrupt cha nge in section thickness or
in co ntinu ity of the struc ture. The
sharper the change of geometry in the
notch effect , the greater the stress con-
centration. Tensile stresses perpe ndicu-
lar to the notch and she ar stresses
parallel to the notch are concentrated
at the tip of the notch . Extremely high
stress concentrations can develop at
extremel y sharp not che s created by
pla nar-type di scontinuities s uch as
cracks, lamination s, or incomplete fu-
sion. Such di scontinuit ie s may lead
to catastrophic fracture in service. See
Figure 34-3 .
SIIt/'k ll-ch"imel, In...
Ffgure 3-1-2. If the load- bea ring area of a weld is
.u ifficit'tIl1y reduced . structural failure may occur when
the part is place d under load.
LOAD
t LOAD
t
LOAD
t LOAD
t
o Cracks are the most serious type ofimper-
[ec tion that can occur ;11 welds. Cracks
sho uld always he remo ved beca use they
reduce the strength of the weld.
Discontin uities th at concentrate
stresses are usually more detrim ental
than discont inuities that amplify stress.
Weld discontinuity types are cracks, cavi-
ties, inclusions, incomplete fusion and
incomplete penetration, incorrect shape,
and miscellaneous discont inuities.
CRACKS
A crack is a fracture -type discontinu-
Cracks are frocmre-
ity characterized by a sharp tip and a type discontinuities
high ratio of length to width , and width and are not permit-
to open ing di splacement. Cr ack s are ted in fabrication
standa rds and codes.
the mo st serious di sc ontinuities in
we ldments a nd are not perm itted in
fabr icat io n sta ndard s and codes .
Cracks are not per mitted becau se they
create signil1cant stress concentrat ions
at thei r tips . See Fig ure 34-4. When
crack ing is observed during welding,
it must be remo ved before weldi ng
co nti nues . Wel d metal that is depos-
ited over a crack can result in exten-
sion of the crack into newly depo sited
weld metal.
Fi~un' 34·3. Discontinuities that
Cfl/Wl' fltra fe str esses li f t' mOf e del -
SHARP STRESS CONCENTRATION
rimen tal ' ha ll discontinuities I1WI
PRODUCED AT CRACK . LEADING TO
PREMATURE FAILURE UNDER LOAD amplify stresses. and may lead /0
catastrophic fra cture ami failu re
ill service.
SMOOTH TRAN SITION BElWEEN
WELD AND BAS E METAL MEANS
THAT STRESS AMPLIF ICATION
IS MINIMIZED AND PART DOES NOT
FAIL PREMATURELY UNDER LOAD
We'ld Discontinuities :§: 467
Figure 34-4. Cracks are flOT per-
mined ill metal because they create
\'ign!f/can{ stress concentrations at
their tips. Cracks must he removed
before welding contin ues .

Prehe at
Reliev e residual st resses mec hanic ally
Highl y rigid joi nt Minimize shrinkage st resses using back- step o r block weldi ng
sequence
Change we lding cu rrent and travel speed
Excessive dilution We ld with covered electrode , DCEN; butter th e joi nt faces prior to
we lding
Change to new electrode ; prope rly store and maintain electrodes
Defective electrodes
to prevent moisture and damage
Poor fit-up Reduce root opening; build up edg es wit h weld metal
Small weld bead Increase electrode size ; raise weld ing current; red uce travel speed
High -su lfur base metal Use low-sulfur filler metal
Angu lar distor tion Ch ange to balanced welding on both sides of joint
Fill c rater before extinguishi ng the arc; use a welding cu rrent decay
Crate r crack ing
device when te rminating the w eld bead

Hydrogen in welding atmosphere
Hot cracking
Low ductility
High residual stresses
High hardenability
Br ittle phases in the microstructure
Heat.AffecledZqne
Use low-hydrogen welding process ; preh eat and hold for 2 hr
after wel ding or posth eat immediately
Use low heat input; deposit thin layer s; change ba se metal
Use preheat; anneal bas e met al
Redes ign the w eldment; chan ge welding sequence ; app ly
intermediate stress-relief heat treatment
Preheat; increase heat input ; heat treat withou t cooling to room
temperature
Solution heat treat pr ior to weld ing

Cracks may occur in the weld, the Crack Types

HAZ, or the base metal when the local- Figure 34·5
ized stress exceeds the ultimate strength
of the metal. Cracks are classified as hot C RAT ER CRACK
(HOT CRACK)
crack s or cold cracks, and may be lon-
gitudinal or transvers e in their orienta-
tion . A hot crack is a crack formed at
temperatures near the completion of so- TRANSVERSE
C RAC K
lidification. A cold crack is a crack that
develop s after solidification is complete. LONGITUDINAL
CRACK
Hot cracks propagate between the grains
of metal, and cold cracks propagate both
between and through the grains of the
metal. A lon gitudinal crack is a crack
with its major axi s oriented approxi-
mately parallel to the weld axis. A trans-
verse crack is a crack with its major axis
ori ented approximately perpendicular TOE C RAC K
(COLD C RAC K)
to the weld axis . See Figure 34-5.
Crack s are clas sified according to
ROOT CRACK
their location in the weld . Crack types (HOT CRACK)
in welds are throat cracks, crater cracks,
Cracks are classified
according to their tran sverse c racks, underbead cracks,
location in the weld. lamellar tearing, toe and root cracks, Figure 34-5. Cracks arc classified acco rding to their
fissures, and liquid metal embrittlement. location in the weld.

468 @o Welding Skills

Throat Cracks
Throat cracks are lon gitudi nal cracks
in the middl e of the surface (throat) of
a weld, exte nd ing toward the root of
the weld . Throat cracks are hot cracks
that are co nfined to the center of the
weld. Throat cracks may be the exten-
sio n through success ive weld pa sses
of a crac k that started in the first pass
(root pass), A throat crack that starts in
th e root pass a nd is no t rem o ved o r
co mplete ly rem elted before dep ositi on
of the next pass tends to progress into it
and then to each succeeding pass, unti I
it appears at the surface. Final exten-
sion of the crack to the surface may also
occur during cooling after welding has
been co mpleted. See Figure 34-6.
Throat Cracks
Figure 34-6
THR OAT CRACK
EXTEND S THROUGH
WELD AS FILLER
PASSES ARE AD DED
Figure J..l·6. Throat cracks are longitudinal crack s
that start ;1/ the root bead and extend throu gh the
weld as filler / 1(IH e .f lire added.
Thro at c racks are de tected by vi-
sual examination or liquid pen etrant
examination. Throat c rac ks appear as
relativel y lon g, strai ght cracks al on g
the centerline of the weld . VT is of-
ten an ad equate method o f detection
because throat cracks a re relati vel y
wide di scont inuiti es .
Throat Crack Prevention. Thro at
cracks a re pre vented by usin g jo in t
desig ns that redu ce joint res traint a nd
e xcessive stresses in so lid ifying we ld
metal. Th e we ld g roo ve dimen si on s
mu st be adj usted to allow depo sition
of a sufficient amount of filler metal to
overcome excess ive joint restraint. The
welding process variables must be ad-
justed to permit correct weld bead size
for the joint thickness, sufficie nt heat
input , and optimum travel speed to pre-
ve nt e xce ssiv e stresses during so lidi-
fication . Th ese ma y also be ac hieved
by fact ors suc h as usin g a more du c-
tile fill er meta l a nd red uc ing cooling
rate through application of preheat.
Crater Cracks
Crater cracks are sta r-s ha pe d cracks
w h ic h e xtend from th e c rate r of th e
weld to the edg e o f th e weld. Crat e r
c rac ks may be the starti ng point fo r
throat cracks, particularly when in the
c rater formed at th e co mple tio n o f a
weld . Crater cracks are hot crack s
formed by improperl y endin g th e
welding arc in the crater of the weld .
When the crater is formed el sewhere
(for in stance , when an e lec trode is
chan ged). the crack may be welded out
w he n ope rat io n resumes . If not , fine
star-shaped cracks are observed at vari-
ou s location s. Crater crac ks are most
often found in materials with high co -
effic ie nts of e xpansion such as au ste-
nitic stainless steels. See Figure 34-7.
Crater cracks are mo st commonly de-
tected by VT. Crater cracks are clearly
visibl e to the naked eye as star-sha ped
fissu res in the sm all crate r fo rme d at
the terminat ion of a we ld pass.
Figure .l~ -7. Crate r cr acks an '
IIot cracks /o r/l/('(/ f rom imprope r
termination (~f the wl'1dillg arc in
the crater of th e weld. Crater
cracks a re commonty found in
materials with (/ high coefficient
of expansion.
Weld Discontinui ties 0 469

Figure 34-8. A mil-off tab is lack
welded to rl/(, pla tes 10 he welded
to allow welding 10 rim ojf onto it
to prevent crater cracks from form -
ing ill the weld.
470 €l' Weldin g Skill"
Crater Crack Prevention. Crater cracks
are pre vented by properly terminating
th e weld . Method s used to pr event
cracks include back -stepping the arc
into previ ously solidified material be-
fo re breakin g it. using a foot ped al to
allow decay of the arc; filling craters to
a slightly co nvex shape prior to break-
ing the arc; or using a run -off tab. A
run-off tab is a piece of met al of the
same compos ition and thickn ess as the
base metal that is tacked to the metal to
allow the we ld to be completed. The
run-off tab is later removed by cutting
it off. See Figure 34-8.
Run-off Tabs
Figure 34·8
PLATES BEING
WELDED
RUN·OFF
TAB
Transverse Crocks
Trans verse cracks are cracks in a weld
perpendicul ar to the axis of the we ld
and so metimes ex tending beyond the
weld int o the base metal. Tran sverse
cracks are cold crack s resulting from
high res traint ac ting on low ductility
weld metal. Transverse cracks in steel
we ld ments are usually rel ated to hy-
drogen em britt le me nt. Tr an sver se
cracks are detected by VT. PT. and MT
as tight . relatively straight cracks per-
pendi cul ar to the weld axi s.
Transverse Crack Prevention. Trans-
verse crack prevention depends on the
specific welding situation. For example.
transverse cracks may be caused by
using an inc orrect fill er metal com-
po sition, rapid cooling, or a weld that
is too small for the part bein g j oined.
Depending on the situation, tran sverse
cracks may be eliminated by using the
proper filler metal co mposition, higher
welding current or preheat , or a larger
filler metal and final weld dimension.
re specti vel y.
Underbead Crocks
Unde rbea d cracks are c rac ks in the
HAZ that generally do not extend to the
surface of the base met al. Unde rbead
cracks may be lon gitudinal o r tran s-
verse, depending on the direction of the
principal s tresses in th e weldment.
Underbe ad crac ks are co ld cracks and
are usually short and discontinuou s. See
Figure 34-9 .
- . - ..
UNDERBEAD CRACK
Figure 34-9. Unde rbead crack..~ me cold cracks that
fo rm in the heat-affected zone, and gene rattv do not
ex tend to the surface of the base met al.
Unde rbead c racks are hydrogen
cracks that occ ur in steels susce ptible
to hydrogen e mbritt le me nt during
welding. Dissol ved hydrogen . whi ch
is relea sed fro m the electrode or from
the base metal, combines with marten-
site formed in the HAZ during rapid
cooling, creating a narrow region that
is extremely br ittle and se ns itive (0
c rac king from re sidual stresses.
Underbead c rac ks are det ected by
UT or RT because the crack is usually
below the surface and immediatel y ad-
jacent the weld. Because of their tight-
ness and s hort len gth , underbead
cracks may be difficult to detect.
Underbead Crack Prevention.
Underbead cracks are prevented by
avoiding hydrogen cre ation in stee ls
that ar e susce ptible to hydrogen
embrittlement. Welding conditions that
encourage hydro gen creation include
poor she lte ring of outdoor wor k that
permit s rain, snow, or condensation to
contact welded areas. Underbead crack
prevention is achieved by using low-
hydrogen electrodes to join susceptible
steels and excluding moisture from elec-
trodes. A dr ying pro cedure mu st be
used to remove moisture that can ab-
sorb into the coatings on some types of
electrodes when exposed to humid at-
mospheres. Th e pro cedure involves
storing electrodes in a low-temperature
oven, preh eatin g th e s urface before
weld ing to remov e moi sture, and
postheating immediately to encourage
hydrogen to escape. See Figure 34- 10.
Figure 34-10. Low-hydrogen elec tro des can !Jell'
prevent und erbead cracking. Moistu re is remo ved
f rom electrodes befor e use by storing the electrodes
i n all o vell .
Lamellar Tearing
Lam ellar Tearing is a subs urface ter-
rac e and s te p-like crack pattern in
wrought steel base metal oriented par-
allel to the base metal working direc-
tion. Lame llar tearin g is cau sed by
tensile stresses in the base metal from
welding in a directi on perpend icul ar
to the working directi on, acting upon
nonm e talli c in clu si on s in th e ba se
metal parall el to the wor ki ng di rec-
tion. Nonmet allic inclusions consist of
metalli c oxides, sulfides, and silica tes
that are held in steel. Nonmetallic in-
clusions are formed durin g solidifica-
tion in the stee lmaking process from
addit ives to the melt or contamination
from refractory in the mold . Hot or
co ld wo rking elon gat es nonmetall ic
inclusions in the working direction if
they are plastic at the working tem-
perature. Th e net result of the elon -
gated nonmetall ic incl usio ns is to
decrease through-thi ckn ess ductility.
This result s in lamellar tearin g paral-
lel to the direction of the inclusi ons.
Lam ell ar tearing is most likel y to
occur when we lding stee l plate using
groove welds , fillet welds, or co mbi-
natioos of them . T-joints may be es-
peci ally s usc e ptib le to lam ell ar
tearin g. See Figure 34- 11. Th e two
members of a T-joint are located at
approximately right angle s to eac h
other in the form of a T. Under these
conditions, high ten sil e stresses ca n
develop perpe ndicular to the midplane
of the stee l plate . Th e magnitude of
the tensile stresses depends on the size
of the we ld, the welding procedure,
and the amount of joint res traint im-
posed by the weldin g design . La mel-
la r tearin g detecti on is diffi cult
because it usuall y does not bre ak to
the surface. RT and UT are the most
applica ble meth ods fo r de tec tio n of
la me lla r tearing , whic h has th e ap -
pearan ce of ste p-like, jagged crack-
ing, with eac h step nearly parallel to
the midpl ane of the plate.
Weld Discontinuities :€) 471
Ftgure 3~·11. Lamellar tear ing
is caused by welding stresses in
the ba se me tal perpendicular 10
the working direction,
,'>llI r A
Lamellar Tearing Prevention. Lamel-
lar tearing is prevented most reliably by
the use o f spec ia lly pro ce ssed stee l
product s that do not contain elongated
nonmetallic inclusions. Such steel prod-
ucts are used in critica l applicati on s
where lamellar tearing is detrimental.
Other methods of reducing lamellar
tearing in regular steel products rely on
reducti on of the stress in the welded
joint. Sec Figure 34- 12. These methods
include changing the location and /or
design of the weld joint to minimi ze
through-thickness strains; using a lower
stren gth weld metal; reducing hydro -
gen in the weld ; using preheat and
interpass temperatures of at least 200°F;
and peening the weld bead immediately
after completion of a weld pass.
Figure 3~·12. Th e mmt effective
Win' of preventing lamellar tea r-
ill; L~ 10 redesign the weld joint to
minimize stresses (III the joint.
PLATE ROLLING ' "
DIRECTION ~ retarding the cooling rate of the base
CORNER JOINT
PLATE ROLLlNG ,~
DIRECTION ~
CORNER JOINT REDESIGNED TO
PREVENT LAMELLAR TEARING
472 ~ We/dillK Skills
o The chalice of lamellar tearing can be re-
duced bv using the correct material, joint
design, 'welding process. and fill er metal.
Preheating and buttering the jo int can also
help reduce the risk oftearing.
Toe Cracks and Root Cracks
T"dlll;""" . Inc.
Toe cracks and root cracks have simi-
lar causes but different appearanc es.
Toe cracks are cracks that proceed from
the weld toe into th e HAZ and base
metal. The weld toe is the j unction of
th e we ld face and ba se met al. Root
cracks are cracks that proceed into the
base metal fro m th e root of a fille t
weld. Toe cracks and root cracks are
ge nera lly co ld cr acks and initiate in
regions of high residual stress. See Fig-
ure 34- 13. Toe cracks ar e ge nerally
caused by stresses from thermal shrink-
age acting Dn a brittle HAZ. Toe cracks
are identified by VT, PT, and MT, and
from their location at th e weld toe.
Root cracks are difficult to detect un-
less they have propagat ed through to
the opposite side of the base metal.
Toe and Root Crack Prevention. Toe
and root crack prevention requires weld-
ing procedu res and techni que s th at
eliminate embrittlement or exces sive
stresses in the HAZ of the base metal.
With hard en abl e stee ls. toe and roo t
crack prevention may be achieve d by
metal and HAZ with high preheat, or by
stress relief after welding with postheat.
Liquid Metal Embritllement
Liquid met al embrittlem ent is inter -
granular penetration (cracking) of the
HAZ. lntergranular penetration is pen-
etration of molten metal along the grain
boundaries of the base metal that leads
to embrittlement of the base metal. Liq-
uid metal embrittlement can occur with
specific co mbinations of base metal s
and liquid metals, usually in the pres-
ence of stress . See Figure 34- 14.

TOE CRACK
HAZ
GROOVE
S,,,,* T" ,.h" inlt'l, f,,,",
Figul"e ~~l". Liqu id metal emb ritt lement commo nly
occurs ;1/ certain IH,e.~ of metals. usually where (l
part is exposed to excess stre ss.
Brazes are a co mmon cause of liq-
uid metal embri ttleme nt in susce ptible
alloys. Fo r examp le, man y nickel al-
loys, when in a stressed condition, may
crack from liquid meta l embrittlement
in co ntact with molt en brazing mctal.
Liq uid metal embritt lcme nt ma y also
occur during we lding from contami -
nation of a base metal by other metals.
For example, when weldi ng auste nitic
stain less stee ls to ga lva nized stee ls,
zinc co ntaminat ion may ca use liquid
me ta l embritt lement of the austenitic
stainle ss stee l ba se metal. The zinc
contamination may be introduced by
gri nd ing d us t or direct co ntact be-
tween the two metal s, such as whc n
we lding auste nitic stainless stee l to
ga lva nized carbon stee l. Liq uid metal
Figure 3.$-13. T oe cracks proceed
fro m the weld foe into tile heat -
affected =:0 11(' and base meta l.
Root cracks initiate if! regions of
hiK'1 residual stress.
FILLET
em britt leme nt may be detected by PT
as a relati vely wide. jagged crack re-
vea led un der magn ificat ion .
Liquid Metal Embrittlement Preven-
tion. Liquid met al c mbri tt le me nt is
pr e vented by avoidin g suscep tib le
braze-base metal co uples or by ensur-
ing cleanline ss of the j oint surfaces be-
fore welding or brazing. For exa mple.
when welding ga lvanized steel to aus-
ten itic stainless steel. all zinc must be
removed by grit blasting a minimum of
W' (13 mm) from the joi nt face to en-
sure tbat the zinc does not melt and mix
with the austenitic stainless steel. result-
ing in liquid meta l embri ttlement. Liq-
uid metal emb rittlement susceptibility
may be assessed prio r to we lding or
brazing by testing combinations of weld
mc tal and base mctal under simulated
joint restraint conditions.
CAVITIES
Cav ities are we ld discontinuities con-
sisting o f rou nded ho les of various
types, either within the weld or at the
surface of the weld. Two causes of cavi-
ties are gas entrapment during solidifi-
cation of the weld or contraction
(suckback) of the weld during solidifi-
cation, wbic h ca nnot be replaced by
molten metal. Poros ity and worm holes
are cav ity ty pes for med by gascs .
Weld Discontinuities €1: 473

Cavitiesare rounded
discontinuities within
a weld or at the sur-
f ace. The most com·
mOil type ofcavity is
porosity.
Ftgure 34 -15 . Sh ri nkage voi ds
are II cavi ty type fo rmed by n m ·
traction (.m ckbClck' of the .... etd
metal during sol idific ation.
474 ~ WeidillK Skills
Shrinkage void s are a cav ity type
formed by contraction of the weld metal
during solidification. See Figure 34-15 .
Cavities are usually less serious than
crack s be cau se their ro unded shape
causes significantly lower stress con-
centration than cracks. Fabrication stan-
dard s and codes allow certa in type s of
cavities such as porosity, depending on
their size, number, and orientation.
SHRINKAGE )
VOID CAUSED BY
CONTRACTION
(SUCKBACK)
Porosity
Poro sit y co ns ists o f ca vity-t ype
di scontinuiti es for med by gas entrap-
ment during solidificati on. See Figure
34- 16. Porosity may be surface poros-
ity or subsurface porosi ty. Surface po-
rosity (blowholes) cons ists of discrete
spherica l pit s on the surface of the
weld. Surface porosity is formed if dis-
so lved gases ca nnot fu lly esca pe be-
fore the weld metal solidifies. Surface
porosity may be det rimental to fatigue
strength if ali gned in a direction per-
pendicu lar to the direction of stresses.
Subsurface porosity con sists of dis-
cre te spherical holes within the body
of a weld . Subsurface poro sity distri-
bution is classified as uniformly scat-
tered , clu ster , or linear. Uniformly
scattered poro sity exhibits a un iform
di stribution of pores throug hout the
weld metal, with size varying from al-
most microscopic to 1/a" in diameter.
Cl uster porosity voids occur in th e
fo rm of clusters separated by co nsid-
erab le lengths of pore-free weld metal.
C lu ster porosity is assoc ia te d with
changes in we ld ing conditions , such
as stopping or starting of the arc. Lin-
ear porosity is charac terized by an ac-
c umu lation of pores in a rel ativel y
straight line. The number and size of
the pores and their linear distr ibution
with respect to the axis of the weld usu-
ally define linear porosity. Linea r po-
rosity generally occurs in the root pass.
Porosity
Figure 34-16
.,
CAVITIES
.- FORMED BY
GAS TRA P~ED .
DURING
SOLIDIFICATION
--_ ¥
Figure 34-16. POIv .I"i/)' is for med hy gas entrapmen t
within the weld during solidification !f di,\·.I"OII'('d ga.\·es
canno l fully escap e before tlu: metal solidifies.
Primary causes of porosi ty are dirt,
rust, and moisture on the surface of the
base metal; on the welding consumables;
and in the welding equipment.
Porosity is usually the least harmful
type of weld discontinuity. Many fabri-
cation standards and codes provide com-
parison charts that show the amount of
porosity that may be acceptable. When
porosity exceed s the amount allowable,
it must be ground out and repaired. Po-
rosity is detected by RT for internal p0-
ro sity and by VT or PT for surface
porosity. With RT, internal porosity has
the appearance of sharply defined dark
shadows of rounded contour.
Porosity Prevention. Poros ity is pre-
vented by improving we lding hou se-
kee ping co nditions that ca n cause the
porosity. Good houseke eping incl udes
the use of clean materials and well-main-
tained equipment. Also, avoiding the use
of excessive current and arc lengths can
prevent porosity. High currents and ex-
cessive arc lengths may cause high con-
sumption of the deoxidizing elements in
the covering of shielded metal arc elec-
trodes, leavi ng insufficient quantitie s
available to combine with the gases in
the molten metal during cooling.
S pec ifi c met hods of preventi ng
poro sity depend on the type of weld-
ing process. For examp le, cha nging
we lding con ditions such as gas now
rate and ga s pu rit y for gas shielded
processes co mpe nsates fo r im proper
arc len gth, weld ing curre nt, or elec-
trode man ipulation. Reducing trave l
s pe ed ma y a lso dec re ase poro si ty.
See Figure 34- 17.
Wormholes
Wormhol es are e longa ted or tubula r
cavities caused by exces sive entrapped
gas. Wormho les are detect ed by RT
where th ey ha ve th e appearance o f
sharp ly defined da rk shadows of
rounded or elongated contour, depend-
ing on the orientation of the wormholes,
POROSITY PREVENTION
Problem
Excessive hydrogen, nitrogen. or oxygen
in welding atmosphere
High solidification rate
Dirty base metal
Dirty fille r wire
Im proper arc len gth , we lding c urre nt,
or electrode manipulation
Volatilization of zinc from brass
Galvanized steel
Excessive moisture in electrode covering
or on joint surfaces
High-sulfur base metal
Wormhole Prevention. Wormholes are
preve nted by methods that are similar
to those that prevent porosity.
Shrinkage Voids
Shrinkage voids (pipe or hollow bead)
are cav it y- type d iscon ti nu iti es nor-
mally formed by shrinkage during so-
lidification and are usually in the form
of long cav ities parallel to the root of
the weld . Shrinkage voids are detected
by RT.
Shrinkage Void Prevention , Shrink-
age voids arc preve nted by provi ding
suffic ient heat input to maintai n mol-
ten filler metal to all areas of a weld
durin g solidi fication.
INCLUSIONS
Inclu sions arc entrapped foreign solid Inclusions consist of
material in deposited weld meta l, such foreign matter in the
as slag or nu x, tungsten, or oxide. In- weld metal, either
from the base metal.
clusion types are slag incl usions, ox- fille r metal. or mm-
ide inclusions, and tungsten inclusions. COII.'iIllI111hle elect rod e.
See Appe ndix.
Figure 34- 17. Poros ity preven-
- tion methods lire de term ined by
the type of welding process; cor-
Preventive Measure recth'e measures are based 0 11 the
Iypt' of problem thai has occurr ed.
Use lOW-hydrogen welding process; use tiller
metals high in deoxidizers; increase shielding
gas flow
Use preh eat or incr ea se heat input
Clean joint faces and adjacent surfaces
Use specially cleaned and packaged filler wire,
and store it in cl ean area
Change we lding co nditions and tech niques
Use coppe r-silicon filler metal ; reduce heat input
Use E6010 electrodes and manipulate the arc
heat to volatilize the zinc ahead of the molten
we ld pool
Use recommended procedu res for baking and
storing electrodes
Preheat the base metal
Use electrodes with basic slagging reactions
Weld Discontinuities :@: 475

Figure ,34-18. SIcIR ill c",,~iom
II01l111(' Ialli e materials f o rmed hy
,d aR reactions thai are napped
ill a weld. SlaR inclusions call
orrur h l'IIW'C'1/ ptHH'S or (1/ the
,s:1"00I'(' face.
Fleure 3+-19. 51dR inclusion pre-
vention nm be achieved throug h:
proper dellJlill,s: of the weld RTOO\'e
bef ore de/lm;,illg additional weld
beads. Slag mllY he removed from
'he surface I,y chipping, wire
brushing, g rinding, o r air arc
gOllg i llg_
476 @o Wel d il1K Skil ls
Slag Inclusions
Slag inclu sions are nonm etallic mate -
rials that are formed by slag reactions
and trapped in a weld. Slag is nonm e-
tallic product resulting from mutual dis-
so lution (c he mica l reactions) of flu x
and nonmet all ic im puri ties in some
we ldi ng and brazing processes. Sl ag
inclusions ca n occ ur between passes
or at the groove face . See Figure 34-
18. Slag inclusions may occur in welds
made by flux shielde d we ldi ng pro-
cesses suc h as SM AW, FC AW, and
SAW. Slag inclusions have a lower spe-
cific gravity than the surrounding metal
and usually rise to the surface of mol-
ten met al , unl e ss th e y become e n-
trapp ed in the weld metal.
-
(Ire
. . . .
SLAG
INCLU SIONS
BETWEEN
PASSES
SLAG
INCLU SIONS
AT GROOV E FACE
6 Slag inclusions can be preve nted by using
we/ding techniques that produce a smooth
weld. using the co rrect current and travel
speed, removing slag between each pass, and
using wire brushing or light chipp ing 011 bun
joints or grinding 011 more difficult joints.
SLAG
-
INCLUSION PREVENTION
Problem
Slag inclusions
Entrapment of refractory oxides
Tungsten in the weld metal
Imp roper joint design
Oxide inclusions
Slag flooding ahead of the welding arc
Poor electrode manipulative technique
Entrapped pieces of electrode covering
Multipl e-pass welds are more prone
to slag inclusions than single-pass welds
becau se slag from the precedin g pass,
if not completely removed, will become
entrapped in the subsequent pass. Slag
inclusion s are de tec ted by RT where
they appear as dark lines, more or less
interru pted, parallel to the edges of the
weld. Slag inclusions are usually elon-
gated and rounded, and run in the di-
rection of the axi s of the we ld. Sl ag
inclusions can be continuous, intermit-
tent , or randomly spaced.
Slag Inclusion Prevention. Slag inclu-
sions are pre vented by us ing prop er
welding prep aration , suc h as thor-
o ug hly removin g slag from the weld
and cleanin g the weld groove between
each pass of a multiple-pass weld. Fail-
ure to thoroughly remove slag between
each pass increases the probabil ity of
slag entrapment and the produ ction of
a defective weld. Slag may be removed
from the weld surface by chipping, wire
brushing, grinding, or air arc gouging.
See Figure 34- 19.
Complet e a nd e ff ic ie nt s lag re -
moval requires that eac h weld bead be
properly contoured and blend smoothly
into the adjace nt bead or base metal.
Sm all weld bead s coo l more rapidl y
than large ones, which tends to make
slag remo val eas ier from small beads.
Con ca ve or fl at beads th at bl end
smoothly into the base meta l or an y
adjo ining beads minimi ze undercutting
and avoid a sharp notch along the edge
of the bead where slag cou ld stick .
. .-
Preventive Measure
Clean surface and previous weld bead
Power wire brush the previous weld bead
Avoid conta ct between the electrode and the
work; use larger electrode
Increase groove angle of joint
Provide proper gas shielding
Reposition work to prevent loss of slag control
Change electrode or flux to improve slag control
Use undamaged electrodes
Oxide Inclusions
Oxide inclusions are particles of sur-
face oxides on the base metal or weld
filler metal that have not melted and
mix with the weld metal. Oxide inclu-
sions occur when welding metals that
have tenacious surface oxide films,
such as stainless steels, aluminum al-
loys, and titanium alloys. Oxide inclu-
sions are detected by RT.
Oxide Inclusion Prevention. Oxide in-
clusion prevention is achieved by clean-
ing out the joint and weld area thoroughly
before welding. See Figure 34-20. The
weld area should be thoroughly cleaned
after each pass using a wire brush.
~
• . , I
Figure 34 -20. Oxide inclusions can he prevented by
cleaning out the joint and weld area thoroughly
before welding.
Tungsten Inclusions
Tungsten inclusions are particles from
the nonconsumable tungsten elec-
trode that enter the weld. See Figure
34-21 . The occasional contact be-
tween the electrode and the work or
the molten metal may transfer particles
of the tungsten into the weld deposit.
A limited number of tungsten inclu-
sions may be acceptable according to
the applicable fabrication standard or
code, but it will depend on the thick-
ness of the part being welded. Tung-
sten inclusions are detected by VT or
RT. VT is used for tungsten inclusions
at the surface. However, as with most
other types of inclusions, tungsten in-
clusions are generally detected using
RT, where they appear as isolated,
sharp, irregular shapes .
Figure 34-21. Tungsten inclusions are particles found
in the weld metal as a result of the nanconsuntable
tungsten electrode coming in contact with the work
or the molten metal.
Tungsten Inclusion Prevention. Tung-
sten inclusions are prevented at the
weld start using superimposed high-
frequency current for arc starting and a
copper striker plate. Tungsten inclusions
may be minimized by using thoriated
tungsten or zirconium-tungsten electrodes
and less current or larger electrodes, and
by keeping the tungsten electrode out
of the molten weld pool.
INCOMPLETE FUSION AND
I ncomptetefusion and
INCOMPLETE PENETRATION incomplete penetra-
tian are [aund in ar-
Incomplete fusion (lack of fusion) and eas with incomplete
incomplete joint penetration (lack of melting between the
penetration) are similar discontinuities . base meta! and the
weld metal, Incom -
They result from incomplete melting plete fusion is less
at the interface between weld passes desirable than in -
or in the root of the joint. completepenetration.
Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion is a lack of union (fu-
sion) between adjacent weld passes or
base metal. Incomplete fusion may be
caused by failure to raise the tempera-
ture of the surface layers of base metal
or previously deposited weld metal to
the melting temperature . Incomplete
fusion is usually elongated in the direc-
tion of welding, with either sharp or
rounded edges . See Figure 34-22.
Weld Discontinuities :@ 477
Ffg ure 34-22. Incomplet e fusion
resu lts when adjacent passes fail
to meld propl'rly. II call be caused
by a failure to suff ic iently raise
the temperature of the .fur/ace lay-
INCOMPLETE
ers of thr bO.H' metal or deposited FUSION
me tal.
StNGLE BEVEL
GROOVE
FILLET
incomplete fusion occurs more com-
monly with some welding processes than
with others . For exa mple, the reduced
heat input in the short circuiting transfer
mode of GMAW results in low penetra-
tion into the base metal. This may be
desirable on thin-gauge materials and for
out-of-position welding. but may resull
in incomplete fusion. especially in the
root area or along groove faces. incom-
plete fusion leads to undesirable stresses
and its admissibility is severely restricted
in most fabrication standards and codes.
incomplete fusion can be detected
by RT as a thin. dark line with sharply
defined edges. Dependi ng on the ori-
entation of the defect with respect to the
X-ray beam, the line may tend to be
wavy a nd d iffuse . However, so me
codes may not permit RT as a means of
qualifying welders when using GMAW
short circuiting transfer on test welds.
Incomplete Fusion Prevention. in -
co mp lete fusion is prevent ed by en-
suring an adeq uate surface temperature
to raise the temperature of the surface
478 § Weldin g Skil l ,
DOUBLE BEVEL
layers to the meltin g point, which al-
lows the deposited metal to fuse with
th e surface bel ow it. T his may be
achieved by reducing travel speed. in-
creasing welding current or increasing
elec trode diameter, using joint des ign
to allow elec trode acce ssib ility to all
surfaces within the joint , use of proper
e lectrode ang le, and reduci ng the ef-
fects of arc blow. See Figure 34-23 .
Incomplete Penetration
Incomp lete penetration is a condition in
a groove weld in which weld metal does
not extend through the joint thickness.
in arc welding. the arc is established be-
tween the electrode and closest part of
the base metal. All other areas of the base
metal rece ive heat principally by con-
duction. if the region of base metal clos-
est to the elec trode is a considerable
distance from the joint root. heat con-
duction may be insufficient to attain ad-
equate temperature to achieve fusion of
the root. See Figure 34-24.

INCOMPLETE FUSION PREVENTION
.~
.;Pt~tl[~rtt;
Insufficient heat input
Incorrect electrode posit ion
Weld metal running ahead of the arc
Trapped oxides or slag on weld groove
or weld face
- .- , ,
JO INT PENETRATION
GROOVE WELD SIZES
INCOMPLETE
JOINT PENETRATION
INCOMP LET E JOINT
PENETRAT ION
Figure 34· 24. i ncomplete joint penetration occurs
whe n weld metal does not p en etra te comp letely
th rough the joint thick ness. II ran occur when the
base metal is a considerable distance f rom the heal
of the electrode.
Incomplete penetration is not al-
ways undesirabl e because some weld
joints are designed for partial penetra-
tion . The applicable fabrication stan -
dards and codes indicate permissible
levels of incomplete penetration. In-
complete penetration is detected by
RT, where it app ear s as a dark , {on-
tinuou s or intermitt ent lin e in the
middle of the weld .
Figure 34-23. Incompl ete fusio n
pr eventi on can be en sured using
..'pr4WtltlVlJ MtllISUte
'he pr oper weld ing parame ters.
...... ,........... ..".
Use correct type or size of electrode; proper
joint des ign; and proper gas sh ielding
Ma inta in proper electrode position
Repos ition work; lower current; increase weld
travel speed
Clean weld surface prior to weld ing
Incomplete penetration may occur
when a groove is welded from one side
only if the root face dimension is too
great, if the root opening is too small ,
or if the groove angle of the V-groove
is too small, even with an adequate root
opening and a satisfactory joint design.
Incomplete penetration may also be
caused by electrodes that are too large
or that have a tendency to bridge ; or
by using ab normall y high r ates of
trave l or insufficient welding current.
Incomplete Penetration Prevention.
The most frequent cause of incomp lete
penetration is the use of an unsuitable
joint de sign for the welding process
or the conditions of the actual weld
construction. Unsuitable jo int des igns
make it difficult to reproduce quali fi-
cation test results under cond itions of
actual production . See Figure 34 -25 .
INCORRECT SHAPE
Incorrect shapes,
An incorrect shape in a weld includes such as undercut,
overlap, excess weld
any weld discontinuity that produces reinf o rcement, un -
an unacceptable weld profile or dimen- derfill, concave roof
sional nonconformance and that ad - surface. and melt-
through, produce an
versely influ enc es performance of the unac ceptable weld
weld under load. An insufficient cross- profile.
sectional area of a weld may result in
a weld that is unable to support a load,
or ma y allow a stress-conce ntrating
notch, leading to fracture. Incorre ct
shape discontinuities are undercut ,
overlap, excess ive weld reinforcement,
underfill, conca ve root sur face , and
melt-through.
Weld Discontinuities :@: 479
Figure 34-25. Usin g a pr ope r
joint design. call help ensu re that INCOMPLETE PENETRATION PREVENTION
inco mplete joint pen etration docs
not occur ill a weld. Problem
~J~ ~ k*J.
"' ~ ~~

Exce ssively thick root face or insufficient

- ~

- . ~
Ji'reventive.Measure
0/ '" ¢_ .- . -.
root opening Use proper joint geometry

Insufficient heat input Follow welding procedure

Slag flooding ahead of arc Adjust electrod e or work position
Electrode diameter too large Use smaller electrode or increase root opening
Misalignm ent of second side weld Improve visibility or backgoug e weld

Failure to backgoug e when specified Backgoug e to sound metal if required in welding

procedure specification
Use wider root openi ng or smaller electrode in
Bridging of root opening
root pass

Undercut grinding wheel will be required to re-

move the undercut. If the undercut is
Undercut is a groovc melted into the base slight, how ever, it is possibl e for the
metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld
welder to estimate how deeply the weld
root and left unfilled by weld metal. See
will penetrate and fill the undercut with
Figure 34-26. Faulty electrode manipu -
the next pass.
lation, excessive welding current, exces-
sive arc length, excessive travel speed ,
and arc blow cause undercut. Undercut Undercut
of a completed weld is undesirable be- Figure 34-26
cause it produces a stress concentration
that reduces impact strength and fatigue
resistance. Undercut is detected by VT
in groove or fillet welds. VT is the sim-
plest and most effective way of detect-
ing and measuring undercut against the
particular fabrication code. RT may also
detect undercut in groove welds, where
it appears as a dark line, sometimes broad
and diffuse, along the edge of the weld.
Undercut Prevention. Undercut is
p revented by th e followin g meth -
od s: pau sing at each side of the weld
b ead wh en u sing the w eave bead
technique; using proper electrod e
angle s; usin g proper welding current
for electrode size and welding position;
red ucing ar c length; reducing travel
speed; and reduc ing the effects of arc
blow. Sec Appendix.
Undercut of the sidewalls of a weld- Stork 1(>,.hll ;mfl. INC-

ing groove will in no way affect the

completed weld if it is removed before
Figure 34·26. Undercut occurs whCII a groove is melted
the next bead is deposited in that loca- into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe and is left
tion . A well -rounded chipping tool or unfi lled by weld metal.

480 @o Welding Skills

 Underc ut is sometimes repaire d by
gri nd ing and b le nd ing or we lding.
Grind ing should be performed with a
pencil-type grinder. and the grindi ng
ma rks sho u ld be tra ns verse to the
length of the we ld w ith a 250 micro -
inch finish or better.
Overlap
Overlap is protrusion o f weld metal
built up beyond the weld toe or we ld
root. Ove rlap is an area of incomplete
fusion tha t creates a stress co nce ntra-
tion and can initiate premature fai lure
under load . See Fig ure 34-27 . Over-
lap is de tected by VT. Ove rlap is co n-
sidered a defect that must be removed
by grinding accord ing to the appl i-
cable fabrication sta ndard or code.
Overlap
Figure 34-27
Fi2ure 34-27. Overlap is a protrusion of weld metal
buil t up beyond the weld toe or the weld root.
Over la p Prevention. Overlap is pre-
ve nted by using a high er travel speed
or weldi ng c urrent, reducing the elec-
trode d iameter. or c ha ngi ng the elec-
trode ang le so tha t the force of the arc
wi ll not push molt en we ld met al over
unfused sectio ns of ba se me ta l. See
Appendix .
o 171l' most common reason f or overlap is weld-
ing with the Cll rrellt set too low: If overlap
occurs.firs t check fo r 'he proper current level.
Excess Weld Reinforcement
Ex cess we ld reinforcem ent is we ld
me tal built up in excess of the quan-
tity required to fill a joint. Excess weld
re info rce ment can be of two types-
exc ess face reinforcem ent o r excess
root re in force me nt. See Figure 34-28.
-
Ftgure .~-1-2ft Excess weld rein-
.- . . [orcement. while 1101 1I severe dis-
contin uity. ('(III excess ivetv stiffen
II section of metal, ("(IIIS ;"K stress
WELD FACE concentrations lit II,e base, 11 is
ats o more ex pe ns ive due 10 the
increased (/ ",0 11I11 of filler 11/('((//
ne eded, and c a ll ha ve W / ohjcc-
ti onahle (l1 ,/w a rance.
ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
EXCESS ROOT REINFORCEMENT
GROOVE WELD MADE
BEFORE WELDING
OTHER SIDEi
EXCESS FACE REINFORCEMENT
Fi ller metal added to make a we ld
m ust be as thick as th e ba se metal.
S lightly thicker filler met al is usually
pennined to allow for discontinuitie s and
to avoid the cost penalty associated with
grin ding the we ld metal tl ush with the
base metal. Excess weld rei nforcement,
though not as severe as ove rla p. is un-
des irable because it thicke ns and stiff-
e ns the section and es tablishes a stre ss
concentration at the junction with the base
metal. The stress -concentrating effect is
more severe for fillet welds than for bun
welds. Excess weld reinforcement is eco-
nomically unsound and objectionable
from the appearance point of view.
Weld Discontinuities €): 4tH
 Fabrication standards and codes usu-
ally limit the allowable amount of ex -
cess weld rei nforceme nt. Var io us
weld ing codes impose a ma ximu m
amo unt of reinforce men t for the thick-
n ess of th e m at e rial being we lde d .
Th icknesses may vary from Y16" to 7/32".
Excess we ld reinforcem ent is det ected
by VT. If co ns ide red a defect, it mu st
be rem oved by grind ing .
Excess Weld Reinforcement Preven-
tion. Excess we ld reinforcement is pre-
ve nted by use o f the co rrec t we ld ing
curre nt, proper weld ing techn ique, a nd
appropriate number of weld passes to
fill the jo int.
Underfill
Underfill is a disco ntinui ty in whic h
the we ld face or root surface ex te nds
belo w the adjace nt surface of the base
met al. U nde rf ill reduce s the c ross-
sectio na l are a of th e weld bel o w th e
a mount req u ire d in th e desi gn . S ee
Fig ure 34- 29. Undc rli ll tends to oc cur
primaril y in the flat pos itio n in fill et
wel d ing and in th e 5G and 6G pipe
groove we ldi ng po sitio ns . U nde rfill
creates a reg ion susceptibl e to struc-
tura l failure fro m insufficient cross sec-
tion to support the load. In fillet weld s,
underfill is ex h ibi te d by a less than
norm al throat as measured by the length
of the leg. Underlill is detected by VT.
Underfill Prevention. Underfill is pre-
ven ted by reducing we ldi ng c ur re nt
a nd vo ltage, reducing arc len gth an d
arc travel speed, and adding sufficient
fi ller met al.
Concave Root Surface
A concave root surf ace is a depression
in th e we ld extending below the sur-
face of the adjacent base met al ca used
by an underfill in the root pass of a weld.
Co ncave root surface is detected by RT.
If co nsidered a defect, the surface may
be suitably prepared or cleaned and ad -
dition al we ld metal added.
482 ~ Weldi ng Skills
Underfill
Figure 34·29
UNDERFILL
Figure 34. 29. Underfill is a discontinuity that r.r -
tends betaw the adjace nt surface of the bast' metal.
C o n ca ve Root Surface Prevention.
Co ncave root surfaces are prevent ed in
butt welds by reduc ing the root opening
of the weld.
Melt·Through
Melt -through also called burn -th rou gh ,
is a di scontinuity that occurs in butt
welds whe n the arc melt s throu gh the
bottom of the we ld . Melt-th rou gh is
differen t than rnel t-thru, whic h is vis-
ible root reinforce ment produced in a
joint that is welded fro m one side. See
Figu re 34-30. Melt -thru is o ften spec i-
fied ; melt-through is a discontinuity or
defect. Melt-through is detected by RT
as a re gion of excessi ve thi c kn ess
(lower den si ty ) in the region o f th e
we ld root.
Melt·Through Prevention, Me lt-
throug h is prevented in bu tt we lds by
reduc ing the weldi ng c urrent and width
of the root ope ning, and by increasing
the arc travel spee d .
MISCELLANEOUS
DISCONTINUITIES
M iscell an eou s d isco ntinu ities incl ude
weld discontinuities that do not fit into
ot he r catego ries of d iscon tinuiti es .
Miscell an eous d iscontinu iti es incl ude
arc strikes and spatte r,
- • - , I
MELT-THROUGH
MELT-THROUGH
(CONVEX ROOT
SURFACE)
Figure 34-30. Meu-througti is a discontinuity pro-
duced in (/ joint when the arc melts through the
bottom of the weld.
Arc Strikes
An arc strike is a discontinuity that re-
sults from arcing of the electrode and
consists of any localized remelted metal,
heat-affected metal, or change in the sur-
face profile of any base metal. Arc
strikes may be depressions or marks that
occur on the surface of the weld by the
welder accidentally striking the elec-
trode on the base metal adjacent to the
weld. Arc strikes may degrade base
metal properties on hardenable steels
like medium-carbon steels or low-alloy
steels and may form a region of brittle
martensite from the rapid quenching
effect of the high temperature. See Fig-
ure 34-31. Arc strike detection is
achieved by VT. Some fabrication stan-
dards and codes require arc strikes to
be ground to a smooth contour and in-
spected to ensure soundness by an ap-
propriate NDE test such as PT or MT.
Are Strike Prevention. Arc strikes are
prevented for certain types of work,
such as pipe, by placing protective
wrappings around the part to prevent
accidental contact with the electrode.
Arc Strikes
Figure 34-31
Figure 34-31. An arc strike results
when the electrode strikes the base
metal Juring welding, and it can
degrade base metal properties.
ARC STRIKE
WELD
Spatter
Spatter is a discontinnity that occurs
when metal particles are expelled dur-
ing fusion welding and do not form part
of the weld. Spatter appears as droplets
of solidified weld metal on the base metal
adjacent to the weld. See Figure 34-32.
Spatter detection is achieved by VT.
Figure 34-32. Spatter appears as
Spatter droplets of solidified weld metal
Figure 34-32 on the base metal adjacent to the
weld.
Arc strikes may
degrade base metal
properties on hard-
enable steels like
me di um-c arb on
steels or low-alloy
steels and may[arm
a region of brittle
martensite from the
rapid quenching
Spatter Prevention. Spatter can be re- effect of the high
temperature.
duced or prevented by reducing the
welding current, reducing the effect
of arc blow, reducing the arc length,
and ensuring the use of clean and
undamaged electrodes. See Appendix.
Anti-spatter spray is available for pre-
vention of spatter for many welding
applications.
Weld Discontinuities :€) 483
 I . A discontinuity is an interruption in the structure of a weld. Discontinuities are not always
defect s.
2. Disco ntinuities are cla ssified as defects when they exceed the minim um requirements per-
mitted by the contro lling code or standard.
3. Weld stresses may be concentrated or enhanced by the presence of disco ntinuities. leadin g
to failure under load .
4 . Cracks are fractu re-type discontin uities and are not permitted in fabrication standards and
co de s.
5. Cracks arc classifi ed acco rding to their location in tbe weld.
6. Cavities are rounded discontinuities within a weld or at the surface. The most common type
of cavi ty is porosity.
7 . Inclu sions co nsist of foreign matter in the weld metal. ei the r from the base metal. filler
metal. or noncon sum able e lectrode .
8 . Incompl ete fusion and incompl ete penetration are found in areas with incomplete meltin g
between the base metal and the weld metal. Incomplete fusion is less desirable than incom-
plete penetration .
9 . Incorrect shapes. such as undercut. overlap. excess weld reinforcement . underfill. co ncave
root surface. and melt -through. produc e an unacceptable weld profile.
10. Arc stri kes may degrade base metal properties on hardenable stee ls like medium-carbon
steels or low-alloy steels and may form a region of brittle marten site from the rapid quench -
ing effect of the high temperature.

I. How ca n weld joint design be adj usted to prevent throat cracks?

2. How do crater crac ks form ?
3. How ca n crater cracks be prevented"
4. What causes toe cracks?
5. How ca n toe and root cracks be prevented?
6. What are the two main types of porosity?
7. What ca n be done to reduce porosity in a weld ?
8. What are slag inclu sions?
9. How ca n slag inclu sions be prevented in multipl e pass welds?
10. What cau ses tungsten inclu sions ?
II . Which process is more likely to produce incomplete fusion: SMAW or GMAW in short circuiting
mode. and why?
12. What causes incomplete penetration ?
13. What is overlap. and how ca n it be prevented?
14. What is melt-through. and how can it be prevented"
15. Why are arc strikes detrimental to medium-carbon or low-alloy steels?

484 ~ Weldin g Skills

 Welding procedure qualification encompasses not only the legal requirements of the applicable fa brica-
tion standard or code, but also the directions for making a consistent weld. Welding procedure quali-
f ication variables aff ect the weld and must be specified.

Welding procedure qualification determines, by prepa ration and testing of standani specimens, whether
welding in accordance with a welding procedure specification ( IVPS) will produce sound welds and
adequate jo int prop erties. A IVPS provides fo rmal documentation fo r all qualified welding variables.

A procedure qualification record (PQR) determines, by preparation and testing of standa rds speci-
mens, whether welding in accordance with a IVPS will produce sound welds and adequatejoint properties.
Much of the data required by the PQR is the same information required in the IVPS.

WElDING PROCEDURE joint. Weldin g procedure qualifi cati on

QUALIFICATION
Welding procedures used by welders and
welding operators require qualifi cation
to be in accordance with fabrication stan-
da rds and co des . Weld ing procedure
qualification encompasses not only the
legal requirements of the applicable fab-
rication standard or code but also the di-
rections for making a consiste nt, quality
jo int and wel d. Di fferences, however
subtle, between the requirements of vari-
ous fabrication standards and codes make
it essential that the applicable document
be consulted for guidance.
Qualified welding procedures consist
of we lding pro cedu re speci fications
(WPS) and procedure qu alificati on
records (PQR). Both WPS and PQR de-
fine ap plicable we lding varia bles. See
Appendix.
variables must be indicated in the weld-
ing procedure qualification record . Es-
se ntia l variables are listed in th e
a pplic ab le fabri cation sta nda rd or
code . Weldin g procedure qualifi cati on
variables for arc we lding may co nsist
of any or all of the following:
• we lding process
• joint design
• base meta l
• filler metal
• welding position
• preheat, interpass temperature con-
trol , and po stheating
• shielding gas
• electrical cha racteristic s
• welding technique
Oxyfuel welding, braz ing, surfacing
weld, and resistance wel ding req uire
add itional we lding procedure qu alifi-
ca tion var iab les.
Qualified welding

WElDING PROCEDURE QUALIFI-

CATION VARIABLES
Welding Processes
Certain we lding processe s can not be
used with specific metals because the
I
.~
.=
procedures consist of
thr welding proce -
dure specification
( 1VPS) and the ,m)-
A welding procedure qualification vari- we lding pro cess used may affec t the cedure qualifivation
record (PQR,.
able is an esse ntial co ndition (param- weldability of the metal. For exa mple,
eter) that affects the integrity of a weld titanium alloys are not typically welded

485
 by flu x s hie lde d we lding pro ce sses Thermal (flame) cutting co nsists of
Weld ing procedure

tI
.~
.=
qualification vari-
ab ies a re welding
parameters 'hat af-
feet the integrity ofa
such as SMAW. Tita nium alloys are
most often welded by gas shie lde d
welding processes suc h as G MAW,
a group of processes that remove metal
by rapid oxi dat ion. Thermal cutting is
th e most co mmon met ho d of ed ge
weld joint and m U.{1
GTAW, or RW. preparation, and is used for most work
be indicated in the
PQR. o Welding procedu re specifications are
typically developed by a welding engi-
with thickness greater than sheet metal.
Th erm al cutt ing is ve rsa tile and eco-
neer who has previous experience with nomi cal and may be man ipulated to
the pa rticular weldparameters. and who produce both sq uare ed ges and added
uses recomm endations by supplie rs of
welding equipment such as the base
bevels. The heat produced by thermal
metal, weldin g machine, and filler met- cutting may alter the metallurgical
als. The welding procedure specification structure of so me metal s . In suc h
mu st also meet applicable codes.
cases, the therm ally cut surface mu st
be dr essed by grindi ng ( 0 remove a
Joint Design minimum o f '/ 8" of affect ed ba se
Joint design is the sha pe, dimension s, met al before any weldin g is per-
Joint design is elll
example ofa proce- and configuration of the joint. The joint fo rmed.
du re qu alifica tion is the junction of members or the edges Grinding is the mechanical removal
var iable and may of me tal from the surface using hard,
enco mpass weld of me mbers that are to be joined. An
type. edge prepara- effec tive joint design achi ev es weld- brittle grains of an abras ive material.
tion. and method of ing at minimal cos t. Th e joint design Grinding is usually perform ed with a
preparin g the edge. grinding whee l. Grinding is used for
influ ences how much filler metal may
be required to fill a joint, and the ease med ium thicknesse s of mat eri al and
of ad ding filler metal. Welding proce- may be tooled up to provid e reproduc-
dure variables that affect joint design ible geometries. See Figure 35- 1.
are weld typ e, edge preparation, and Machining is preci se shaping to a
A WARNING backgou g iog . desired profile using special tools to re-
Glo ves are not usually mov e material. Machining is used on
worn whe n gr ind ing. The Weld Type. Weld type is the cross-sec-
thick-wall components to prepare J- and
hand can he dra wn into the tional s hape of the weld aft er filler
gri nde r if the glove gels U-grooves and on circular components
ca ugh t.
metal is added to the joint. Basic weld
of all diam eters and wall thicknesses.
type s are groove weld and fillet weld .
Machinin g is an accurate, final method
Each weld type ca n have severa l dif-
of edge prep aration .
feren t co nfig urations.
Edge Preparation. Edge Preparation
is the prep ar ation of th e wo rkpiec e Grinding
edges by cutt ing, cleaning, o r o ther Figure 35·1
methods. All fillet weld configurations
can be made without additional ed ge
preparation . Three groove weld con-
figurations can be made without addi-
tional edge pr ep aration . The y are
sq ua re g roo ve , flare V-groov e, and
flare bevel groove . Ed ge preparation
is done by shea ring, therm al cutting,
grindi ng , machin ing, or backgougin g.
Shearing is the partin g of material
when one blade forces the material past
an opposing blad e. Shearing produces
a sq uare groove. Shearing is the most
econo mica l method of edge prepara- Figure 35-1. Grinding is used fo r medium thicknesses
tion and is used for sheet metal. of material 10 remove metal fm m the surface.

486 @o Weld illK Sk ills

Backgouging. Backgouging is the re-
moval of weld metal and base metal
from the weld root side of a welded
joint to facilitate complete fusion and
complete joint penetration when weld-
ing on that side is completed.
Backgouging is done when joints
are welded from both sides and is used
to produce final joints free from cracks
and other un sound conditions. The
backgouging method must be indi-
cated on drawings when joints are to
be welded from both sides. If back-
gouging require s an inspec tion
method other than visual, the method
should be indicated on the drawings.
Methods of backgouging include
chipping, grinding, air carbon arc
gouging, or oxyfuel gouging . See Fig-
ure 35-2.
Base Metal
The base metal(s) must be properly
identified. Two methods may be used:
the base metal material specification
and the base metal weldability classi-
fication. T he base metal thickness
range is also indicated .
CARBON ELECTRODE ~
ELECTRODE
HOLDER ~
AIR STREAM
WELD
Base Metal Material Specifications.
A base metal material specification is
the chemical composition or indu stry
specification of the ba se metal. Any
special condition of the base metal ,
such as heat treatment, cold working,
or special cleaning must be indicated
if it affects the metal's weldability, or
if welding alters the base metal prop-
erties . For example, localized welding
reduces the strength of a cold-worked
metal in the heat-affected zon e. The
fact that the metal is cold-worked must
be indicated on the drawings .
Base Metal Weldability Classifica-
Base metals are
tions. The base metal weldability clas- gro uped hy weld-
sification is an alphanumeric system ability classifications
to reduce the number
that groups base metals with similar
of procedure qualifi-
welding characteristics . A welding cation variables.Base
procedure that provides excellent re- metals with the same
sults with one base metal classifica- weldability classifica-
lion may he substi-
tion may prove completely inadequate luted for one another
with another classification. The base with no effect.
metal classification system assigns a
number to a base metal according to
its chemical composition, weldability,
and mechanical properties .
Figure 35-2. Hackgouging is per-
f orme d 10 improve the quality of
th e ro of pa ss.
BASE METAL
Welding Procedure Qualification ~ 487
 In the AS ME Bo iler and Pressur e
Vesse l Code , base metal we lda bi lity
classificatio n consists of P-numbers as-
signed to base metals to ind icate their
characteristics. P-numbers are described
in Section IX of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code. Metal s with the
same P-numb er are cove red under the
same WPS . For example, P I materials
are low-carbon stee ls th at ge ne ra lly
do not requ ire pre heat. P4 ma teria ls
are speci fic chrome-moly steels that re-
qu ire preheat to appro ximately 300°F.
Welding pro cedures are qu alifi ed by
grouping base metals according to their
P-number, which redu ces the number
of welding procedure qualifications re-
quired. See Figure 35-3 .
Base Metal Thickness Ranges. The base
metal thickness range is a pro cedu re
qualifi cation variable that indicates the
range of base metal thicknesses covered
in the procedure qualification record. For
pipe, the pipe diameter range and pipe
wall thickness must be indicated. In most
cases, base metal thickness range is Vi,,"
or 'YJ6' to 2T, where T is the thickness of
the test sample weld.
Filler Metal
Filler metal variables that must be con-
sidere d are filler meta l specification,
filler metal usability classification, filler
metal dia meter, and filler metal quan-
tity. A separate filler metal descripti on
is required for tack welding.
Filler Metal Specifications, Filler
metal specification is identification of
fill er metal by AWS number or other
specification desi gn ation . If required
by the applica ble fabrication standard
or code, more detail s may be needed.
Addition al required inform ati on may
includ e manofactu rer ; heat; lot or
batch number of th e filler met a l or
oth er we lding co ns uma b le; a nd the
result s of supplementary identifi cation
s uc h as X-ray fl uo rescence (X RF)
ana lysis.
Filler Metal Usability Classifications.
The fi ller metal usability classification is
an a lphanumeric method of gro uping
fill er met als with si milar cha racteris-
tic s. In AWS spec ifications and the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
fill er metal s are given F- numbers to
indi cat e the ir gro uping. Filler meta ls

Fi gure _'5-3. Psnumh er s reduce

the tnunhrr of welding procedures P·NUMBERS
that "'liM hi' developed hy Xrolll'- Embedded
ing metuls mat IWI'e similar Spec. Welding B razing Nominal Product
Type &
weldubilitv characteristics. No. Grade P·No. P·No. Compo Form

SA-36 - 1 - C-Mn-Si Plate

SA-53' Type E Gr. B 1 101 C-Mn ERW Pipe
SA-53' Type S Gr. B 1 101 C-Mn Smls Pipe
SA-lOS - 1 101 C-Si Pipe Flange
SA-l06 B 1 101 C-Si Smrs Pipe
Al08 1018 CW - - C Bar
Al34 A285 B - - C Welded Pioe
SA-182! Fll , CI. 2 4 102 1Y. Cr-Mo Foroinu
SA-182! F22, CI. 1 SA 102 2% Cr-Mo Foraina
SA-182! F304L 8 102 18Cr-8Ni Foroino < 5"
A211 A570 Gr. 30 - - C Welded Pine
SA-234 WPB 1 101 C-Si Pioe Fittino
SA-234 WP5 5B 102 5Cr-Mo Pine
SA-240 Tvoe 304L 8 102 18Cr-8Ni Plate
SA-335 P22 SA 102 2% Cr-1Mo Smls Pine
SA-387 11,CI. 1 4 102 1Y. Cr-Y2 Mo Plate
SA-516 Grade 60 1 101 C-Mn-Si Plate
API5L Grade B - - C-Mn Smlslwelded
• Sa~53 specilicahoos have same UNS Number, but are ditferenl prod uct form s
1 Materials have same scececeeco number, but ditJerenl nominal com positions.

488 ~ Welding Skills

with the same usability cla ssification abilit y. If the root openin g is too tight,
(F-numbers) generally may be substi- the groo ve an gl e too narro w, o r th e
tuted fo r on e anothe r, redu cing the filler metal diameter too large , th e
number of welding procedure specifi- welding electrode will not be able to
cation s required . For ferrou s we ld depo s it th e weld metal at th e roo t.
metal, analysis numbers, or A-numbers, Small-diameter filler metal is ofte n re-
are additio nally assigned to furth er quired for the root pass to eliminate the
seg regate F-numbe rs . A-numbers, chances of incompl ete pen etrat ion , to
whi ch ran ge from 1-1 2, repre sent prevent melt-through, and for heat con-
cl ass ifieations of ferrou s weld metal trol. Small-diamet er filler metal s also
analys is for procedure qualification . require less current than larger diam-
A-numbers arc essential variables for eter filler metal. Filler metal diameter(s) Filler metals are
grouped h.v usabil-
mo st welding proce sses. Filler met als required for weldin g diffe re nt thi ck - ity classification to
with the same usability cla ssification nesse s of metal in different positions reduce the number
and the same A-numbers may be (~f procedure quali-
ar e also indicated.
fication variables.
welde d with the same welding proce- Filler Metal Quantity. Fill er metal Filla metals with
dure. See Figure 35-4 . Filler metal s quantity is the deposi ted weld metal th e same usability
with the same usability classification classifica tion ma y
thi ckn ess range for groove o r fill et
he substituted for
and different A-number require a new weld s. Filler metal quantity is usuall y one another with no
WPS to be quali fied. indicated by a sketch showi ng the lo- effect .
Filler Metal Diameter. The fill er cation of each weld pass in the j oint.
metal diameter influences welding cur- Th e correct amount of deposited we ld
rent requir ements and joint penetration metal achie ve s the required joi nt
Figure 35-4. A - IIlId F- numbers
A- AND F-NUMBERS redu ce the number or wel d ing
procedures that mu,\'1 be devel -
A-Numbers
oped by g rouping filler me tals
Type Anatysls thai have similar characteristics.
A-Number a/Weld
Deposit C' ce- Mo' Ni* Mn ' Mn'
1 Mild Steel .15 - - - 1.60 1
2 Carbon-Moly .15 .50 .4 - .65 - 1.60 1
3 Cr-Mo (.4% to 2%) .15 .40 2 .4 .65 1.60 1
4 Cr-Mo (2% to 6%) .15 2 - 6 .4 - .65 - 1.60 2

. . , .. (~Iec!rode and Wel~&ftRci~b~:~ups lor Quaiific~~on) , .- --

F-Number ASME Specification Number AWS Classification Number
SFA-5.1 and 5.5 EXX 20, EXX 22, EXX 24, EXX 27,
1 EXX 28
SFA-5.4 EXX 25, EXX 26
2 SFA-5. 1 and 5.5 EX XI2,EXX I 3,EX XI4,EXXI 9
3 SFA-5. 1 and 5.5 EXX 10, EXX 11
SFA-5. 1 and 5.5 EXX 15, EXX 16, EXX 18, EXX 48
4
SFA-5.4 l ath er than au stenitic and duolex) EXX 15 EXX 16
5 SFA-5.4 (auste nitic and duolex) EXX 15 EXX 16
SFA-5.9 GTAW ERXX
SFA-5. 17 SAW FXX-EX X
6
SFA-5.18 GMAW ERXXS-X
SFA-5.20 FCAW EXXT-X
2X Aluminum GTAW ER 4043
3X Copper GTAW ER CuNi
4X Nickel SMAW ENiC rFe-3
5X Titanium GTAW ERT i-7
6X Zirconium GTAW ERZ r3
7X Weld Overlay SMAW EXXX-X
In percent (%)

Welding P ro ced u re Qualiflcatton :§:: 489

 stre ng th. Ove rwe ldi ng (e xcess fill er
metal) not only increa ses cost, but may
also create an und esirabl e stress con-
ce ntrat ion at the toe of the weld . See
Fig ure 35 -5. Meth od s of minimizing
fill er metal qu antity include redu cin g
the root opening; using a root face on
groove weld s; decreasin g the gro ove
angle; using sing le-U grooves; or lI S-
Tack Welding. Tack we lding is used
to te mporaril y j oi n parts in pro per
alignment until the final weld is made.
Im properl y mad e or imp roperl y re-
moved tack we lds may affect the in-
te grit y of th e fi na l we ld . Tack
welding may req uire the use of des-
ignated procedure s as indi c at ed in
the we lding procedure specificatio n.

Fi"urI'35-S. Ustne the appropriate

" design ensures
joint '" Ihe use of the
proper amount offi ller metal.
~
.- . ..
ing double- V or double-U grooves.

-_ -. .
See Figure 35-6 .

TACK
WELDS L _-
Single bevel Double bevel
Groove Groove
Figure 35- 6. Tack welding m/HI co mp ly willi the
welding procedure specification if it is incorporated
;1/10 the fin al weld.

Welding Position
Singte-V Double-V Welding position is the relationship of
Groove Groove the weld pool , joint, and base metals.
GROOVE WELD Weldin g positions are flat , horizontal,
MORE { LESS overhead , and vert ical. Weld er acces-
FILLER METAL FILLER METAL
sibility must be con sidered whe n de-
v' L s ig ning th e j o int and th e asse mb ly
%V pattern to permit a comfortable working
environment for the welder.
To achieve the best qua lity we ld, a
welder must be able to access the joints
from both s ides after all areas to be
FILLET WELD welded ha ve been co mple te ly as -
se mb led and tack we lde d . Th e se-
quence of assembly may be adj usted
To calculate the weight of fi ller to improv e welder acce ssibili ty. Some
metal, mullip ly the cross-sectional area welds canoot be acc essed fro m both
of the joint by the length of the weld, sides (box co lumns or small-diameter
and mulli ply the result by the den sity pip ing ). Suc h joints are inaccessib le
of the filler metal. and require o ne-side d welding . See
Poo r fit-up counteracts the optimiz- Figure 35-7 . When o ne-si ded welding
ing benefits of the desirable filler metal is done, backing material or consumable
q uantity thro ug ho ut a joint. Poor fit- inserts can be used to ensu re complete
up is a com mon probl em with full- or penetration on the backside of the weld.
partial-penetration fillet welds in T-joints When backin g material or co nsum-
fabricated in the hori zontal position . able inserts are not desired or feasible,
However, welding in a more diffi cult open root welding must be done. Open
positi on ma y qualify a less difficu lt root we ld ing requires a higher weld-
po siti on . ing skill than welding with backing and
490 €1 WeldillR Ski lls
also requires good fit -up and joint
preparation. Care must be taken to
achieve the proper root weld without
excessive penetration (excessive root
reinforcement).
BACKING
BOX COLUMN
CONSUMABLE INSERT
SMALL-DIAMETER PIPE
Figure 35-7. Welder accessibility is a key consider-
ation in creating a sound jo int. If a joint is inacces-
sible, backing material or consumable inserts can
be used to ensure complete penetration.
Preheat, Interpass Temperature
Control, and Postheating
Preheat, interpass temperature control,
and postheating are welding parameters
that indicate the temperature to which
the joint must be heated to improve the
final properties of the joint. The tem-
perature for each parameter varies de-
pending on the metal to be welded.
Preheat and interpass temperature
control are specified when applicable
to ensure toughness of the heat-affected
zone, particularly for heat-treatable
steels. When preheat temperature con-
trols are required, a minimum value
must be specified. When interpass tem-
perature control is required, a maximum
value must be specified.
Postheating may be specified when
welded structures require heat treatment
after welding to develop required prop-
erties, maintain dimensional stability,
reduce residual stress, or further im-
prove toughness. The postheating pro-
cedure must be indicated either in the
welding procedure specification or on
a separate document, such as a shop
heat -treating traveler. Postheating pro-
cedure requirements include rate of
heating and cooling of the structure;
time at temperature; and location of
weld joint(s) to be postheated.
Shielding Gas
The shielding gas provides a gaseous
protecti ve atmosphere that prevents or
reduces atmospheric contamination of
the molten weld as it solidifies and
cools. Shielding gas efficiency relates
to the ability of a shielding gas to dis-
place the atmosphere from the arc area.
Shielding efficiency depends on
shielding gas purity; the design of the
nozzle; the distance from the nozzle
to the work; the internal diameter or
size of the nozzle; the gas flow rate ;
and side drafts.
Electrical Characteristics
Electrical characteristics should be
documented when the welding involves
the use of electric current. Electrical
characteristics include current type, cur-
rent level, polarity, and arc voltage. The
proper current type and polarity must
be defined in the welding procedure.
Welding Technique
The welding technique includes weld-
ing procedure details that are controlled
by the welder or welding operator.
Welding technique parameters include
heat input, travel speed, interpass clean-
ing, and peening.
Heat Input. The heat input influences
the weldability or as-welded proper-
ties of specific metals. Heat input de -
tails must be indicated whenever the
heat input could influence the metal
properties of the finished weld joint.
Welding Procedure Qualification ~ 491
 Alloys, such as nickel alloy s, that
are se nsitive to hot cracking require
heat input contro ls. Wh en heat inp ut
co ntrols are required, details such as
using a straight bead or a weav e bead
must be spec ified.
A straight bead is a type of we ld
be ad made witho ut an y apprec iable
weaving motion . A wea ve bead is a
type of we ld bead made with tran s-
verse oscillation. Using a straight bead
or a weave bead can lead to e ither a
redu ction or an increase in heat input,
respectively. Either bead type may be
accep table for certain types of metals.
Many nickel alloys prefer a lower heat
input , while chro me- mo ly steels pre-
fer higher heat input.
Travel Speed. The travel speed used
must be consistent throughout the jo int
to prevent alteri ng the weld properties.
Too Iow a travel speed may cause ex-
cessive heat input and impair the prop-
erties of a jo int. Too fast a travel speed
lead s to a la ck of complete fus io n.
Documentation of the acceptable travel
speed range is alway s mandatory for
au tomatic we ldi ng processe s and of-
ten ma nda to ry fo r se mia uto matic
we lding processes.
Interpass Cleaning. Interpas s cleaning
is required to remove slag from the weld
metal and to prepare it for the next pass.
In e ffec tive in terpass cleaning may
leave slag inclu sions in the co mpleted
weld and lead to rejection of the weld.
Int e rp ass c lea ni ng meth od s in clude
grinding, chipping, or wire bru sh ing .
Interp ass cle ani ng method s are docu -
mented for welding processes that leave
a slag residue, for examp le SMAW. See
figure 35-8.
Peening. Peening is the mec ha nical
worki ng of we ld met al usin g impact
hlow s. Peening reduces the effect s of
excessive res idual stress es and distor-
tion . Peen ing is used o n highl y re -
s tra ined or thick we lds to avo id
wa rping or crack ing of the we ld or
base metal. Peening must be performed
492 ~ Welding Skills
immediatel y after comp letion of a
be ad len gth (a ppro ximately 9"), as
soon as the we ld has solidified. Peen-
ing is never applied to a root pass or
ca p pass. De tails of peenin g must be
speci fied to ensure co rrec t application
of the met hud .
Ftuure 35-8. tnterpass cleaning is requ ired to re-
"lOW'slag fro m the weld and prevent slag j"c1I/.~iOlIS.
Oxyfuel Welding Qualification
Variables
Oxyfuel welding qualific ation variables
are si milar to tho se for arc we lding,
where applicable. Unique qua lification
var iables for oxyfuel we lding are fuel
gas requirements and welding tip size.
Fuel Gas Requirements. Fuel gas re-
qui rements that must be specified are
fuel gas co mposition and gas pressure.
The fuel gas co mposition is the com-
bination of fuel gases that is to be used
with oxygen to perform the welding.
Acetylene is an example of a fuel gas.
Oxygen is always used to support com-
bu sti on in ox yfue l we lding , so the
pres sure required at the reg ulators of
both the fuel gas and the oxyge n is in-
dicated. The corre sponding flame type
(oxidizing, red ucing, or neutral) must
also be indicate d.
Welding Tip Size. The welding tip size
is the size of the orifice in the oxyfuel
welding torch. The orifice is the point
from which the oxyfuel welding gases
issue. The size of the welding tip con-
trols gas consumpt ion during weldin g
and must be doc umented on the PQR.
Brazing Qualification Variables
Brazing qualification variables are the
same as for arc we lding, where appli-
cable . Qual ificatio n variabl es unique
to brazing are brazi ng tem pe ratu re
range; brazing flu x; brazi ng joi nt de-
sign and clearan ce ; brazing posit ion ;
and brazin g ti me . Brazi ng va riables
are indicate d on a Braz ing Pro cedure
Spec ifica tion. See Fig ure 35-9.
Brazing Temperature Ranges. Hraz-
illg temperat ure range is the tempera-
ture range within which the base metal
is heated to enable fi ller metal to wet
the base metal and form a brazed joint.
The te mperature range must melt the
filler metal at a temperat ure below the
melting point of the base metal(s). Filler
metals for brazing arc those that melt at
temperatures above 8400F (450°C) .
Figu re 35-9 . Hra ::illg qlllllifin/-
uon variables are documented (Ill
{l bl"(l~illX procedure .lp t'("ij in l1iOIl
[orni.

BRAZING PROCEDURE SPEC1ACATION ( B PS)

BPS No. Date B PaR NO

Com p,my _

Brazing Process Manua l D Mechanized 0 Aulomahc 0

B razing Equ ipment

BRAZING CONDITIONS

BASE ME TAL:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8 M No.
Identification

Thickne ss _ Prepa ration

Ot her _

FILLER METAL :

FM No. AWS ClaSSifiCation

Fo<m _
Melhod 01 Application

FLUX; AWS Type _ Other _

ATMOSPHERE: AW S Type _ Ot her _

TEMPERATU RE, _ TEST POS ITION : _

TIME, _ CURRENT, _

FUElGAS ' _ TIP SIZE, _

POS TBRAZE CLEAN ING: _

POS TB RAZE H EAT TRE ATMENT, ~

OTHER _

JOINT:

Type

Clearance

UTS

Oth.,

Approved lor prodecnen by JO INT SKETCH

Employe r

Welding Procedure Qualification :@ 493

 Brazing Flux. Brazing nux is intended
to prevent or inhibit the formation of
oxide s during brazin g. Brazing atmo-
spheres include combus ted fuel gas ,
hydrogen, or vacuum. Brazing flu x
const itue nts include borax. chloride,
fluorides, or any co mbination of these
with oth er che micals. The chemicals
within the tlux are the age nts that pre-
vent or remove the oxides or other un-
de sirab le substa nces during brazin g.
Brazing Joint Designs and Clearances,
The two basic joints used for brazing are
the lap j oint and the butt joint. The lap
joint is the most commonly used because
it offers a large surface area for the great-
est strength. Joint design is also based
on joint clearance. Joint clearance has a
major effect on the mechanical proper-
ties of a bra zed joi nt. Adequate joint
clearance should fall in the range be-
tween .00 I" and .0 I0". Recommended
joint clearances vary with the type of
fi ller meta l and the thickne ss of the
base metal. Bra zing joint design and
clearance influence the strength of a
brazed joint. Changes to joint design and
clearance outside of tabulated values re-
quire requalifi cation .
Brazing Positions. The brazing position.
if altered, requires requ alification. with
certain exceptions. Basic brazi ng posi-
tions for plate are nat, vertical downflow,
vertical upfl ow, and hori zont al. Basic
brazin g positions for pipe are horizon-
tal , vertical do wn flow , and vertical
upflow. See Figure 35- 10. In the verti-
cal downtl ow and vertical upflow posi-
tions, the joint fac es are verti cal and
capillary now of the filler metal is up
and down, respectively. In the horizon-
tal position for plate or pipe, the joint
faces are also vertical, but the capillary
no w of the filler metal is horizontal.
Brazing Time. The brazin g time re-
qui re ment mus t be req ua lified if it
ex ceeds or fa ils to meet the brazing
time indicated for the qualification test
by a prescribed percentage.
Surfacing Weld Qualification
Variables
Qualifi cati on va riables for sur facing
welds are the sa me as those for arc
welding, where applicabl e. The quali-
fication variable un ique to sur facing
welds is the chemical composition of
the surfacing weld .
Chemical Composition of Surfacing
Welds. The chemical composition of a
surfacing we ld infl uences wear resis-
tance for hard fac ing and co rros ion
re si stan ce fo r co rros io n-res ist ant
overlays. Th e che mica l co mpos ition
of a sur facing weld can be altered by

QUALIFIED BRAZING POSITIONS

Test Test Plate Pipe
Brazement Brazing
Form Position Flat Vertical . Vertical Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Vertical
Flow Downflow Upflow Flow Flow Oownflow Upflow
Flat Flow X X - - - - -
Vertical
- X - - - - -
Downflow
Plate Vertical
- X X - - - -
Upflow
Horizontal
Flow
- X - X - - -
Horizontal
X X - X X X -
Flow
Vertical
Pipe
Down flow
- X - - - X -
Vertical
Upflow - X X - - X X

FiJ.:urc ]5·((1. Tilt' posi tion of the test brarement may 'il/alif }' one or mo /"(' brazing positions.

494 ~ Weldin g Skills

dilution with the base metal. Different
we ldi ng processes creat e different
amounts of dilution . To overcome di-
lution, additional surfacing weld passes
or modification of the welding proce-
dure may be required . Th e che mical
composition of the surfacing weld must
be maintai ned on the surface layers,
with out excessive dilution. The mea-
sured chemical composition of the sur-
facin g depo sit must be within a pre-
scribed percentage of the actual chemi-
cal compositio n of the base metal. It
may be necessary to reduce heat in-
put to reduce dilution.
Resistance Welding
Qualification Variables
Resistance welding (RW) qualification
variables are the same as those for arc
welding, where applicable. Resistance
welding quali fication variab les unique
to RW are joint design; electrode type
and size; weld size and strength; and
surface appe arance.
The joint design must account for
contacting overlap, weld spacing, and
the type and size of projection. Elec-
trode variables include the alloy used,
the co ntour, and the dim en sions . If
plates, dies, blocks, or other such de-
vices are used whose properties would
affect the qualit y of the welding, they
sho uld be specified. We ld si ze a nd
strength must describe the extent of the
joint and the anticipated strength value
to be obtained by mechanic al testing.
Surface appearance includes factors
such as indentation, di scoloration , or
amount of upset. A ge nera l requi re-
ment for surfa ce appearance may be
suffic ient. A statement suc h as "Su r-
face shall be generally free of discol-
oration or indentation s" is acceptable.
WELDING PROCEDURE
SPECIFICATION (WPS)
A weldin g procedure specification
(WPS) is a document providing the re-
quired welding variables for a spec ific
applicat ion to en sure repeatabili ty by
properl y trained weld ers and welding
operators. The WPS pro vide s formal
docum entation for all welding qualifi-
cati on vari abl es. Th e WPS is the
"recipe" that must be foll owed whe n
makin g the weld.
Information regarding test specifi-
cations and procedures are detailed in
ANSI /AWS B2.l , Welding Procedure
and Performance Qualification. As part
of the proc edure for qualificati on ,
form s are co mpleted that specify a ll
welding di rectives and requirements
(We ld ing Procedure Sp ecificati on s).
See Appendix.
Fabrication standards and codes re-
quire an em p loyer to pr epare and
qualify welding proc edure specifica-
tion s relev ant to all fabri cation wor k.
Th e st anda rds and co des define the
detail s to be included in a WP S and
refer only to the welding variables of
the specific process that affect qualifi-
cation. The user is allowed to determine
what other varia bles and information
should be includ ed in the WPS.
Wel ding pro ced ur e s pec ifica tio n
items include WPS details, WPS vari-
ables, WI'S conformance, WI'S devel-
opm ent, and standard WPS s.
WPS Details
WPS details desc ribe all the welding
qualification variables required by the
applicable fabrication standard or code.
The WI'S details may be brief or long
and detailed . Fabricatio n standards
and co des usually conta in sugges ted
WI'S fo rms o n wh ic h to doc ume nt
qualifi cati on variables and other rel-
evant information. For complex welded
struct ures, the suggested WI'S forms
must be supplemented with additional
not es or in struction s, or new WI'S
form s are dev ised to suit specific re-
quirem ent s. See Appendix.
A WI'S provides direc tio n to the
welder or welding opera tor and is an
important control document. The WI'S
Welding Procedure Qualificat ion :@: 495
 is given a specific reference number and or codes reference the ASME Boiler
A WPSindudes essen-
tia], s upp le me1l1a ry mu st be signed by an authorized per- and Pres sure Vessel Co de. Section IX,
essential. and Ilones - son, such as the fabricator' s quality as- Qualification Standard [or welding
sential variables. su ra nce manager, hefore release for and Braring Procedures - Welders,
production welding, Responsibility for Bra zers, and Weldillg and Bra zin g
the content. qu alifi cation status. and use Operators.
of a WPS rests with the employer. All fabrication codes and standa rds
indicate a specific level of conformance
WPS Variables
to welding perform an ce or procedure
WPS variahles are qualification variables
qualifica tion that must be met. Sect ion
th at req uire documentati on in a WPS,
IX of the ASM E Boil er and Pre ssure
WPS varia bles are essenti al va riables .
Vessel Code requires the manufacturer
supplementary essential variables. and
or co ntractor to take responsibility for
none ssential vari able s,
performing qualification testing of weld-
Essential Variables. An essential vari- ing procedures for the wcldments to be
able is a welding qualification variable built under the code and for the perfor-
which , if a lte red , sha ll be considered mance of the welders who will carry out
to affect the mechanical properties of the welding. Section IX also requires the
the weld, If an essential variable is al- manufacturer or contractor to maintain
tered in a welding procedure, the weld- an accurate, certi ficd record of the re-
ing procedure is co ns id e red to be sults obtained during welding, as well
revised and the ncw procedure must as during procedure and performance
Essential variables
are purumete rs be requal ified . Es se ntial variables are qualification tests. Records must be avail-
which, i] changed. indicated in fahr ication standards and able to authorized inspectors.
could alter the me -
dUlJlical properties codes . Essentia l variab les differ de-
(~{1he we ld. Requal- pending on the welding process and WPS Development
!{t ClI1;OIl of lil e nnv
the fahrication sta nd a rds and codes.
variab les is rr- WPS development is gen erally the re-
quired. See Figure 35- 11.
sponsibility of the contractor in a given
Supplementary Essential Variables. A
production shop. Th e end user or their
supplementary esse ntial variable is a
representati ve spec ifies the properties
qualification variable, for metal s where
desired in wcldments in acco rdance
impact testing is required. that requires
with a code. spec if icatio n, or special
S /lpple ml'lltaryessell- a new welding proc edure specification.
ljl tial variahles are pa -
The supple me nta ry esse ntia l va riab le
de si gn requirements. The contract or
~- ramctcrs which affect
the impact properties is a provi sion of som e fabrication stan-
then develops a welding procedure that
will produce the spec ified results. if a
[toughness ] of the dards and codes. suc h as the ASME
weld. Requalificat ion relevant procedure does not a lready
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
ofthr lIew variables is e x is t. Certain fa bri cation codes and
required.
Nonessential Variables, A none ssen- sta nda rds require we ld ing proce dure
tial variable is a qu alifi cation variable qualifi cation , w h ic h is a pr equ al-
tha t may be changed in a WPS with- ification test for welding and is an ex-
out requalifi cati on o f the WPS . Non- ception to the ge neral requirements for
essentia l variab les differ for different WPS dev el opment.
weld in g processes a nd for different
fabrication sta nda rds and codes.
No nessential variables

til~
•-
•
an' para meters which.
ijclllmged. do not alter
the mechanical proper-
ties ofthe weld and do
WPS Conformance o Th e AWS publishe s sta ndard AWS 8 2,
Specification for Welding Procedure and
Perform ance Qualification. to he lp welders
na t requ ire requ ali- Conformance w ith the WPS is required
understand a nti m ee t the proc ed ure
fication of the weld. to meet the applicable fabrication stan- qualifi cation requirements (l a WPS.
dard or code. Many fabrication standards

496 ~ Weldinl( Skills

 VARIABLE CHANGES THAT REQUIRE REQUALIFICATION• ..

Procedure Procedure WelderlWelding Operator

Variable* Requalification Required Requalification Required

• Wh en the base metal is changed to one that

does not co nfor m to the type , speci fication, or
Type, compos ition, or
process condition qualified
process co ndition of the • Usuall y not req uired
• Some code s and spec ifications provide lists of
base metal
materials that may be substituted witho ut
requ alification

• Wh en the th ickn ess to be welded is outside the

qua lified range • When th e th ickn ess to be we lded is
Thickness of base • Most codes provide for qualification outside the qualified range
metal on one thickness within a reason ab le range • Most codes provide for an unlimited
• Some codes may require qualification on exac t thi ckness test
thickness or on min and ma x. thicknesses

• When established limits of root openings, root face ,

and included angle of groove joi nts are inc reased
or decreased
• Some codes and spec ifications def ine upper and
• Wh en cha nging fro m a doub le-welded
lower limits beyond which req ualification is
joint or a joint using backing material to
necessary. Ot hers perm it an increase in groove
Joi nt des ign an ope n root. and vice versa
angle and root opening and a decrease in the root
face without requ alification
• Requalificati on is often required when a backing
· Th e addition or deletion of a consuma ble
insert

or spacer strip is added or removed, or the basic

typ e of mat erial of backin g or spacer strip is
changed

• When the diameter of piping or tubinq

• Usua lly not requir ed
is reduced below speci fied limits.
• Some codes per mit procedu re qu alification on
Pipe diameter • Sm aller pipe diam eters gen erally requ ire
plate to satisfy the req uirements for welding
more sophisticated techniques ,
on pipe
equ ipmen t, and skills

• Usuall y not req uire d for changes involving

• Usua lly not required for changes involving
electrode s or welding materials adapted for the
Type of curre nt or simila r elec trodes or we lding materi als
changed electrical cha racteristics
polarity (if DC) ad apted for the changed elec trical
• Someti mes requ ired for change from AC to DC, or
characteristics
vice versa, or from one pola rity to the other

• Wh en electrod e cl assificat ion group ing

• When electro de classificat ion is changed
Electrode classi fication is changed
and size · When the diam eter is incre ased beyond allowa ble
ranges specified in th e relevant code
• Sometimes when the electrode diamete r
is increased beyond spec ified limits

Weldin g current • Usually not req uired

• When the current is outside the range qual ified • Whe n the change exceeds the limits of
Position or progression • Usuall y not requ ired . but de sirable the position(s) qualified or a cha nge in
or both progression

• When a marked change is made in the manner of

filler metal deposition ; e.g., from a small bea d to
Deposition of filler metal large bead or weave arrangement or from an • Usually not required
annealing pass to a no-annealing-pa ss arrangement,
or vice versa
• General requirements lor requa llhca tlOn 01welding procedu res and weloe r pertonnance. Not lo r use by Inspect or to det ermine oecessev 01requ allhcall on. Inspecto rs must
reference the app licable code or standard lor the work bein g inspec ted.

Fig ure 35·1 1...

Weld ing Procedure Qualification €): 497

 , , . VARIABLE CHANGES THAT REQUIRE REQUALIFICATION
---------- - - --------
Procedu re
Variable '
Preparation of root for
second side welding
Preheat and interpass
temperatur es
Posthe ating
• General requirements for requalificalion of welding procedu res and welder performance. Not lor use by inspector to determine necessity of requalitic ation. Inspectors must
reference the applicable code Of standard for the work being inspected.
...Figure 35-11. Essential welding variables require requalification if they are cnanged.
A procedure quatifi-
cat ion record ( PQRJ
is documentation of
the welding variables
used to p rodu ce an
acceptable lest wekl
an d the les t results
co nd uc te d on the
weld to qua lify a
WPS.
PQR develop me nt
encompasses welding
a sample j oint within
the appl ica ble 110-
rameters ofthe WPS.
testing the j oint, and
recording thl' results.
498 ~ Weldin g Skills
- - - - --- -- - - -
Procedure
Requalification Required
• When method or exten t is changed
• Wh en preheat or interpass temp eratu re is outside
the qualified range
• When adding or deleting posth eating
• Wh en the postheating temperatu re or time cycle is
outside the qua lified range
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION
RECORD (PQR)
A procedu re qu alifi cation record
(P QR) is documentation of the we ld-
ing var iables use d to produce an ac-
cept ab le test weld and the test result s
co nd uc te d on the weld to q ualify a
WPS . A procedure qua lification record
determines, by preparation and testing
of standards specimens, whether weld-
ing in accordance with a WPS will pro-
du ce so und welds and adequate joint
properties. Th e te st results are do cu-
mented in a procedure qualifi cation
record (PQR).
To support a WPS . it is necessary
to te st a nd ce rti fy th e res u lts in a
PQR. This is done by making the welds
described in the WPS. machining them
into te st sa mp le s, and testin g th e
samples in accordance with the appli-
cable fabrication code and standard,
PQR Details
Much of the data required by the PQR
is the sa me as the informati on refer-
enced in the WPS. All essential variables
and, when a pplicable, supple me ntal
essent ial variables , mu st be included .
Nonessent ial variables are optional, but
when included must be acc urate, The
data on the front sheet of the PQR and
the WPS wi ll often look very similar.
A PQR records exact data of what ac-
tu all y took place duri ng the test. A
WPS lists a range of allowable vari-
ables. The back of the PQR is a record
- - - - -
WelderlWelding Operator
Requalification Required
• Usually not requi red
• Usually not required
• Usually not required
of the mech anical te st re su lts. Me-
chanical tests that may be used include
th e ten si Ie te s t, gui ded bend test,
tou ghne ss te st (w he n requ ired) , and
fill et we ld test (w hen required). See
Append ix.
A change in an y variable bey ond
the allowable limits of the applicable
fabr ication standard or code requires
requalification of the WPS with a new
PQR . Any c hange within a llowable
limits requires only documentation in
a revised WPS .
Th e app licable fabrication code or
sta nda rd provide s ge ne ra l g uidance
and spec ific accepta nce- rejection cri-
teria for evaluating test results. Mini-
mum ten sile st re ng t h, ma xi mum
number of inclusions, or the per mis-
sible level of other discontinuities may
be s pec i fie d . The acce pta b ility of
properti es or condition s is based on
en g in eerin g judgment a nd is es pe-
ciall y important for service at high or
low temperature, or in corrosiv e en-
vi ronments. PQRs vary for the typ e
of welding process. In some cases the
type of fabrication may requi re mock-
up test s or may allow th e use of a
prequ alified WPS .
PQR Steps
The steps involved in PQR are welding
a sample joint within the parameters of
the WPS qualification variables; testing
the sample joint using sta ndard ized
protocol s; and recordin g the test results
in the PQR.
Weldin!: a Sample Joint. Weldin g a
sample joint is usually done using pipe
or plate samples. with a welding joint
made to the qu al ification va ria bles
indicat ed in the WPS. Th e type , size,
and thickness of the test sample are
governed by the type, size, and thick-
ness of the base metal to be welded in
production . and by the nature of the
pieces to be removed for test specimen
pre pa ra tio n. Test speci me n require -
ments are usually indicated in the ap-
plicable fabrication standard or code .
Testing a Sample Joint. Sample joint
testing is performed on test specimens
that have been remo ved from th e
sample weld joint. The type and num-
ber of test spec imens depend s on the
requirements of the applica ble fabri-
cation standard or code. In most cases,
the test spec imens used are for tensile
testing and guided bend resting. Exact
testin g requirem ent s are indicated in
the applicabl e fabricati on standard or
code .
Test spe ci mens mad e fro m fillet
welds are usually subjected 10 tensile-
shear testin g and macroetch ing. Test-
ing deter mines the strength, ductil ity,
soundness, and adequacy of fusion of
the welds.
Nondestru ctive examination (NOEl
of the sa mple j oints is usually pre -
ferred before they ar e sectioned for
test speci me n pr ep ar ation . Specific
NOE procedures may be a requirement
of the appli cable fabri cation standard
or code.
If a fabricator has qualified a weld-
ing procedure, and at some later date
wishes to make modi fications in that
procedure, it may be necessary to con-
duct requalification tests.
Requalification tests establish that
the modifi ed weldin g procedure
wi ll pr odu ce sa tis fac to ry re sults.
Requalification tests are not usually re-
quired when only minor details of the
origi nal procedure are change d. They
are requ ired , however, if the changes
might alter the properties of the resulting
welds. The applicable fabrication stan-
dard or co de pro vid es gu idance o n
whethe r requa lifica tio n tes ts are re-
quired.
Recording Test Results. Recordin g
test results in the PQR is done when
the qualifier is satisfied that the results
are accurate. The PQR is signed to cer-
tify the test result s. If the test result s
meet the requirements of a job specifi-
cation, the supported WPS may be is-
sued for production welding.
Several PQRs can
A PQR is a certified record of a quali-
s uppo rt a s ingle
fication test and should not be revised. WPS, lint! several
If information needs to be added later. W I'S,,' can be sup-
it can be ad de d in th e form of a 1'0l't{J(/ hy a single
PQR.
supplement or attachment. Additional
qualification tests may be required if
an empl oyer lat er wishes to mak e
changes to a WPS. A PQR may support
several WPSs. and a WPS may be sup-
ported by several PQRs.
If changes becom e necessary in an
establi shed and qualifi ed WPS, addi-
tional qualification tests may be needed
to determine wheth er the modifi ed
WPS will yield satisfactory results. The
applicable fabrication standard or code
determines if requalification is needed.
Alternate PQR Documentation
Alternate PQR documentation encom-
passe s various methods of quali fyin g A p1'('(fuu/ijied WPS is
welding procedures. Alternate PQR
documentation include s prequalifi ed
WPS . mock-up test s, brazin g PQR ,
I
.e
.e=
a WPS that complies
with a .\pecijk fabri-
cation code or stan-
dard and requires 110
and resistance weldin g PQR. qualification testing.
Prequalified PQR. A preq uatified WI'S
is a we lding procedure speci fica tion
that complies with the stipulated co n-
ditions of a particular fabrication stan-
dard or code and is acceptabl e for
use under that cod e without requir-
in g additional qualification testin g.
Prequalified welding procedures may
be used as an alte rnate to testing by
eac h employer.
In order to use a prequalified WPS
the employer prepares a written WPS
conforming to the specific requirements
Welding Procedu re Qu ali fication :§: 499
 of the a pp licable fabricati on sta nda rd
or co de fo r the welding va riables de-
fined . The wri tten WPS is a reco rd o f
mate ri a ls a nd welding proc edure
qu ali f icati on var ia b les th at dem on -
stra te s tha t th e j oint welding proce-
dure meet s th e requirements for
prequal ified s ta tus . For A WS D I . I ,
Structural Weldill g Code - Steel, this
work is done under the requirements
of AWS D 1.1.
Welding procedure qualification tests
need not be made if the requirements are
followed in detail. The employe r mu st
acce pt re sp onsibility for th e use of
prequ alifi ed WPS s . The use o f
prequali fied welding procedures does
not guarantee sa tisfactory prod ucti on
we lds . The qu ality o f all producti on
we lds should be verified by ND E dur-
Mock-up tests are ing and after welding.
used to simulate ac- A sta nda rd WPS is a type of pre -
tua l welding j obs
qualified WPS . A standard WPS is one
under diffunlt or
restricted condi- de veloped throug h analy si s o f tho u-
tion s, such as f or sands of qualifi ed we ld ing procedures
heat (>xc/ u/llger fllhc -
that prov ide restr icted ran ges of we ld-
tubcshret joints.
ing variab les to ensure a hi gh prob-
abilit y of success ful app lication by e nd
users. Standa rd WPSs are approved for
some fahri cation co des . suc h as for
sheet met al.
Mock-up Tests. Mock -up tests are used
to simulate ac tual producti on we ld ing
co nditions in ce rta in typ es o f fabrica-
tion jobs. usuall y under diffi cult or re-
stricted welding co nd itio ns. Mock-up
tests ve rify that proper too ling and in-
spection have been se lecte d .
Ce rtain variab les such as joint ge-
o metry. we ld ing position . and acces-
s ib ility m a y not be con s idered a s
qualification variables. Often. the on ly
way to gauge their effe ct is with mock -
up s . Fa bricatio n standards a nd codes
do not usually requ ire the fa brication
of moc k- Ups for destru cti ve exami na-
tion unless they are to dem onstrate tha t
th e we ld ing procedures will produce
the spec ifie d welds. For e xa mp le, al -
th o ug h mo ck -up test s arc used to
verify weldin g procedures for heat ex-
500 ~ Weldillg Skills
ch an ger tube-tubesheet joints , the
mock -up tests must be suppo rted by a
qualified WPS . Mock-up tests are a use-
ful met hod of demo nstrat ing ex pected
quality levels under difficult or restricted
welding co nditions. See Figure 35- 12.
Figure 35-12_ " moctc-up is used fiJr tl IIIOf: k -lI p test
to sim ulate actual production welding situations to
ensure prope r tool ing and techniques are selected.
suc h (I .{ fo r heat exchanger tube-tubeshr es joints,
Brazing J'QR. Brazin g procedure
qualificat ion testing co ns ists of var i-
ou s des tructive tests on test spec ime ns
obtained from braze sa mp les made to
th e applicab le brazing proc edure
specifi cat ion. Test results arc recorded
on the Brazing Procedure Qualification
Record and certified by the witness-
ing co ntrac to r representati ve.
Resistance Welding PQR. Resistan ce
wel ding procedure q uali fication tests
vary a nd de pend la rgel y o n th e type
of wo rk to be produ ced . When th e
we lded part is sm all, th e p ro cedure
may be qualified by making a number
of fini shed pieces and test ing them to
de struction und er serv ice cond itions,
either simulated or real. In other cases.
re sistance welds can he made in tes t
specime ns that arc tested in ten sion or
shea r, or in spected for other proper-
tie s suc h as su rface appearan ce and
so undness.
A p ro cedure qu ali fi cati on record
determ ines . by preparati on a nd test-
ing of sta nda rds spec ime ns . w het he r
welding in accordance with a WPS will
produce sou nd weld s and ade q ua te
joint properties. Much of the data re-
quired by the PQR is the same as the
information referenced in the WPS .
 I . Qualifi ed welding procedures consist o r the welding procedure spec ifica tion (WPS) and the
procedure qualificat ion record (PQ R).
2. Welding procedu re qualific ation variables are welding param eters that affect the integrity or a
weld joint and must be indicated in the PQR.
3. Joint design is an example of a procedure qualificati on variable and may enco mpass weld
type, edge preparati on, and meth od of preparing the edge .
4 . Base metals are gro uped by weldability classi ficat io ns to redu ce the number of procedure
qua lification variab les. Base metals with the same weldabi lity classification may be substi-
tuted for one ann ther with no effect.
5. Filler metals are grouped by usability classification to reduce the num ber of procedure quali-
fication variables. Filler metals with the same usabilit y cl assification may be substituted for
one another with no effect.
6 . A WPS includes essential, supplementary essential , and nonessential variables .
7. Essential variables are parameters which, if changed, could alter the mechani cal propertie s of
the weld . Requalification of the new variables is required .
8. Suppl ement ary esse ntial variables are param eters which affect the impact properties (tough-
ness) of the weld. Requalification of the new variables is required.
9 . Nonesse ntial variables are parameters which, if changed. do not alter the mec hanical pro per-
ties of the weld and do not requir e requ alific ation of the weld.
10. A procedure qualification record (PQR) is documentation of the welding variables used to pro-
duce an acceptable test weld and the test results conducted on the weld to qualify a WPS.
I I. PQR development encompasses welding a sample joint within the applicable param eter s of
the WPS, testing the j oint, and recordin g the results.
12. Several PQRs can support a single WPS, and several WPSs can be supported by a single PQR.
13. A prequ alified WPS is a WPS that complies with a spec ific fabric ation code or standard and
requi res no qualification testing.
14 . Mock-up tests are used to simulate actual welding jobs under difficult or restric ted conditions,
suc h as for heat exc hanger tube-tubeshee t jo ints.

Weldi ng Procedure Qualifica tion ;€): 501

 I . What is one benefit of using an effective joint design?
2. What is the difference between base metal material specification and base metal weldability
classification?
3. What is the range of base metal thicknesses covered in a welding procedure specifica-
tion?
4. What is the difference between filler metal specification and filler metal usability
classification?
5. Why are small-diameter electrodes preferable to large-diameter electrodes?
6. What is one benefit of postheating?
7. Why does a straight bead provide less heat input to a weld than a weave head?
8 . What are the effects of travel speeds that are too slow? Travel speeds that are too fast?
9. What is the effect of ineffective interpass cleaning?
10. What WPS variables require documentation in the WPS?
I I . What are the three steps required in creating a PQR?
12. How is a mock-up test useful when supported by a qualified WPS?

502 €1 Welding Skills

The welde r performance qualification (WPQ) test demonstrates a welder 's ability to produce welds that
meet a qualified welding procedure. Welder performan ce qualification tests are used to assess whether a
welder has the required level of skill to produce a sound weld to the pa rameters of the applicable welding
procedure specification (WPS).

The employer is responsible for ensuring that welder performan ce qualification tests meet the require-
ments of the applicable febrication standard or code. Fabrication standa rds and codes contain similar
methods of qualifyin g welders. welding operators. and tack welders. but differ in the requirement details.
Welder performan ce qualification (WPQ) tests must be made in the most difficult position encountered in
production. However, WPQ test results cannot predict how an indi vidual will perfo rm on a particular
production weld. The quality of production welds should be determined by inspection both durin g and
f ollowing completion of welding.

WELDER PERFORMANCE welds, and has recorded the succ ess-

QUALIFICATION (WPQ)
A welder pe rf ormance qu alificati on
(WPQ ) contains three areas that must
be ce rt ifie d for a welder to be ap -
proved for qualificati on: welder per-
for ma nce qua lif ic ation. we lde r
certificat ion, and welder regi stration .
The welder performan ce qualification
is a test that demonstrates a welder's
ability to produ ce welds that meet re-
quired standa rds . The weld er perfor-
man ce qualifi cati on invol ves takin g
and passin g a practical weldi ng test.
Welder ce rtification is a written
statement that the welder has produ ced
welds meetin g a prescrib ed standard of
welding performanc e. Welder ce rtifi-
cation implies that a testing organi za-
tion. a manufacture r, a co ntractor, an
owner. or a user has witnessed th e
preparation of the test weld s. has con-
ducted the prescribed testin g of the
ful results of a test in accordance with A welder perf or -
mance qualification
accepted standard s. Welder registration (WP Q) d emon -
is the act of approving a copy of the strates II welde r's
welder's certification document by an ap- ability to pro duce
propriate authority. welds to me et the
applicable welding
procedu re specifi-
ca tion (WPS).
WPQ STANDARDS AND CODES
Many fabrication standards and codes
exist, each havin g its own regulatory
requirements. WPQ requirements vary
between standards and codes, and the
appropriate fabrication code or standard
must be used when qualifying welders,
welding operators, and tack welders.
6 AWS DI .J. Structural Welding Code-
Steel. is an example oj a standa rd that
contains qualification requirements for
welders. welding operators, 01"/ tack weld-
ers. Performance qualification requirements
are found in Section 4. Qualification, Pari
C, Performance Qualification:

503
 Th e g ove rni ng sta ndard or c o de
Qualification unde r
I
.~ a ile [ahrication code
.= or standard does not
necessarily qua/if\' a
welder 10 weld under
should be con sulted for specific details.
Requirements for the ASME Boi ler and
Pressu re Ve ssel Code, AWS Stru ctural
another code or S1a l1-
Weldill g Code-Stee l, AW S Struc tural
dard, even though the Weldillg Code-Sheet Stee l, and API
qualification tests 01'- CmS-' Country Pipeline Weldillg are typi -
pear 10 be identical.
ca lly speci fied. Qu alifi cation under one
fabr ication code or standa rd does not nec -
essarily qualify a we lde r to weld under
anothe r code or sta ndar d. even though the
qu alification tests appe ar to be identical.
ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code
Boiler and pressure vessel code require-
ments ar e conta ined in ASME Section
IX. Qua lification Standard Fir welding
and Brazing Procedures-Welders. Braz-
ers, and Weldillg and Brazing Operators.
Sec tion IX req uirements also apply to
Strurtura! weldin g
co d,' WPQ require- other struc tures suc h as e levated water
ments are con tained storage tanks and o il storage tanks.
ill AWS 1>/./ , Struc-
Per AS ME require ments , the we lder
tural Welding Code-s-
Steel. who prepares test samples for the WPQ
mu st be personally qu alified within
ASME performance qua lification var i-
ables. All oth er weld ers are qualified by
spec ific welder qualifi cation te sts re-
q uired by the welding procedure speci-
fic ation ( W PS) that wi ll c o ve r the
work. A welding procedure qualifica-
tion record (PQ R) is used to document
th e a b ility of th e welder or welding
op erator to me e t the WPS .
A PQR mu st incl ude the esse nt ial
A PQR mll st include we ldi ng var iables , the type of te st. the
the essential welding metal thickness ranges qu alified, and the
variables. the range
te st re sul ts . Wh e n tes ting, RT ma y
qualified. the type of
test, ami the lest re- so me times be substituted for mechani-
sults. c a l te sts, but no t w he n GMAW with
short circuit ing tran sfer is used. RT can -
not be used because incomplete fusion ,
a common di scontinuity with GMAW
in the short c ircuiting mode. may not
be detected by RT. See Appendix .
G enerall y. w elders who mee t the
requirement s f or groo ve weld s a re
a lso qu alified for fillet we ld s, bu t not
vice ver sa . A w eld er q ua lified to
S04 ~ IVelding Skills
weld in acco rd a nce w ith one qu ali-
fied WPS is al so qu alifi ed to weld in
a cc ordanc e with oth er qua lified
WPS s using th e sa me w eld in g pro-
ce ss, within the limits o f the indicated
esse nti a l w eld in g va ria bles .
A qual ifi ed w el d er is gi ve n a n
ide ntify ing number, lett er, or symbo l
that is used to iden tify his or her wo rk.
The qu ali fication expires if the we lder
d o c s no t we ld for a pe riod of s ix
months or mor e. Moreover, if there is
reason to quest ion the we lde r's abi l-
ity to make we lds mee ti ng spec ifica-
tion s. his or hcr qu alific at ion sh a ll be
co ns ide re d ex p ire d .
AWS Structural Welding Code-
Steel
Structural welding code WPQ require-
ments are contained in AWS 01.1,
Stru ctural Weldill g Code- Stee l. AWS
requirement s ar c sim ila r to those of
th e AS ME Boil er and Pressure Vessel
Code , but also contain provi sions for
prequalified welding pro cedures.
U nder the AWS cod e, vi sual in-
s p ec t io n, g u ide d bend te st s , fill et
we ld te st s, a nd RT ma y be used to
le st s a m p le w e lds . Th e Stru ctural
Weldillg Co de -Stee l a lso allow s, at
th e e ngi nee r's di scretion. acceptanc e
o f prope r docum ent e d ev ide nce of
pre vi ou s qu al ifi c at ion s o f welde rs.
AWS Structural Welding Code-
Sheet Sleel
The struc tural we lding code for shee t
stee l welde r qu alifi cati on s is co ntained
in AWS 01.2. Structural welding Code-
Sheet Steel. The requirements are differ-
ent from AWS 01.1 for structural steel
in that qual ificat ion , when es tablished for
an yone of the stee ls permitted by the
code, allow s the weld er to be qualified
to we ld on any other stee l permitted by
the code, except for coated stee ls. Quali-
ficat ion on coat ed stee ls must be tested
on coated steels.
 Qualificati on is required in each po- Cross-Country Pipeline
sition used. In the case of vertical po- Welding Code
sitio n. uphill or dow nhill travel is
Cro ss-co untry pipelin e welder qualifi -
qualified. Welders are qualified for all
cation req uirem ent s are conta ined in
electrodes within a gro up designation
API standard 1104, Standard for Weld-
(u sa bi li ty cl a ssifi cati o n) . Different
ing Pip elines and Related Facil iti es.
combinations of electrode and shield-
The requirements are different from the
ing gas mu st be qu alifi ed separately.
previo us ly de scribed co des in th at
If any of the procedure qu alifi cation
cross-country pip eline welder qu alifi -
variables are cha nged . the procedure
cation and te stin g is usually done in
must be requa lified under the new vari-
the field. See Figure 36-2.
ables. See Figure 36- 1. Check with the API allows for th e use of ten sile
fabricati on co de and spec ification for tests, bend tests, and nick-break tests.
actual ess ential variabl es. Welder s can be qu alifi ed for a sing le
qu alification o r multipl e qu alifi ca -
ESSENTIAL WELDING
tions, depending on the results of eac h
VARIABLES'
tes t atte mpte d.
Electrode/Filler Metal

···
Electr ode classificat ion
PRODUCT-SPECIFIC WPQs
Electrod e size
Increase in filler metal strength Prod uct -spe cifi c weld er performan ce
• Melting rate/current/wir e feed speed
qual ification tests arc 1110st commonl y
• Type of coating
• Coa ting thickn ess done for plate and structural member
• Use of flux (for SAW) welding, pipe welding. sheet metal weld-
ing, and brazing .
Position Welder performance quali fication s

tI
test the most difficult positions that will The WPQ must be
• Change in position . ~ develo ped for tilt'
• For vertical welding: uphill vs. downhill ; be encountered in production for weld- .= mo st diffi cu lt pos i-
downhill vs. uphill ing and brazing. Qualification in a more tion expected during
• Welding from both side s to welding from difficult position usuall y also qu alifies welding or brazing.
one side only (for square butt joints) fo r welding or brazing in less difficu lt
positions. A welder who qualities in ver-
Shielding Gas
tical, horizontal, or overhead positions
• Type of shielding gas (for GMAW and GTAW) is usually also co nsidered qualifi ed for
• Flow rate (for GMAW and GTAW) we lding or brazin g in fl at po siti on .
Qualification on a groove weld test will
Current
normally qualify thai welder for the pro-
• Current level/wir e feed speed/melting rate duction of fillet welds in the same posi-
• Type of welding curr ent , polar ity
. tion. The applicable fabrication standard
Base Metal or code dictates the exact limits on pro-
duction weldin g and brazing qualifica-
· Shee t steel thickness
tion test position s.
Joint Design

· Root opening of square butt join ts

AIVS V 1.1. Structural Welding Code-
Welding Process Steel, Table 4./0. Weld er and Weld ing
Operator Qualification: Number and Type
• Mode of metal transfer (for GMAW)t ofSpecimens ami Range of Thickness and
• requ ire requalificatioll if changed Diameter Qualified. specifies the type of
t only essential when switctwng from short circuiting 10 spray transter
test wetds. metal thickness, number of'speci-
.i~ure 36·1. Essentialwelding variables are q/lalified mens. and the qualified dimensions fo r
as rested. We/den ml/,~t he requalified when essenti al production welding.
we/ding variab les are d Wllged.

Welder Performan ce €l' 505

Qualification
 Reference : API Standard 1104. 2.2

PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION NO.

For _ Welding of _ Pipe and Fittings

Process _
Material _
Diameter and wall thickness _
Joint design _
Filler metal and No. of beads _
Electrical or flame characteristics _
Position _
Direction of welding _
No. of welders _
Time lapse between passes _
Type and removal of lineup clamp _
Cleaning and/or grinding _
Preheat/stress relief _
Shielded gas and flow rate
Shielding flux _
Speed of travel _
Sketches and tabulations attached _

Tested _ Welder _
Approved ~ Welding supervisor _
Adopted _ Chief engineer _

ELECTRODE SIZE AND NUMBER OF BEADS

Electrode Current
Bead Number Size and Voltage and Speed
Type Polarity

Figu re 36-2. WPQ tests to meet API I J()4 (Ire usually perfo rmed in the fie ld.

WPQ for Plate and Structural

Members
Welder performance qualification for
plate and structural members usuall y
requires that the welder make one or more
test welds on groove weld plate or fillet
weld plate in accordance witb the
requirements of the qualified WPS. The
welder would then be qualified to weld
plates up to 2T (where T is the thickness
of the qualification plate). Joint details
A welder pe rforman ce qualification test qualifies a welder based on the essential sho u ld be in acco rd anc e with the
variables spec ified on the welding performance qualification record. qualifi ed PQR.
506 § Welding Skills
 Groove weld qualifications usually
qualify the welder to weld both fillet
welds and groove weld s in the pos i-
tions qualified . Fillet weld qualifica-
tions limit the welder to fillet welding
in only the position qualified and other
spec ified position s of less difficulty.
WPQ samples for gro ove and fillet
weld s are taken from key location s in
the test j oint.
WPQ for Pipe
Welder performance qualifications for
pipe differ from plate and structural
member welding principally in the test
assemblies and the test positions used.
When weldin g pipe, the root surface is
inaccessible, requiring the use of back-
ing rings or eonsumable inserts, or the
production of a weld with an open root
joint. An open mot joint is an unwelded
joint that does not use backing or con-
sumable inserts .
Pipe welding require s more skill
than weldin g plate or structural mem-
bers with backing . To simulate the dif-
ficulties of produ ction pipe weld ing,
the WPQ for pipe requires that pipe
samples be welded in the position, or
positions, for which the welder is to
be qualified . Space restriction s may
also be placed on the welder durin g
the test. Space restrictions measure the
individual's ability to produce a satis-
factory weld in locations where joint
access is limited. Special joint designs
are used for welder performance quali-
fication to weld T-, K-, or Y-connec-
tions in pipe and for fillet or tack welds.
WPQ for Sheet Steel
Welder performance qu alifications for
sheet stee l are based upon spec ial re-
quirement s for joining thin members.
Weldin g thin metal s co uld re sult in
holes burning through the sections. All
fabri cati on standa rds and codes place
limits on the minimum thickness that a
welder ca n weld in production . T he
min imum thickn ess qu ali fied is often
the thickness used durin g qualification.
See Figure 36-3.
WPQ for Brazing
Welder performance qualification for
brazing is based upon the production of
a joint arrangement in a similar position
to that expected in production. Brazing
operators are tested to verify their ability
to operate mech ani zed or auto ma tic
brazin g equipment according to a
brazing procedure specific ation.
Acceptance of welder performance
qualification tests on brazed joints may
be based e ither on visual examination
or on specimen testing. Welder perfor-
mance qu alifi cati on for brazing by
specimen testing is done by makin g a
standard test brazed joint con sisting of
a butt , scarf, lap , sing le- or double -
spliced butt, or a rabbet joint in plate or
pipe. See Figure 36-4 .
The test pipe is sectioned and the ex-
posed surf aces are polished and etched,
and a macroetch test is done. A macroetch
test is a way to examine a brazed joint at
low magnification for discontinuities. Peel
tests may be used in place of macroetch
tests, or vice versa . using lap joints or
spliced butt joints.
1M"",wy".. Indu.</n t'5. I",,·.
A WPQ for bra zing req uires that a joint be made ;11 a p OSi l ;OI1 simi lar 10 thu t
required ill p roduction. Brazing operators must be able 10 operat e machinerv or
brazing equipment according to the brazing procedu re specification. .
Welder Performance :0 507
Qualification
 WELDER PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATION TESTS FOR SHEET STEEL
Tested ,Qualifllld Oualllfed
Test
Welding W,e(q[ng' 'WllTd Thlcl<ness' r~~lll
Samples Test'
Position Position Jomt
Flat Flat
Horizontal Flat, Hor izontal
Vert ica l Flat, Horizontal, Vertical Square groove butt Th ickness Bend
Overhead Flat , Hori zontal, Overhead
joi nt , sheet 10 sheet tested
Square groove butt
jo int, sheet to sheet

Arc spot weld and

arc seam we ld, Thickness
Twist
Flat Flat sheet to tes ted
Arc spo t weld, she et supporting member
to supporting member

Arc seam weld ,

Flat Flat sheet to Th ickness Bend
supporting member tested
Arc seam we ld , sheet
to supporting member

3
Arc seam weld,
sheet to sheet
Horizontal Hori zontal
Arc seam weld,
sheet 10 sheet
Thickness
tested Bend

Flat Flat Fillet we lded lap jo int, T hickness

Ho rizontal Flat, Horizontal sheet to sheet, tested
Vert ical Flat , Hori zontal, Vert ical or sheet to and Bend
Fillet we lded lap joint , Overhead Flat, Hor izontal, Overhead supporting member thicker
she et to sheet

Flat Flat Fillet we lded lap joi nt ,

Ho rizontal Flat , Hori zontal shee t to sheet, Th ickness
Vertical Flat, Horizo ntal, Vert ica l or sheet to tested Bend
Fillet welded lap jo int, Overhead Flat, Hori zont al, Ove rhead supporting member and
sheet to thicker
supporting member

Fille t welded T- or
Flat Flat
lap jo int, Th ickness
Horizontal Flat, Horizontal
sheet to sheet, tested Bend
Vertical Flat, Hori zont al , Vertical
Overhead Flat, Hor izonta l, Ove rhead
or sheet to and
Fillet we lded "l-joint. supporting mem ber thicker
sheet to sheet

Fillet we lded T- or Thickness

Flat Flat lap joint, tested
Horizontal Flat, Ho rizon tal shee t to and Bend
Ove rhead Flat, Horizontal , Ove rhead supporting membe r thic ker
Fillet we lded T-joi nt, sheet
to supporting member

Flare-bevel-groove
Flat Fla t we ld, sheet to sheet, T hickness
Horizontal Flat, Ho rizontal or sheet to tested
suppo rti ng member; or and Bend
Vertica l Flat, Ho rizontal , Ver tica l
Flare-bevel, Overhead Flat , Hori zontal , Ove rhead Flare- V-groove thicker
shee t to sheet weld , sheet to sheet

Flat Flat Flare-bevel-groove Thickness

Horizontal Flat , Hori zontal weld, shee t to tes ted Bend
Vertical Flat, Hor izontal , Vert ical supporting member and
Flare -bevel -groove, thicker
sheet to
supporting member

Flare -V-groove we ld,

Flat Flat Thickness
sheet to sheet; or
Hori zontal Flat , Hori zont al Flare-bevel-groove weld , tested
Vert ical Flat, Horizontal, Vert ica l Bend
sheet to sheet, or sheet and
Flar e -V-groove, Ove rhead Flat, Horizontal, Overhead thicker
to supporting member
sheet to sheet
• two tests required for certification

Figure .' 6--'_ For sheet steel welding. the position, weld joint, and thicknes s that are tested are typicall y the only variables for which the welder
is qua lified, per test.

508 ~ Welding Skills

 · . .'

Bun JOINT SCARF JOINT

LAP JOINT SINGLE-SPLICED Bun JOINT

DOUBLE-SP LICED Bun JOINT RABBET JOINT

Figure 36-~. WI'Q for b ra zed j oint is achieved hy sectioning. polishing, (l IJ(J etching {/ test join t.

1. A welder performance qualification (WPQJ demonstrates a we lder' s ab ility to produce welds to

mee t the app licable WPS.
2 . Qualification under one fabrication code or standard doe s not necessarily qualify a welder to
weld under another code or sta ndard, even though the qualification test s appear to be identical.
3. A PQR must include the essential welding variables, the range qualified, the type of tests, and
the test result s.
4. Structural welding code WPQ requirements are contained in AWS D 1.1, Stru ctural Welding
Code-Steel.
5 . The WPQ must be developed for the most difficult position expected during welding or brazing.

Wdder Perform ance €): 509

Qualification
 I. Who is responsib le for ensurin g that qua lification of welders meets app licab le codes?
2. What is the difference between welder performan ce qualification and welder certification?
3. Are welders who meet the requirements for fillet welds automatically approved for groo ve welds?
4. When qualifying for pipe, in what position should the welder be qualified?

510 ~ Welding Skills

sec t ion e ig ht Welding Technology

Welding metallurgy is the study of the effect of welding on the metallurgical structure of weld joints.
Heat input during welding produces rapid heating, very high temperatures, and rapid cooling. The
physical properties of the metal determine the response 10 the heat of welding. Mechanical properties (if
the metal, residual stresses, and corrosion resistance of metal are also affected by the heat of welding.

METALLURGICAL STRUCTURE one of three types: face-centered cubic,

Metallurgy is the study of the influence
of crysta l and grain structure of metals
on the mechanical, physical, and chemi-
cal properties of metals.
The crystal structure and grain struc-
ture of metals is known collectively as
the metallu rgical str ucture . Metal lu r-
gical structure is the arrangeme nt of
atoms in repeatin g pat ter ns within a
metal. The crystal structure is preserved
in the grain structure of metals. The
crystal structure may change as a metal
is heated or cooled. or if the composi-
tion of the metal changes.
Crystal Structure
A crystal s truc ture is a specific ar-
rangement of atoms in an ord erly and
repeating three-dimensional pattern. All
metals exhibit a cry stal structure. Al-
though 14 types of crystal structures are
possible in nature. most metals exhibi t
bod y-cent ered cub ic, or close-packed
hexagonal. See Fig ure 37-1.
The atomic arrangeme nts in the
differe nt crys tal struc tures lead to
significa nt differences in the behav ior
of metals. Some metals, such as steel,
may exhibit different crystal structures
at di fferent temp cralures.
Grain Structure
Metals do not exist as a single crystal,
but as a large number of grains. A grain
is an assembly of crysta ls having dif-
ferent orientations of their crystal com-
pon en ts. G rain struc ture deve lop s as
metal s solidify from the molten state .
The first alums to solidify develop the
Crystal structure is 1I
characteristic c rystal structure of the specifk: arrangement
meta l. Each solid crystal nucleus that ofthe buildingbloch
forms develops its own orientation cif"Ultter(alOmr) ill CUI
orderly and repeating
within the structure. The crystals grow lit ree -dimensional
by de vel oping offs hoots , but retain pattern.
thei r orien tation with respect to the

SII
 other nuclei. The solidifying structures Grain Structure
are called dendrites. As the dendrit es Figure 37-2
grow, they fill the space between them-
se lves w ith offshoots and bran che s D
until their extremities meet other den-
drites. The dendrites continue to gro w <:> I ~ CLUSTER
until the space between them is com- ~ -o ./ OF NUCLE I

pletely fi lled and solidifi cation is com-

plete . See Figure 37-2.
~
a

NUCLEU S FORMS
(FIRST STAGE)
Heat Input
Heat is th e mo st important ele ment DENDR ITE
Heat input is the most
needed for welding. Heat (heat input)
important elementfor
welding. Heat (heat is required to melt the base metal and
input) is required to fill er metal during weld ing. Heat in -
melt the bas e metal p ut is the amount of heat applied to SO LID ATOMS
and fille r metal du - AD DED
thc filler metal and the base metal sur- TO NUCLEI
ring welding.
face at the required rate to form a weld DEN DRITE S
pool , plus the add itional heat required (SECOND STAGE)

to compe nsa te for heat that is con-

ducted away from the weld. Heat in-
put durin g weld ing produce s rapid
heating, ver y hi gh temperatures, and GRAINS WITH
DIFFERING
rapid cooling. See Figure 37-3. CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
ORIENTATIONS
The most common source of heat
input in fusion welding is the electric arc.
Oth er so urces of heat input, such as
SOLID IFIE D METAL
burning oxygen and acetylene (oxyfuel (THIRD STAGE)
welding), are also used. Controlling heat
input is essential when welding because
Figure 37-2. The gra in slrue /ure of crystals develops
the heat inpu t may affect the structure from the sol idif icat ion an d growth of man)' nuc lei
and properties of metals. that f orm and grow (/ .1' molten metal cools.

Figure 37-1. A x atoms cool from

a liquid 10 a solid state. they are
arranged into (lile of three crystal
slruc ture patterns: body-centered
cubic, f ace -centered cub ic, o r
cl ose-p acked he xa gon al.

7i" /; -
7i .1;
y :
,
,

I I~ - - - - O~ o
"li ¢ - - - -,--

:> J '1:J-- - 1-- - - - J

1;---- ,0 --- ;

,,--,_ _ _ _ CJ

BODY-CENTERED FACE-CENTERED
CLOSE -PACKED
CUBIC CUBIC HEXAGONAL

512 ~ Welding Skills

 Heating Rate. Heating rate is the rate
Mig~~G 1------- of temperature cha nge of a weld joint
RAPID over time fr om room temperature to
HEATING the welding temperature. Th e hea ting
RAPID rate is intluenced by heat input, ther-
w COOLING
a: { mal conductivity, and the mass of the
:::l
!;(
a: joint area .
w
c,
::;;
Heat input exceeds heat loss during
W
I- welding and the base metal bec omes
TIME halt er. The temperature of the wor k
near the arc rises and as soon as the
Figure 37·3. Heal input durin}: wddin!: produces rapid arc move s on, the temperature begin s
heatin g. ~'e,!' high temperatures, atld rapid cooling. to fall. If the weld pool becomes large
and unman ageabl e , it ca n be cooled
by reducing the current or breaking the
arc, thus reducing heat input or cutting
Seventy percent to 85% of the heat it off completely.
generated in SMAW is used in making The maximum temperature achieved
the weld. Most of the rem aining heat in a weld mu st be sufficient to ca use
is used to melt the base metal adjacent melting of the base metal at the weld
to the we ld joint. T he perce ntage of face. Th e amou nt by which the te m-
heat used to melt the filler metal varies perature must exceed the melting point
with the welding proce ss, welding pro- of the filler metal depends on the weld-
ced ure, base met al , and joint design . ing process. The tim e the met al is at
Additi onal heat is lost through heating the maximum temperature can influ-
the electrodes and flu x, through weld ence properti es of both the tiller metal
spatter, and through conv ection to the and the base metal.
surrounding atmos phe re.
Cooling Rate. The cooling rate is the
Calculating Heat Input. Heat input is rate of temperature change of a weld
measured in j oul es per linear inch of joint over time from the welding tem -
we ld. The heat input produce d by a per ature to room temper atu re . Weld
mov ing electri c arc is calculated using joint coolin g take s pl ace at a mu ch
the follo wing eq uation: faster rate than any quench ing process
Heat input IYV x IYC x 60
in heat treatment, The coo ling rate rap-
tVTS idl y dec reases with distance fro m the
whe re we ld, bec au se the surro unding base
IYV = welding voltage (in V) metal acts as an effec tive heat sink.
The cooling rate is governed by fac-
IYC = welding current (ill A) tors such as heat loss, thermal condu c-
60 = constant (to convert min to sec) tivity of the base metal, and the amount
IVIS = welding travel spew (in inl rnin) o f preh eat and interpass temp eratur e
Wh at is the heat inp ut whe n using control required. Preheat is the heating
SMAW at 29 V, 300 A, and a travel of the joint area to a predetermined tem-
speed of l 8"/min? perature in order to slow the coo ling
rat e. Interpa ss temp erature cont rol is
Heat input WV x IYC x 60
maintainin g th e temper ature ra ng e
1Y7:5
within the weld betw een weld passes
Heat input 29 x 300 x 60 until welding is complete. Dependin g
18 o n the type of meta l be ing welded ,
Heat input = 483.33 x 60 interpass temperature co ntrol may have
Il ea! input = 29,000 Joules per inch an upper limit, a lower limit, or both.

weldi ng Metallu rgy ~ 513

 o isThejunction
a
way steel reacts
ofits
to heat input ami cooling
chen iicul elements and their
Rapid Cooling of Steel. Rapid cool-
ing is used to stre ng the n stee l. The
effect on themetallurgical slnlcture. T71e coo/- stee l is heated to a high temp eratu re
ing rate is determined by the steel composi-
to produce austenite-a process called
tion and must be controlled to prevent
embrittlement ill susceptible compositions. austenitizing-and then rapidly cooled,
or qu en ch ed . Wh en stee l is rapidly
Wh en usin g mediu m-c ar bon an d coo led , an eq uilib r ium-de pe nde nt
Us ing th e proper low-all oy stee ls, the rate of co oling structure change has no time to occur.
preh eat temp er-
ature, coupled with must be controlled to maintain tough- Th e stee l is then hea ted to an inter-
WI upper lim it 0 11 ness of the heat- affected zone. T here mediate temperature, or tempered, to
interpass tem per- is a critica l coolin g rate for eac h type restore suffic ient ductility while main-
ature control. helps
maintain the cool- of stee l, which , if exceeded, lead s to taini ng a stro nger, harder product.
ing rate below the loss of to ughnes s. Using th e pro per Weld ing prod uce s me tallurg ical
critical cooling rate. preheat temperature, co upled with an structure changes similar to the quench-
preventing loss of
toughness.
upper limi t on interpass tem perature ing stage of heat treat me nt. Conse-
control. helps maintain the cooling rate quentl y, as the carbon content of steel
below the critica l cooling rate. The increases, the welding proced ure must
cooling rate of a weld also depends on be manipulated to "cushion" the effect
the number of weld passes required . of quenching. This is achieved by pre-
The root bead has the greatest preheat- heatin g or blanket coo ling. Steel may
ing effect on the weld joint. The change also be tempered after welding using
in the cooling rate between subsequent po stheating, which reduces hardn ess
passes is less significant. and residual stresses .
Forced cooling may be used to ac-
celerate coolin g . Forced cooli ng is
WELD REGIONS
rapid cooling of a solidified weld joint
betw een passes usin g water. Forced The heat of welding creates three re-
cooling is ofte n used becau se it in- gions, with different metallurgical struc-
creases produ ction. Forced cooling is tures, within a weld joint. These regions
most common with stainless steels, but are we ld metal , heat-affe ct ed zo ne
Th e three key re - is also used on other alloys. Abnorm al (HAZ), and base metal. See Figure 37-4.
gions of a weld are stresse s and other detrimental effects Additiona lly, surfac ing and butt erin g
the weld metal , the
base metal, and the
may be exert ed on the joint inte grity procedures create regions with proper-
heat-affected zone. when forced cooling is used. ties similar to the weld metal, HAZ, or
base metal.
Slow Cooling of Steel. When stee l is
slow coo led from a high temperatu re,
metallurgical structure changes occ ur
under conditions of thermal equilibrium.
BASE METAL
Thermal equilibrium is a steady-s tate
condition in which time is available for
the diffusion of atoms. Austenite (which
has a face-centered cubic crystal struc-
ture) transforms on cooling to a mixture
of ferrite (which has a body-centered
cubic structure) and iron carbide. Iron L_==~_~,~~=";'~ _
FUSION /
carbide is a co mpound formed from BOUNDARY. /
carbon that diffuses out of the austenite
and comb ines with some of the ferrite.
Slow cooling is used in heat treatment
Figu re 3 7-4. The heat of welding c retltn thr ee
processes such as annealing that are de- regions of metallurgical structures. weld metal. heat-
signed to soften steel. affected zone (HAL), and base metal.

514 ~ Welding Ski lls

Weld Metal
Weld metal is the portion of a fusion
weld that is completely melted during
welding. Weld metal consists of solidi-
fied weld tiller metal resulting from the
addition of filler metal to the joint, plus
a small amount of melted base metal
at its boundaries, which creates the
weld interface. The weld interface is
the boundary between the weld metal
and the base metal in a fusion weld.
The melted base metal contributes to
dilution if a filler metal of different
composition is used.
Dilution modifies the chemical com-
position of filler metal because of mix-
ing with the base metal or previously
applied weld metal in the weld bead .
Dissimilar metal welding is the join-
ing of two metals of different compo-
sition using a compatible filler metal
to ensure the weld meets required prop-
erties.
The amount of dilution varies with
the heat input of the welding process.
The greater the heat input required by
the welding process, the greater the op-
portunity for dilution in the weld metal.
For SMAW in horizontal position, a di-
lution rate of 30% is used to calculate
the deposited weld metal composition.
In this case, 70% of the completed weld
bead is supplied by the filler metal and
15% is supplied by each of the base
metals. See Figure 37-5.
700/0 OF WELD
METAL SUPPLIED
BY FILLER METAL
f&-=o.
15%OFWELD J
METAL SUPPLIED
BY BASE METALS
Figure 37-5. When welding dissimilar metals, the
chemical composition of the weld is made up of metal
supplied by both the filler metal and the base metal.
If alloy 400 (67% nickel, 32% cop-
per) and 304 stainless steel (8% nickel,
18% chromium, 74% iron) are welded
with ENiCrFe-2 (70% nickel , 15%
chromium, 8% iron) filler metal, the
diluted composition of the weld metal
can be found by multiplying the filler
metal composition by 70%, multiply-
ing the base metal composition by
15%, and finally adding the corre-
sponding amounts .
Contribution to weld metal by
ENiCrFe-2 filler metal:
70% x 70% nickel = 49% nickel
70% x 15% chromium = 10.5%
chromium
70% x 8% iron = 5.6% iron
Contribution to weld metal by al-
loy 400 base metal:
15% x 67% nickel = 10% nickel
dilution
15% x 32% copper = 4.8% copper
dilution
Contribution to weld metal by 304
stainless steel base metal:
15% x 8% nickel = 1.2% nickel
dilution
15% x 18% chromium = 2.7% The amount of di -
chromium dilution
15% x 74% iron = 11.1% iron
I]
•~
.=
iution varies with the
heat input of the
welding process.
dilution The greater the heat
input required by the
The calculated composition of the welding process, the
weld metal is obtained by adding the greater the oppor-
filler metal contribution to the base tunityfor dilution in
the weld metal.
metal contributions. For example:
(49% + 10% + 1.2%) = 60.2% nickel
(10.5% + 2.7%) = 13.2% chromium
(5.6% +11.1%) = 16.7% iron
plus 4.8% copper
The composition does not equal
100% because minor percentages of
chemical elements in the base metal
and filler metal are not included in the
calculation. In a multiple-pass weld,
the root bead is diluted equally by the
base metals being welded. Subsequent
passes are diluted partially by the base
metal and partially by the previous
weld bead.
Welding Metallurgy '0 515

nil' IIAZ is a nar·
row baml of ba se
metal adja cent to the
wel d j oint, M O SI
problems that occur
durin g weldi ng oc -
cur in ttte HAZ
I
II is us ualtvnecessarv
.~ 10 apply 1\~'O layers ({
.= s urf acing weld 10
o vercome dilution and
a lia ;" the requ ired
weu r o r co r ro si o n
res istance /JITJ/ JC'r lies.
516 @o WeldillK Skills
Heat -Affected Zone (HAZ)
T he heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a nar-
row band of base metal adjacent to the
weld joint whose propertie s andlo r
me tallurgical structure are a lte red by
the heat of we lding. With ca rbon steels.
metallurgical structure changes ca n oc-
cur in any region of the base metal that
exceeds l350°F (732 °C) . With heat -
treated a lum inum alloys , any regi on
heated above 600°F (3 15 °C) experi-
ence s metallurgica l structure tran sfor-
mation. Welding a heat-treated aluminum
alloy creates an HAZ that may be weaker
and mo re susce ptible to failure under
serv ice loads.
The width of the HAZ is proportion al
to the amount of heat input during weld-
ing , and varies with the welding pro-
cess used . It may extend from .06" to
.25" into the base metal.
Base Metal
The base metal is the metal, aft er weld-
ing, that has not been structurally altered
by e xp osure to he at. Th e boundary
between the base metal and the HAZ
depends o n the temperature at whic h
metallurgical struc ture tran sformati on
begin s for any speci fic metal and is de-
penden t on we lding temper ature.
Surfacing
Surfaci ng can be ap plied us ing the
SMAW, GTAW, and GMAW arc we ld-
ing processes . Surfaci ng ca n also be
applied using OFW or b razi ng . Arc
weldi ng processe s genera lly produce
the most di lution. It is usuall y neces -
sa ry to a pply two layers of surfaci ng
we ld to overco me d ilution and ensure
the seco nd layer has the required chemi-
cal co mpos it io n o r othe r propert ie s.
See Figure 37 -6 . A surfac ing weld is
applie d to a sur face, as opposed to a
joint, to obtain th e desired properties
or dim en sion s.
2ND PASS
Figure 37 -6. Surfacing welds /lillY req uir e t\l'O or
mo re pll ,U e ,{ to achie ve th e requ i red c he mical
composition at the surface.
SM AW prod uces high deposi tio n
rates with some dilution. Surface clean-
lin ess req ui rem en ts are less stringe nt
th an other processes. So me po ro sit y
and cracking may occur but are accept-
able for applications in which SMAW
surfaci ng is used .
GTAW produces very clean deposits
with relatively low deposition rates. The
surface mu st be thoro ughl y cl eaned .
T he hi gh heat input po ssibl e with
GTAW increa ses the ten den cy for di-
lution and crack ing because of stresses
from expansio n and contrac tion.
G MAW produ ces high de pos itio n
rat e s w it h lo w d ilu tio n; ho we ver ,
GM AW is not wide ly used for surfac-
in g . A fl u x-cored e lectrode may be
subs tituted for bare wire .
OFW produces a lower deposition
rate compared with other processes, but
prod uces the least di lution . The lower
te mpe rature grad ient created in an
O FW surfacing we ld reduces cracking
or spa lling becau se thermal stress is re-
duced . OFW is use d to surface steel
w hen maximu m hardne ss and mini-
m um cracki ng are req uired , for ex-
ample at a sealing face .
Buttering
Bu tt ering is a surfac ing we ld van a-
tion that app lies su rfac ing met al on
one or more jo int surfaces to provide
co mpatible base me tal for subse quent
completion of the weld . A sig ni ficant
difference in me lting temperature s be-
tween two ba se metal s or between a
weld metal and a base metal may cause
the metal with the lower melting tem-
perat ure to ru p tur e from shri nkage
stresses as it so lidities and cools. T he
probl em may be so lved by butt ering
th e face of th e higher me lting base
meta l with a tiller metal of an int erme-
diatc meltin g temperature, reducing the
me lting temperature d iffere ntial be-
twee n the two metals. The weld is then
ma de betwe en th e buttered face an d
the ot her base metal.
Buttering is also used to elimi nate
th e need for preheat and postheating
whe n we ld ing two components, such
as a medi um-carbon steel fixt ure that
is we lded to a low-car bon steel parI.
The medium-carbon steel fix ture is but-
tered with austenitic stainless steel tiller
Buttering
Figure 37-7
~'~~"","ma
\ MEDIUM-CARBON STEEL
(DO ES NOT REO UIRE POSTHE ATING)
BUTT ERED
SURFACE
"~~~\~---~
LOW-CARB ON STEEL
WELD ASSEMBLY READY
(NO PREHEAT OR POSTHEATING REQUIRED)
metal and postheated to res tore tough-
Buttering is a method
ne ss. T he buttered ca rbon stee l ma y
of applyin g II layer of
be welded to the low-carbon steel with- metal to o lle side ofa
out preheat or pos theating be cause weld jo intso that both
austen itic stainless steel does not require " aires of a joint n lll
be welded together
preheat or postheating. See Figure 37-7 . without needing 10
preheat and/or pOSI -
EFFECT OF WELDING ON heat the entire joint.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties are the characteristic
respon ses of metal to fo rms of cnergy
such as heat , light, electricity, and mag-
neti sm. So me ph ysi cal properti es of
metals significantly intluence weldability
of a metal, but are not altered by we ld-
~
ing . O ther properties may be altered Phys ical properties of
.~ me ta l include me lt-
by welding. Physical properties that in- .= in g point. th erma l
tluence the weldability of metals in- ex pa ns ion . sl' ('c iji c
clude melting point, thermal expansion. heat . therm al COfUJUC-
tivitv; electrical ('("'-
specific heat. the rma l co nd uct iv ity , dnctivitv . magnetism.
electrical co nductivity. magnetism, and and oxidation.
oxi da tio n.
Ffu ure 37 · 7. Bu tt er ing is a
method of aWJidillX pre heat and
postheating when welding ,\/rue'-
tu ral components with differ ent
melting tempe ratures.
(REOUIRES PREHE AT
AND POSTHEAT ING)
!
SURFACED (BUTT ERED) WITH E·309
STAINLESS STEE L (US ING APP LICA BLE
PREHEAT AND POSTHEATING)
!
BUTTERED JOINT EDGE
We/ding M etalturgy @o 517
 Melting Point
Me lting point is the te mperature at
whic h a met al passe s from a so lid
state to a liqu id (mo lte n) state. Pure
me tal s po ssess a s pec ific melt in g
point and pass fro m solid to liquid at
a constant temperat ure. Alloys me lt
wi th in a temperatu re range tha t de-
pend s on the alloy composition. The
range of temperatures is bounded by the
solidus and the liquidus. Solidus is the
highest temperature at which an alloy is
completely solid. Liquidus is the lowest
temperature at which an alloy is com-
pletely molten. Melti ng begi ns at the
solidus and is complete at the liquidus .
Metals with low melting temperatures
can be welde d with low-temperature
heat sources. See Figure 37-8 .
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansio n is a meas ure of the
cha nge in dime nsio n of a member
caused by heating or coo ling. Dimen-
sional changes can occur in the length,
width, andlor thickness. See Figure 37-9.
The amount of thermal ex pa nsion is
usually expre ssed as the coefficient of
linear expan sion (length) . Coefficient
of linear expansion is the change in
the un it dimen sions of a ma terial
caused by a 10 rise in temperatu re. See
Fig ure 37-10. To calcu late linea r ex-
pansio n, apply the formula :
c = Ld
/',T
where
C = coefficient of linear expansion
Ld = length differential per inch
t1T = temperature differential in OF (or
0c)
For example , what is the coefficie nt of
linear expa nsion of a 10" steel bar that
increases to 10.00- 1625" whe n its
temperature is increased from I OOO°F
to I 100°F ?
c= Ld
/',T
C .0001625
100° F
C = .00000 1625" / o F
C = 1.1625 mieroinehes per inch per
degree F

COO LING
HEATING

{
I
LIQUIDUS ...
w
a:
COMPLETELY :::>
SOLIDIFICATION BEGINS
MO LTEN i<
a: (SOLIDS FIRST APPEAR)
w
c,
:;;
W
I-

SOLIDUS

ALLOY COMPOSITION

MELTING BEGIN S COM PLETELY

(LIQUID FIRST SOLID
APPEARS)

FiJ.:lIl'"l' 37-1'1. Till' so lidus and liquidus bra cket the boundary tempe ratures between which an all oy is part iall y molten.

518 0 Welding Skills

 Metals expand at different rates for
EXPANSION EVEN the same temperature increase.
TH ROU GHOUT
METAL Alumin um has the greatest expansion,
(
"' .. .--.. ............ increasing its dimensions almost twice
as much as steel over a comparahle
temperature range. Thermal expansion
, >,, in welding influences warpage control
,, ' and fixture design and placement for
"
l the welding of similar and dissimilar
metals .

,
~ Specific Heat
Figure 37·9. Thermal expansion occurs in the length, Specific heat is the ratio of the quan-
the width, and/or the thickness. tity of heat required to increase the
temperature of a unit mass of metal
by 10 , compared with the amount of
heat req uired to raise the same mass
of water hy the same temperature .
COEFFICIENT OF Specific heat is a way of comparing
THERMAL EXPANSION FOR the amo unt of heat required to melt
.. VARIOUS
- ~
- . METALS
- various metals .
A metal with a low melting point
~II()Y g~~~t;· and high specific heat requires as much
,Expanllilm*;. heat input to melt as a metal with high
Aluminum 1100 13.1 melting point and low specific heat.
Alum inum 3003 12.8
Alum inum, pu re 13.1
Aluminum, with a low melting point
Alum inum 6061 13.0 and high specific heat, requires almost
Alum inum 7075 12 .9 the same amount of heat to melt as steel,
Alumi num 356 .0 11.8
which exhibits a higher melting point
Copper, pure 9.16
Copper, oxygen-free 9.83 but lower specific heat.
Brass, 85% 10.4
Brass , 80% 10.6
Brass, 70% 11.1 Thermal Conductivity
Man anese Bronze 11.7
Phoso hor Bronze, 8% 10.1 The rmal conductivity is the rate at
70-30 Coppe r-Nickel 9.00 which metal transmits heat. In weld -
90- 10 Coppe r-Nickel 9.50
Aluminum Bronze 9.11
ing, the rmal conductivity provides a
Iron ure 6.5 measure for the heat inp ut required
Mild Steel (.2%CI 6.5 to compensate for the rate at which
Med ium Carbon
6.3 he at is conduc ted away from the
Steel (.4%C\
304 Stain less Steel 9.16 weld. Copper has a high thermal con-
Nickel. oure 7.39 ductiv ity and is difficult to weld with
Monel® 7 .77
low-temperature heat sources.
lnconelw 639
Haste llov C 6.28 Austenit ic stainless steel, with
Haste llov X 7.67 one -eighth the thermal conductivity
T itan ium 4 .67 of copper, requires a significantl y
Silver 10.9
Zircon ium 3.25 lower heat input. The high thermal
Invar 1.11 conductiv ity of copper makes it an
Gold 7.89 excellent backing for welding. The
In mcromcnes per Inch per degree Fahrenheit
rapid conduction of heat through cop-
Figure 37-10. The coefficient of lin ear expansion
may he used to calc ulat e the change in dimensions
per backing prevents it from sticking
of a metal with heating. to weld metal.
Welding Metatlurgy ~ 519
 Electrical Conductivity
Mechanicalproper-
ties describe tile Electrical co nduc tiv ity is th e ra te at
beha vior of metals
which e lectric curre nt flows thro ugh a
under mechanical
loads and inclu de metal. T he hi gh er the e lec trical co n-
strength. toughne ss. ducti vity of the me tal , the more eas ily
hardness. ductility. current flow s through it. Electrical co n-
!atiglu'. creep. and
1II11lleahilit.\: ductivity decrease s as te mperat ure in-
c reases, but room tem peratu re values
of elect rica l con ductivity may be used
for co mpa rison between met al s.
Electrical resistivity (resistivity) is the
electrical resistance of a unit volume of
a material. Res ist ivity is the reciprocal
of electrical co nduct ivity. Resistivity is
the co m mo n me thod o f ex p ress in g
e lectrical conductivity. Metals with low
resistivity (h igh e lectrical co nd uctiv-
ity ) are more conducive to resistance
we lding .
Magnetism
Magnetism is the ab ility of a metal to be
attracted by a m ag net , or to develop
residu al mag ne tism w he n placed in a
magnetic or electrical field. T his prop-
erty is al so known as ferromag ne tis m.
Most steels are magnetic and may co n-
tain residual magnetism that can occur
during magnetic particl e in spection
or from liftin g wi th a ma gnet. Parts
ma y need to be demagn eti zed before
we ld ing to pre vent problem s suc h as
arc blow during welding . Arc b low
cau ses the welding arc to dellect from
its normal pat h because of magne tic
force s.
Oxidation
Oxidation is the co mbination of a metal
with oxygen in the air to form metal
oxide. Every metal form s a thin oxide
layer at room temperature. As tempera-
tures increase, the oxide layer thickens.
At we lding temperature, steps must be
ta ken to remove the met al oxide layer
to prevent it from interferin g with we ld
qualit y. Usi ng nux-coated filler metals
and inert gas we lding preve nts ox ides
from entering the weld area.
520 @o Welding Skills
EFFECT OF WELDING ON
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The me ch ani cal properties of met al s
a re c la ssified using sta nda rds es ta b -
li shed by the Americ an S ociet y of
Te st in g and Material s (AS TM ). A
me chanical property is a property of
meta l that de scribes the behavior of
metals under applied loads. Mechani-
cal properties are influenced by the
composition and treatment of the metal.
Welding may alter spe cifi c me-
chanical properties of metal s, leading
to prematu re fai lure under load . The
joint de signer mu st conside r th e me-
c ha n ica l properties o f metal s when
specify ing the wel ds required. Weld -
ers should be familiar with basic term s
a nd co nce pts associated with the me-
chanical properties of metal s, suc h as
stre ngth, ducti lity , ma lleability, tough-
ness, e rnbrittlernent , hardness , fati gue,
and cree p. An understanding of the se
concepts is ofte n directly related to the
ab ility to produce so und we lds.
Strength
Strength is the ability of a metal to resist
d eformation from mechanical force s
exert ed on it. Deposited filler metal is
usually stronger than the base metal s it
joins. It is necessary to usc only the mini-
mum amount of filler metal specified.
Excess till er metal ma y be detrimental
and exaggerate residua l stress problems.
Proper ly executed we ld test specimens
do not fail in the we ld metal or HAZ
when mechanically tested, but fail in the
base metal. See Figure 37-11.
In a structure, weld s are classified as
primary or secondary. A primary weld
is a weld that is an integral part of a
structure and that directly tr an sfers a
load. A primary weld mu st poss ess or
exceed the stre ngth of th e stru ctural
members . A secondary weld is a weld
used to hold joint members and sub-
assemblies together. Secondary welds
are subj ected to less stress and less load
than primary welds .
- /
C-----Q'---~-""-':ffili
BEFORE TEST
W ELD
Figure 37-12. For this reason, fabrica-
tion code s do not permit crack s or
crack -like discontinuities.
Welding proc edures for s tee ls in
specific applications may require im-
pact testing requirement s to ensure that
th ere is no loss of tou ghne ss in the
HAZ. Impact tes tin g is spec ial testing
performed on small, not ched spe ci-
men s, to simulate a stre ss con centra-
tion effect.
Figure 37 -12. Tough steel will
Toughness absorb (/ sudden load, rattier than
Figure 37-12 crack catastrophically.

LACK OF FUS ION

, L AT TOE OF WELD
(C RAC K-LIKE
D, ISCONTINUITY)

Jl. "m"
Figure 37-11. Weld mecha nical test samples sho uld m
"
[ait in the base metal. ,
1 , . , ¥t
; " ,
-,-,-,,,-,-,--_ ' ,u p

The strength properties of the metal

t~
bein g weld ed shou ld be known, so ST EEL WITH LOW
TOU GHN ESS FAILS
that a strong, safe structure can be built.
Likewise , wh en th e stre ng th of th e
weld is known as compared to the base
'-- 'Q',, CATASTROPHICALLY
UNDER IMPACT LOAD

metal , a weld joint strong enough to

do the job can be produ ced .
STEEL W ITH HIGH
TOUGHNESS DEFORMS
Toughness BUT DO ES NOT FAIL
C ATAST ROPHICA LLY

Tou ghness is the ability of a metal to

absorb energy, such as impact loads ,
and deform rather than crack or fail cata-
strophically. Toughness is one of the
most important metal mechanical prop-
erties. Weld procedures are designed to
maintain toughne ss of the weld.
When heat-treatabl e st ee ls a re
weld ed , th e rapid cooling rat e may
cause an undesirable decrease in tough-
ness of the HAZ. Proper method s of
maintaining tou ghn ess must be used,
such as prehe at, interpass temperature
control, or postheating .
Toughness is difficult to measure,
but with steels, toughne ss correlates
inversely with hardness, which is rela-
tively easy to measure. High hardn ess
in the HAZ may indicate low toughness
in stee ls . Cr ac k- like di scontinui tie s
may provide a stress conc entration 'ef-
fect that causes the crack to propagate
rapidl y when a lo ad is appli ed. See
Hardness
Hardness is the resi stance of a mate-
rial to deformation , indentation, or
scratching. Hardness testin g is one of
the most widely used testing procedures
becau se it is rapid , e as y to use, and
often nondestructive . Hardne ss is most
often measured using indentation hard-
ness tests, such as the Brinell test, the
Rockwell test, or the Vickers test.
On steel, hardness can be used to
estimate the toughnes s of a weld joint,
e specially where preh eat, int erpa ss
temperature co ntro l, and /or po st -
heating are used to en sure int egrity.
See Figure 37- 13. It can also be used
to predict scratching or scuffing resis-
tance of a material.
We/dinK Metallurgy ~ 521
 F i~un' .17- 13. Hardn ess t ra-
verse made across a steel weld Hardness or when molten zinc contacts stainless
joint indicates whethe r there is Figure 37·13 steel. If ga lva nized steel is we lded to
a loss of toughness in tile heat - sta inless, the zinc adjacent to the weld
uJf eeled :'Ol/ l ' . HEAT-AFF ECTED
ZO NE region must be removed by sandblast-
ing prior to welding. Embrittlement of-
x x ten occurs by pe ne trat io n o f 'he
embrittling species into the grains of
the meta l (interg ranular penetration ).
APPR OXIMATELY
(/) UNIFORM HARDNESS IN
ffJ HEAT-AF FECTED ZON E
Fatigue
z
c Fatigue is failure of a material operat-
c:
-c
I
u,
ing under alternat ing (cyclic) stresses
~ f---~--'---"-/ at a value below the tensile strength of
w
>
W
~ L- _
the material. Fatigue is a problem that
affect s the service life of any compo-
WITH POSTHEATING nent 'h at moves, rotates, vibrates, or is
HIGH HARDN ESS IN s ubj ec t to the rma l cy cl ing. For ex -
HEAT-AFF ECTED ZON E
ample, a piston rod or an axle under-
goes rapid and co mp le te rev er sal of
~
w stresses fro m tension to co mpress ion.
z
o Approximately 90% of all failure s
c:
~ in e ng ineer ing co mpo ne nts are
u,

~ f----- fatigue -related. Fatigue problem s may

w
>
~ L- _
WITHOUT POSTHEATING
Ductility
Ductility is a measure of 'h e ability of
a metal '0
yield plastically under load,
rath er th an fra ctu re. H igh-ductility
metals. suc h as co pper, deform as the
load o n th c me ta l is inc rea sed ,
eventually failing. Low-ductility metals,
such as cast iron, deform only slig htly
and fail sudde nly as the load is
increased . Duct il it y is meas ure d in
tensi le test sa mples by perc en ta ge
elo ngatio n to fai lure , or percentage
reducti on of area to failure .
Embriltlement
Emb rittleme nt is the co mplete loss of
ductility and toughn ess of a metal, so
that it fractures when a small load is
applied. Embrittlement may be caused
by applying the wron g brazin g metal
522 0 Weldin g Skills
be se ve re in welded structures since
mo st weld ed j oints hav e poor fati gue
strength and fin ite fatigue life because
of thei r shape, res id ual st ress es, and
discontinuiti es. All wc lding introduces
stress concentrations into a weld, reduc-
ing fatigue strength; the effect is highest
when the load is applied transversally to
the weld.
Fatigue crack ing initiates in the toe
of the weld where stress concentrations
are highest. Features that increase the
strength of the weld, such as additional
we ld bea ds or inclusio n of stiffeners,
increase stress co ncentratio n and fur-
the r re duce fatig ue life . For this rea-
so n, att emp ting to fix a part that has
fai led in fa tig ue by add ing a we ld
bead , o r re info rc ing wi th stiffeners
weld ed to the structure, has the oppo-
site effect and furth er reduces the life
of 'h e part. Although the weld itself is
stro nger und er static load, we ld dis-
co nti nuit ies, co upled w ith the add i-
tional stress co ncentration, more than
offset any stre ng the ning effect. See
Figure 37- 14 .
 ( FORCE APPLIED

...... UN DER CUT ~

. l .FORCE APPLIED

CRACK·lIKE
DEFECT -'\-~:::::;ll::::l::lio;::::::;:::::::=::=~

STRESS CONCENTRATION
~FORCEAPPlI E·D-~-'" MICROCRACK OCCURS AT
AT TOES OF WELDS TOE OF FILLET WELD

YIELD
STRESS ACTUAL
STRESS
(f)
(f)
w
a:
t:i TEN SION
o ~~I-~+-\o"-~ APPLIED
COMPRESSION STRESS

TIME

EFFECT OF RESIDUAL STRESS

FROM WELDING ON APPLIED STRESS

72,500
HAMMER PEENED
58,000
Cii TOE GROUND
~ 43,500
w

- -
'"
z
«
a: 29,000
(f)
(f)
w
a: MILD STEEL
t- (35,000 PSI)
(f)

ASWELDEO
14,000
10' 10' 10' 107
ENDURANCE (CYCLES)

EFFECT OF POST-WELD IMPROVEMENT

. TECHNIQUES ON FATIGUE LIFE

Fjgure 37414 . WeldinK reduces the fatig ue st rength of structures.

Welding Metallu rgy ~ 523

 Fillet welds are particu lar ly prone
to fai lure by fatig ue. During coo ling
of a fill et we ld , the toe de vel op s a
m icrocrack abo ut .005" deep. T he
microcrack can grow into a full-sca le
fatigue crack and lead to premature
fai lure. See Figure 37-15 .
Fig ure 37- 15. Fill et welds are
prone 10 f at igue f ail ure. During
cooling, a .o1/(JII croc k can grow
illto a f atigue crack and lead to
premature [ailur e. as cooling call
cansr the crack 10 spread.
If des ign improvement is not pos-
sible, it may be necessary to use post-
weld improvement techniques such as
gr inding, peen ing, or GTAW pl asma
dressing of a fillet weld toe to remove
microc rack ing . Pos t-we ld improve-
ments can increase fatigue life signifi -
cant ly, but must not introd uce surface
notch into the part .
Fatig ue fa ilures in we lds are pre-
vented by des igning welds away from
cr itical regio ns of high stress concen-
tration . Welding in an area of high
stress concentration is a leading cause
of failure of rotating shafts . Th e area
of high stress is where the shaft transi-
tio ns to lar ge r diame ter. Weld ing or
rebui lding by welding in a high stress
concentration area. such as to rebu ild
a worn shaft, will lead to failure within
a short per iod. The shaft must be re-
built so that welding is ca rried out in
locations away from the region of high-
est stress .
Creep
Creep is slow, plastic e longat ion that
occurs during ex tended serv ice under
load above a specific temperature for that
metal. Structural metals undergo creep
524 ~ Wel"ill~ Skills
at high temperatures. Creep-resi stant
alloys are used for high-temperature
strength in pet roleum refi ning, steam
power generation, and other industries.
Selecting the wrong filler metal or base
metal may lead to premature failure
from creep.
Malleability
Malleability is the ability of a metal to
be deformed by compressive forc es
witho ut developing defects suc h as
those encou ntered in rolling, pressing,
or forging .
Mechanical Force
Mec han ica l properties are character-
is tic res ponses of mate rial s to me-
chanical forces . A load is an external
mec hanica l force app lied to a com-
ponent. Standard term s used to de-
sc ribe the mech anical properti es of
solid meta ls incl ude stress and strain.
See Figu re 37-16 .
STRESS
FORCE
MATERIAL APPLIED
DEFOR MS
STRAIN
Ftgure 37- 16. Stress ;.1' the internal resistance of (I
material to {Ill extern ally appli ed load . St ress is
measured as the " pplied load over all area. Strain is
lite accompanving clumge in dimensions when a
load indu ces stress in (l mate rial.
Stress. Stress is the internal resistance Tensile strength is a measure of the
of a material to an externally applied maximum stress that a material can re-
load. Stress is measured in terms of load sist under tensile stress. Tensile stresses
divided by area. Every machine part or work to pull a material apart. The ten-
structural member is designed to safely sile strength of a metal is a primary fac-
withstand a certain amount of stress. tor to be considered in the evaluation
Strain. Strain is the accompanying of the metal. To find tensile stress, ap-
change in dimensions when a load in- ply the formula :
duces stress in a material. Strain is ei- . F
Sf = -
ther elastic or plastic. Elastic strain A
occurs when a material is capab le of where
returning to its original dimensions af- Sf = tensile stress (in lb/sq in.)
ter removal of the load. For example, a F = force (in lb)
spring with a normal load returns to its
A =area (in sq in.)
original length when the load is removed. For example, what is the tensile stress
Plastic strain occurs when a material is of an SOOO lb force applied to a square
permanently deformed by the load . For steel rod with a cross-sectional area of
example, an overloaded spring will de- .50 sq in.?
velop a permanent set or an increase in • F
Sf = -
length. As the load is steadily increased, A
a point is reached where the strain Sf = 8000
changes from elastic to plastic. .50
Sf = 16,000 lb/sq in.
A static load is a load that remains
constant. An example of a static load is Compression (compressive stress) is
a constant amount of water stored in a stress caused by two equal forces acting
storage tank. An impact load is a load on the same axial line to crush an ob-
that is applied suddenly or intermit- ject. The deformation caused by com -
tently. An example of an impact load is pression consists of an increase in the
the action of a pile driver setting a pile. cross-sectional area and a decrease in the
A cyclical (variable) load is a load that original length of the object. Compres-
varies with time and rate, but without the sive strength is the ability of a material
sudden change that occurs with an im- to resist being crushed. Nonmetallic ma-
pact load. An example of a variable load terials , like brick, have high compres-
is a revolving camshaft with a varying sive strength compared to their tensile
compressive and tensile load applied. strength. To find compressive stress, apply
Mechanical Force Application. Me- the formula:
chanical force can be applied by five dif- F
Sc = -
ferent methods: tension, compression, A
where
shear, torsion. and flexing. Combinations
Sc= compressive stress (in Ib/sq in.)
of methods may be applied under ac-
tual load conditions. See Figure 37- 17.
F =force (in Ib) Mechanicalforce may
A = area (in sq in.) he applied by tension,
Tension (tensile stress) is stress caused compression, shear
For example, what is the compressive
by two equal forces acting on the same stress , torsion, orjlex-
axial line to pull an object apart. The mag- stress of a 120,000 Ib force applied to ural stress.
a rectangular cast iron bar with a cross-
nitude of the stress depends on the
sectional area of 6 sq in."
amount of load placed on the object and
the cross-sectional area of the object. The F
Sc = -
same load causes greater stress to an A
object with a small cross-sectional area Sc = 120,000
than to an object with a large cross- 6
sectional area. Sc = 20,000 Ib/sq in.

Welding Metallurgy ~ 525

Figure 37·17. A mechanical
load may he applied using five
different methods : tension, corn-
pression. she a r, tor s ion, 1I11l1
flexing , OBJECT IS

-...
CROSS-SECTIONAL CROSS-SECTIONAL
AREA
STRETCHED

f}i-~~.9----::
r AREA REDUCED

INCREASED INCREASED }
FORCE FORCE
Tension

OBJECT IS
CROSS-SECTIONAL
COMPRESSED
r AREA INCREASED

"\ E"~:-U-A-L------l~----"
FORCE

Comp ression

EQUAL AND CROSS- EOUALAND

PARALLEL SECTIONAL PARALLEL
FORC E ~
AREA OFFSET FORCE ~
====ill=::::;~ _

~OBJECT I S
SHEARED
Shear

COUNTERCLOCKWISE FORCE r lNCREASED

/ COUNTERCLOCKWISE FORCE

CYLINDRICAL
SHAFT
J CLOCKWISE
FORCE
OBJECT IS
TWISTED INCREASED
CLOCKWISE
FORCE
Torsion

INCREASED

~l
PERPENDICULAR
PERPENDICULAR FORCE
FORCE
{

t t
~REACTI ON ~REACTI O N
- , OBJECT
IS BENT
FORCE FORCE

Flexing
NO DIMENSIO N CHANGE DIMENSIONAL CHANGE

526 €1 We/dinK Skills

 The modulus of elasticity is a mea-
sure of the stiffness of an object under
tension or compression. It is measured
as the ratio of stress to strain for ten-
sile or compre ssive forces that are
within the elast ic limit. Modulus of
elasticity is an index of the ability of a
solid material to deform when an ex-
ternal force is applied and then return
to its original size and shape after the
external force is removed. The less a
material deform s under a given stres s,
the higher its modulus of elasticity.
Th e modulus of elasticity does not
measure the amount of stretch a pa r-
ticular metal can take before breaking
or deform ing . It indicates how much
stre ss is required to de form metal a
giv en amount. See Figure 37- 18. By
checking the modulu s of elasticity, the
welder can ascertain the co mparative
stiffness of different mat erial s. Rig id-
ity (or stiffnes s) is an important con-
s ide rati o n for many machine and
structural applications. To find modu -
lus of elasticity, apply the formula :
E = Ss
Sn
where
E = modulus of elas ticity in
millions of pounds per square
inch (10 " psi)
Ss = stre ss in pounds per square
inch (psi)
511 = strain in inch per inch (in .lin.)
For example, what is the modulu s of
elasticity of a I" square piece of metal
subjected to 40,000 Ib of ten sion
(stress) and exhibiting .001 in./in. strain?
E= Ss
Sn
E = 40 ,000
.001
E = 40 ,000,000
E= 40 x 10' psi
Shear (shear stress) is stress caused
by two equal and parallel forces acting
upon an object from oppo site
directions. Shear stresses tend to cause
one side of the object to slide in relation
to the other side. Shear stress placed

PLASTIC STRAIN
1-1"-1
BEGINS STARTING LENGTH

~ ELASTIC STRAIN
REG ION MODULUS
OF ELAST ICITY APPLIES

ST RAIN (ELONGATION)
•
30 ,000 psi
TENSILE STR ESS

•
~ 1 001" 1-
NEW LENGTH

Figure 37-18. Modulus of elasticity is a measure of stifj iu'.\"s and has 110 dimensions .

Weldinl( Metallurgy ~ 527

 on the cross-sectional area of an object
is parallel to the force . The stre ngth of
materials under a shearing stress is less
than under a ten sil e stre ss or a
com p re ss ive stress . To find she a r
stress , appl y the formula:
F or deflection in the direction that the load
S,' = -A or f -= S\'
. xA
where
Ss = shearing stress (in Ib/sq in.)
F = force (in 1b)
A = area (in sq in.)
For e xa m p le, a .750" hol e is to be
p unc he d in a stee l pl a te .5" thi ck.
What is the required force of the press
if th e ultim at e stre ng th of th e steel
plate in shea r is 42 ,000 Ib/sq in.?
T he shea r c ross-sec tional a rea (A)
is eq ua l to the ci rcumference o f the
hole times th e thi ckness of the pl at e
(3. 14 x .750 x .5 = 1.1775 ).
F =Ss x A
F = 42,000 x 1.1775
F =49,455Ih
Torsion (torsional st ress ) is stress
caused by two forces acting in oppo-
site twi stin g direc tion s, Shafts used to
tran sfer rot ar y motio n are subj ec t to
torsion al stress. Th e shafts are twi sted
b y excess ive torqu e, ex p ressed in
in ch -p ound s (in- Ib ). Torque is the
product of the applied forc e (F) time s
the distance (L) from the ce nte r of the
r.§=I IVddill g emile.' sig -
nificant stresses ill
app lication. Torsi on al strength is the
measure of a material' s ability to with-
.= joints. resulting i ll stand forc es that ca use it to twist. To
sllrinktlgt' stresses lind
residual stresses ,IUl! fin d torqu e. ap ply the form ula:
lIlay lead 10 cracking. T=F xL
where
T = torque (in in-Ib)
F = foree (in 1h)
L;;;; distance (in in.)
For exam ple, whal is the torque of a 160
Ib force ap plied over a distance of 12"?
T = F xL
T = 160 x 12
T = 1920 in-Ih
Flexing (flexural or bendin g stress)
is stre ss ca used by equa l forc es act-
in g pe rp end icul a r to th e hori zonta l
ax is o f a n o bjec t. Be nd ing stresse s
bend an objec t as th e perpendicular
528 ~ We/d illK Skills
forc e overco me s th e react ion force .
Bending stress is a co mbination of ten-
sile stress and co mpressive stress. Bend-
ing strength is a co mbination of tensile
and co mpressive forces, and is a prop-
erty that measures resistance 10 bending
is app lied .
Bend ing stress is common ly asso-
ciated with beams a nd co lu mns. The
deformatio n ca used by bending stress
changes th e sha pe o f the objec t a nd
cre ate s a de flect ion . To fin d bend ing
stres s, ap ply the form ula :
Sb » Me
Z
w here
Sb e bending stress (in Ib/sq in.)
M ;;;; maximum bending movement (in
in-Ib)
c = distance from neutral axis to
farthest point in cross section
(in in.)
Z ;;;; section modu lus (in cu in.)
For e x a m p le, w h a t is t he bending
stress of a I" so lid shaft subjected to
a bending mom ent of 1400 in.-Ib? The
di st ance from th e neutral a xis to the
cross-sectional area is .5". and the sec-
tion modulus is .049 .
Sb = Me
Z
1400 x .5
Sb= - - -
.049
Sb = 14.285.7143
Sb = 14,286 Ib/sq in.
EFFECT OF WELDING STRESS
ON WELDS
Weld ing cre ates significant stresses in
joints, res u lti ng in shrinkage stresses
a nd resid ual stresses that may lead to
crac king. St res s resul tin g fro m we ld-
ing exerts a great influence on the be-
havior of welds in service. Stress types
are shrinkage stress and residual stress.
Shrinkage Stress
Shrinkag e s tress is s tre ss that occurs
in weld fi ller met al as it cools. co n-
tracts, and so lid ifies. Th e so lid ifying
fi ller metal is relatively weak and has
difficulty accommodat ing the stresses
that result from shrinkage. Add itio n-
ally, the last part of weld filler metal to
solidify contains the lowest melting
point constituents, increasing the weak-
ness of the weld. See Figure 37- 19.
AS EACH WELD
PASS SOLIDIFIES
IT SHRINKS, BUT IS
CONSTRAINED
BY SURROUNDING
METAL
Figure 37-19. Shri"kllge {If the weld during solidifi-
mt;OII imposes severe stress on rile weld when it is ill
11 relati vely weak condi tion.
Shrinkage stress problems are made
worse when contaminants react with the
solidifying weld fi ller metal to form weak
or brittle microconstituents, or when the
joint restrains (stiffens) the base metal,
hampering shrinkage of the solidifying
weld metal. Shrinkage stresses can cause
hot cracks (hot cracking).
Contamination of the weld metal or
excess ive he at input durin g we ldin g
increases the susceptibility of the part
to hot cracks. Nickel alloys may hot
crack from the presence of even trace
amounls of sulfur on the surface. Cop-
per alloys may hot crac k from exces-
sive heat input.
Hot cracks may also occur if insuf-
ficient weld metal is added to a joint.
When we ld ing hea vy-wall pip e, th e
wall th ickness d ictates whet her it is
possib le to radi ograph or dye c heck
the root bead of we ld fille r met al to
monitor its quality and decide whether
any re pa irs are req uired . Excessive
shrinkag e stress es in heavy-wall pipe
may cause a root bead to crack as it
cools to ambient temperature from re-
straint in the joint. Thus, in heavy-wall
pipe. it is necessary to make several
weld passes befor e cooling to ambient
temperature in order to create sufficient
volume of weld metal to accommodate
shrinkage stresses without cracking.
Residual Stress
Residual stress is stress that occurs in
a joint member or material after weld-
ing has been c o mp le te d, result ing
fro m the rma l or mec hanica l co nd i-
tions. Almost eve ry fabrication pro -
ce ss intro duc e s resi dual stress into
meta ls. Residual stress from weld ing
is often significantly higher than other
fab rica tion processes. Residual stress
may also be introd uced into pari s by
post-fabricat ion procedures such as in-
stallat io n and ass em bl y, occas iona l
service overload s. ground settlement,
and repair or modifi cation .
As so lidified we ld metal coo ls to
room temperature, the stresses within it
increase and eventually exceed the yield
strength of the base metal and the HAZ.
Yield strength is the level of stress within
a metal that is sufficient to cause plastic
flow. Residual stress may cause co ld
crac ki ng or d istort ion if the we lde d
structure deform s to accommodate it.
Cold crack ing may be delaye d hour s
or even days after the weld is finished.
Distortion is the undesirable dimensional
change of a fabrication. Distortion leads
to out-of-specifica tion di men sions or
shape. See Figur e 37-20.
Res id ual stresse... ,tu ut h(' controlled durin g welding and duri ng po stprodu c tio n
procedures. such as installation and assembly, (0 prevent defects such as cold c ra d:.i llK
and distortion,
We ldill~ Metallurgy €l' 529
Ftgure 37-20. Res idua! st ress
leads to many prahle ms. such as
d isto rti o n o r !O.\·.I· of [atig ue
strength.
Residual stresses
may be reduced us-
inX intermittentweld-
ing, low heat input
welding.postheating.
or peening
Residual Stress Reduction. To accom-
Distortion
Figure 37·20 modate residual stresses and prevent
distortion, welding procedures are de-
signed to balance residual stresses
across different parts of the weld.
Methods of reducing residual stress
include intermittent welding; low heat
input welding with the use of heat sink
and restraints; posrheating: peening;
and vibratory stress relief.
INTENDED DESIGN Intermittent welding is a stress-
reduction technique in which the
T·SECTION
continuity of the weld is broken by
DISTORTION/
recurring spaces between welds . In-
termittent welding minimizes the heat
input to the weld and lessens distor-
tion. See Figure 37-21.

ACTUAL RESULT
o Residual stresses in welds must be controlled
to prevent the occurrence ofdistortion in the
weldment; prematurefailure ofthe weldment,
or both.

Ftgure 37 -21. All intermitt ent

weld can he used to pre vent dis-
tortion hy minimising heat input. .- . - -
• ..

530 ~ Welding Skills

 Low heat input welding is a stre ss-
reduction technique that decreases the
amount of heat applied to the weld .
Low heat input welding might require
a change in welding process, such as
using GMAW instead of GTAW weld-
ing . Alternatively, a heat sink may be
used to rapidly remove heat from the
welded region, such as by using a cop -
per backing bar. A restraint is a clamp
or fixture used to reduce distortion by
preventing movement of the weld dur-
ing cooling, but which does not nec -
essarily reduce residual stress . See
Figure 37 -22 .
STEEL HOLD·
DOWN BARS
COPPER
BACKING BAR
COPPER BACKING BAR
WORKPIECE
CLAMPS AND FIXTURES
Figure 37-22. Copper backing ba rs red uce hea t
and warpage of the weld area . Clamp s and fixtures
are used to hold pieces [irmtv together in positio n /0
pre vent distortion.
Postheating is the reheating of the
weld area to a high temperature, hold-
ing for a predetermined time at tem-
perature, and cooling at a specified
rate. Postheating is used to pr event
cold cracking from residual stres ses.
Postheating also stres s-relieves the
joint, reducing the possihility of dis-
tortion or cracking in service. With
steels, postheating additionally tempers
(softens and toughens) the weld.
Postheating is often specified in con-
junction with preheat and interpass
temperature control.
Peening using a ball peen hammer
relieves stresses in the metal by help -
ing the metal stretch (yield) as it cools.
See Figure 37-23 . Peening reduces re-
sidual stress in the surface layers of a
weld. Peening is performed for each
weld pass immediately after solidifi-
ca tion with impact blows. Peening in-
duces compre ssive stres ses and
improves resi stance to fatigue failure.
Peening is not a s ubs t itute for the
postheating required to restore tough-
ness to a weld joint.
Figure 37-23 . Peen ing reli eves
in ferna l st res ses ill a we ld an d
he lp s the welded joint stre tch as
it cools.
Vibratory stress relief is the appli -
cation of subresonant vibration during
welding to control distortion , or after
cooling to provide stres s relief.
Subreson.ant vibration i s vibration
frequency less than the resonant fre-
quency of the weld. Vibratory stress
relief may control distortion during
welding, but does not offer any sig-
nificant stress relief. It should not be
substituted for any specified preheat,
interpass temperature control , or
postheating procedure.
Welding Metalturgy @ 531
 EFFECT OF WELDING ON
I"•= I lVeMllg omle, ctmn-
~ icul ill!lol1log('lleity ill
CORROSION RESISTANCE
.= the weld j oint. which
leads toa loss (ifchem- The heat of welding can reduce the cor-
ical resistance. rosion resi stance of most metal s. Th e
lo ss of co rro sio n re si stance may be
ca used by c he mical inhomogen eity,
residu al stress , excessive hardness, or
an und esirable microstructure.
Chemical Inhomogeneity
Weldi ng c reates chemical inho moge-
neity, or segregation, in the weld joint.
Chemi cal inhomogeneity is any dis-
All rxrrssivrlv hard
H AZ. produced by
turbance in the chemica l composition
rapid coolin x fro m g radie nt of a metal. Chemica l in ho-
welding. mllY crack mogeneity leads to a loss of che mica l
;11 certain chemical
('1I\ .j rml/1/l'IIl.\'.
resistance in corrosion-resistant alloys.
C orro sion -re si st ant alloy s mu st be
we lded with filler metals that do not
reduce their corro sion resistance.
When similar base metals are welded,
filler metal with a chemical composition
si mi lar to or slightly more co rrosion-
resi st an t than the ba se met al should
be used. Wh en dissim ilar metal s are
we lde d, the fill er met al must exceed
the co rro sion resi stance of both met-
a ls. Dilutio n or segregatio n must not
result in red uced corrosion resistance
of the joint.
Segregation. Segregation is an y co n-
centrat ion of alloying che mical ele -
men ts in a specific region of a metal.
Segregat ion ca n be an increased co n-
ce ntration or a depleti on of che mica l
e lements in the reg io n. For example,
mol ybd enum is added to sta inle ss
stee ls to improve their resi st an ce to
chloride-containing environments. When
stainless steel base metal that co ntains
4.5% molybdenum is joi ned, matchin g
ti ller meta l with 4.5 % mo lybdenu m is
not sufficient. Mo lyd enum segregation
oc curs in th e we ld be ad . leadi ng to
sma ll mo lybden um -d epleted regions
wit h infer ior corrosio n resist an ce. In
this instance. filler metal with a molyb-
den um content higher than 4.5% must
be used to compensate for seg regation.
532 ~ We/dillg Skills
Residual Stress
We ld joints with high resid ua l stress
may be susceptible to corrosion in spe-
cifi c environment s. Such we lds are
stress- relieved whe n necessary to pre-
vent premature failure . Weld repair or
burn ing is not pe rmitted on stress -
reli e ved eq uipme nt unl ess a we lding
procedure that incorporates stress relief
is used. See Figore 37-24.
Excessive Hardness
An excessive ly hard HAZ, prod uced
by rapid co o ling fro m we ld ing, may
crac k in ce rtai n chemica l e nv iro n-
ments. Hard HAZs are also susceptible
to hydroge n-ass isted cr ackin g from
corrosion in service. Hydrogen-assisted
crackin g is loss of toughness in steels
re sulting fro m hyd ro gen atom s cre -
ate d at the surface of the me tal by
corrosio n th at diffu se in to the HAZ
and the base metal. Hyd ro gen di ffu-
sio n interfe res with the metal' s abil-
ity to yie ld unde r stress , redu ci ng its
d uc tility and tou ghn ess.
When a corrosion reaction produces
hydrogen atoms on the metal surface,
the hyd roge n atoms may or may not
combine with one another. If they com-
bine, hydrogen molecu le s ar e pro-
duced, which harmlessly dissipate from
the metal surface. If they do not com-
bine, the hydrogen atoms are extremely
active a nd diffuse int o the met al to
ca use hydrogen -ass isted cracking.
So me spec ies co nta ined in corro-
sive environments, called poisons, are
very harm ful becau se they prevent, or
" poison," the recombination of hydro-
ge n a to ms to hyd ro gen mo lec ules .
Poi son s incl ude sulfides suc h as hy-
drogen sulfide. Sulfide stress cracking
is a form of hyd rogen -ass isted crack-
ing that is a problem in the oil and gas
prod uction industry . So lfide stress
cracking is ca used by the pre senc e of
hyd ro ge n s ulfide . S usce pt ib ility of
stee ls to hyd ro gen -assi st ed cracking
increases with hardn ess of the steel.
 Fig ure 37-24. Stress -reliev ed
equipmen t should not he wel -
CHEMICAL INHOMOGENEITY STRESS RELIEF ded witliau t a procedure mat
includes postheating ,

260
- 125

240

220

200
c::::::::= --- <,
<, -, - 100

~
180
-~ --:....:.:::: - 75

E
ur
160

a: 140
:::>
~
a:
r-. <.; ~
~
ur
a:
:::>

ur I-.. a:
50 ur
c, 120
= c,

"
W
f-
100
"
W
f-

80 25

60

40
~ o
20

o 10 20 30 40 50
CAUSTIC %, BY W EIGHT

D CARBON STEEL - NO STRESS RELIEF NECESSA RY

~ * CARBON STEEL - STRESS RELIEF FOR WELD S AN D BENDS

D SHOU LD USE NICK EL ALLOYS

• use nickelalloytrimfor valves

o Welding operations can signijicantlyajfect

the corrosion resistance ofmeta l. How the
welding process will affect the corrosion
resistance ofthe metal must be considered
beforea particularmetalisselected. Stress-
reliefmustbe performed on metalswhose.
corrosion resistance may be affected dur-
ing welding.
In environments containing poisons,
ca rbon and low-alloy steels re quire
proper preheat and postheating to re-
duce hardness in the HAZ to a val ue
below Rockwell C 22 (22 HRC). Weld
repairs that do not use adequate pre-
heat and postheating may c reate an
HAZ wit h excessive hardness .

Welding Metallurgy €l' 533

 Undesirable Microstructure
A micros tr ucture is the appearance
of the metallurgical structure of met-
als when they are specia lly prepared
to reveal their featur es. See Figure
37 -25 . Microstructure is examin ed
Chromium carbide on po lished and etched sa mples of
within stainless steel metals , with a metallurgica l micro-
reduces the corro-
sion resistance ofthe scope producing magnification from
stainless steel. The 100X to IOOOX. The metall urgical
redu ced corrosion
struc ture of weld joints is revealed by
res istance of the
stainless steel re - examining their microstructure.
sults in a line of deep Undesirable microstructure is the cre-
c orrosion in the
HAZ when it is ex-
ation, thro ugh the heat of welding, of
posed to certain cor- microstructures that are preferentially
rosive environments. attacked in a corrosive environment.
For example, 304 or 3 16 stainless steels
may deve lop an undesirab le micro-
structure in the HAZ, known as sensi-
tizat ion, during weld ing. If conditions
Ftgure 37-25. A metallurgical
microstructure is the app earance
of the metallurgical structure (~r
m etal wh en specia lly prepared
to reveal its featu res. COARSE GRA IN
STRUCTUR E OF HAZ
ADJACENT TO WELD
RECRYSTALLIZED
MICROSTRUCTURE
OF HAZ (FINE GRA IN)
534 ~ Welding Skills
are favorable for sensitization , chro-
mium and carbon within the stainless
'steel combine rapidly in the tempera-
ture range of 800 °F (425 °C) to
1500°F (815 °C) , and most rapidly at
1200°F (650°C).
Chromium carbide within stainless
steel reduces the corrosion resistance
of the stainless stee l. The reduced
corrosion resi stance of the stainless
steel results in a line of deep corro-
sion in the HAZ when it is exposed
to certain corrosive environments.
An extra-low-carbon grade of 304 or
316, such as 304L or 3l6L, or spe-
cially formulated grade s that are im-
mune to sensitization should be used .
In the extra-low-carbon grades, the
carbon content is reduced to a level
that is insufficient to combine with
the chromium in the metal.
COARS E AS·CAST
GRA IN STRUCTURE
OFWELD (SOLID IFIED
DENDR ITES)
 l. Crystal structure is a specific arrangement of the building blocks of matter (atom s) in
an orderly and repeatin g three- dime nsional pattern .
2. Heat input is the most importa nt element for welding. Heat (heat input) is required to
melt the base metal and filler metal durin g welding.
3. Using the proper preheat tempe rat ure, coupled with an upper limit on interpass
temp erature co ntro l, help s maint ain the cooling rate below the criti cal coo ling rate,
preventing loss of toughness.
4. The thr ee key regions of a weld are the weld metal, the base met al, and the heat-
affected zo ne.
5. The amount of dilution varies with the heat input of the welding process. The greater
the heat input required by the welding process, the greater the opportunity for dilution
in the weld metal.
6. The HAZ is a narrow band of base metal adjacent to the weld jo int. Most problems that
occur during welding occur in the HAZ.
7. It is usually necessary to apply two layers of surfacing weld to overcome dilution and
atta in the required wear or corrosion resistance properties.
8. Buttering is a method of applying a layer of metal to one side of a weld joint so that
both halves of a jo int can be welded together without needing to preheat and/or postheat
the entire joi nt.
9. Physical properties of metal incl ude melting point, thermal expansion, specific heat,
thermal condu ctivity, electrical conductivity, magnetism, and ox idation.
10. Mechani cal propertie s describe the behavior of metal s under mechani cal loads and
include strength, toughness , hardne ss, ductility, fatigue, creep, and malleabili ty.
I I. Mechan ical force may be appli ed by ten sion , compress ion, shear stress, torsion, or
tle xural stress.
12. Welding creates significant stresses in joints, resulting in shrinkage stresses and residual
stresses that may lead to cracki ng.
13 . Residual stresses may be reduced using intermitt ent welding, low heat input welding,
postheating, or peening.
14. Welding creates c hemical inhomogeneity in the weld jo int, which leads to a loss of
chemica l resistance.
15 . An excessive ly hard HAZ, produ ced by rapid coolin g from welding, may crac k in
spec ific chemica l environments.
I 6 . Chromium carbide within stainless steel reduces the corrosion resistance of the stainless
steel. The reduced corro sion resistance of the stainl ess steel result s in a line of deep
corrosion in the HAZ when it is exposed to certain corrosive environments.

Weldin g Metallurgy ~ 535

 I. When doe s the grain structure of a meta l begin to deve lop ?
2. What is the value of heat input with a welding current of 400 A at 45 V and a travel speed
of l2"/min ?
3. What is the effect of preheat on the coo ling rate of the weld?
4. What is the effect of the heat of welding in the HAZ of an alloy that has been heat-treated?
5. Why must two layers of surfacing weld be used when applied using arc welding processes?
6. Why is copper a good material for use as a backin g material?
7. What is the differen ce between strength and toughness?

536 ~ WeldillK Skills

 Weld ing Technology

Metal identification verifies as-received base metals and jiller metals meet specifications. Metal identi-
fication is also required when the materials test report has been lost or physical identification markin gs
have disappeared because of environmental lVear. For critical weldin g 1V0rk, supplementary metal
identification may be required to verify conformance with purchase specifications.

Metals used in fab rication are typically specified on the weld prints. If a metal is not specified, qualified
personnel must determine the metal to be used. Welders may be required 10 identify approp riate metals
without assistance fro m qualified personnel during maintenance and repair tasks.

Many metal products such as pipe or plate are often purchased and stored f or f uture use. Metals and
filler metals can be identified before welding using visual identification. qualitative identification, semi-
quantitative identification, and quantitative identification .

MANUFACTURER PAPERWORK a certificate of analysis (COA). Although

Manufacturer and supplier paper work
provide s the initial means of check ing
specifica tio n com pliance . Paperwork
is ph ysica l ce rt ificatio n or documen-
tation provided by a product manufac-
tur cr or supplier. Pape rwor k may be
ha rd co py or soft co py (c o m puter-
ized ). The paperwork supplied by the
manufacturer includes a materi als test
report (MT R), product an al ysi s, and
ce rtifica te of co mpliance (COC).
Materials Test Reports
A materials test report (MTR) is a cer-
tified stateme nt iss ued by the primary
manu facturer indi c atin g th e che m i-
ca l ana lys is and mechanical proper-
ties of the metal. An MTR is also called
an MTR is not formally required for all
types of ASM E code-approv ed metals
used for code wo rk, man y co m pa- Manufacturers sup-
ply three 'ypl'S of
nies req uire that an MTR accompan y paperwork 10 Iden-
the me ta l. lifr their products:
An MTR allow s the end user to en- materials test re -
port, pmduct analv-
sure that th e meta l meet s spec ified sis, and certificate (d"
chemical co mposition and mechanical compliance.
property requirements.
Product Analysis
A product analysis is a chemical report
that a parti cul ar metal. such as tubi ng
or piping, is made from a particular heat
of metal. Product analyses ensure that
substitutions have not been made dur-
ing processing of the metal. Product
analyses are called out as supplemental
requ ireme nts in ASTM spec ifications.

537
 Certificate of Compliance
A certificate of compliance (CaC) is a
stateme nt by a manufacturer, without
suppo rti ng docum entation , that the
supplied metal meets spec ifications. A
cac co nta ins no test reports; it only
states that, from the records, the manu-
fac ture r is co nfide nt no subs titutions
have been made. A cac can be issued
for any metal.
MATERIALS
Consequences of Improper
Materials Substitution
If improper meta l subs titutions are
made, significant dama ge to equipment
or injury to wo rkers may result. For
exampl e, chro me- mo ly stee ls have a
key use in critical applications, such as
piping for handling high-temperature
steam or hydrogen. Chrome-moly steels
can easily be mistaken for carbon steels.
They are similar in appearance to car-
bon stee ls, are ma gn eti c like ca rbon

tI
A materials 1I01lC0 I1- steel, and rust like carbon steel if stored
• ~ fon nance report helps
NONCONFORMANCE REPORT
.= the end user docu-
outdoors unprot ected. However, substi-
ment probtems ill rc-
A mat erials nonconformance report is tuting carbon stee ls for chrome-moly
ceived mat erials so a form crea ted by the rece iver of the steels may result in catastrophic failure
that problem areas metal to audit manufacturer paperwork
nm hi' identifi ed. cor-
because, in a critical application, carbon
reefed. and pre vented
regarding supplied meta ls. Anal ysis of steel is likely to fail before chrome-moly
in thefuture. material s no nconformance reports al- fails. Also, substituting the wrong type
lows prob lem areas in metal s acqui si- of metal , such as medi um-carbon steel
tion to be identified , corrected , and for low-carbon steel, nullifies the weld-
prevented in the future. Materials non- ing procedure and increases the chance
co nformance report s are only valuable
of cracking.
if followed up by co rrective programs.
See Fig ure 38-1.
VISUAL IDENTIFICATION
Visual identification is metal identifica-
tion that consists of checking the ap-
pearance of the base metal or filler metal
for key feature s that identify the metal
type. Visual identification is performed
by ch eckin g th e appearance , color,
nameplate, and markin gs of the metal.

Materials can he identified hy color and appearance, by
stenciled 0/1 the end of the me tal.
}/arri"xum Hoi.\1.\'.
II nameplate, or hy markings
Appearance
The appearance and sha pe of a metal
may indicate the type of metal. Appear-
ance includes the fonn and dimensions
of metal components and parts. A hot-
rolled structural shape in a steel-frame
building would be low -carbon steel.
A rai l would be identified by it s
shape as high-carbo n steel. Many ma-
chine parts for light- and medi um-duty
indu strial eq uipm ent and agricu ltural
equipment are made of cast iron. Cast-
'"c.
ing s for heavy -duty wo rk such as
brake pre sses are commonly made of
med iu m-carbon stee l.

538 €l' Welding Skill s

 Figure 38·1 . A materials 1/OfICOt I -
formance report is a form created
by the receiver offill' mewl to audi t
manufacturer paperwork regard -
ing .w PI'Jied metals.

Materials Nonconformance Report

To be completed by field inspector or whoever discovers problem.

Keep one copy in the componen t file a nd submit one copy to
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (appropriate area resource)

Equipment name Number _

Component name Number _

Reason(s) for nonconformance _

Supplier or replicator _

Re builde r (ifapp licable) _

If re built, by whom? _

Specification(s) _

Shipping procedures _

Receiving/stores procedures _

Inspection procedures _

Material type _

Dimensional requireme nt(s) _

Tolerances _

Improper repairs or modifications _

Installation Procedures _

Other

Reported by _

Color exposure to the e nvironme nt may hide

The co lor of a metal is any spec ific hue
that the met al typically exhibits. Some
metal s are relatively ea sy to dis tinguish
by their color. Co ppe r is redd ish in color
and easily identifiable. See Figure 38-2.
Heat tint from heat-treating operations
and sur face scales a nd tarn ishes from
a metal' s true color. To be sure of the Visual h/elllificotioll
includes appear-
true color , a s mall a rea of the surface ance, colo r. name-
mu st be cleaned by filin g or rubbin g plate. amimarkings
with coarse abrasive paper. Color iden- 10 det ermine ke.v
tificat io n mu st not be used on metals fe atures that id en-
tify the metal typ e.
that have suffered corrosion or oxida-
tion that has re sulted in surface color
changes. See Figure 38-3.

Metal ldentiflcution '0 539

Figllfl' 38-2. Color is one ke.\! fea - forgings, the stamped impression is pro-
tur e thut ('(11/ he use d to visu al ly
idnlt ~f\' /I1 ef(/ /.~ m e" (I.\' coppe r.
duced with a metal die. The impres-
.sion is usua lly located on the out side
surface of the forging and con sists of
the ASTM or other materials standard,
the pressure and temperature rating,
and the forge sho p logo.
Fasteners are identifi ed by an em-
bos sed or stamped marking on either
end of the fastener. Space is limited on
fasteners, so a code is used to identify
the standa rds org ani zation and manu-
facturer. See Figure 38-4 . The Indus-
trial Fasteners Institute publishes a list
of fastener manufacturers' logos. Metal
marki ngs con s ist of foundry marks,
co lor-coding , and stencil marking.

Nameplate
Fabricated eq uipme nt, suc h as heat
exchangers or press ure vesse ls, must
have a plaq ue or namepl ate fixed to
the ex terior. The namepl ate identifies
the des ign, pressure and temperatur e
rating, test pressure, and material s of
construction. The namepl ate must not
be covered, damaged, or removed dur-
ing the life of the equipment.

Markings
EMBOSSED MARKING ON
FASTENER HEAD
Markings may be embossed, stamped,
stenciled, or attached to a part. Stamp-
ing and embossing are surface identifi-
Fig u re 38 -4. All embossed marking 011 the head or
cation markings created by mechanical other end of (I [as tener i.~ ""l' method of idennjving
deformation on wrought prod ucts . On fastene rs.

Figure .:m-3. MewJ.~ can be ide nti-

fled /l1le / grouped by the character- CHARACTERISTIC COLOR GROUPINGS
--------- -------- -------- - -- -
istic C(Jlor.~ that the metal exhibits.
Colo r Metal
Red or Reddi sh Co pper, >85 Copper Alloys
light Brown orTan 90% Cu/10% Ni (Copper-nickel)
Dark Yellow Bronzes and Gold
Lig ht Yellow Brasses
Bluish or Dark Gray Lead, Zlnc , and Zln c Alloys
Silvery White with soft luster Aluminum
Silverv White with briaht luster Stainless Steels
Gray Ca rbo n and Low-alloy Steels, 70% Cu/30 % Ni (Copper-Nickel)
W hite or G ray Nearly all others

540 ~ WeldillK Sk ills

Foundry Marks. A f oundry mark is
an identification markin g embossed on
the exterior of castings. Foundry marks
are incorporated into the casting mold.
Identifi cation inform ation includes the
ASTM g rade number, foundry nam e
o r lo go , heat number, and foundr y
sho rt ha nd de scription for the alloy.
Wh en identifyin g cast ings by th eir
foundry mark s, the manufacturer's al-
loy codes must be known. See Figure
38- 5 .
7111' [ turiron G"'If'WIV, III<'.
Flgure 38-5. Foundry marks arc idl'lllijicatio/i mark-
ings that lire embossed Oil the exterio r of castings.
Color-Coding. Colo r-co ding is an
identification marking that con sists of
co lored stripes painted o n one end of
metal to allow for pe rmane nt storage
or temporary sto rage and subseque nt
retri eval from a met al se rv ice center
or a user 's storeroom.
Color-coding syste ms mu st clearly
identify each metal. Since color-coding
is set up to identify specific metal s
COLOR-CODING FOR SELECTED STEELS
AISI-SAE
Color
Des ignation
1010 Carbon Steel White
1025 Carbon Steel Red
1112 Free -cutting Stee l Yellow
1120 Free-cutting Steel Yellow and Brown
20 15 Nickel Stee l Red a nd Brown
2330 Nickel Stee l Red a nd Whit e
4 130 Molybdenum Stee l Gree n and Whi te
Fig ure 3M-fl. Color-coding allows cas)' and rapid identif ication of metals.
stored at a parti cu lar location, there is
no universal col or-coding sys te m. To
retain the co lor-codi ng sys tem, met al
must be cut from the end opposite the
co lored end. Sec Figur e 38-6.
Stencil Marking. Stencil marking is an
identification marking that con sists of
continuous or rep eat ed ink markin gs
on the metal. Stencil markin gs indicate
allo y type , conformance to standards ,
and the dimen sions of the metal. Sten-
cil marking s are rep eat ed at regul ar
intervals alon g the metal so the identi-
fication is not lost when the metal is
cut or sectio ned. Sten cil markings are
not permanent and may degrade dur-
ing servic e or if stored outdoo rs.
Some che mica l e leme nts found in
mat erial s used for co lo r-cod ing or
stencil marking are pot enti all y harm -
ful. Chlorine (Cl), sulfur (S), and zinc
(Z n) are so me pot entially harmful
chemical elem ent s th at may be
present. These chemical elements may
cause catastrophic cracking in Sll SCCP-
tib lc alloys such as sta inless steel or
high nickel alloy. Cracking is likel y
to occur when the paint or marking
mat erial on th e metal is exposed to
the heat of welding. to high-t empera-
tur e se rv ice. or to co rros ive enviro n-
ment s in service . Mark ing mat er ial s
tha t are use d o n s us ce pt ible alloys
mu st c o nta in lo w quantitie s (me a-
sured in parts per million, or ppm ) of
harmful chemical e leme nts. No more
than 250 ppm is allowabl e.
AISI-SAE
Color
Designation
4640 Molybdenum Steel Green and Pink
3125 Nickel-Chromium Steel Pink
3325 Nickel-Chromi um Steel Orange and Black
5 120 Chro mium Steel Black
6 115 Chromium-Vanadium Stee l White and Brown
7260 Tungsten Steel Brown and Aluminum
9255 Silico n-Ma nganese Bronze
Metal ldentification €): 541
 o Material ma rkings are based 011 the ma-
terials designations assigned by classifi -
ca tion soc ieties such as the Americun lron
and Steel Institute (A ISI). the Society of
Automotive En g ineers (SA E) . or th e
American Societyfor Testing and Materi-
als (A STM).
Markin g material s s hould be re-
moved from the are a of the meta l to
be welded, bra zed, or soldered using
an approved solvent. A marker with a
fiber tip may be used to mark a metal.
Becau se markers leave no solid resi-
due that may lead to cra ckin g, a sol-
veot is oot needed for removal.
of Curie temperatures. The effect of tem-
perature on mag netic prop ert ies is il-
lust rated in alloy 400 (Mo nel" 400),
which is slightly magnetic at ambient
temperature . Mone l" 400 is nonmag-
netic if its tempera ture is raised above
the boiling point of water.
Mag netic behavior of some metals
may change with mechanical process -
ing. For exa mple, 302 and 304 stain-
less steels, noomagnetic in the annealed
(soft) conditio n, become increasingly
magnetic as they are cold- worked.
MAGNETIC FORCE
-- - --- - -- - - - -
Strong Attraction:

QUALITATIVE IDENTIFICATION • Carbon Steel s

• Cast Irons
Qualitative identification is metal iden- Gray
tification by a qualified person to con- Ductile
Malleable
firm the identity of an unknown metal.
• Cobalt
Qualitative ident ification has a rela- • Iron- Silicon Alloys (.05% Si to 4.5% Si)
tively high degree of certainty for many • Iron-Cobalt Alloys
applica tions. Qua litat ive identifi cat ion • Iron-Molybd enum Alloys
techniques include magnetic response • Low-Alloy Steels
testing, chisel testing, torch testing, and • Nickel
• Stainless Stee ls
file testing. Ferritic
Martensitic (400 series)
Martensi tic precipitation hardening
Magnetic Response Testing • Tool Steels

Magnetic response testing is a qualita-

tive identification method in which a Weak Attraction:
Mag netic force is
magnet is laid on the surface of an • Stainle ss Steels
ca tegorized as Cast 300 series
strong attraction. unknown metal to test for a magne tic
Cold-wo rked 302
weok attraction. or force. Magnetic force is categorized as Cold-wor ked 304
110 attraction. The strong attraction, weak attraction, or no 308 weld metal
catego ry of mag· 309 weld metal
ne tic re'\lIOIl.H! al- att raction. See Figur e 38-7 . T he cat-
329
lows the unknown
metal To hl' placed
egory of magnetic response allows the
unknown metal to be placed into a spe- · Monel® 400 (beco mes nonmagnetic
in boiling water)
into a specific Iden-
tification grouping. cifi c identification grouping.
No Attraction :
The magnetism of a metal can change
with temperature. As the temperature of • Alloy 20 types
• Com mercia lly pure nonferrous metals
some metals increases, the magnetism (except nickel and coba lt)
decreases. T he po int at whic h th is • Coppe r-Nickels
cha nge occurs is known as the Curie • Hastelloys"
temperature . Curie temperature is the • Incoloys"
temperature of magnetic transformation, ··lnconelslKl
Stainle ss Steels
above which a metal is nonmagnetic, Austenitic (other 300 series)
• Stellits"
and bel ow which it is magnetic. For
some alloys, the magnetic transforma- Ftgure 38-7. Mew ls call be idi'lIlijit'd alltl grouped
tion temperature may occur over a range by II/(· magnetic f orce 'hey produce.

542 ~ We/dinK Skills

 Minor micro structural differences
between ca st and wrought stainless
steels can alter magnetic behavior. For
example, E308 or ER308 filler metal
for welding nonmagnet ic, 304 stain-
less steel is slightly magnetic . The
composit ion of the fill er metal mu st
be sli ghtly magnetic to prevent hot
cracking of the weld durin g cooling.
Despite th ese minor compli cations ,
magnetic response testing is a conve-
nient and rapid method of qualitative
ident ificat ion .
Chisel Testing
Chisel testing is a qualitative identifi-
cation method that identifi es metal by
the shape of the chip s it produ ce s.
Chisel testing con sists of producing a
chip by striking the edge or corner of
the unknown metal with a chisel and
hammer. Meta l can be ide ntified by
the type of ch ip s that result during
chise ling. See Figure 38-8. The ease
with which the chip break s from the
CHISEL TEST IDENTIFICATION
TypeofCnlp
Continuo us, easil y removed
Fragmented small pieces, easily
removed
Fragm ented or continuous,
hard to remo ve
TORCH TEST IDENTIFICATION
Melting; Rate
.-
Slow, melts only afte r sufficient
heat input
Fast, melt s with little heat input
Slow, melts only after sufficient
heat input
Faster, melts with relatively little
heat input
Boils whil e meltin g
metal is an indication of the metal 's
hardness. The continuity of the chip
indicates the metal 's toughnes s. Long
and curled chips result from mild steel
and soft metal s suc h as aluminum.
Shurt, broken chips result from cast
steel. High -carbon steels do not break
easily and sample ch ips are di fficult
to obtain .
Torch Testing
Torch testing is a qualitative identifi-
cation method that identifi es a metal
by the melting rat e, the appearance
of the metal when heat is applied, and
the action of the molten met al. See
Figure 38- 9. Th es e factors provide
clues to the identity of the metal. Torch
testing requires heating a small area of
the surface of the unknown metal with
a high-temperature oxyacetylene flame
to cause local melting. To distinguish
aluminum from magnesium , appl y a
torch to the filin gs. Magnesium burn s
with a sparking white flame .
Figure 38·8. Metal can he iden -
tified by the Iype of chips that re-
- - - "
sult duri ng chiseling.
Tvpe;dtMlitEltHlI flo\>.~ible.ll.le,taI;Type
Aluminum , Low-Carbon Steel,
Ductile
Malleable Iron
Brittle Gray Cast Iron
Brittle High·Carbon Steel
Figu re 38-9. Torch testing iden-
ufles a metal by the melting rate
- and the app earance of the metal
Af:lI:iElElrlllltll -.fMilf"j ,RO$sible:fIIIl!tal :rype
'" ' __Ane~He~ng; ~ after hearin g.
- -
White metal Aluminum
White metal Zinc
Reddish metal ETP Copper
Reddish metal Deoxidized Co pper
Reddish metal Leaded Copper
Metal Identifi cation ~ 543
 When using the torch test, care must
Sem i -quantl ta tlve
be tak en to prevent da magin g the
identification meth-
ods use a phvsical sample. Heat input required to heat the
stimulus 10 provide a sa mp le varies depend ing o n the type
signa l that may he of metal being tested. If aluminum and
compared with a set
of standards, Semi- zinc are being separated, the aluminum
quantitative identijica- wi ll not melt until suff icient heat has
tion methods include been applied beca use of its high ther-
dens ity testi ng. spark
mal co nd uctivity, whereas with zinc a
testing. chemicul SIJot
testing. thermoelec - sharp comer will melt quick ly because
tric potential sorting, zinc is not a good the rma l co nd uctor.
and optical emission
In the case of leaded co pper alloys, the
spectroscopy.
surface will boil as the lead co mes off.
File Testing
Fil e testing is a qu alitative ident ilica-
tion method in which a file is used to
indicate the hard ness o f steel compared
with that of the file. File testing co n-
s ists of assessing the degr ee o f bite
when a sharp mill file is draw n across
th e su rface or edge of th e u nknow n
metal. See Figure 38 - 10. T he file test
prov ides a rap id a nd a p prox im ate
method of estima ting the hardness of
stee l. The easier the degree of bite, the
so fter the steel. The hard ness of stee l
is a useful indicator of its weldabi lity.
The tile test must be used with ca ution
and only by qu ali fied perso nne l.
FILE TEST IDENTIFICATION
File Effect on Metal
File easily bites into metal
File bites into metal with pressure
File only bites into metal with
extreme pressure
Metal filed with ditficulty
File leaves marks on metal but
metal is near ly as hard as file
Metal is harder than file
Ffgu ..e _, g· lO. File testing COfI.{i.{fS of aH e.u; IIK the degree of bite when a skarp mill file is drawn across tile
surface or edge of 111e UIIA IIO W II metal.
544 ~ Weldin g Skill"
SEMI-QUANTITATIVE
IDENTIFICATION
Se mi-q uan titativ e identifi cation is
met al id entifi cat ion by appl yin g a
ph ysi c a l sti m u lus to a n unkn o wn
metal to produce a signal that is inter-
preted against a set o f standards. Se mi-
qu an t itativ e id ent ifi cation method s
supported by d ocumentation may be
used in a formal qu ality co ntro l pro-
gram . Semi-quantitative identifi cation
meth ods incl ude de nsity testing. spark
testin g, chemica l spot testin g, therm o-
electric potential sorting, electrica l re-
sisti vity testin g, and optical emission
sp ectro scopy.
Density Testing
Density testing is a semi-q uantitative
identifi cation method that measures the
density of an unk no wn metal. Density
is measured by obtaining a small speci-
me n o f metal (liz" cube ), a length of
tine wire, an analytica l balance, a small
bench to stradd le the analytical balance
pan , and a 250 ml beaker that is filled
app ro xim at el y tw o-thirds full of di s-
tilled wa ter.
Brinell Hardness Possible Steel Type
Number (BHN)
100 Mild (Low-Carbon) Steel
200 Medium-Carbon Steel
300
High Alloy Steel-High Carbon
Steel
400 Unhardened Tool Steel
500 Hardened Tool Steel
600+ Carbide Tool
 Dirt and foreign matter are thor- For example: What is the den sity of a
oughl y remo ved from the surface of specimen (l em cube) of 304 stainless
the specimen. The specimen is washed steel that weighs 18 .102 g in air, and
with ac eton e and allowed to dry fo r weighs 15.960 g in the di stilled water
2 min to 3 min . Th e specimen is then of an anal ytical balance, and that ha s
weighed on an anal ytical balance to a fine wire that weighs . 15 1 g?
± .001 g. The fine wire is also weighed
to .0 0 1 g. T he beaker containing the
distilled wat er is placed on th e small
bench that straddles the balance pan. 18.102 / 1
D= . g em
One end of the fine wire is tied firmly 18.102- (1 5.960- .151)
around th e metal spec imen.
The other end is attached to the bal- 18.102 / 3
D= g em
18.1 02 - 15.809
ance hook so that the metal specimen is Me ta ls are catego-
suspended and totall y immersed in the - - g / em''
D = -18.102 rized as one (?f fo ur
distilled water. The metal specimen is re- 2.293 dens ity groupings ,
very high den sity,
weighed when it is completely immersed D = 7.89 g/cnr' high density, average
in the distilled water. See Figure 38- 11. The four den sity gro upings for met - density: and low dell -
The density of a metal is found by ap- als are very high den sity, high density, sity. based on their
fig ured dens ity value.
plying the following formula : averag e density, and low density. From
the figured value of density, metal s arc
placed in one of the groupings. Depend-
ing on the separation of their den sit y
where values, metals within the sa me gro up
D = density (in g/cm') are di stinguish ed from each other by
~, = weight of specimen (in g) checking the figured densities against
W"= weight of specimen in distilled a table of known den sity values. See
water (in g) Figure 38-12.
IV, = weight of fine wire (in g)

-
Spark Testing
Spark testing is a semi-quantitative iden-
tification method that identifies metal s
BALA NCE by the shape, length, and color of the
HOOK
spark produced when the metal is held
against a grinding wheel rotating at high
speed . The chemical composition of the
unknown steel influences the form of
FIN E W IRE
the spark stream produced . Spark stream
I I BEAKE R characteristics are compared to standard
vr
l I
[ 1WATER DISTI LLED
spark stream charts to iden tify the un-
%1 known metal. See Figure 38- 13.

BALANCE
PAN
o ized, and testing should be conducted in
Spa rk tes ting co nditions must be standard -

d iffused day light rather than bri gh t sun-

BA LANCE
CAS E
light or darkness. The spark stream should
not be exposed to hea vy air draf ts that may
cause the tail of the spark: stream to hook,
leading to an er roneous interpretation. No
obj ects should be allowed to obstruct tile
full-leng th view of the spark stream as it
Figure 38-11. Metals can be identified by measuring emanates f rom the grinding wheel.
the density of the metal wilh {Ill analytical balance.

M etal Identifica tion ~ 545

Ftgure 3H- 12. Figured density..
valu es ('(III be us ed to place a DENSITY IDENTIFICATION GROUPINGS
- - -- --
., .? -

metal in one of four groupings .

Grouping ~De n s ity Range' Metals

Gold Rhodium
Iridium Ruthenium
Osmium Tantalum
Very High Density 12 to 22
Palladium Tungsten
Platinum Uranium
(depleted)

Bismuth Molybd enum

High Density 9_8 tol1 _9
Lead Silver

Antimony Nickel alloys

Cadmium Stainless steels
Average Density 6t09 -7 Cast Iron Steels
Coppe r alloys TIn
Nickel Zinc

Aluminum Magnesium
Alum inum alloys Magnesium
Low Density 1 to 5_9 Beryllium alloys
Beryllium alloys Titan ium
Titanium alloys

Relative Color of Color of Quantity of Nature of

Metal Stream Volume
len th " Stream Bursts Bursts Bursts
1. W rought Iron Large 65 Straw WMe Very few Forked
2. Machi ne Stee l (AISI 1020) Large 70 White White Few Forked
3. Carbon Too l Stee l Moderately large 55 White White Very many Fine, repeating
4. Gray Cast Iron Small 25 Red Straw Many Fine, repeating
5. Whi te Cast Iron Very small 20 Red Straw Few Fine, repeating
6. Annealed Ma ll. Iron Moderate 30 Red Straw Many Fine, repeating
7 . High-Speed Steel (18-4 -1) Small 60 Red Straw Extremely few Forked
8. Austenitic Ma nga nese Ste el Moderately large 45 White White Many Fine, repeating
9. Sta inless Stee l (Type 410) Moderate 50 Straw White Moderate Forked
10. Tungsten-Chromium Die Stee l Small 35 Red Strawt Many Fine. repeatingt
11. Nitrided Nitralloy Large (curved) 55 White White Moderate Forked
12. Stellit .,.. Very small 10 Orange Orange None
13 . Cemented Tungsten Ca rbide Extremely small 2 Light Orange Light Orange None
14. Nickel Very srnant 10 Orange Orange None
15 . Copper, Brass, and Aluminum None None
;. actual length varies with grinding wheel, pressure. etc .
blue-whil e spurts
t some wavy streaks
Fij.\url' 38-13. Spar k char ts are com pare d with spark: .\·tream charac teristics to identify unkno wn metals.

546 ~ Weldin g Skills

 Spark testing heat treats the surface Figuring wheel rotation. Is a rotation
layer of the metal, leading to localized speed of 16,000 rpm suitab le for a 2"
hardening and po ssible cracking. diameter portable grinder?
Stock is discarded any closer than 1!4"
from the area of contact with the grind- C = ",I
ing wheel because of possib le failure. where
C = Circumference of wheel
Spark Test Preparation. The area of If = pi (3.t42) 1l: WARNING
metal selected for spark testing must d = diameter Prot ecti ve gogg les and
prot ective clothing must be
be free of scale and representative of worn when spark test ing .
the chemical composition of the metal. C=3 .142x2
Before conducting a spark test, the C = 6.248"
grinding whee l is cleaned wit h a dia-
mond wheel dresser to remove particles s = C xR
of metal from previous tests . If these 12
particles are not removed, the spark where
stream of the specimen being exam- S = Speed of wbeel (in fpm)
ined would be contaminated by sparks C = Circumference of wheel (in in.)
from previous tests.
R = Rotation speed (rpm)
Small , portab le grinders are most
12 = co nsta nt
often used for spark testing, because
they can be transported to the fie ld.
Stationary grinders may be used if con-
s= 6.284 x 16,000
12
venient. See Figure 38-14.
T he pressure between the grind- S = 100,544
ing wheel and the specimen must be 12
sufficient to maintain steady contact. S = 8378.6 rpm
The spark stream sbould be given off
approx imately I ft horizo ntally and The whee l rotation speed is not suit-
at right angles to the line of vision. able for spark testing .
The tester mu st have a c lear, unob-
struc te d view of the spark stream.
Condition s for spark testing must be
standardized and testing s hou ld be
conducted in diffuse daylight, no t
bright sunlight or darkness. Tbe spark
shou ld be tested away from air d rafts
that may cause the tail of the spark
stream to hook, which lead s to an
erroneous in terp re tation.

Grinding Wheel Rotation. Tbe speed

of the wheel in feet per minute (fpm)
equals the circumference in inches
multiplied by the revolutions per minute
at which the whee l turns, divided by
12. To provide a satis factory spark
stream, the gr inding wheel mus t ro-
tate at high speeds (15,000 fpmor
greater) and mu st be hard (for ex- A grinding wheel is used f or spa rk testing and should be kept clean to prevent ccnuami -
ample, 40 grain alumina wheel). nants f rom interfering with the spark stre am .

Metal Identification €}: 547

Ft gure 38-1~. Spark testing is
most O};('II performed using por-
table grinders, but stationarv
grinde rs may also "1' used.
~ S PA R K
,/ STREAM
DIRECTION OF
WHEEL ROTATION
PORTABLE
GRINDER

VISE HELD
SPECIMEN

VISE

HAND· HELD
SPECIMEN

STAT IONARY
GRINDER

~SPARK
STREAM

STATIONARY

Spark Stream Identification . The branching of the ca rr ier line. An ar-

spa rk stream mu st be cl osel y exam-
ined for it s charact eri sti c feature s .
Characteristic features include carrier
line s, forks. burst s, and arrowheads .
A ca rrie r lin e is an inc and escent
(glowing) stre ak that traces the tra-
jectory (path) of each particle (spark).
A f o rk is a simple branching of the
carrier line , A burst is a complex
548 ~ W("dill~ Skills
rowhead is a terminati on of the car-
rier line in the shape of an arrow head.
See Fig ure 38 - 15.
By learnin g to identify the different
portions of the spark stream, and by
making test s o n known sa mples, it is
pos sible to acquire sufficient experi-
ence to make relatively accurate deter-
mination of the metal being investigated.

DIRECTION OF
WHEEL ROTATION
~CARRIER
LINE
~ FORK
~ARROWHEAD
o Some rea gents used in chemical spot test-
inl: kits are strong acids or alkalis ami
should be handled with care.
Chemical Spot Testing
Che mica l spot testin g is a semi -
quantitative identification method that
uses chemicals that react when placed
on certain typ es o f metal s. Chemi cal
spot testing is used to identify metal s
by the color changes that occur to the
metal when a metal is co ntacted with
spec ific che mica l reagent s.
The solution is often produced using
electric current (electrographic technique)
to dissol ve small amounts of the metal
in a chemical reagent. When the solu-
tion reacts with the chemical reagent.·a
color change occurs, which is used to
ident ify the unknown metal.
Ffgure 38-15. Ch aracteristic
fe atures of spark streams include
ca rrier lilie s, forks. bIlT.H.{ , and
arrowheads.
SPECIMEN
GRINDER
The most common chemical spot test
is the e lec trograph ic che m ica l s po t
test. In electrograp hic che mica l spot
testing. a metal surface is first prepared
by dressing it with a file or emery pa-
per to remove scale o r unnecessary
rou ghne ss, after which the metal sur-
face is degreased . A filter paper wel-
ted with mea sur ed drop s of chemical
reagent is placed on the metal surface.
Th e unknown metal (anode) is electri-
ca lly co nnected to the positive termi -
nal of a 6 VDC batter y. An aluminum
cathode. connected to the negative ter-
minal of the battery. is pressed aga inst
the wet filter pap er. Th is con nection
co mpletes the electrical circuit and al-
lows curre nt to now until the cathode
is removed and the ci rcuit is di sco n-
nected . See Fig ure 38- 16.
Metal td entificanon @.: 549
Fig u re 38-16. The elec t ro-
graphic chemica l SpOI test is till'
mo st conunonlv used che mic a l
spot tes t,
A WARNING
Avoid acc idental contac t
with hot meta l surfaces
duri ng the rmoele ct ric
potentia l sorti ng',
550 ~ Welding Ski lls
Electrographic Chemical
Spot Test
Figure 38-16
6 V DC BATTERY
SOURCE
ALLIGATOR CLIP
ALUMI NUM /~4~iii":;~
CATHODE .../
CHEM ICAL REAGENTS
The filter paper, which is soaked in
a sma ll amount of the metal solution,
is lifted fro m the surface. Measure d
drops of a second chemical reagent are
applied to the wet filter paper, causing
a co lor change. The color of the filter
paper identifies the metal. Supplemen-
tary reagents may be applied to the fil-
ter paper to cau se additional co lor
chan ges, whi ch fur ther id en tify the
metal. When the test is compl ete, the
metal surface is thoroughly cleaned to
remove excess chemical reage nt.
Thermoelectric Potential
Sorting
Thermoelectric potential so rting is a
semi-quantitative identification method
that uses measurement of the elec tric
potential generated when two metals are
heated. The common and reproducible
method of thermoelectric potential sort-
ing is to standardize on the voltage gen-
erated by the heated junction of two
dissimilar metals. Standardizing on the
vo ltage generated by the junction of
the two metal s allows a significantly
greater amount of heat to be gener-
ated, whic h increases sens itivity. To
carry out ide ntification, the unknown
metal is put in co ntact with a heated
pro be. T he th er moelectric po tential
generated is indicated on a digital or
analog readout. This value of thermo-
elec tric potential is compared wi th
values obtained under identical con-
dition s using known metal samples .
T hermoe lectric pote ntial so rt ing is
describ ed in ASTM E977, Standard
P rac ti ce for Thermoe lec tric M etal
Sorti ng ,
Null Point Method . The nu ll p oin t
method is an alternative method of ther-
moelectric pote ntia l sorting . The null
point method is used for identifying an
unknown metal or di st ingui shing it
from other metals. In the null point
met hod, a know n standard speci men
and a probe are electrically connected
and the deflection of the meter caused
by the resulting potential is recorded.
The resulting potential is calibrated to
read zero on a meter.
An unknown metal that is the same
as the know n specimen will produce
no deflection of the meter. If the un-
know n met al is differe nt from th e
known specimen, the meter will deflect
to either side of zero .
Electrical Resistivity Testing
Electrical resistivity testing is a semi-
quantitative identification method that
uses differences in elect rical resistiv-
ity to ide ntify metal s. With electrical
resistivity testing, a small probe con-
taining four electrodes is placed on the
metal surface and an elect ric curre nt
is passed through the metal. The cur-
rent passing through the metal ca uses
a number to regi ste r on the panel of
the instrument. T his number (ohms)
is a measure of the resis tivity of the
unidentified metal. The surface must
be prepared with a file if it is exces-
sive ly rough or co rroded.
 For materials over .1" thick, the in-
strument is self-compensating. For
materials less than .1" thick, the tester
must apply a correction factor based
on the metal thickness. The instrument
is also sensitive to the area of metal
beneath the probe . Two differing mea -
surements may be displayed on differ-
ent parts of a component exhibiting
different thicknesses, such as a cast-
ing. The tester must calibrate the in-
strument readings against known metal
samples to prevent misinterpretation of
the data.
The electrical resistivity method pro-
vides rapid metal sorting or identifica-
tion. The relatively small probe head
of the electrical resistivity instrument
allows it to be used for examining hard
to reach areas such as the internal com -
ponents of valves.
Optical Emission Spectroscopy
Optical emission spectroscopy is a semi-
quantitative identification method that
separates and analyzes the light emit-
ted from an unknown metal surface
DIFFRACTED
GLASS
PRISM
25VT040V
POWER
SOURCE
ELECTRIC
ARC
when it is arced by an electric current.
An optical emission spectrometer is
an instrnment used for optical emis-
sion spectroscopy that is placed on
the surface of an unknown metal. A
small area of the surface is intermit-
tently sparked by striking an arc be-
tween the surface and a tungsten elec-
trode using a power source of 25 V to
40 V. When the electric arc is struck on
a metal surface, the light emitted is com-
posed of various wavelengths. The
chemical elements in the metal deter-
mine the component wavelengths pro-
duced. The intensity of each component
wavelength is proportional to the con-
centration of its corresponding chemi-
cal element. See Figure 38-17 .
All light emitted from the arc is
passed through a glass prism, which
diffracts it into its component wave-
lengths. Diffraction is a modification
of light in which the rays appear to
be deflected to produce fringes of par-
allel light and dark colored bands. The
separated wavelengths are viewed as
a series of lines of varying intensity
and color.
Figure 38-17. Optical emission
spectroscopy uses the light emit-
ted from unknown metal surfaces
to identi/.v 1I metal.
VIEWFINDER
LIGHT
LINES OF
VARYING
INTENSITY
AND COLOR
Metal Identification @o 551
 The wavelength lines arc compared
with those obtained from standard cl-
eme nts. A camera that is connected
to the ey epiece of the opti cal emis-
sion spectrometer permanently records
the lines. The camera imp roves the
sensitivity of the instrument because
it records line s that arc too faint for
det ection by th e human ey e . The
camera also records the lines from the
ultra violet spectru m.
Th e chemical clements detectable
by optical emiss ion spectroscopy arc
limited to those elements that have ob-
servable lig ht wavelengths after dif-
fract ion and are not vapori zed by the
heat of the arc . Low percentage s of
chemical clement s may be undetec-
ted if the line obtained by diffraction
is faint. Optical e miss ion spectros-
copy can detect ni ckel. chromium.
molybdenum. titanium , man ganese ,
vanadium, copper, zinc , tungsten,
magnesiu m, cobalt , lead, and niobium .
QUANTITATIVE IDENTIFICATION
Qu antitati ve ident ification methods
Quantitative identifi-
separate and identify metal s by mea -
cation me thods sep-
a rate and identifv suring the amounts of chemical cle-
metals hy mcasur- ment s pre sent in a me tal. Although
ing the am ounts of
quant itative identification methods do
chemica! elements
present if! a metal. not analyze for every chemi cal c le-
ment that may be present, they are
often comprehensive enough to iden -
tify unknown meta ls with a high de -
gree of accuracy .
Nonde structive quantitative iden -
tification instruments are more costly
th an se mi-quantitative identification
instruments. However, printed report s
may be obtained and data archived to
provide documentation required in a
formal quality assurance program.
Quantitative identification methods
include X-ray fluore scence spectrog-
raph y and chemica l analys is.
....
" Radia tion d etection de vices should be
used as requ ired to monitor radiation
levels when performing X-ray jluores-
cence pro cedures.
552 0 Weld illg Sk ills
X-Ray Fluorescence
Spectrography (XRF)
X-ray fluorescence sp ectrography
(XRF) is a nonde structive quantitative
identification method that uses a
gamma ray beam to identify an un-
known metal. The beam causes the at-
oms o f specific chemical elements in
the metal to fluoresce, or exhibit fluo-
re scent X-r ays. Fluoresc ent X-rays
have energy levels that are character-
istic of the specific chemi cal clement s
in the unknown metal. The fluorescent
characteristic X-rays are passed through
a detector that measures energy levels
and the chemical composition. Sec Fig-
ure 38- 18.
Th e probe o f th e ins tru me nt is
placed on the unknown metal. A shut-
ter in the prob e is opened for a spe-
cific length of time to allow gamma
rays from the source (such as iron-55
isotope) to be beamed onto the un-
known metal. A microprocessor built
into the instrument di splays the per-
centage s of the c hem ica l elements
pr es ent in the un known metal. Th e
microproc essor is also programmed to
di spl ay the nam es of spec ific alloys
wh en the analysi s of th e unknown
metal matches the chemical composi-
tion of the known metal. Th e instru-
ment is portable and easily moved to
the component to be anal yzed . Within
minutes. the instrument can provide
quantitativ e ana lysis of the ind icated
chemica l comp ositi on.
If the surface upon which the probe
is placed is not tlat or does not fully
cov er the spec imen, a compensation
factor must be applied. This is because
curvature, surface irregulariti es. or the
small size of the contact area causes
the excitation beam to miss part of the
surface , resulting in lower than ex -
pected re adin gs . Small sec tions of
metal such as filler metal must be cUI
into small pieces and banded together
to provide an adequate cross-sectional
area for the probe.
 Figure ]8·18. X-ray fluorescence
.Wt' c1mxrap h-," 115t'5 tI detector thaI
separates lind ident if ies en erx y
levels or energy wavelengths.

ol -- - - -- -
ENERGY LEVEL
ENERGY DISPERSIVE

LITHIUM
CRYSTAL

GAMMA RAYS

ORX.RAYS \ •

\\.\ -' s: ,
J' oL-- - - - -
"\."
I • \

.
\"\\
-, -, -, rIJ'').
\ \.\ .'
// /
WAVELENGTH
WAVELENGT H
DISPERSIVE
\:-.:-<-/1

Th e X-ray flu orescence instrument carbon stee ls and low-carbon or regu -

mu st be sta nda rd ized regularly to a l-
lo w fo r radi oac ti ve dec ay o f th e ra-
di oi sotope. Radioactive decay results
in a decrea se in emission and a corre-
spond in g ly lo we r fl uo re sc e nt X-ray
count. Standardization is carried out
by c a lib ra ting on a metal sa m p le of
kn own c o m pos itio n.
The X- ray flu ore scen ce spec trogra-
phy method measures the percentages
of titanium , vanadium , c h ro mi u m ,
manganese, iron , cobalt , nickel, cop-
per, niobium, mo lybdenum. a nd tun g-
ste n in a met al. A major limitation of
X- ray flu ore scen ce spectrog ra phy, as
wi th a ll technique s, is th at it cannot
measure c a rbo n percentage . Thu s, it
cannot di stin gui sh between variou s
lar g ra de a us te n itic s ta in less stee ls. A WARNING
Chemi c al an al ysi s mu st be used to
Adeq uate precautions against
measure carbon . e xpos ure lu rad iat ion must be
tak en when using X-ray
fluorescen ce eq uipment.
Chemical Analysis
Chemical analysis is a destructive quan-
tit ati ve identification method th at re -
quires removal of a small sa mple ( 1 g
to 2 g) of metal for chemical anal ysis of
its constituent e lements. Chemical analy-
si s is destruct ive and time-co nsuming
and is used when auditi ng of a prod-
uct is required or the analy sis mu st be
chec ked again st a material s test re po rt
(MT R) . Wet c he m ical a na lysis is the
only method of obtain ing the amount
of ca rbon pre sent in an a lloy.

Me tal Identification ::@: 553

 Filler Metal Identitication
Filler metalsare idrn-
tified by paper labels
Welding filler metals (wire or rod) and
or idnuijication mark-
ill {:.'1 stomped Of! olle electrodes use a mixt ure of ma rk ing
nul of the filler metal. syste ms. Filler met al a nd electrodes
are identifie d by markin gs that are at-
tached, sta mped, or stenciled on filler
metal s. Identifi cati on markin g s on
bare w ire usuall y con sist of the AWS
de si gn ati on printed o n a p aper tag
glued to one or both ends of the wire.
On large-d ia meter nonfe r rou s fille r
me tal , id enti f icat io n m arki ng s are
stamped o n the f ille r me tal. Iden tifi -
cation markings on covered elect rodes
co nsist of the AWS designation sten-
cile d on th e fl ux coati ng a t o ne e nd
of the filler met al. In all cases, addi-
tio nal ide ntific at io n is provided on a
label attached to the co ntaine r or spool
holding the ele ct rod e or fill er met al.
So me marking prod ucts may be po-
tentiall y harm ful to me tals. Care must
be take n to ident ify harm ful marking
prod ucts and thoro ughly remove the m
before we ldi ng, brazin g, or so lde ring.

I. Manufacturers supply three type s of paperwork to iden tify their product s: materials test
report, product an alysis, and ce rt ifica te of compliance .
2. A materi als non conformance report helps the end user documen t probl ems in rec e ived
materials so that problem areas can be identified, corrected, and prevented in the future .
3. Visual ide ntifica tion includes appearance, color, nam eplate, and mar kin gs to de termine
key features that identify the met al type.
4. Magn etic force is categori zed as stro ng attraction , weak attraction , or no attraction. The
category o f magnetic re sponse allows the unknown metal to be placed into a specific
identification grouping .
5. Semi -quantitative identificat ion method s use a ph ysical stimulu s to provid e a sig nal
that may be compared w ith a set of sta ndards . Semi-quantitative identification methods
include den sit y testing, spa rk testing, ch emical spot testing, thermoel ectric potential
so rting. and optical emiss io n spec trosco py.
6. Metal s are ca tegorize d as one of fo ur density gro upings, vcry high den sit y, high den -
sity, a verage densit y, a nd low den sit y, based on their figured densit y valu e.
7. Quantitati ve identification method s se pa rate and identify met al s by measuring the
amounts of c he m ica l ele ments present in a metal.
8. Filler met al s are identified by paper labels or identification markings stamped on one
end of the filler metal.

I. Wh at type of infor ma tio n is contained in an MTR'!

2. Wh at is a certifica te of co mpliance (COC)?
3. Wh en should visua l identifi cation by color not be used?
4. Wh at in formation is incl uded in a foundry marking '!
5. W ha t ch a nge in the we ld ing process ca n affect the ma gn eti c res po nse of me tal s'!
6. Me ta l ca n bc placed into which four de ns ity group ings'!
7. What are the four primary characteristics of a spark stream'!
8. What is the most co mmo n type of che mical spo t test'!
9. What is an impo rta nt ele men t that X-ray fluorescen ce spec trog raphy (X RF) fails to detect '!
10 . How are we ld ing filler metal s identified '!

554 €1 Welding Sk ills

Weldability is the capacity of a metal to be welded, under imposed fabrication conditions, into a
specific, suitably designed structure that performs satisfactorily in the intended service. Carbon is the
principal alloying element that effects the weldability of carbon steels. Alloying elements also have an
effect on preheat and postheating in alloy steels. Factors that affect the weldability of carbon and alloy
steels must be considered to ensure the desired quality during fabrication .
CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS
Steels are broadly classified as carbon
steels or alloy steels based on their al-
loying elements. Carbon steels are alloys
of iron, carbon, and manganese" Carbon
is the principal alloying element that
affects the mechanical properties and
metallurgical structure of carbon steels.
Carbon steels are grouped according
to their carbon content and include low-
carbon steels, medium-carbon steels,
and high-carbon steels. Free-machining
steels are an additional group. See Fig-
ure 39-1. The weldability of carbon
steels decreases as the carbon content
Increases.
Low-carbon steels contain up to .3%
carbon and up to 1.2% manganese"
They are not strengthened by heat treat-
ment but may be surface hardened by
carburizi ng. Low-carbon steels are
used for structural applications such as
huilding framework, pressure vessels,
and automobile bodies.
Nickel steels are low-carbon steels
that contain 2% to 9% nickel for ser-
vice at low temperatures for applications
from 32°F (O°C) to - 320°F (-195°C) .
Nickel steels are used for storage tanks
for liquefied hydrocarbon gases and ma-
chinery designed for use in cold climates"
Medium-carbon steels contain .3%
to .6% carbon and .6% to I"65% man-
ganese" Medium-carbon steels are
stronger than low-carbon steels. They
form high hardness martensite in the Carbon steels include
HAZ when rapidly cooled and arc sus-
ceptible to hydrogen cracking . They
may require heat treatment after weld-
tI
.~
.=
low -carbon steels,
medium-carbonsteels.
andhigh-carbon steels.
171e wcldability ofcar-
ing to achieve the specified strength bon steels decreases as
the carbon content
and hardness" Wear resistance may be increases.
improved by surface treatments such as
chrome plating or nitriding. The surface
coating must be removed by grinding
if any weld repair is to be performed.
Medium-carbon steels are used in ma-
chinery parts such as tractors, derricks,
and pumps"
High-carbon steels contain more
than .6% carbon. High-carbon steels
arc usually not welded. They arc used
for their hardness and strength, espe-
cially where a cutting edge is required,
such as on drill bits and files.
555
 High-carbon steels
Heat treatable
(e.q. , 1060, 1080)
alloy steels
(e.q.. 4140, 4340)

More C
lor strength ,,"'
~o' iY~

Free-machining steels Medium-carbon steels

. '"
0,1> #'~

Chrome-moly steels
(e.g., 12L14 , 1118) (e,g" 1040, 1045) (e.g., 1~ Cr-lh Mo)

~ ~
'\. ~
"1.,; 0,."a
More C
for slrength 0'." #'t'
<::-0 ~q,~
~Q.

'"'"
"'6~

Nickel steels Ni!Of low Low-carbon steels Ni , Cr, Mo Carburiz ing steels
(e.g., 3,5 Ni. 9 Nil temp . loughness (e.g.,1018, 1030) IOf carburizing (e.q., 8620)

Figure .11)- 1. Carbon steels are grouped by their carbon content i l110 low -carbon. medium-carbon, high-ca rboll, and free-machining steels.

Free-machining steels are low-carbon achieve optimum mechanical prop er-

steels that contain small amounts of sul-
fur. phosphorus, or lead, which are added
to improve their maehinabili ty. Free-
machin ing stee ls are used where high
production machining is required.
Alloy steels contain specified quan-
titi es of alloyi ng elements other than
carbon and ma nga nese. Alloy stee ls
are grouped according to thei r alloy -
ing elements. The presence of one or
more alloying elements in alloy steels
leads to better mechan ical pro perties
111e prin cipal ben- than carbon steels. The principal ben-
efits of al loy steels
OI't' r carbon steels efit s of alloy steels over carbo n steels
are higher strength are higher strength and greater capac-
and greater capac- ity for strengthening in thick sect ions
itv f or streng thening
ill th ick sect io ns (harde nability). Alloy steels con sist of
ihardenabilitv}. low -all oy stee ls, chrome-moly stee ls.
and austenitic manganese stee ls.
Low-alloy steels are medium-carbon
steels that contain small percentages of
nickel. chromium. and molybdenum to
556 €1 Welding Skills
ties in the quenched and tempered con-
dition. The wear resistance of low-alloy
steels may be improved by surface treat-
ments such as chrome plating or nitrid-
ing. The hardened surface coating must
be remov ed by gr indi ng if an y we ld
rep air is to be performed . Low -a lloy
stee ls are used for mechanical compo-
nent s suc h as shafts and mac hi ne ry
where high strength aod tougho ess are
requ ired, particularly where the section
thickness exceeds 2" .
Chrome-moly steels contain approxi-
mately .2% carbon, .5% to 9% chromium
(Cr). and .5% to I% molybdenum (Mo).
Scaling resistance increases as the chro-
mium co ntent is increased . Mo lybde-
num increases st re ngt h at e levated
temperatures and provides resistance to
graphitization. Graphitization is the for-
mation of iron carbide that results in loss
of du ct il it y. T he carbo n co nte nt of
chrome-moly steels is kept below .2% uniform in composition throughout
to maintain weldability. Chrome-moly the cros s section and is suitable for
steels are widely used for piping and applications involving carburi zin g
ves sel s op erating at temperatures up and heat treating.
to IaaaoF (537 °C) in the petroleum re-
fining indu stry and in steam power Figure 39·2. The steel deoxida -
gene rat ion . Chrome-moly stee ls are tion practice il!/lIlCII('('S the type
0)' ,lI c e! produced.
identified by their nominal percentages
of chromium and molybdenum, for
example I V.Cr-V2Mo, or 2 V.Cr- l Mo.
See Appendix .
Austenitic manganese steels contain
11 % to 14% manganese and .7 % to
1.4% carbon . Au stenitic manganese
stee ls are nonmagnet ic alloy steels
noted for high strength , exce llent duc-
tility, toughness, and outstanding wear
resistance. Austeniti c manganese steels
arc used for crushing, earth-mo ving,
and material handling equipment; rail-
road track part s; and electrical equip-
ment whe re nonmagnetic properties
are important.
KILLED SEMIKILLED

Steel Deoxidation ENTRAPPED GAS POURING HEIGHT ~ ..

Steel deoxidation is the process of re-

mo ving a controll ed amount of oxy-
gen from steel during steelmaking. The
The deoxidation
deoxidation practice determines the
practice determines
amount of deoxidation performed and the amount ofdeoxi-
the basic steel type that is produced . dation performed
Steel deoxidation result s in four type s and the basic steel
type produced.
of steel: killed , se mikilled , rimmed ,
and capped. See Figure 39-2.
Killed steel is steel that is completely
deoxidized during steel production by
addin g silicon or alum inum in the fur-
nace ladle or to the mold . Aluminum
and si lico n ca use the steel to solid ify
quietly and suppress (kill) the gas evo- RIMMED CAPPED
lution that would result from combin-
ing carbon and oxy gen and formin g
carbon monoxide. Kill ed stee l is ho- Rimmed steel is steel with little or
mogeneous, has a smooth surfac e, and no deoxidizer addition. The molten
conta ins no blowhol es. Killed steels are metal briskly bubble s a s o x yge n
co m mo nly used wh er e improved evolves from it when it is poured into
strength and tou ghness are important. a mold . Th e evo lving ox ygen rea ct s
Semikilled steel is steel in which deoxi- with the carbon at the boundar y be-
dizer s only partiall y kill the oxygen - tween the solidified metal adjacent to
carbon reaction . Semikilled steel is more the mold and th e remain in g molt en

Weldability of Carbon & Alloy Steels €1 557

 metal, forming carbon monox ide gas.
This react ion causes the outer rim of
the solidified metal to be very low in
ca rbon and , co nsequently, very duc-
tile. Rimmed steel may be rolled to pro-
duce a very sound surface and is used
for sheet prod ucts such as automobile
bodies .
Capped steel is a variation of rimmed
steel, providing a surface condition simi-
lar to rimmed steel, but other prop er-
ties are intermediate bet ween rimmed
steel and semikilled steel.
General Welding Considerations
for Carbon and Alloy Steels
When steels are welded, the rapid cool-
ing rate from the weldin g temperature
ca uses a meta llurg ica l tran sform ation
similar to that which occurs in quench-
ing during heat treatment. This transfor-
mation results in martensite formati on in
the HAZ . The hardness of marten site
Hydrogen crack ing
is often located be- increases with the carbon conte nt of
low the surface and steel, reducing toughness and increas-
may run be detected
ing susceptibility to cold cracking (hy-
by com mon nonde-
structive examina- drogen cra cki ng) from residual stress
tion trchniques. in the weld joint. Martensite that forms
in low-carbon steels is generally too soft
and ductile to cause embrittlement or
crac king.
Steels that are susceptible to crack-
ing must be preheated to reduce the rate
of cooling and decrease the possibility
Steels that are S/lS-
ccptiblr to cracking of martensite formation. Postheating is
must be preheated to used to improve the toughness of any
reducethe rateofcc}(,I-
ing and decrease till'
martensite that does form by tempering
possibility ofmarten- it to reduce (relieve) residual stress and
site formation. eliminate hydrogen .
Alloy steels form either martensite
or bainite as they cool, depending on
the cooling rate. Bainite is not as brittle
as marten site and forms at a slower
cooling rate . A high preheat tempera-
ture is used to slow the cooling rate of
alloy steels to form bainite rather than
martensite. Bainite is less likely to crack
th an mart en site, allowi ng tim e for
posth eat ing to be performed .
558 @o Wel d illK Ski lls
Hydrogen Cracking. Hydrogen crack-
ing is caused by atomic hydrogen that
may be present on carbon and alloy
steels. Sources of atomic hydrogen are
organic material such as grease; chemi-
cally bonded or absorbed water in the
electrode coat ing; and moisture on the
steel surface at the weld location.
Atomic hydrogen is created at weld-
ing te mpe rat ure and diffu ses rapidly
into molten weld metal. As the weld
metal solidifies. the hydro gen tries to
escape be cau se so lid ified metal ac-
commodates significantly less hydro-
gen than liquid metal. Some hydrogen
esca pes into the atmosphere; however,
some hydrogen escapes into the HAZ.
Martensite form ed in the HAZ by
rapid cooling of the weld is extremely
susce ptible to embrittlement from the
hydrogen that esca pes into it. Hydro-
gen crac king occurs when the bri ttle
martensite fails to yield (stretch) to ac-
commodate the residu al stresses that
develop as the weld cools. Hydrogen
crac king may occur several days after
the weld has cooled. Hydrogen crack-
ing is often located below the surface
and may not be detected by co mmon
nonde structi ve ex a minat io n tech -
niqu es. See Figure 39-3. Meth od s of
prev enting hydrogen cracking are:
• usin g lo w-h ydrogen e lec t ro des
a nd sto ring e lectrodes in a lo w-
temperature oven
• heat ing surface before weld ing to
remo ve moisture
• pos t he ating immed iatel y a fter
welding to drive out hydrog en
HYDROGEN
CRACK IN HAZ
WELD
Figur e 39 -3 . Hydro gen crack ing 1II0 y not be de-
tected by nondestructive examinauon because it rom-
mOllly occurs below the surface.
o Steels with a low carbon equivalent typically
have exceLlent weldabiiity. As the carbon
equivalent rises above.4, the susceptibility to
underbead cracking increases.
Carbon Equivalent. Carbon equivalent
is a formula based on the chemical com-
position of a steel, which provides a
numerical value to indicate whether pre-
heat and postheating are required. The
greater the numerical value of carbon
equivalent, the greater the tendency for
cold cracking and the greater the need
for preheat and postheating.
Carbon is the most significant al-
loying element that is added to iron in
steels, contributing to overall strength
and hardness. Other alloying elements
contribute to hardness, but to a lesser
extent than carbon. The carbon equiva-
lent is the sum of the carbon percent-
age , plus the weighted percentages of
each alloying element on martensite
formation. With carbon steels, manga-
nese is the only other element whose
influence is weighted. For alloy steels,
the weightings of individual alloying
elements are added . The higher the
carbon equivalent, the greater the need
for preheat and postheating to prevent
embrittlement by martensite.
To find the carbon equivalent for
carbon steels , apply the formula :
Mn
CE =C+
6 p = 240 + 36
where
CE = carbon equivalent
C = percent carbon
Mn = percent manganese
6 = constant
For example, what is the carbon
equivalent of a steel that contains
.28% C and .7% Mn?
CE =%C+ %MIl
6
.7
CE = .2S+ -
6 Heat Requirements. Heat requirements
CE= .2S+ .12
CE=.4%
Ca rbon steel with a carbon equiva-
lent less than .4% is weldable without
preheat or postheating, depending on
joint member thickness. For alloy
steels, the carbon equivalent is found
by applying the formula:
a C
%Mn %Ni %Cr
CE = 10 + - - + - -+ - - +
6 20 10
%Cu %Mo %V
40 50 10
Joint Member Thickness. Joint mem-
ber thickness also influences preheat.
With increasing joint member thick-
ness, the preheat temperature must be
increased to reduce the cooling rate
and the tendency to form martensite.
Since the ductility of martensite de-
pends on its hardness, which is a func -
tion of the carbon content of the steel,
the formula for calculating preheat is
based upon the thickness of the steel
and its carbon content:
p= 1000(C -.ll)+ 1St
where
P = preheat temperature (in degrees
Fahrenheit)
C = carbon content of steel
t = thickness of joint (in inches)
For example, what is the preheat
temperature for a joint 2" thick made
of steel containing .35% carbon?
p= 1000(.35 -.11)+ IS(2)
p= 1000x .24+36
P = 276°F
As a rule, preheat is usually unneces-
sary for steels with a carbon content less
than .2% if the joint thickness is less than:
• I YzN. for wrought pressure vessel
plate
• ')iN , for wrought pipe
• 1;2", for castings
However, the weld area should always
be heated to hand warmth before
welding .
inel ude preheat, interpass temperature
control, and postheating. Preheat heats
Weldahility of Carbon & Alloy Steels @o 559

T emperature IIIILH he
maintained between
the 1II;I1;m llm and
11/{ U;lII l1m interpass
tempera tures f or
each s ucceeding
welding pass.
Figure ]9-4. A n m ll// OI/ preheat
method is to t1/OI'e till oxyacetylelle
flame m'er the .m rfill'e of tl/l' meta l.
560 ~ Welding Skills
the base metal to a relatively low tem-
perature be fore weld ing starts . Th e
main purpose of preheat is to lower the
coo ling rate of the weld. thus allowing
slower wi thdrawal of heat fro m the
weld area. which lessens the tend ency
for marten site to form. Consequently.
there is less likelihood for a hard zone
to deve lop in the surro und ing we ld
area than if a weld joint is made with-
out pre heat.
Pre heat prevent s co ld cracks . re-
duces hardness in the HAZ, reduces re-
sidual stresses. and reduces distor tion.
Preheat also bums grease. oil. and scale
out of the joint. ensuring a elean weld-
ing surface and allowing a more rapid
welding speed. Preheat can be acco m-
pli shed by mov ing an oxy acety le ne
llam e ove r the surface or by plac ing
the part in a heati ng furnace. Sec Fig-
ure 39-4. Preheat temperat ures for car-
bon steel range from 200°F (93°C) to
700°F (371 °C) , dependi ng on the car-
bon content. The greater the carbon con-
tent. the higher the preheat temperature.
The interpass temperature is the tem-
perature of the we ld area between
passes of a mu ltip le -pas s we ld . Fo r
most steels. the large vo lume of heat
produced by the weldin g process is
often a more economica l method of
maint aining interpa ss temperature. Us-
ing a high current and slow travel rate
causes considerable heat to build up in
the metal . slowing the rate of cooling
after welding and pre venting marten-
site from forming near the we ld area .
In multip le-pass we lding. the first
pass preheats the base metal. Heat from
the second pass tempers the base metal
adjacent to the first pass. Each succes-
sive pass produces enough heat to pre-
vent hardening caused by rapid cooling.
The interpass temperature must be care-
fu lly regu lated. Minimum and maxi-
mum int erpass temperatures ar e
ge nera lly spec ified for multipl e-pass
welds. Temperature must be maintained
bet ween the minimum and maximum
int erpass temperatures for eac h suc-
ceeding welding pass. On small parts.
the temperature during welding can in-
crea se to undesirable levels. A welder
must allow time for the workpiece to
coo l betwee n weld passes.
Po stheating is a stre ss-relief treat-
ment for welding medi um- and high-
ca rbon ste e ls. Post heating is as
important as preheat. Although preheat
controls the cooling rate. the possibil-
ity of stresses be ing locked int o the
weld area is always a factor. Postheating
is especially necessary for thick metal
or when the part is restrained in a jig or
fixture durin g welding. Unless stresses
are removed. cracks may develop. or
the part may becom e distorted when it
cools completely, especially during ma-
chini ng o pera tions.
Postheating temperatures for stress
relief should be in the range of 9000F
(482 °C) to 1250°F (677°C). The post-
heating period normally runs about I hr
per inch of metal thickne ss.
Specific Welding Considerations
for Carbon and Alloy Steels
Factors influenc in g th e we ld ing of
carbon stee l depend upon the gro up
to which the spec ific stee l belongs.
Weldabil ity decreases with incr eased
carbnn content, and the need for preheat
and postheating increases with increased
carbon content. See Figure 39-5.
Low-Carbon Steels. Low-carbo n
stee ls that con tain less than .2% car-
bon and less than I% manganese (car-
bon equivalent .36) are weldable without
pr eh eat or po sth e at ing whe n j oint
thickn ess is less than I" and joint re-
straint is not severe.
Low-carbon steels ca n be we lded
by arc welding and OF W pro ce sses.
Low-carbon stee ls are the eas ies t to
we ld since no special we lding prepa-
rations are necessary. For SM AW,
E60XX filler metal is suitable provided
there is sufficient weld metal in the joint
to provi de adequate strength. T he
ehoice of filler metal is determin ed by
dep th of penetrati on. typ e of current,
position of the weld, joint design , and
deposition rate. When slightly higher
stre ngth filler metal is de sirable , or
low-hydrogen filler metal s are neces-
sa ry, E70XX reg ular or E70XX low-
hydrogen fill er metal s must be used.
See Appendix.
When using GMAW or GTAW, filler
meta l selection depends on the deox i-
dation practice of the steel. Rimmed
or eapped stee ls create porous we lds
unless the filler metal conta ins deoxi-
dizers. A suitable filler metal for these
applications is ER70S-2 . For killed or
sem ikill ed stee ls , in add iti on to
ER70S-2, E70S-6 or E70S-7 filler metal
may be used .
CARBON STEELS
Steel Carbon Weldability
Content
Low-Carbon Upto .3% Excellent
Medium-Carbon .3% 10 .6%
High-Carbon .6% or Higher
OFW requires steel tiller metal that
matches the strength of the base metal.
Type R45 dep osits low-carbon stee l
we ld met al. Hi gh er stre ngth R60 is
used to we ld low-carbon stee ls wit h
tensile strengths from 50 ksi to 65 ksi.
Medium-Carbon Steels. As the carbo n
co ntent increa ses beyond .3% and the
manganese content increases to 1.4%
(carbon equivalent .53), susceptibility to
hydrogen crackin g increases so that
welding with low-hydrogen tiller metal
is necessary. Neverthel ess, steels co n-
taining about .3% carbon and a relatively
low manganese content have good weld-
ability. However, a pronounced change
in weldability occu rs when the carbon
content is in the .3% to .5% range. As
the carbon co ntent of the ste el is in-
creased, the welding procedure must be
altered to prevent the formation of hard
martensite in the HAZ. The required pre-
heat temperature increases as the carbon
equivalent incr eases. With a carbon
equivalent between .45% and .60 %, a
preheat temperature bet ween 200 0P
(93°C) and 400°F (2 (WC) is required,
dep ending on j oint thi ckne ss. Th e
interpass temperature should equal the
preh eat temperature . Postheating be -
tween I 100 °F (593 °C) and l 250°F
(677 °C) is recomm ended imm ediately
after welding. If postheating is not pos-
sible, the temperature of the joint should
be maintained after welding at slightly
above the specified preheat temperature
for 2 hr to 3 hr per inch of thickness to
promote the diffusion of hydrogen into
the base metal from the weld bead.
Ft gure 39 -5. weldabili tv de -
c rensrs with increased carbon
("(mh''ll, utul the need for preheat
Uses and po srJIt'llting increases wittv
increased ca rbon cOIltell1,
• Piping
• Industrial Fabrication
Fair • Machine Parts
• Railroad Track Lengths
Poor
• Machine Dies
Weldahility (If Carbon & Alloy Steels ~ 561
 Mo st medium -carbon steels are
Lo w-hydrogen filler
relativel y easy to weld by arc and gas
m etal should he
used when weldin g welding process es. For SMAW, E7018
medium -carb on or E7024 filler metal is frequen tly
steels .
used becau se they have a high tensi le
strength and less tendency to prod uce
underbead cracking, particularly when
no preheat can be applied . However,
medium-carbon steels mu st typically
be preheated and/or postheated. E6012
or E6020 tiller metal can also be used
if precau tions are taken and the cool -
ing rate is sufficiently slowed to pre-
Low -hydrogen fi ller
vent excessive hardening of the weld.
metals withironpow-
der coatings usually For GTAW and GMAW, any of the
min imi ze crac king ER70S-X series filler metals may be
when welding high-
used if precautions are taken to pre-
carbon steel.
vent hydrogen entry into the weld from
rusty or contaminated surfaces or from
contaminated sh ield ing gases. For
OFW, a high- strength tiller metal that
matches the strength of the base metal,
such as R60 or R65, should be used.
High -Carbon Steels. High-carbon
steels are significantly more difficult
to weld than other carbon steels and
arc not usually welded. They form hard
Free -machin ing
lil
~-
steels are not usually
welded unless spe -
martensite wh en quenc hed and arc
extremely sensitiv e to cracking. When
cial precautions are high-carbon steel s mu st be welded ,
taken. high-strength fill er metals in the
E80XX, E90XX, or E IOOXX groups
are preferred because they minimize
underbead cracking. Preheat must also
be used to pr event cracking. T he
postweld cooling rate must be kept as
slow as possible.
ESAII Weldin K {lml Cull inK P ro,}"" I,"
Filler metals used for welding carb on and alloy steels are selecte d based on the metal
comp osition and the desired prop er ties of the metal after welding .
562 0 Welding Skills
I
Stainless steel filler metals such as
the E3 10- 15 type are frequently rec-
ornmended for welding high-carbon
steels because of their high ductility,
provided weld strength is not an issue.
Low -hydrogen filler metals with
iron-powder coating s produce a duc-
tile weld with minimum penetration.
Free-Machining Steels. Free-machining
steels have poor weldability because
they are susceptible to hot cra cking
from the formation of low-melting-point
sulfur- and phosphoru s-contain ing
compounds. Lead in free-machining
steels can melt during welding, emit-
ting weld fumes and creating a health
hazard. Lead may also cause porosity
and embrittlement under certain weld-
ing conditions. Free-machining steels
are not usuall y welded unle ss abso-
lutely nece ssary.
Certain precautions must be taken if
free-machining steels must be welded.
For SMAW, low-hydrogen filler me t-
als of the EXXX- 18 group are used .
For FCAW or GMAW, the same type
of electrode as for the correspo nding
regular grade (non-free-machining )
steel is used. GTAW is not normally
used to weld free-machining steels. A
low welding current is used to mini-
mize dilution, porosity, and cracking;
however, the low welding current leads
to reduced welding spee d. Th e work
area must be adequately ventilated
when welding free -machining steel s
that contain lead .
Low-Alloy Steels. Low-alloy steels are
welded by arc welding and gas welding
processes if they have been annealed or
normalized. They are then quenched and
tempered to achieve the desired proper-
ties. If quenching or tempering is not
possible-for example, with complex
parts where distortion might occur-
preheat at 600 °F (315°C) or higher is
used. High preheat temperatures slow
the cooling rate, allowing the formation
of soft bainite rathe r than hard mar-
tensite , and permitting handling of the
part between welding and postheating.
 The recommended preheat tem-
perature is about 50 °F (28 °C) above
the temperature at which martensite be-
gins to form on cooling. The preheat
temperature may also be influenced by
the thickness of the joint, alloy com-
position, and joint restraint.
Both preheat and postheating pre-
vent weld crack s caused by shrinkage
stresses . By reducing the rate of cool-
ing, the stresses are distributed more
evenly throughout the weld and re-
leased while the metal is still hot.
When the proper preheat temperature
cannot be determined, the clip test can
be used as a quick check. The clip test is
not applicable to thin steels but produces
good results on sections up to o/s" thick.
The clip test involves welding a piece
of low-carbon steel to the steel work-
piece that is being checked for preheat
temperature . A convex fillet weld is
made using an electrode and welding
current similar to those required for the
welding job. The weld is allowed to
cool for 5 min and then the welder,
wearing safety glasses, hammers the lug
until it breaks off. If the lug breaks
through the weld after a number of
blows, the test indicates that no serious
underbead cracking will result when
welding is carried out in the same man-
ner at normal room temperature. If the
lug breaks and pulls out some of the
base metal , the test indicates that the
particular steel must be preheated. See
Figure 39-6.
Low-alloy, high-strength filler met-
als E70XX, E80XX, E90XX, and
EIOOXX are used for welding low-
alloy, chrome-moly, and nickel steels
when full strength is required. In addi-
tion to the standard symbols, low-alloy,
high-strength steel filler metals carry a
suffix in the form of a letter and a final
digit. The letter indicates the chemical
composition of the deposited metal. The
final digit designates the exact compo-
sition of the broad chemical classifica-
tions. Low-alloy, high-strength steel arc
welding filler metals are designated as
E701O-Al, E8016-B2, etc. When weld-
The recommended
ing any alloy steel, contact the filler
preheat temperature
metal manufacturer for proper filler for low-alloy steels is
metal selection. about 50 °F (28 °C)
abo ve the tempera -
The reaction of filler metals to heat
rure at which marten-
treatment for alloy steels must match site begins toform Oil
the reaction of the base metal. The car- cooling.
bon, phosphorus, and sulfur contents
of the filler metal are generally main-
tained at low values to reduce hot crack-
ing susceptibility and improve weld
metal ductility. Filler metals with com- Before welding any
allo.v steel.check with
parable composition but lower carbon the manufacturer for
content may he satisfactory where lower thepmperfiller metal.
joint strength is acceptable.
Figure 39-6. The need for pI'£' -
Clip Test !le{/tinR may he indicated hy the
Figure 39-6 eli" test,
LUG Y:z" WIDE
2" OR 3" SQUARE
,r- CONVEX CONTOUR
) ' FILLET WELD
BASE METAL
TEST SAMPLE
BASEMETA~
REMAINS
INTACT
FAILURE THROUGH WELD
(NO PREHEAT REQUIRED)
BASEMETA~ j
FAI~
FAILURE THROUGH BASE METAL
(PREHEAT REQUIRED)
Chrome-Moly Steels. Chrome-moly
steels are air-hardening and form mar-
tensite on cooling . The martensite is
relatively soft because of the low car-
bon content, but all chrome-moly steels
require preheat, interpass temperature
control, and postheating to produce a
tough weld joint. See Figure 39-7. Pre-
heat and postheating temperatures vary
depending on the alloy content of the
Weldability of Carbon & Alloy Steels ~ 563
 steel. Postheating for chrome-moly steels
is usually compl eted immediately after
welding.
Postheating temperatures for chrome-
moly steels are higher than for carbon
and low-alloy steels, hecaus e chrome-
mol y stee ls are more cree p- resistant
and require higher temperatures to cause
them to yield . A postheating tempe ra-
t ure of 1300°F (704 °C) to 1350°F
(732°C) is commonly used.
Chrome-moly steels may be joined
by arc welding processes. A low weld-
ing curre nt and rapid welding speed
should be used, without extensive pre-
heat. Care must be taken to prevent an
excessive amount of base metal from
mixing into the weld. Some preheat is
advisable to reduce underbead crack-
ing . Posth cating is recommended for
stress relief.
When an interrupted welding pro-
ce dure is required-for example , to
radiogr aph th e partiall y completed
joint in a heavy-wall pipe-the weld-
ing should not be interrupted until a
di stance equal to one-thi rd the wall
thickness has been welded , or not less
than two weld passes for pipe less than
I thick . These precaution s prevent
N ture failure might occur.
crac king of the partially complete d
joint from residual stresses as it cools
in 'order 10 be radiographed.
Filler metal s must match the base
metal compo sition, except that carbon
content slightly lower than that of the
base metal is needed to reduce crack-
ing susce ptibility. To limit the number
of filler metal s required when several
chrome-moly steels are used on one job,
filler metals of the same or slightly higher
alloy content can be used. For example,
1'4 Cr-Y2 Mo tiller metals can be used
for welding Y2 Cr-Y2 Mo and l l4 Cr-Y2
Mo. For SMAW, low -hydrogen filler
metal s are used. See Figure 39- 8.
Stainless steel filler metals E309 and
E310 may be used for minor repair weld-
ing of chrome-moly steels. They are pre-
ferred for applications where the weld
joint cannot be postheated. Stainless steel
fille r metal s are weak er than chrome-
moly electrodes and possess excellent
as-welded ductility, yielding easily and
relieving the majority of residual stresses.
However, the selection of a stainless steel
filler metal must be made carefully, es-
pecially if the weld joint is operating in
cyclic temperature service where prema-

Figure J9· 7. The requi red pre-

heaTing Temperature for chrome- RECOMMENDED PREHEAT TEMPERATURES
moly sTeels varies according to the FOR CHROME-MOLY STEELS·
a lloy conten I.
Thickness
Sleelt Up to ;5V' ,50' 10 1", Over l '
(13.mm). (13 mm to 25 rom)' (25mm)
7F ~c "F "C 'f' 'C
%C r-%Mo 100 38 200 93 300 149
1Cr- Y2Mo
250 121 300 149 300 149
1%Cr· %Mo
2C r-%Mo
2%C r-1 Mo 300 149 350 177 350 177
3Cr-1Mo
5C r-V2Mo
7Cr- %Mo
350 177 400 204 400 204
9Cr-1 Mo
9Cr-1 Mo V+Nb+N
• Welding With low-hydrogen covered electrodes
t Maximum carbon content 01.15% . For higher carbon steels, preheallemperalu re should be increased 100' F 10 200· F (38°C to 93°C).
Lower preheat tem peratures may be used with gas tun gsten arc welding.

564 €l' Welding Skills

 Figu re 39-8. Fill er metals f o r
FILLER METALS FOR CHROME-MOLY STEELS' wekling chrome-moly steels /lIdY
be sliKluly more alloyed in order
Chrome-Moly GTAWt SMAWt FCAWS§ (0 minimire (Ill' number of filler
SAW'
Content and GMAW /tI('fal ()p e.{ required,
E7XTS-A1 0r
Y2C r·1hMo • EB01X-B1
EBXT1-A1
FBXX-EXXX-B1

EBXTX-B2 or
1Cr-YzMo, ERBOX-B2 0r EB01X-B2 or FBXX-EXXX-B2 or
EBXTX-B2l or
1%Cr-Y2Mo ER70X-B2l E701X-B2l FBXX-EXXX-B2H
EBXTX-B2H
E9XT X-B3 or
ER90X-B3 or E901X-B3 or
21f4Cr-1Mo E9XTX-B3l or F9XX·E XXX-B3
ERBOX-B3 l EB01 X-B3l
E9XTX·B3H
3Cr· 1Mo .. .. .. ..
ES02-1Xli or
ERS02 11 0r ES02T-1 or 2 or F9XX-EXXX-B6 or
SCr-'hMo EB01X-B6 or
ERBOX-B6 E6XTS-B6 F9XX·E XXX·B 6H
EB01X-B6l
E7Cr-1Xli or
7Cr-'hMo §§ E801X·B7 or §§ §§
EB01X-B7l
ESOS-1Xli or ESOST-1 or 2 or
ERSOS" or
9Cr-1 Mo EB01X·BB or EX1S-BB or F9XX-EXXX-BB
ERBOX-BB
EB01X·BBl E6XTS-BBl
9Cr-1Mo
and ER90X-B9 E901X-B9 F9XX-EXXX-B9
V+N b+N
• by weldmg process
t per ANSI/AWS AS.28, Specification for Low -Alloy Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc Welding (unless ind icated)
I per AN SI/AW S AS.5, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes (unless ind icated)
§ per ANSI/AWS A5.29 , Speci fication for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding (use w ith CO 2 or Ar-CO l mixture)
I per ANSI/AWS A5. 23, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding
- no match . consider high er alloy than base metal
•• no match , use between 2 V~Cr- 1 Mo and 5Cr·'h Mo
tt per AN SI/AWS AS.9. Specification for Bare S tainless Stee l Welding Electrodes and Rods
U per ANSIIAWS A5.4 , Speci fICation for Covered Corrosion- Resistan t Chromium and Chromium-Nickel S teel Welding Electrodes
§§ no match. use between 5Cr-1Mo and 9Cr-'hMo

Nickel Steels. To weld nickel stee ls
where the tensile strength of the weld
must be equal to that of the base metal,
low-alloy nick el filler metals in the
E80XX series are genera lly used . Ex-
amp les are E80 16-C I, E80 18-C2, and
E80 18-C3. On thick metal , preheat to
a dull red is genera lly advi sable.
Austenitic Manganese Steels. Au ste-
ni ti c ma ngan ese stee ls require care
when welding as they experience loss
of ductility when reheated. A low weld-
ing curre nt and ra pid we ldi ng speed
must be used, wit hout extensive pre-
heat. Care must be taken to prevent an
exeessive amount of base metal from
mixing into the weld . A slight preh eat
is advisable to reduce underbead crack-
ing . Postheat ing is recommended for
stress relief. Use the followi ng guide-
lines to ensure quality welds when weld-
ing austenitic manganese stee l:
V the joi nt and clean the surfaces
carefu lly and thoroughly.
• Use the lowest possible current to
preve nt the for mati on of a brittl e Use the lowes t pos -
sible (' 111'''('111 when
zo ne next to the weld. welding austen itic
• Use a s ta in less stee l 18 - 8 ty pe manganese steel.
e lec tro de .
Other types o f till er meta ls used for
we ldin g au stenit ic man ganese stee l
arc mo ly bde n um- copper-ma nga ne se
and ni ckel -man g an e se . Ho weve r,
more skill is needed to produce good
welds with these ti ller metals. Do not
we ld in a locali zed area fo r a n ex -
tended time unless the tem perature of
the metal is below 750°F (399°C). Use
temperature-indicating crayons to de-
termi ne temperature by marking the
ba se me tal 3jg" to \1,," fro m the we ld.
T he welder should be able to place a
hand within 6" to 8" of the weld at any
time . If necessar y, place we t rags on
Weldability of Carbon & Alloy Steels ~ 565
 areas adjacent to the weld to control weld cools , and cracks may develop
heat. The high thermal expansion of during contraction. To reduce crack-
austenitic manganese steel may cause ing, peen each weld pass when it is
re sidual stresses to develop as the completed.

I . Carbon steels include low-carbon steels, medium-carbon steels, and high-carbon steels . The
weldability of carbon steels decreases as the carbon content increases.
2 . The principal benefits of alloy steels over carbon steels are higher strength and greater ca-
pacity for strengthening in thick sections (hardenability).
3 . The deoxidation practice determines the amount of deoxidation performed and the basic
steel type produced.
4. Steels that are susceptible to cracking must be preheated to reduce the rate of cooling and
decrease the possibility of martensite formation.
5. Hydrogen cracking is often located below the surface and may not be detected by common
nondestructive examination techniques.
6. Low-hydrogen filler metals should be used when welding medium-carbon steels.
7. Low-hydrogen filler metals with iron powder coatings usually minimize cracking in welding
high -carbon steel.
8. Free-machining steels are not usually welded unless special precautions are taken.
9. Temperature must be maintained between the minimum and maximum interpass tempera-
tures for each succeding welding pass.
10. The recommended preheat temperature for low-alloy steels is about 50°F (28 °C) above the
temperature at which martensite begins to form on cooling.
I I . Before welding any alloy steel, check with the manufacturer for the proper filler metal.
12. Use the lowest possible current when welding austenitic manganese steel.

I. When is steel classified as medium-carbon steel?

2. What is the difference between killed and semikilled steel?
3. Why is some form of preheat recommended when arc welding alloy steels?
4. What are some of the basic characteristics of austenitic manganese steel ?
5. What is the function of postheating? At what temperature should postheating be done?
6. What type of filler metal is required for welding medium-carbon steel?
7. Why arc high-carbon steels more difficult to weld?
8. What is the purpose of a clip test and how is it conducted?
9. Why must the lowest possible current be used when welding austenitic manganese steel?

566 ~ Welding Skills

Tool steels and cast irons are metals that require special consideration when welding. Tool steels are the
most highly alloyed steels and in genera l are the hardest and strongest steels available. In most cases, the
welding of /001 steels encompasses the repair of tools or dies that have been hardened and machined /0
fina l shape and have failed by wear, chipping, or cracking.
Cast irons are alloys of iron with significant amounts of carbon and silicon, and occasionally other
elements. The primary consideration f or joining cast irons is to accommodate their poor weldability. the
principal cause of which is their high carbon content.

WELDABILITY OF TOOL STEELS grain size to improve toughness. Water

Tool steels arc the most highly alloyed
stee ls and in general are th e hard est
and strongest steels available. Tool stee l
gro ups are named for their respo nse
to heat treatment o r their major en d
usc . The che m ical composition and
metallurgical structure of tool steels are
desi gned for spec ific end use s. Tool
steel groups co nsist of water harden-
ing. cold work, shock resi sting , ho t
work. hig h-speed . mold , and spec ia l
purpose . See Figure 40-1. Tool steels
arc very difficu lt to we ld and are not
usuall y welded unless for repair or re-
buildi ng. See Figure 40-2 .
o TOO/Meets should be welded in the annealed
cond ition (as 'hey lire received fro m the
manufacturer ) as this minimizes the ten -
Jelley to crack 011 welding.
Water hardening tool steels. Group W.
arc high-carbon steels that contain be-
tween .6% and 1.4% carbon . plus small
amounts of chromium and vanadium to
increase hardenability and mainta in fine
Tool steels lire the
hardening tool steels are the least costly
most highly alloyed
and have many app lications. steels ami in R (' fJ-
Co ld wo rk to ol stee ls (Groups 0 , crat a re fJI(' hurd-
A. and 0) ge ne ra lly co ntai n between eM and st ron g est
steels a vai lab le,
I % and 2 % carbo n, a nd ca n ran ge
from .5 % to 2.35 % for so me alloys .
Co ld work too l steel s have alloy com-
po sitions de si gn ed to provid e
moderate-to-hi gh harde na bility and
good dimensional stability during heat
treatment. They have hig h wear resis-
tance, and poor-to-fai r toughness . Co ld
work too l stee ls begin to soften at tem-
peratures above 400 °F (204°C) and arc
ge nera lly limited to wor king tempera-
tures below 900°F (482°C) . T he ma-
jority of tool applications can be served
by one or more co ld work too l steels.
Shock res isting tool steels. Group
S, have a rel atively low carbon con -
tent-between .4 % carbo n and .65 %
carbon-and contain man ganese , sili-
co n. tungsten . a nd molybdenum .
Shock resisting tool steels are used in
applications involving impact load ing
be cause of their high s tre ng th and
tou ghness under repea ted shock and
lo w-to-med ium wear resistance .

567
 • -, I

« " '
,
Group L, Group D,
toughness and strength wear resistanc e

<
,,
Group P, Group S, Group W, Group 0,
low hardness, shock resistance water hardening oil hardening
fo r molds

Group T , Group M, Group H, Group A,

high temperatu re high temperature high temperatu re air hardening
hardness hardness strength

Figure 40- 1. Tool steel g roup.I' cons ist of water hardening, cold work , shock resistin g, hot work, tngh -speed, mold, (ind special purpose.

TOOL STEELS
ToolSteel properties and Cnaracterisfios common Use
GrollP" ~n <

Tough core and hard and wear

Group W Cutlery, forging dies, and hammers
resistant surface
Wear resistant to moderate
Group 0 Dies and punches
temper atures
Minimum distortion and cracking
Group A Dies, punches, and forming rolls
on quenching
High hardnes s and excellent
Group D Long run dies and brick molds
wear resistan ce
Excellent toughne ss and high Chisels, rivet sets, and structural
Group S
strength applications
Good resistance to softening at elevated High stressed components and high-
Grou p H
temperatures and good toughn ess temperature extrusion dies
Cutting too ls and high-temp erature
Group T High hardenab ility and high hardn ess
structural components

Group M High hardenability and high hard ness Cutting tools

Group L High toughne ss and good strength Arbors, cams, and chucks

Low hardness and low resistance to

Group P work hardening Dies and molds

Tough core, hard surface , and

Gro up F Burnishing tools and tube-drawing
galling resistance
Figu re 40-2. Diversification of properties an d characteristics infl uence the number 111/(1 type of uses of tool
stee ls.

568 ~ Welding Skills

/
 Hot work tool steels, Gro up H, have
a medi um ca rbon COnlent-,35 % car-
bon to .45% carbon-with chromi um ,
tungsten, molybdenum. and vana dium
added for total alloying between 6%
and 25 %, The alloy ing eleme nts co n-
tribut e 10 good hard en ability, tou gh -
ness. and resistan ce to softening (re d
hardness) on co nti nuo us ex pos ure up
to IOOO°F (538°C). Red hardness is the
capacity to resist softe ning in the red
heat temperature range. Hot work tool
steels are used for hot die work.
High -speed tool stee ls, Gro ups T
and M, have high carbo n co ntent and
relative ly lar ge amounts of ex pe nsive
alloying elements, particularly tungsten
(Group T ) and molybdenum (Gro up
M). They are resistant to softening up
to 1000°F (540°C) but have relatively
low tou ghn ess. High -speed too l stee ls
are used for high-speed cutting opera-
tions because the alloy carbides in their
met allurgi cal struc t ure allow th e se
stee ls to maintain their cutting edge at
high temperatures.
Mold steels and special purpose tool
stee ls, Groups L and P, and Gro up F,
are minor tool steel groups whose prop-
erties are tail ored to specific applica-
tio ns . Mold s tee ls ha ve a lo w 10
me di um carbon co ntenl and co ntain
chromium an d nickel as the principal
alloying elements for a total alloy con-
tent of 1.5% to 5%. Mold steels exhibit
low hardnes s a nd lo w re sist ance to
work hard enin g in the annealed (soft-
ened) co nditio n, whi ch facilitates the
formation of mold impressions for cold
hobbing operation s. Sp ecial purpose
too l stee ls co nta in sma ll amounts of
chro mium, van adium, and nickel and
are used in appli cations requiring good
strength. toughness, scratch resistance,
and ga lli ng resistance .
General Welding Considerations
for Tool Steels
In most cases, the weldin g of tool steels
encompasses the repai r of tools or dies
that have been hardened and machined
to final shape and have failed by wea r,
chipping, o r c rac king . Tool s o r di es
may also be welded to alter the tool or
die to accommodate desi gn change s.
Due to their high ca rbon and alloy con-
tent, they are ex treme ly prone to hy-
dro gen cracking in the HAZ if rapidly
cooled. If high heat input and slow cool-
ing are used to counteract cracking, the
weld may be too soft. Welding proce-
dur es must be ca refully controlled .
Preheat and Postheating Require-
ments. Tool steels arc always preheated
for weldin g. The requ ired prehe at tem -
perature depend s on the spec ific alloy.
heat-treated co nd it io n, a nd sec t io n
thickness. When preheating a hardened
tool steel, the pre heat temper atu re
should not exce ed the tempering tem -
perature of the tool steel. or it will soften.
The preh eat temperature s ho u ld be
maintained between weld passes. After
we lding, th e workpiece sho uld be
cooled to about 150°F (65°C) and im-
mediately po st heat ed at the recom-
mended temp erature. See Figur e 40-3.
Welding Processe s, The weldin g pro-
cess for tool stee ls mu st be ca refu lly
se lecte d to produ ce a qu ality we ld ,
Weldin g processes that ca n be used for
tool steels include SMAW, FCAW, and
GMAW. SMAW is the most versatile OFW should not be
used for 10 0 1 .\'/ 1'1.>1.'1
for rep air welding small are as. La rge
because it is tooslow
areas ma y be more ec o no mica lly and introduces ex-
weld ed with FCAW o r GMAW. OFW cessive heat into the
base metal. leading ( 0
sho uld not be used for tool stee ls be-
distortion. so/t elling
cause it is too slow and introduces ex-
of hardened mctul;
cessive heat into the base metal, leading embrittlcment of (1"-
to distortion , softe ning of hardened nealed mesal, or
cracking.
metal, embrittlement of annealed metal,
or cracking .
Filler Metals. Filler metals used for tool
steels must be carefully selected to en-
sure a qua lity we ld, Filler meta ls for
weldi ng tool stee ls fa ll into three cat-
ego ries: match ing, low-a lloy steel, and
soft. Filler metals that produce deposits
matching the basic tool steel type should
be used because the y produ ce a sur-
face that matches the wear resistan ce
Weldahility (if Tool Steels & Cast Irons €l' 569
 of the tool steel. However, filler metals
are not available to match all tool steel
composi tions. Although an exact match
may not always be available, using
manufacturer trade name products and
their recommended procedures usually
produces a qual ity weld .
When matching filler metal is not
available, tiller metals that produce de-
posit compositions similar to low-alloy
steel may be used as they exhibit mod-
erate hardne ss. Toughness may be im-
proved by peening. Soft filler metals such
as stainless steels, nickel, nickel-copper
alloys, and copper-nickel alloys may be
used to build up worn parts, followed
by a hard wear-resi stant deposit that
matches the base tool steel composition.
Using a soft buildup material minimizes
cracking .

Figure 40-3. The req uired p re-

heat temperature f o r tool ste el s PREHEAT AND POSTHEATING TEMPERATURES
dep ends on the sp ecific allo y, FOR TOOL STEELS
heat-treated cond ition, and metal ,
thi ckne ss. . 't'. n SEI lise Me tal
II en
Type: ;aroi!P t!!ehe:at iDpP'lllii . "-aml Preheat Tempering ()e~OS~
"... •.lItId:. ; ': e' J:UH
l?os.t HR<?::: P ~ Ill1tl~ Ienmllf;\tMro
Water- 250-450 250-450 350--650
Wl,W2 50-64 56-62
hardening (121-232) (121-232) (177-343)
Shock- 300-500 40--58 300--500 400--1200
52-56
Sl
resisting (149-260) (149-260) (20<H349)
S hock- 300-500 300-500 350--600 52-56
S5 50--60
resistin g (149-260) (149-260) (177-426)
S hock- 300-500 300-500 400--1100§
S7 47-58 52-56
resisting (149-260) (149-260) (204--£21 )

01 Oil-hardening
300-400 57-62 300-400 350--500 56--<>1
(149-204) (149-204) (177- 260)

Oil-hardening 300-400 58-63 300--400 350-600 56--£1

06
(149-204 ) (149-204) (177-316)
300-400 300-400 350--1000§
A2 Air-hardening 57-62 56-61
(149--204) (149--204) (177-538)
300-400 300-400 350--600§
A4 Air-hardening 5<H32 60--62
(149--204) (149-204) (177-426)
700--900 700--900 400--1000§
D2 Air-harden ing 5<H31 58-60
(371-482) (371-482) (204-538)
H12, H13 , 700--1000 700-1000 1000--1200§
Hot work 38-56 48-54
H19 (37 1-538) (37 1-538) (536--<>49)
950--1050 950--1050 1000--11OO§
Ml High-speed 60--65 60--63
(510-566) (510-566) (538-593)
950--1050 950--1050 1000- 1100§
M2 High-speed 60--65 60--63
(510-566) (510--566) (538-593)
950--1050 950--1050 1000- 1100§
Ml0 High-s peed 60--65 60--63
(510-566) (510--566) (538-593)
Tl , T2 , 950 - 1050 950 -1050 1000--1100§
High-speed 60--66 61-64
T4 (510--566) (510--566) (538-593)
800--1000 800- 1000 900--1100 28-37
P20 Mold steel 28-42
(428-538) (428-538) (480--595)
• F (C)
t hardne ss varies with heat input and cooling rate
t after pos theating and temper ing, varies with heat input and coo ling rate
§ doubl e temp er

570 ~ Welding Skills

Repair Welding. Repair welding re-
quires adequate preparation . Prepara-
tion for repair s requires first grinding
the damaged area to a uniform depth to
allow for buildup of a deposit with the
required hardness and wear resistance.
A groove depth of Y8" is common. Small
weld passes are used to fill the groove.
The bead size of the final pass should
be adjusted so that the repair is as close
as possible to final size to minimize the
final gri nding op eration . Welding is
done in nat position with minimum heat
input. Intermittent weldin g is used on
symmetrical repair s to ensure uniform
heat distribution. The weld should be
c lea ned freque ntly by chipp ing and
bru shin g . Warpage and distortion are
.
-' . '
Damaged Cutting Edge
PARTIAL EDGE REPAIR
Damaged Culling Edge
FULL EDGE REPAIR
counterac ted by preheat and peenin g.
When repairing the cutting edge of a tool
or die, the edge to be welded should be
grooved approximately 45 ° for suffi-
cient depth . See Figure 40-4 .
WELDABILITY OF CAST IRONS
Cast irons are alloys of iron that contain
significant amount s of carbon and sili-
con , and occ asion ally othe r elements.
Cast irons can be easily poured into com-
plex shapes; however, they are difficult
to weld. When casting defects occur, or
components break in service, repairs can
be made (except on white iron) by weld-
ing or braze welding.
Figure 40-4. The buildup area is
grooved when repair welding tool
steels to allow sufficient metal to
he deposited.
PREPARED
SURFACE
Prepared Edge
PREPAR ED
SURFACE
Prepared Edge
Wefdllhility of Tool Steels & Cast Irons ~ 571
 Cast irons are used for wear and cor-
Cast irons are used
rosion resistance and for general appli-
for wear and corro-
simi resistance and cations where good castability is needed.
[ar general applica- C ast irons ar e grouped according to
tion s where go od their metallurgical structure into gray
castabilityis needed.
irons, white irons, malleabl e irons, duc-
tile irons, compacted graphite irons, and
alloy irons. See Figure 40 -5.
A gray iron microstructure consists
of pearlite (iron carbide and ferrite) ,
ferrite, or martensite. All three types
of gray iron microstructure s contain
an even distribution of graphite flakes .
The graphite flakes make gray irons
extremely brittle but also provide for
the highest damping capacity of any
engineering material, high temperature
scaling resistance, and thermal shock
resi stance.
Gray iron is the most widely used
ca st iron. Gray iron can be identified
by its dark gray, porous structure on the
fracture face. When using the spark test
to identify gray iron, short, brick-red
streamers are given off that follow a
straight line and have numerous fine,
repeating yellow spa rklers. Gray iron
is relatively easy to arc weld.
Gray irons are used for ba ses and
supports for moving components to
dampen vibrations; in pre ssure appli-
c atio ns such as cylinder block s; fo r
wear-resistant and scuff-resi stant ma-
terials in cylinder sleeves; and for gen-
eral municipal application s such as
manhole covers and hydrants.
White irons are formed when carbon
does not precipitate as graphite during
solidification but combines with iron or
alloying clements such as molybdenum,
chromium, or vanadium to form iron
carbide or allo y carbide. This combin-
ing occurs because of fast cooling of the
molten metal in the mold. Thu s, white
iron can he formed if the mold contains
coolers that accelerate the cooling rate .
The carbides make white iron extremely
hard, wear-resistant, and brittle.

. -' .
" ~A 6 ras ion · R es i stant
Ni-Hard
L
Iron
~~_ _-J Parabaloy

Ni, Cr, Mo
to increase
hardness

White
Iron

Silicon Co l1lpacted
Duriron
Iron Fast coo l to
Graphite
prec ipitate Iron
hard
carb ides

Gray Malleable Iron

Class 40
Iron or
Ductile Iron

Heat Resistant Austenitic

Ni-Resist
Iron Iron

Ftgu re 40-5. Cast irons are grou ped according 10 their metallurgical structure into Rrtly irons , white irons, malleable irons, ductile irons,
compacted graphite iron s, wul alloy iron s,

572 €l' We/din K Skills

 White irons have a fine, silvery white,
silky, cry stallin e fra cture face . Wh en
spark tested, white iron shows short, red
streame rs . There are few er sparklers
than in gray ca st iron and the se are
small and repeating. Welding is not rec-
ommended for white irons. White iron
is used for wear plates.
Mall eable iron s are a du ctil e for m
of iron produced by heat treating white
iro n. Malleable iron can be welded .
However, the metal must not be heated
above its critical tempe rature (approxi-
mately 1382°F [750°C]). If it is heated
abov e th e critic al temperature, th e
metal revert s to the original character-
istics of white iron.
Heat treatmen t tran sforms graphite
flake s into nodule s, leading to in -
creased du ctility. Improved ductility
creates man y uses for mall eabl e iron .
Thes e includ e axl e and differ ential
hou sin gs, cams hafts , and crankshafts
in automobiles; and gears, chain links,
sproc ke ts, and el e vator bracket s in
convey ing equipme nt.
Malleable irons exhibit a white crys-
talline fracture face with a dark cente r.
A spark test shows a moderate num -
ber of short, straw-ye llow streame rs
with numerous sparklers that are small
and repeatin g.
Ductil e iron s co nta in amo unts of
carbon and silicon similar to gray irons,
but differ in the shape of the graphite
con stituent , In ductil e iron, the graph -
ite is sphe ro idal (nod ular) in shape,
rather than in the form of flakes. Duc-
tile iron is also called spheroidal graph-
ite (SG) iron or nodular iron.
Sph eroidi zation of the graphite is
achi eved by adding small amounts of
magnesium or cerium to molten iron
before it cool s and solidifies. Tbe cos t
o f th e e le me nts added to th e iro n
make s du ctil e iro n more ex pe ns ive,
but pro longe d heat treatment is not
required, so that its cost is comparable
to mall eabl e iron . Grade for gr ade,
ductile iron has strength equi valent to
gray iron , but ductil e iron has signif i-
cantly greate r e longa tion.
Ductile irons can be arc welded, pro-
vided adequate preheat and postbeating
are used; otherwi se, some of the origi-
nal properties are lost. Ductile iron is used
for many structural applications, particu-
larly those requiring strength and tough-
ness, and combines good machinability
at low cost. Ductile iron is used for items
such as crankshafts, front wheel spindle
supports, steering knuckles, and pumps.
Piping such as culvert, sewer, and pres-
sure pipe is another application for duc-
tile irons.
Compacted graphite iron exhibits a
graphite shape between that of the flakes
in gray iron and the spheroids in ductile
iron. Compacted graphite irons are pro-
duced by adding spec ific elements to
the molten metal in a way similar to
ductile irons. The resulting grapbite is in
the form of interconnected flakes with
blunted edge s and a rel ati ve ly sho rt
span . Tbe intermediate shape of the
graphite results in a combination of prop-
erties between gray and du ctil e iron .
Compacted graphite irons are used for
specific applications , such as disc brake
rotors and diesel engine heads.
Alloy irons are cast irons that contain
one or more added alloying elements,
such as chromium, nickel, copper, mo-
lybdenum , vanadium, and silicon, to a
total of up to 30% of the final composi-
tion. The three subgroups of alloy irons
are abrasion -resistant irons, corrosion -
resistant irons, and heat-resistant irons.
SPM IIIMru m e" l , In c .
Ductile irons (Ire commonty used for pumps ill indus trial applications.
Wefdabili ty Or Toof Steels & Cast f rons €1 573
 Abra sion-resistant iron s are alloys
of white iron and include the Ni-Hard"
(nickel-co ntaining) irons and the chro -
mium irons. Abrasion-resistant irons
are used for abras ive materi als han -
dlin g, as in slur ry pumps, gri nd ing
equipment , a nd mud pump liners in
well drillin g.
Co rros io n-resistan t iro ns may be
nickel -containin g type s such as th e
Ni-Re sist" series or silicon-containing
types suc h as th e Duriron" se ries .
Nickel -containing types arc used in
many corros ion-resistant applica tions,
such as pump impellers and casings for
seawater, acids, and sour gas. Silicon-
containin g types arc brittle but possess
exceptional corrosion resistance and
are used for pumps, agitators, mixing
nozzles, and val ves.
Heat-resistant irons are gray or duc-
tile irons conta ining alloying elements
to improve hig h-temp era ture strength
and oxidation resistance. They are used
fo r turbine diaphragms , valves , and
nozzle rings; manifolds and valve guides
for heavy-duty engines; burner nozzles;
glass molds; and valve scats for engines.
Most alloy irons can be arc welded,
but precautions must be taken during
preheat and po stheatin g to pr event
compro mising de sired metallurgica l
properties.
tI
All cas ting skin lind General Welding Considerations
.~ fo reign ma iler must
.= be removed fro m the
for Cast Irons
join t surface a nd
Cast irons are difficult to weld and heat
adjacen t a reas of
input a nd joint prep arati on must be
caM i rons before
welding. carefully controlled. Weld ing or braze
welding ca n be used to repair broken
castings, correct machinin g errors , fill
defects, or weld cas t iron to steel.
The primary consideration for join-
ing cast irons is to accommodate their
poor weld ability, the principal cause
of which is their high carbon con tent.
A high carbon content can lead to the
form ation of very hard martensite in
the HAZ, which, coupled with low duc-
tility and the presence of residual stress,
increases the susceptibility of cast iron
to cracking .
574 ~ Welding Skills
The feasibility of repairing cast irons
that have been in se rvice depend s on
the service conditions. For example, it
is generally not recommended to repair
weld gray iron castings that are subject
to repeated heating and cooling in nor-
mal service, especially if the tempera-
ture ran ge exceeds 400 °F (204°C).
Unless cast iron is used as filler metal,
the different coefticient of expansion be-
tween the weld metal and filler metal
causes stresses that lead to cracking.
Mech ani cal j oinin g techniques or
braze welding arc ofte n effective al-
ternatives to welding on cast irons. Me-
chanical joining methods may be used
for joining cast iron if pressure reten -
tion is not a concern. The principal me-
chan ical joining method for cast irons
is cold mechanical repair. Parameters
that must be consid ered before weld-
ing cast irons include joint preparation,
heat requirement s, welding processes,
filler metals, repa iring cracked ca st-
ings , and studding brok en castings .
Joint Preparation. Cast iron must be
comp letely cleaned of contaminants
aroun d the weld area hefore welding.
Joint preparat ion must ensure that the
filler metal can thoroughly bond to the
base metal. All casting skin and foreign
matter must be removed from the joint
surface and adjacent areas. Where pos-
sible, the castin g is heated uniformly
using an ox yace ty lene torch at 700°F
(371°C) for 30 min, or less than 30 min
at IOOO°F (538°C). Graphite on the sur-
face of gray iron ca n be oxi dize d by
searing the surface with an oxidizing
flame or by heating the casting with a
strongly decarburi zing flame, followed
by wire brushing to remove debris.
To prepare cas t iron for we ld ing,
grind a narrow strip along each edge of
the joint to remove the surface film or
casti ng skin. V the edges of the weld
area. On metal less than 3/16" thick, no
V is nece ssary. On me tal 3116" to 3/8 "
thick, a single-V joint is required with a
groove ang le of appro ximate ly 60 °.
Metal % " thick or more requires a
double -V joint with a V,6" to %2" root
face. The groove angle should be 60°.
See Figure 40-6.
- • .• I •
NO V REQUIRED
LESS THAN 3/16 " THICK
SINGLE·V
BUTT JOINT
3/16 " TO %" THICK
OVER %" THICK
Figure 40-6 . Careful joint preparation is required
when welding cast iron .
Heat Requirements. Preheat and
po stheating help minimize crac ki ng
and relieve residual stress. The preheat
tempe rat ure depen ds on the type of
cast iron, its mass, the welding process,
and the welding filler metal. The pre-
heat temperature should be monitored
with a contact pyrometer, temperature-
indicatin g crayon, or thermocouple to
en sure accuracy. With large or com -
plex castings, the preheat rate must be
slow and unifor m to prevent cracking
from unequal expansion. The casting
should be maintained at a constant tem-
perature until the weld is compl eted .
If possible, preheat the entire welded
sect ion with an oxyacetyle ne torch .
When a high preh eat tempera ture
such as 1200°F (649°C) is used, post-
heating ma y not be necessary if the
casting is allowed to cool slowly from
the welding temperature. Slo w cool-
ing may be achi eved by covering the
casting with an insulatin g blanket, ver-
miculite, or sand. If slow cooling is not
possible, posth eating is required.
When it is impos sibl e to preheat
the workpiece, the weld temperature
can be controlled by depositing short
weld beads 2" to 3" long. After a bead
is depo sited , allow it to cool until it
A CAUTION
Never pos theat cast iro n
can be tou ched with the ha nd. Co n- a bove a dull red co lor or
secutive beads should not be started a bove a tem pe ra ture of
12000F (649 °C) .
until the previous bead has cooled suf-
ficiently. As the weld bead cools, peen
it by striking it lightly with a hammer.
Peening helps to tighten the weld and
reli eve stress on the cast iron. Peen -
ing can be done only on the machin-
able weld deposi t and heat affected
zon e, not on the ent ire ca sting . Se e
Figure 40 -7.
Figure 40·7. Peen ing helps to re-
lieve stresses when. welding cast iron.
Postheating is mandatory to stress-
relieve fully restrained welds or welds
intended for seve re service. Posth eat-
ing is performed immediatel y aft er
welding by increasing the temperature
to 1000°F (538°C) to I 150°F (621°C),
followed by holding the casting at tem-
perature for ab out I hr per inch of
thi ckn ess. The coo ling rat e mu st be
kept to 50°F (10°C) per hour until the
casting re ac hes 700°F (3 7 1°C ).
Postheatin g slows the cooling rate, re-
duces ha rdne ss in the weld, and im-
proves the machinabil ity of the HAZ.
Weldahi lity of Tool Stee ls & Cast frons § 575
 Welding Processes. Welding proce sses
that can be used for cast irons include
SMAW, G M AW, FCAW, and OFW ,
Brazing is used for some applications;
sold ering is not commonly used .
SMAW is the most vers atile process
and can usc all types of filler metals.
GMAW with short circuiting transfer
is suitable for joining ductile iron. Be-
cause of the relatively low heat input
with GMAW, the hard portion of the
HAZ is confined to a thin film next to
the weld metal, so that the strength and
ductility of the weld joint are about the
sam e as the base metal.
OFW requires extensive heat input
during preheat and welding. The high
heat input is a limitation of OFW when
welding finished or semi-finished cast-
ings because it may distort the metal.
However, the slower cooling rate less-
ens the tendency toward brittl eness. A
high preheat temperature of II OO ' F
(593'C) to 1200' F (649°C) is required
for OFW to compensate for the low
welding heat obtained during OFW.
Buttering is used to provide good
weld joint ductility and eliminates the
need for postheating for the entire com-
pleted joint. Buttering places the HAZ
of the welded joint in the buttered layer
rather than in the cast iron. A layer of
weld metal about .03" thick is depos-
ited (buttered ) on the joint faces andthe
part is immediately postheated.
Filler metals usedfor
welding cast irons
can be composed of Filler Metals. Filler metals used for
nickel alloy; carbon weldin g cast iron s can be nickel al -
steel. or cast iron.
loy, carbon steel, or cast iron. Copper
alloy filler metals are used for bra ze
welding cast iron. Nickel alloy filler
metal s may also be used fo r butter-
ing . Filler metal s that match the base
metal may be used, although a fill er
metal that minimizes cra cking should
alway s be used. The composition of
the filler metal used to weld cast iron
varies dep ending on the requirements
of the weld . See Figure 40-8. Factors
that influence filler metal selection for
cast iron include the following :
576 @o Weld inll Skills
• type of cast iron, mechanical prop-
erties desired in the joint
• .the need for the filler metal to de-
form pla sti call y and relieve weld -
ing stress es
• machinability of the joint
• color matching between the ba se
metal and the filler metal
• allowabl e dilution
• cost
Ni ckel alloy fill er metal s are spe-
cially designed for welding cast irons.
Th ey dilute with the ba se metal and
expand on cooling to minimi ze solidi -
fica tion shrinkage and reduce residual
stre ss. Nickel alloy fill er metals are
machinable . The use of nickel alloy
fill er metals reduces preheat to mini -
mal values, except in highly restrained
sections. Peening of the hot weld bead
helps to reduce re sidual stresses and
maintain dim en sion s, Two common
nickel alloy filler metals are :
• ENi-Ci (nick el) filler metal. DCEP
or AC, general-purpo se welding ,
used for thin and medium cast iron
sec tions, ca stings with low pho s-
phorus content, and where little or
no preheat is used .
• ENi-FeC I (nickel-iron ) filler metal.
DCEP or AC, for welding heavy cast
iron sections, high-phosphorus cast-
ings, high-ni ckel alloy castings
where high -strength welds are re-
quired, and for welding nodular iron.
Carbon steel filler metal s are non-
machinable and are used primarily to
repair small, cosmetic castin g defe ct s
with SMAW, where a fair color match
is acceptable and machining is not of
major concern. Carbon steel filler met-
als are prone to embrittlement tram car-
bon pickup by dilution with the base
metal and sho uld not be used where
the joint is loaded in tension or bend -
ing. The welding procedure is design ed
to minimi ze heat input to keep dilu-
tion to an acceptable level.
Carbon steel filler metal s consist of
a low -carbon stee l core and a heavy
coating that melts at low temperatures,
allowing a low weldin g current. Car-
bon steel filler metals leave a very hard
deposit and ar e used on ly when the
welded sectio n is not to be machined
afterward . Nonmachinab le carbon
steel filler me tals produce a tight and
nonporous weld, making them ideal
for repairing motor blocks, tra nsmis-
sion cases, compressor blocks, pulley
wh ee ls, pump parts, mower wheels ,
and other similar structures.
Cast iron filler metals are also
nonmachinable and have limi ted ap -
plication for repair welding of gray iron
and ductile iron castings. Cast iron filler
meta ls are most often used for SMAW
or OFW. For SMAW, east iron filler
meta ls have the composition of gray
iron and are used to repair gray iron
casti ngs . For OFW, filler metal com -
positions matching gray iron or dnc-
tile iron are used, with other elements
added to improve specific properties . Extensive heat input
A flux is also req uired with OFW to is required before .
du ring, and after
increase fluidity and remove slag that
welding cast iran to
form s in the weld pool. Extensive heat prevent cracking.
inpnt is req uired before, during , and
after welding to prevent cracking.

~
Figure 40 ·8. Filler m eta ls for
welding or brare welding cast iron
• • • • are selected based Oil the require-
ments of the weld and the lj)elding
Cla&&lJiootlonwelfl.ing (or Braz~
process,
Descrlptlon Filler .Metal Form
- . . ... . . Weldmg) Process
mCltEl ALLOY J'llL'iRb!STAJ.~L_ ~ _ ' ~ _____ ~_'~h , h

93 Ni Bare ERNi- CI GMAW

95 Ni Covered ENi-CI, ENi- CI-A SMAW
53 Ni-45 Fe Covered ENi Fe-CI, ENiFe-CI-A SMAW
53 Ni-45 Fe-4.5 Mn Flux Cored ENiFeT 3-CI FCAW
55 Ni- 40 Cu-4 Fe Covered ENiCu-A SMAW
65 Ni-30 Cu-4 Fe Cove red ENiC u-B SMAW
44 Ni-44 Fe-12 Mn Ba re ERNi FeMn-CI GMAW
Flux Cored
53 Ni·45 Fe-4 .5 Mn ENiFeT3-CI SAW
w/ Flux st
44 Ni-44 Fe-12 Mn Bare w/Flux 61 ERNiFeMn-CI SAW
44 Ni-44 Fe-12 Mn Bare ER NiFeMn -CI GTAW
44 Ni-44 Fe-12 Mn Covered ENi FeMn-C I SMAW
Cll:RBglJ~EEL:Fll,.Y1R METALS ,
Carbon Steel Covered ESt SMAW
Carbon Steel Cove red E7018 SMAW
Carbon Stee l Bare E70S-2 GMAW
• CAST IRON FILLER META!;!; ;_, . . • . . -
Gray Iron We lding Rod RCI OAW
Alloy Gray Iron We lding Rod RCI-A OAW
Ducti le Iron Welding Rod RCI-B OAW
. '
- COPPERA1.LOV:F1LL.ER'METALS
Low-fum ing Brass Weld ing Rod RCuZn-B OAW
Low-fum ing Brass Welding Rod RC uZn·C OAW
Nickel-Brass Welding Rod RBCuZn-D OAW
Copper-Tin Covered ECuSn -A SMAW
Copper-Tin Bare ERCuSn-A GMAW
Copp er-Aluml num Covered ECu AI-A2 SMAW
Copp er-Aluminum Bare ERCuAI-A2 GMAW
OAW, oxyacetylene welding, SMAW. shielded meta l arc welding, GMAW. gas meta l arc weldln q: SAW, submerged arc weldmg,
GTAW, gas tungsten arc welding
t Incollu x 5 and Inca/lux 6 are proprieta ry fluxes from Spec ial Meta ls. Inc.

Weldahility of Tool Steels & Cast Irons § 577

 The co rrec t current setti ng for cast
iron we lding shou ld alway s be used.
The correct current is co mmonly sug-
gested by the filler metal manufacturer.
Gene rally, the current setting for weld-
ing cast iron is lower than for weldin g
ca rbo n stee l. Th e heat applied to cast
iron during welding must be kept to a
minimum. To ensure that only the mini-
mum heat nec essary is used , always
use small-diameter tiller metal s. Weld-
ers seldom use filler metals greater than
VB" in diameter.
For SMAW. weldin g current should
be as low as possible hut within the
man ufactu rer 's recommended range
fo r cons istent, smoo th o peratio n. de-
sired bead co ntour, and goo d fusio n.
When welding in vertical position, cur-
rent should be reduced by about 25%.
Whcn wc lding in overhead position,
current sho uld be redu ccd by abo ut
15%. For FCAW and GMAW of cast
iron , as -de pos ite d nickel alloy filler
metal compositions are similar to those
used with SMAW.
Co pper alloy fi ller metal s are used
for bra ze welding cast iron , The j oint
is soft and ductile when hot and yields
during cooli ng, so that res idual stress
is redu ced .
To perform braze weldi ng , a braz-
ing filler metal is deposited into the weld
j oint. Th ere is no melti ng of the base
metal adjacent to the joint. After the sur-
face is heated, a thin layer of tiller metal
is added to the surface to help ensure a
sat isfacto ry bond . A welding tip with
high heat output at low gas pre ssure
should be used to provide a soft Ilame
that will not blow the flux away from
the joint. After braze welding, the metal
sho uld be cooled slo wly to preve nt
white cast iron from forming. The de-
posited met al is mach inable bu t does
not provide a color match. The quality
of braze welding with copper alloy filler
metals de pends upon the followin g:
• using wide grooves
• thoroughly cleaning joints of mois-
tu re, grease, oil, and dirt before
weldin g
578 @o Weldillg Skills
• using a preheat temperature between
250°F (150°C) and 400 °F (20SOC)
• . using the lowest possible current for
good bo nding
• welding at a fast speed to minimize
dil utio n
• prev en ting puddling
• cooling the part slow ly after bra ze
we lding
Three common tiller metals for braz-
ing cast iron are ECuSn-A and ECuSn-C
(copper-tin class ification), and ECuAI-
A2 (co pper- aluminum cl assifi cati on ).
The main difference between ECuSn-A
and ECuSn-C is the amount of tin they
contain, The ECuSn-C tiller metal has
a higher percent age of tin (8 %) than
ECuSn-A filler metal (5%), thereby pro-
du cin g we lds wi th greate r hardn ess,
ten sil e stre ng th, and yie ld stre ngth.
Both arc used with DCEP and normally
require that the area to be brazed be pre-
heated to 400°F (205°C) .
Th e ECuAl-A2 fill er met al ha s a
relat ivel y low melting point and high
deposition rate at lower current, which
permits fast weldin g. A faster welding
speed minimi zes distortion and the for-
ma tion of white cast iron in the we ld
zo ne . T he te nsi le strengt h and yie ld
stre ngt h of the depo sit s is nearl y
dou ble that of co pper-tin de posits,
Repairing Cracked Castings. If a
crack in a castin g is to be weld ed. V
the crac k approx imate ly 1/ 8" to 3/16"
deep with a diamond-p oint chisel or
with a grinder. On sections that are less
than 3/16" thick , V only on e-hal f the
thickness of the cast iron. Fine. hair -
line cracks in a ca stin g ca n be made
more vis ible by rubbin g a pi ece of
white chalk over the surface, The chalk
leaves a visible line where the crack is
locat ed . C racks have a tenden cy to
extend during welding because of heat
expansion. To prevent crack expansion,
drill a Ys" hole a short distance beyond
each end of the crack.
Start the weld about lis"~ before the
end of the crack and weld back to the
hole, filling the hole; then move slightly
t beyond the hol e . Next, mo ve to the
other end of the crack and repeat. Co n-
tinue to alterna te the weld on each end,
; limiting the length of eac h weld to I"
to I Y2" on thin cas t iron and 2" to 3"
on thick cast iron . Allow each sec tion
of weld to cool before starting the next
section and peen each short bead .
length and sh o uld project approx i-
mately YI" to %" above the cast ing. See
Figu re 40 - 10. Deposit beads arou nd
the base of the stu ds, we lding the m
thorooghly to the cast ing. Remove the
slag and deposit add itiona l layers of
beads to fill the V.

~
For a crack near the edge of the part, Figure 40-9. When welding cracks
;11 ca st iron, holes li n ' d ril led to
grind open the crack to allow for ad- • - . I •
prevent cracks from ex tending
equat e filler me tal access . Weld back during welding
from the drilled hole to the start of the
crack (the edge of the part). If the crack
is longe r than I" or 2", use skip weld-
ing, otherwise use continuous welding.
See Figure 40 -9.
Studding Broken Castings. When a
casting is I Y2" thick or more and is
subjected to heavy stresses, stee l studs DRILL HOLE AT BOTH
are used to stren gthen the joint. Stu d- ENDS OF CRACK
ding is not advisable on castings less
than I V2" th ic k because it le nds to
weaken rather than strengthen the join t. WELDING
SEQUENCE
To apply studs, V the crack and drill
and tap YI" or 3;8" holes in the casting at
right angles to the sides of the V. Space
the holes so the center-to-center distance
is equal to three [0 six times the diameter
of the stud. Sc rew the studs into the DRILL HOLE AT ONE
tapped holes. The th readed end of the END OF CRACK
studs sho uld be abo ut '/8" to % " in

Ftgu re 40-10. Studding ma y he

use d to stre ngt hen the joint when
wel ding castings subjected to
heavy stresses.

3x TO 6x
DIA QF
STUD

Weldability (if Tool Steels & Cast Irons ~ 579

 I. Too l stee ls are the most highly alloyed steels and in ge neral are the hardest and strongest
steels ava ilab le.
2 . OFW should not be used for tool steels becau se it is too slow and introduces excessive heat
into the base metal , lead ing to distort ion, softening of hardened metal, emb rittlement of an-
nea led metal, or crackin g.
3 . Cas t irons are used for wear and corrosion resistance and for general applications where good
castability is needed.
4. All casting skin and foreign matter must be removed from the joi nt surface and adjacent areas
of cast irons before welding.
5 . Filler metals used for welding cast irons can be composed of nickel alloy, carbon steel, or cast
iron .
6 . Extensive heat input is required before, during, and after welding cast iron to prevent cracking.

I. What are some basic characteristics of water hardenin g tool steels?

2. What alloying elements arc added to carbon in hot work tool steels? To what total alloying amount?
3. How should the joints be prepared for welding cas t iron?
4. What can be done to make fine cracks in cas tings more visible?
5. How can cracks in cas tings be preve nted from spreadi ng?
6. What type of tiller metal is used for welding the various types of cast iron?

580 ~ Welding Skills

 Welding Technology

Stainless steels owe their corrosion resistance to the presence of chromium. Other amounts of alloy ing
elements are added for additional prop erties.
Stainless steels contain fr om 12% to 30 % chromium plus other alloying elements, such as up to 25%
nickel and up to 6.5% molybdenum. Stainless steels consist offive groups named for their metallurgical
structure: austenitic, martensitic, ferritic, duplex, and precipitation hardening. The weldability o] stain-
less steels depends on their metallurgical structure.
Welding of stainless steels is also influenced by physical properties and the need f or cleanin g and j oint
preparation. Specifi c welding cond itions for stainless steels are dictated by the specific alloy f amil y and
will influence factors such as heat input during welding, preheat, and postheatin g.

WElDABIUTY OF STAINLESS STEELS low -temperature toughness. They can -

Stainless steels contain from 12% to 30%
chromium (Cr) plus other alloying ele-
ments, such as up to 25 % nick el (Ni)
and up to 6.5 % mol ybdenum (Mo) .
These create a variety of metallurgical
structures , making stainless steels the
most versatil e family of metal s. They
are used for their heat resistanc e, cor-
rosion resistance , and low-temperature
toughness. The weldability of stainless
steels dep end s on their metallurgical
structure.
Wrought stainless stee ls con si st of
'five groups named for their metallurgi-
cal structure: austenitic, martensitic, fer-
ritic , dupl ex, and precip itation
hardening. Wrought stainless steels are
usually identi fied by a three-digit AISI
designation, such as 410 or 3 16.
Austeni tic stainless stee ls are the
largest group and have the wide st us-
age of all stainless steels. They exhibit
exc ellent corrosion resi stance , weld -
ability, high-temperature stre ngth, and
lil
not be hardened by quenching and are Stainless steels are
used for thei r heat
only strengthened and hardened by
cold working.
~ resistance, corro -
sion resista nce, and
Austenitic stainless steels have vary- 1() w -t e mp e ratu re
ing amounts of Cr and Ni. Th e basic
toughness .
austenitic stainless steel compo sition is
18% Cr and 8% Ni although amounts
can ran ge from 16% to 26% C r and
3.5% to 37% Ni. The austenitic struc-
ture is achieved by the addi tion of
nickel. Other elements that contribute
Wrou g ht sta inless
to the au stenitic structure are manga- sleds are usually iden-
nese and nitrogen. Carbon contributes tified hy a three-digit
to the austeniti c structure , but it is not A /S f designa ti on,
use d in large amount s because it re- such as 410 or 3/6.
duces corrosion resistance.
Compared with marten sitic stainless
steels, austenitic stainless steels are rela-
ti vel y weak. Solution annealing heat
treatm ent is used primarily to improve
corrosion resi stance. Stress-relief heat
treatment, conducted at low tempera-
tures, usually causes distortion and loss
of corrosion resi stance. Mol ybd enum
is added to austenitic stainless steels to

581
 improve corrosron resistance. Sta ndard
grades of austenitic stainless steels are the
200 and 300 series. The basic austenitic
stainless steel is type 302. See Figure 41-1.
Martensitic stainless steels contain up
to 18% chromium and up to 1.5% car-
bon. They are air hardened and tempered
to develop high strength and wear resis-
tance. Martensitic stainless steels contain
no alloying elements other than chro-
mium and have the lowest corrosion re-
sistance of the stainless steels. The basic
martensitic stainless steel is type 410. See
Figure 41-2 .

3028
Si added to
inc rease
scali ng
resistance

t
314
Si increased
for highest
heat
resistance - 310.3108
Mo re C r & Ni for
even better heat
resistance
-
309.3098
Cr&Ni
increased for
heat
resistance
I+-
302
general
purpose
1B· 8

.L
--+
202
N & Mn partly
replace Ni

304lN
N added to
increase
streng th
- - 304l
C red uced for
as -we lde d
corrosion
resistance
304N
N added to
incr ease
stren gth

304H
.
I+-
3Q4
Lowe r C for
better corrosion
resistance in
welded structures
--+
303
S added for
mach inabi lity

305
--+
3038e
Sa adde d for
better
machinab ility

384
Higher C Ni inc reased Mor e Ni to
for creep to lower wo rk --+ lower work
stren gth ha rde ning ha rdening

348
Ta & Co restricted
for nuclear
applications
- 347
Nb & Taadded
to prevent
carbide
precipitation
:-
321
Ti adde d
to prevent
carbide
precipitation

l
32 1H
Higher C 301 201
for cr eep C r& Ni N& Mn
stre ngt h lowered to !-t partly
increase work rep lace
hardeni ng Ni
316H
Higher C Nitronlc ®
for creep se ries
strength Mn & N for
wear, stre ngth,
& corrosion
<,

-
resistan ce

-
316LN 316l 316N 316
C reduced, C reduced for N ad ded to Moadded 10
318F
~
N added to as -we lded increase increase
increase corrosion strength corrosion --+ S & P added
resistance to improve
streng1h resistance
machinability

254SMO 317l
•
317
Mo raised for C redu ced for More Mo & Cr

~ ~
pitting better welding added for
resistance characteristics better co rrosion
resistan ce

Fig ure 41- 1. A ustenitic stainless steels are nonma gnetic and are strengthened and harden ed h)' cold work.

582 @o Welding Skills

 410
General purpose
12 Cr alloy

~ ! ! ! ~
414 422 403 420 416 44DC
Ni added for Mo, V. Wadded Close composition Increased C to P & S increased C increased tor
better corrosion for strength & control for turbines improve to improve highest hardness.
resi stan ce toughness to and highly mechanical machinability Cr increased for
1200'F stressed properties co rrosion
parts resistan ce

! ! ! !
431 420F 4165e 440B
Cr increased P & S increased Se added for Cdecreased
Ni added for better 10 improve bener slightly 10
corrosion machinability machinability improve
resistance. Good toughness
mechanical
properties
!
440A
C decreased
slightly to
further
imp rove
toughness

Figure 41~2. Mart f'l/si/k stainless steels may be quenched (// /(J tempered to improve their stren gth, and they hav e the lo west cor rosion resis tance
of alf stainless ,I'f(,I'/.I',

Fenitic stainless steels contain more
chromium than mart en sitic stainless
steels, which improve s their corro sion
resistanc e. Ferriti c stainless steels can-
not be hardened by quenching and tem-
pering. They are used chiefly for their
corro sion and scaling resistance. Fer-
ritic stainless steels are divided into
regul ar ferr itics and low-in terstitial
feni tics. The basic ferritic stainless steel
is type 430. See Figure 41- 3.
Duplex stainless steels are compo s-
ite materials whose metallurgical struc-
ture consists of approximately equal
quantit ies of austenite and ferrite. The
properties of duplex stainless steels are
achieved by maintaining a balance of
the austenite and ferrite. Properly bal-
anced dupl ex stainless steels possess
certain desirable qualities that austen-
itic and ferritic stainless steels do not.
For example , duplex stainless stee ls
have higher stre ngth and ch loride
stress-cracking resistance than austen -
itic stainless steels. They also have bet-
ter fabricability and toughness than
ferriti c stainless stee ls. Heat treatment
and fabricat ion practices for duplex
stainless steels must be carefully con-
trolled or significant loss of toughne ss
and/or corrosion resistance may occur.
The addition of between . 15% N and
.25% N helps ensure a balance between
austenite and ferrite in duplex stainless
steels, especially during welding .
The basic duplex stainless steel is
type 329. However, alloying additions,
particularly nitrogen, have been care-
fully controlled to yield a second gen-
eration of duplex stainless steel s with
better control of austenite to fenite bal-
ance during welding operations. These
second-generation alloys include types
2205 and 2307 . See Figure 41-4.
Weldabilily or Stainles s Steels ~ 583
 430
Ge neral purpose
17 Cr alloy

~ ! ! L
442 429 409 430F 434
Cr incr eased Slightly Lowest Cr , P&S Me added
to imp rove less Cr primari ly adde d for for improv ed
scaling used for improve d co rrosio n
resistance automotive ma chinab ility resistance in
exhaust systems auto tri m

! ! ! !
446 405 430F Se 436
Highest Cr Lower Cr Sa added for Nj, Nb, &
for best plus AI for better Ta added
scaling good machined for corrosion
resistance weldability surfaces & heat resistance

Figure ·U -J. Ferritic stainless steels a re reknivetv low strength altovs that ('(1111/(1 1 he hardened or strengthened by heal treatment,

Figure 41-4. Duplex stain less

steels are .1'll"ll/lger than [erritic or
austeninc stainless steels and con-
sis t of u compos ite .I'(rllc /llre of
1II1.~ le" i/(' (/1/(/ ferrite.
-. -. .
329
3Ae60

First genera tion

dup lex steels.
Composition balanced
than other stainless steels. They are rela-
tiv el y weak and so rt when quen ched
from the so lutio n annealing temper a-
ture. After ma chining , workin g, or
stamping to the desired shape, they are
for 50/50 pre ci pit ati on harden ed to achieve th e
austenite/ferrite structure desired strength and hardness with very
little distortion or scaling. The lower the
1 precipitation hardening temperature, the
Chemistry high er th e stre ng th, but stren gth is
controlled for
improved
achiev ed with a lo ss of toughn es s.
stability of Higher precipitati on hardening tem-
structure
peratures redu ce stre ngth but incre ase

2507 1 toughne ss . Pr ecipitati on hardenin g

stainless steels fall into three subgro ups:
Second generation
Mo
dup lex steels. 22Q5 marten sitic, se mi-austen itic, and auste-
increased Co rpenter
Compos ition nitic. See Figure 4 1-5.
to improve
corrosion
I+- balanced for 50150
7-Mo Plus
F. rralium 255
res istance au stenite/ferrite z. ~ Cast stainless stee ls exhibit the vari-
structure
ou s metallurgi cal structures or th eir
wrou ght stainle ss stee l equivalents.
Ca st stainless stee ls are identifi ed by
alph anumeric desi gn ati on s such as
CF-3M or HK -40 .
Pr ecip itation hard ening sta inless
stee ls are specially alloy ed sta inless o Precip itation hardening stainless steels er-
hibi t the highest strengths of all stainless
steels that are heat-treated by precipita- steels.
tion hardening to much higher strengths

584 ~ We/din g Ski lls

 Cast stainless steels may have a mar-
tensitic, ferritic , or dup lex met allur gi-
ca l str uctu re, T he y a re d iv ided int o
corrosi on-res istant (C series) and heat-
resista nt ( H se ries). See Figure 4 1-6 .
Corrosion-resista nt castings are desig-
nated by the uppe rcase letter C, fo l-
lowed by a lette r th at ind icate s th e
appro ximate alloy co nte nt. The high er
the lette r (with A co nsidered the low-
est an d Z co nside red the highest), the
greater the alloy co ntent. Numbers and
letters following a dash ind ica te car-
bon content and the prese nce of alloy-
ing ele me nts .
Hea t-re si stant casting s include a
range of alloy compositions that include
stainless steels and nick el alloys. Heat-
resistant cas tings are designaled by the
letter H fo llow ed by a lette r indicating
the a p prox ima te a lloy co nlent. The
higher the letter, the greater the percent-
age of alloy ing elements.
General Welding Considerations
for Stainless Steels
We ld ing of sta in le ss stee ls is influ -
enced by phy sica l properties, cleani ng
a nd joint preparation , and rem oval of
heat tin t. Wrought a nd cast stain le ss
stee ls can he welded using arc we lding
or OFW processe s. Filler metals of the
same or higher allo y content as the hase
metal must he used to ma intain corro-
sion resistance or mechanical properties.
Effect of Physical Properties. The co-
effi cient of therm al expa nsion of mar-
tcn sitic and ferritic stainless stee ls is
appro ximately equal to that of carbon
stee l. Con sequ entl y, the allowances for
th ermal e xpansio n are pract icall y the
same as those for carbon steel. Austen-
itic stainless sleels have about a 50% to
60 % greater coe flic ient of thermal e x-
pa nsion tha n car bon stee l, a nd a rc
therefore more prone to distort ion dur-
ing we ldi ng or heal treatm ent.

Ftgure ·U· 5. Pr ecipitation hurd-

ellill~
stainless steel s achieve the
f' ;X1Ie,\"' st r eng ths of alf stainless
He('I,I" through hea t 11"('0111I(' 11(.

PH13-BMo
Custom 455
Custom 450

Various
refIneme nts
to improve
properti es

17-4PH T 17-7PH T

Balance d suuct
10 improv e
cross-section
toog hness

PH15 -7Mo
15-5PH AM-35 0
AM·35 5

• solution anneal and quench • solutIon anneal and quench • solution anneal and quench
• fabricate • condition • fabricate
• precipitatiOn harden • fabrica te • precipitation harden
• precipitation harden

MARTENSITIC SEMI-AUSTENITIC AUSTENITIC

Weldabil il,\' of Stai nless Steel" ~ 585

 · -. .
Note: Wrought equ ivalent alloys Marteositic
indicated on right -hand side of box HA
t9Cr l Mol

More c-
Femlic
Duplex DurimellOQ HC
CD -4MCu Ferralium 225
3OC,' '"
Balanced Ni..(;r Add Ni lor
austeortic
""'Co strccta re

Martensitic
CA- 1S
.. HX
66N,17C
HE
/28C rl ONi

More er More Ni
Batarcec
cornpcsrtr

Fert itic HW HF
CB-30 '" I60NI12Cr\ /2QCrl ONi
302.

Add Ni Jar MoreNi More Ni

austenitic structu re

CF-8 HU HH 1&2 309

J04
39Ni18Crl l26Cr12Nil
Lower C I
Add ... More Ni More Ni

~
Md Ni,Cu HK
CF-3 CF-8M CN-7M AIloy 20
HT
304L 31.
316 135Ni17Cr\ 26Cr2QNil

Lower C ."" ~
MoreNi More Ni

330
HP HL
CF-3M 316L CG-8M 3 17
",N..en '","",en
r More Ni, Cr

CORROSION·RESISTANT HEAT-RESISTANT
(austenitic unless indicated) (austenitic unless indicated)

Figu re 4 1-6. Cast stainless stee ls exhib it the me tallurgical struc ture of their wrought cou nte rparts and are divided into co rros ion-resista nt IIml
heat -resistant types.

When welding stain-
less steels, usln g
chill plates made of
copper helps COIl -
duct heat awayfront
the weld area . re-
ducin g the unfavor-
able effects of heat
011 the alloy.
586 @o Welding Skills
The thermal cond uctivity of ferritic
and martensitic stainless steels is approx-
imately 50% that of carbon steel, and that
of au ste nitic stainless stee ls is about
33%. Consequently, heat is cond ucted
away more slowly. As a result, stainless
steels take longer to cool. This can be a
particular problem when welding thin-
gauge steels since there is greater dan-
ger of burning through the metal.
Unfavorable effects of heat can be
reduced substant ially by using chi ll
plates. A chill plate is a metal plate
used to prevent overhea ting during
welding . The use of chill plates, such
as copper plates, helps conduct heat
away from the weld area.
Jigs and fixtures sho uld be used
whenever possib le, especially for aus-
tenitic stai nless steel s, When stainless
steels are held in a jig or fixture during
cool ing, warp ing and dist orti on are
practically el iminated. If a j ig or fix-
ture cannot be used , spec ial welding
procedures are necessary to counter-
act expansion forces. A common prac-
tice is to use intermittent weld ing or
back-step weld ing.
Cleaning and Joint Preparation, Clean-
ing and joint preparation are critical to
ensuring a quality weld. Surface contami-
nants affec t stainless stee l weld s 10 a
greate r degree than carbon and alloy
steel welds. The surface of the weld arca
must also be co mpletely cleaned of all
hydroc arbon -con ta ining co nta mina nts
such as oi ls, or chloride -containing
cl ea ning fluids. Co nta mination fro m
grease and oil mu st be pre vented so
that c orr os io n re si st a nc e is not re -
duced th rou gh ca rbo n pickup during
welding. In addition to bru shin g with
a clean stainless steel wire brush, other
acceptable methods of surface prepa-
ration include blasting with clean sand
or grit, a nd ma chinin g or grind ing
with chloride- free cutt ing fluid .
The area 10 be cleaned must include
the weld groove and adj acent faces for
at least ~" on each side of the groove.
Cleaning a wider area is recommended
for plate thicker than 'lis". The surfaces
of part s to be resistance weld ed, spot
welded, or seam welded must also be
cleaned . Th e degr ee of c lea ning de-
pends on the welding process. For ex-
ample , s pec ia l ca re is req uired for
cleaning surfaces for gas shielded weld-
ing because of the absence of flux, which
acts as a cleaning age nt. Ca rbon co n-
tamination can adversely affect the met-
allurgical structure. corrosion resistance,
or both. Clean stainless steel wire brushes
must be used to prevent carbon and iron
pickup, Thorough post-weld wire brush-
ing is used to remove welding slag after
welding.
Removal of Heal Tint (Heal Discol-
oration), Stainless steels obtain their cor-
ros ion resistance fro m a surface film
composed largely of chromium and oxy-
gen (chromium oxide). The film forms
spontaneously in air or water on alloys
that contain more than 10% chromium.
The quality of the film must be preserved
during fabrication. The physical appear-
ance of the chromi um ox ide film does '
not necessarily indicate the overall cor-
rosion resistance of the alloy.
When stainless steel eq uipme nt is
welded . the chro mium ox ide film ad-
jace nt to the weld th ickens from the
locali zed heat ing effect and changes
color due 10 diffraction of light. T he
color change is known as heat tint. The
presen ce of he at tint often prompt s
qu est ion s a bo ut q ua lity fro m rece iv-
ers of stainless steel equ ipment.
Althou gh he at tint may cause a
Heal lim may cause
s light overall chromium dep leti on in a sliKhl overall chro-
th e surface film, it do es not usuall y mi utn deplet ion ill
co mp rom ise the abil ity of the surface tlu: surfacefihn. but
film to pro vide corros ion resistance, it does I/O! usually
compro mise the ahil-
unless the stainless steel provi des bor- ity ofthe surface film
derline co rrosion resistance in the ex- 10 provide corrosion
resistance.
pected service environment. In highl y
co rro s ive se rvice e nv iro nme nts , it
might be necessary 10 use a more cor-
ro sio n-re si s ta nt s ta in le ss stee l or
nickel alloy. See Fig ure 41 -7.
Figure ·" -7. Heat tint is formed O il sta inless sled
during welding b ill does II ot usually compromise lilt'
cor rosion resistance (if 'h e stainless steel .
It may be difficult to remove heal
tint, es pec ially from ins ide corners.
Grind ing may be used , but is ofte n
im pra ctica l or e xpe ns ive . Co mme r-
cia l stainless stee l chem ical cl eaners
are available that typicall y cons ist of
a past e th at is pa inted on th e we ld
seam and allowed to soak for 10 min
to 15 min, after which it is removed
wi th a stainless steel wire bru sh.
lVeld"bili')" oj Stainless Steels ~ 587
 Arc Welding Processes. Arc welding
proce sses that ca n be used for stain-
less stee ls include SMAW. GTAW,
GMAW. and SAW. OFW is sometimes
used for welding 19-9auge and lighter
sta inless stee l sheet s. For SAW. a flux
suitab le fo r sta in less stee l we ldi ng
must be se lected .
GTAW or GMAW is used to we ld
stainless steel because of the ease with
which welds can be made. GTAW and
GMAW do not significantly reduce the
corros ion-res istant properties of stain-
less steel. See Figu re 4 1-8. GTAW is
mostly used for thin sections of stainless
steel. A 2% thoriated tungsten electrode
is used and is ground to a taper. Argon is
norma lly used as the shielding gas.
Figure -4 1-8. GTAlV and GAIA\\' welding processes
are preferred for wefdil/X stainless steel because
Ihey minimitr heat input and IleI!, retain the tlu'fal's
corrosion-r esis tant properties.
GMAW is used for thi ck stai nless
steel s. Spray tra nsfe r is used for flat
posit ion weldi ng and req uire s argo n
shielding with 2% to 5% oxygen or spe-
cial mixtures. When welding thin stain-
less steel with GMAW, short circuiting
transfer can be used, in which case 90%
Hef7.5% Ar/2.5 % CO 2 (tri-mix) is the
best choice and provides the best weld
appearance. Wh en welding ex tra-Iow-
carbon grades of sta inless stee l, or if
the stainless steel is used in a highly
corrosi ve environment. Ar-C0 2 mix-
ture s should not be used and the CO 2
leve l must be kept low enough so that
the corrosion resistance of the mate-
rial is not affected .
588 ~ Welding Skill s
Joint Design . For thin metal, the
flan ge-type joint is probably the most
suitable design. Slightl y thicke r sheets
up to 1/ 8 " may use a bu tt joint. For
pl ates th icker tha n Ifs" . the ed ge s
shou ld be beve led to form a V so fu-
sio n ca n be obt ained th ro ug h to the
bottom of the weld .
Filler Metals. Filler metal selection for
stainless steel welding depends on the
ba se metal. Not every stainless steel
has a matching weld filler metal, but
th er e are usually se veral choice s of
filler metal for we lding any particular
stai nless stee l.
The alloy conten t of the tiller metal
shou ld be higher than or the same as
that of the base metal to co mpen sate
for expec ted alloy loss. A columb ium-
bearing filler metal must be used for
both the columbium (Type 347) and the
titanium (Type 321 ) stabilized grades
of sta inle ss stee l. C bro mium-nicke l
filler metals are often used to weld chro-
mium-grade stain le ss stee ls because
they provide a ductile weld metal. Cov-
ered filler metals for SMAW mu st be
stored in heat ed ove ns at 3000F be-
cau se they arc low-hydrogen fi ller
metals a nd are susc e ptible to moi s-
ture pickup ,
Stain less steel tiller metals arc iden-
tified differently from carbon steel filler
meta ls. For exam ple, a standard 18-8
filler metal for AC/DC current is des-
ignated as E308 - 16. The prefix E indi-
cates the filler meta l is an arc welding
electrode. The next three digit s are the
AISI symbols for a particular type of
metal. Thu s. 30 8 re presents a met al
conta ini ng 18% chrom ium and 8%
nickel. The last two digits following the
dash may be either 15 or 16; the I indi-
cates all-position welding, and the 5 or
6 speci fies the type of cove ring and
app licable welding current. The 5 des-
ignates a lime-coated filler metal. The
lime type can be used only with DCEP.
The 6 indicate s a titan ium-type cover-
ing. The titanium-type can be used with
AC and DCEP, See Figure 4 1-9.
 Welding Cnrrent. Both AC and DC
current can be used for arc welding
stainless steel. DC EP produces deeper
Stainless weld penetration and a more consistent
SteefGrade f':ilIer Metal
fu sion when used on stainless steel
Al.!S:rENITIC sheets and light plates.
201, 202 308 -15, 308 -16
Since stainless steels hav e a lower
301, 302, 304, 305 , 308 308-15,308-16
melting point than carbon stee l, at least
309 309-15 , 309 -16 20 % less current is recommended than
310,314 310 -15,310-16 would ordinarily he used for carhon
316 316-15,316-16 steel. The low thermal conductivity of
321,347,348 347-15,347-16 stainless steel localizes the heat from
fERRITIC the arc along the weld. further reduc-
405,409 410-15,410-16 ing current requirements.
430, 434, 436, 442 430-15, 430-16 Welding Technique. To produce qual-
446 446-15, 446-16 ity welds, square butt joints should be
- -'MA RTENSITIC, , used for stainless steel sheets IS-gauge
408,410,414,416,420 410-15,410-16 and less and are fitted up with no gap.
431 430-15 ,430-16 Heavier gauge sheets and plates are
Figu re 41-9. Electrode s for welding stainless steels fitted up with a beveled joint edge
(Ire typically identified by their A /Sf classifica tion . preparation and a gap to allow pen-
etration. Metals must be free from
scale, grease, and dirt to prevent weld
Selecting the proper filler metal for
contamination .
stainless steel is, in most cases, a more
critical cho ice than with carhon steel To begin arc welding , the tiller metal
because of th e number of types and is touched to the work and quickly with-
grades of stainless steel and the vary- drawn a short distance (enough to main-
ing degrees of se verity of heat , corro- tain the proper arc). To mainta in the are,
sio n media, etc., to which the weld the filler metal should be fed continu-
joint will be suhjeeted . Sel ecting the ously into the molten weld pool to
right filler metal for satisfactory results compensate for metal depo sited, and
requires analyzing all of the conditions moved rapidly and continuously in the
that apply to a particular job. To deter- direction of welding. To finish the weld
mine the right type and size of filler or break the are, the filler metal should
metal for a given set of conditions, the be held close to the work to sho rte n
following factors mu st be considered: the are, then moved quickly back over
• c he m ical composition of the base the fini shed bead. To reduce weld oxi -
metal to be welded dation and porosity, the arc should be
• dimen sions of the section to be kept as short as possible during weld-
welded ing. Too long an arc is inefficient and
type of welding current required increases spattering .
• welding position(s) to be used After welding, all slag and sca le
• fit-up of the section to be weld ed should be completely removed from
• specifi c properties of the weld deposit the weld bead and the adjacent ba se
• specific fabrication code requirements metal. Scal e or oxide can be removed
Filler metal s must be selected care- by grinding, pickling, or sandblasting .
fully becau se of th e high cost of the Discoloration (heat tint) should be re-
material to be welded , The stainless moved if required in the specification.
steel weld must have tensile strength , . Light weld discoloration may be re -
du ctility, and corrosion re si stance moved electrolytically. When grinding,
equivalent to the base metal. refinish with progressively finer grits.

Weldahility of Stainless Steels ~ 589

 The smoother and cleaner the surface
of any stainless part, the better the cor-
ro sion resistanc e.
Wh en we ld ing a butt j oint in flat
po sition , the c urre nt se lecte d sho uld
be high enough to ensure ample pen -
et ra tio n w ith good wash-up o n the
sides. When several beads are required,
use a number of sma ll we ld beads to
\Vhl'llll'elding stain- fill the groove, rather than one or two
less steel. lise a short
arc with only a sl;ght large beads .
weaving motion. A short arc sho uld be main tain ed ,
and any weavi ng should be limited to
2\6 times the filler metal diameter. The
fill er metal should be held vertica l or
slightly tilted in the direction of travel.
A very slight tilt is only used with small-
diameter fille r metal s. In genera l, the
correct filler metal position is one that
produces a clean weld pool that solidi-
fie s uniformly as the work pro gresses.
The movement of the filler metal across
the weld pool controls the flow of metal
and slag. A crescent weave bead should
be used.
Horizontal fillet welds and lap welds
require a machine setting high enough
to provid e a well-shaped bead and pen-
etration to the root of the joint. If too
Iowa current is used , it is difficult to
control the arc in the joint, and a con-
vex bead with poor fusion results.
Wh en tw o work pi ec es o f eq ual
thi ckness are bein g welded , the fill er
metal should be held an equ al distance
from eac h face and tilted slightly in the
direction of travel. If one wo rkpiece is
thinner than the other, the filler metal
lil
In IIl'hillll'eldillg of
sho uld be pointed toward the thi ck er
stainless steel. amid
~- unv whipping action
ofthe filler metal. 111
wo rk piece .
4
Welding butt joints in uphill position
stead. lise a motion
ill the form ofa V.
ca n be accom plished wi th a reduced
current compared to that used in flat
position for a given filler metal diam-
eter. Oscill ating and whipping motion s
are not re commended but in st ead a
motion in the form of a V may be used
for the first pass. The point of the V is
the root of the joint. Hesitating momen -
taril y at the V en sures adequate pen-
etration and allows slag to move to the
590 ~ Welding Sk ills
surfac e. The arc is then brought out on
one side of the V about VB" and imme-
diatel y returned to the root of the j oint.
After the pause at the root, the pro-
cedure is repeated on the other side of
the weld. Filler metals with a diameter
o f 3/16" may be use d o n wo rkpieces
thick enough to rapidl y di ssip ate heat,
but %2" diameter filler metal s arc the
generally acc epted maximu m size for
thin work piece s.
St ringer bead s are recom men de d
when wel di ng in overhead posit io n,
since attempts to ca rry a large molte n
we ld pool re sult in an irreg ula r con-
vex bead. The welding machine should
be set properl y and a shor t arc main -
tained to provide good penetration of
the base metal.
Specific Welding Considerations
for Stainless Steels
Specific welding conditions for stainless
steel s are dictated by the specific alloy
family. The type of steel welded will in-
tlnence factors such as heat input dur-
ing weldin g, preheat , and postheating.
Wh en ex pos ed to high heat, stain-
less steels produ ce chromium ca rbides
at grain bound aries in the HAZ, which
is known as sensitization. Sensitization
is precipitation of chrom ium carbides
in stainless steels from exposure to high
temperatures, as in welding, typi cally
in the HAZ. Sensitization occ urs in fer-
ritic stainless steels, austenitic stainless
steels, cast stainless steels, and nickel
allo ys. Sen sitizat ion increases susce p-
tibility to corro sion and leads to loss of
corro si on resi st ance by making le ss
chromium avai lable to contribute to the
protecti ve corro sion -res istant surface
film . The tem perature at which sensiti-
za tio n occurs dep ends on the type of
allo y weld ed. Sec Figure 4 1- 10.
Martensitic Stainless Steels. Marten-
sitic stainless stee ls are welda ble ex-
cept for typ e 416 Se , which conta ins
sele nium to mak e it free-machining.
The hardness of the HAZ and the cor-
responding susceptibility to hydrogen

1400
A bides ill me HAZ of tilt' weld in
1200
1000
E BOO
ui
a:
=>
~
a: 600
w
Q.
:;; 400
w
I-
200
5 10 15 20
TIME (SEC)
crac king increa se as the carbon co n-
tent of martensit ie stainless steels in-
creases . Marten siti c sta inless stee ls
require preheat, interpass tempera -
ture co ntro l, and posth eating. Prehe at
and interpass temperature s ar e from
450°F (232°C) to 550°F (287°C). Pre-
cautions must be tak en to prev ent the
in tro d uc t io n of hydrogen into the
we ld. T he preh eat te mpe ra ture ran ge
indicated is not sufficient ly high to
prevent marten site for ma tio n or to re-
duce the hardness of the HAZ , so that
po stheatin g mu st be performed im-
mediately to tough en the marten sit e
and reduc e re sidua l stress es . Post-
heating is conducted between t 200°F
(649°C) and 1400°F (760 °C), followed
by slow cooling .
When welding martcnsitic stainless
steels such as types 403 , 410 , 414 , and
420, type 4 10 fill er metal is used .
When matching carbon content is de-
sire d, typ e 42 0 may be we lded wit h
type 420 filler metal.
Au stenitic stainless stee l filler met-
als such as type s 308, 309, or 3 10 are
also used to weld martensitic stainless
steels. These filler metals provide good
as- we ld ed tou ghnes s wh en a hi gh -
strength weld deposit is not req uired.
Weld beads of the se fille r metal s 'may
be used when prehea t and posth eatin g
are not possibl e.
Figure 4 1·10 . Sensitization is the
p reci pitati on of chromium car-
stainless steels (Ifill iran-chromium
alloys, which leads to toss of CO/ TO -
SENSITIZED sian resistance ill certain clurnical
ZONE (UN E OF
l 'II V; I'Olll11 l 'II ! S.
CORROSION
IN HAZ) >;-_ _ ~~=::;~
(
•
. 0
APPEARANCE OF WELD IN
CORROSIVE ENVIRON MENT
o Assistance in selecting the pmperfi ller me tal
f or a particular welding operation CllII br
found in documents published by the Ameri-
can Welding Socie ty.AWS A5.0 I, Filler Metal
Procurement Guidelines. and FMC. Filler
Metal Comparison Charts , are two useful
ref erences published by AWS.
Ferritlc Stainless Steels. Ferritic stain-
less steels are weldable except for type
430F, which contains sulfur to make it
free-mach ining. Ferritic stainless stee ls
do not harden o n qu en ching and d o
not require preheat. However, preh eat
between 30 0° F ( 149 °C) and 4 50°1'
(232°C) may be beneficial in red ucing
residual stress in highly restrained joints.
Postheating is unn ece ssary.
If the service application requi res it,
ferritic stainless steels must be so lution
annea led aft er weldin g to red issol ve
chrom ium ca rbides and res tore corro-
sion resistance . Solution ann ealing is
carried out between 1400°1' (760°C)
and 1500 °F (815°C) , and is followed
by rapid quenching.
Grai n growth is a problem with all
ferri tic stainless stee ls, parti cularly the
su bg ro u p of lo w-interstiti al fer rit ic
stainles s stee ls. Grain growth oc curs
in the HAZ during welding, lead ing to
lo ss o f tou ghn e ss. Grain g row th is
minimi zed by limitin g the in te rpass
temperature to the lowest practical level
lVeldahility of Stain less Steels ~ 591
 above the preheat temperature. Tough-
ness can be improved by cold work -
ing the weld . Ferritic stainless steels
with high chrom ium content, such as
types 430, 434, 442, and 446, form
chromium carbides and sensiti ze at
grain boundaries in the HAZ.
Ferritic stainless steels can be arc
welded by GTAW, GMAW, and FCAW.
Welding processes that tend to increase
carbon pickup are not recommended .
This would include OFW, carbon are ,
and GMAW with CO, shielding gas.
Matching ferritic stainless steel, aus-
tenitic stainless steel , and nickel alloy
filler metal are used . Matching ferritic
stainless steel filler metal s are com -
monly available as type 409 and type
430, and are available as solid and nux
cored electrode .
Ferritic stainless steels can be joined
to themselve s or to other metals using
austeniti c stainless stee l fill er metal s.
Type 309 and type 3 10 stainless steel
arc most often used. Nickel alloy filler
metals such as ENiCrFe -3 can also be
used (with SMAW). The advantage of
aust enitic stainless steel filler metals
and nickel alloy filler metal s is better
as-w elded toughne ss than mat ching
Ierritic stainl ess steel filler metal s.
Austenitic Stainless Steels. Austenitic
stainless steels arc weldable except for
type 303 and type 303Se, which con-
tain sulfur and selenium, respectively,
to make them free -machining. Auste-
nitic stainless stee ls do not harden on
qu enchin g and do not require preheat
or po stheating to improve th eir me-
c hanic a l prop erties . However, cold-
worked austeniti c stainless steel will
lose strength in the HAZ when welded.
Auste nitic stainless steels are sus-
ceptibl e to hot cracking. A completely
austeniti c metallurgical structure pos-
sesses ins ufficient ductility when so-
lidifying from the molten state and may
hot crack from an inability to accom -
modate shrinkage stres s. Thus, filler
metals used to weld austenitic stainless
stee ls must have modified chemical
592 ~ weld ing Skills
compositions to produce a small amount
of ferrite in the metallurgical structure,
which counteracts hot crac king . T he
che mical composition adj us tme nt is
indicated by the ferrite numh er of the
filler metal. Filler metal suppliers indi-
cate a ferrite number (FN) on electrodes
and wire used for weldin g austenitic
stainless steels. A ferrite number be-
tween 2FN and l2 FN is required when
welding austenitic stainless steels. The
low er the FN, the less the amount of
ferrite . Fe rrite mak es a weld slightly
magnetic .
Au steniti c stainless stee ls can he
welded using mo st arc welding pro -
cesse s, inclu ding GM AW, GTAW,
SMAW, FCAW, PAW, and SAW. OFW
is infrequ ently used, but may be used
when arc welding equi pment is not
available. In general, the deposited weld
metal composition should nearly match
the base metal composition when weld-
ing austenitic stainless steels to them-
selves. Other austenitic stainless stee l
filler metals may be used provided the
selected filler metal has suitable corro-
sion resistance, mechanical properties,
or both. Alternate filler metals are usu-
ally more highly alloyed than the base
metal to provid e superior corrosion
resi stance .
Consumable inserts are available for
welding austenitic stainless steels. They
are used as preplaced filler metal in the
root opening for the first weld pass, and
are completely fused into the root of
the joint. Consumable inserts should not
be used where the presence of a crev-
ice between the insert and the base metal
creates a condition for corrosion.
Austenitic sta inless stee ls require
less heat input and less current than
carbon ste el because of th eir low er
meltin g point and hi gh er e lect rica l
resistivity. Their high coeffi cient of ther-
mal expan sion coupled with low ther-
mal conductivity increases the possihility
for distortion and warpage. When weld-
ing austeniti c stainless steels less than
'!4" thick, di stortion or warpage may
be a se rio us problem . Rigid fix turing
of the workpi eces can help control dis-
torti on of th in shee ts du rin g we ld ing .
Metals more than 14" thick may req uire
spec ial we lding tec hniq ues to co unter-
act di st ort ion . Back-st ep we ld ing a nd
interm ittent we lding help overcome the
problems of di stort ion and war page.
Stress relief heat treatment is not rec-
ommended for austenitic stainless steels .
St ress re lie f heat tr e atment betwe en
1200 °F (649°C) and 1600°F (87 1°C)
ca n result in significa nt distorti on and
loss of co rrosion resistan ce from sensi-
tizati on. However, a low-temperature
stress reli ef heat tr e atment betw e en
400°F (204°C) and 800 °F (427"C) helps
improve dimensional sta bility and help s
red uce peak stresses, bu t does not re-
du ce co rros io n resi st an ce . T h is he at
treatm e nt is so metimes performed on
items th at mu st be stra ig ht, suc h as
shafts , by suspe nding them vertica lly
at temperature for man y hours.
With a us te n itic s ta in le ss s te e ls ,
se n sitiza tio n oc c ur s bet we en 800 °F
(427"C) and 1500°F (8 16°C) , and most
rapidly abo ve I200°F (649°C ). W he n
hea ted to the sens itizatio n tempe ratur e
range, carbon and ch romium in the al-
loy com bine to form chromium carbide,
red uci ng co rro sio n res ista nc e.
To pre ve n t se ns it iza t io n w he n
welding austenitic stainless stee ls, low -
ca rbo n sta in less stee l grades or du al -
m arked s ta in less st ee l g ra d es are
used . Low-carbon g ra des ha ve th e
su ffix letter L in the ir de signation, for
examp le 304 L or 3 16L. Their carbon
co n te nt is red uced to p re vent c hro-
mium ca rbide precipitation duri ng the
tem perate-time cyele of we ldi ng o p-
erations . Dual -m ark ed sta inless steel s
suc h as 304 / 30 4 L o r 3 16/3 16L a re
also low in ca rbon to pr even t se ns iti-
za tion. but co nta in nitroge n to co un-
terac t the strength loss from the lower
ca rbon content. Dual-marked stainless
ste e ls ex h ib it th e su pe rio r mech ani -
cal properties of the higher carbon grade
and the superior co rrosion res istance of
th e low er ca r bo n g ra de, A no the r
method of preventing se nsitiz ation is
to use auste nitic sta inless stee ls, suc h
as 32 1 and 347 , whic h co ntai n alloy-
ing e le men ts th at co un te rac t the for-
mation of chro miu m c arbide an d a re
resistant to se nsitization.
Duplex Stainless Steels. Wel din g of
dup lex stain less stee ls can up se t the
balance of au st enite a nd ferrite, le ad -
ing to loss of co rros io n resistance a nd
lo ss of tou ghn ess in th e HAZ . T he
we ld ing pro cedure must not a llow an
imba la nc e by in cre as in g the fe rri te
co ntent o f the HAZ . To prevent prob -
lems , w eld with low heat input a nd
co ntro l the co o ling rat e. Low heat in-
put mi nim izes dwell time in the " red
heat" temperature zone . Co ntro lling the
co oling rate pre vents the form ati on o f
exc essive ferrit e (with rapid cooling) or
excess ive austenite (w ith slow cooling).
T he ma xim um interpass te mpe rat ure
should be 240 °F ( 116°C ) for thin metal
and 300°F (\49°C) for thick metal , to
promote the proper coo lin g rat e . Pre-
he at a nd po sth e ating are not usu all y
performed on du plex sta inless stee ls.
Duplex stainless steels can be welded
using any arc welding process. Dupl ex
stainless steels should alway s be welded
with filler meta l add ed . With out fill er
metal, the we ld and the HAZ co nta io
too much ferrite and the j oint proper-
ties are inad equate. Autogen ou s we lds
should not be used . Matching filler metal
is usua lly recom mended . In some cases
filler metal s with mor e ch romium a nd
mol ybd enum than the base metal may
be used to enhance co rrosion resistance.
Fo r each we lding job a nd type o f du-
plex sta inless stee l, it is necessar y to
de vel op the a ppro pria te we lding pro -
cedure and techn iqu e.
Precipitation Hardening Stainless
Steels, Martensitic a nd se mi-austenitic
precipitation hardening sta inless stee ls
are weldable without prehea t. Au sten -
iti c precipitati on hard ening sta in less
steels a re susce ptible to hot c rack ing
and have poor weld abi lity. If maximum
wetdabitity of Stainless Steels :§ 593
 strength is required in martensitic and
semi-austenitic precipitation hardening
stainless steels, matching tiller metal is
required and the complete heat treatment
cycle must be repeated. If the complete
cycle cannot be repeated, the parts
should be solution annealed before weld-
ing and precipitation hardened after. For
martensitic precipitation hardening stain-
less steels, a repeat of the precipitation
hardening after welding may be ad-
equate to restore mechanical properties.
If full strength is not required, duc-
tile 309 or 310 austenitic stainless steel
or nickel alloy filler metal may be used
on martensitic precipitation hardening
stainless steels. Follow manufacturer
instruct ions when welding precipitation
hardening stainless steels. Nickel alloy
or austenitic stainless steel filler metals
are normally used for welding austenitic
precipitation hardening stainless steels.
The Unmln Eledri,' Comp any
Stainless steel weldahility varies depending on the metallurgical structure. Service require-
l1Ienl .1" (~r the stainless steel m ust be co ns idered when developi ng welding procedures.
594 ~ Welding Skills
Cast Stainless Steels. Weldability of
cast stainless steels varies according to
their metallurgical structure; guideline s
for the corresponding wrought alloy s
should be followed. Cast stainless steels
are usually welded to repair casting
defects or damage from service . Heat-
resistant cast stainless steels that have
been in service at elevated temperatures
tend to lose ductility and may crack dur-
ing welding. High-temperature solution
annealing heat treatment at 2000°F
(I093°C) should be performed prior to
welding to restore as-cast ductility. So-
lution annealing di ssolves alloy car-
bides that precipitate during service
at elevated temperature and cause the
reduction in ductility.
Regular carbon grades of corrosion-
resistant cast stainless steels that require
remedial welding to repair casting de-
fects must be solution annealed after
welding to fully restore corrosion resis-
tance. Regular carbon grades that in-
clude CF -8 or CF-8M sensitize on
welding. Solution annealing of
finish -machined castings may lead to
distortion so that remedial welding must
be carried out before final machining.
Cast stainless steels are more prone
to hot cracking than cast steel so the
weld bevel angle should be wider than
that used for cast steels. It is common
to have a bevel angle up to 90° for cast
stainless steels ver sus the 45° that is
common for cast steel s. Low heat in-
put also helps reduc e hot cracking .
Becau se of the tendency of cast stain-
less steels toward hot cracking, it may
be nece ssary to butt er the weld bevel
for certain types of repair s.
I . Stainless steels are used for their heat resistance, corro sion resistance, and low-temperature
toughn ess.
2. Wrought stainless steels are usually identified by a three-digit AISI designation, such as 410
or 316 .
3 . When welding stainless steels, using chill plates made of copper help s conduct heat awa y
from the weld area, reducing the unfavorable effects of heat on the alloy.
4 . Heat tint may cause a slight overa ll chrom ium depletion in the surface film, but it doe s not
usually compromi se the ability of the surface film to provide corrosion resistance .
5 . When welding stainless steel , use a short arc with only a slight weaving motion .
6 . In uphill welding of stainless steel, avoid any whipping action of the filler metal. Instead, use
a motion in the form of a V.

I. How are stainless steels classified?

2. What are the qualities of stainless steel that make this metal so valuable ?
3. Why are chill plates frequently used when welding stainle ss steel?
4. Why is less current required in welding stainless steel?

Weldability ojStuinless Steels @o 595

596 § Weldillii Sk ills
Nonferrous metals include nickel alloys, coppe r alloys, aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, and tita-
Ilium alloys. Nickel is incorporated as a major or minor constituent ill approximately 3000 alloys. Nickel
alloys are generally easy to weld provided the joint is clean. Copper alloys are wrought or cast and
consist of several families of alloys. Copper and copper alloys are difficult to weld because tif their high
thermal conductivity, high coefficient of thermal expansion, hot cracking susceptibility, and high fluidity.

Aluminum alloys can be wrought or cast, and contain various elements added to produce alloys with specific
properties. Aluminum alloys are generally easy to weld. Magnesium is the lightest commercial metal and is
alloyed with many chemical elements. This results in high strength-to-weight ratio metals that are easy to
weld. Titanium alloys are grouped according 10 their metallurgical structure and are difficult to weld bemuse
ofthe need for high purity.

WELDABIUTY OF NICKEL ALLOYS Joint Cleanliness. Joint cleanl iness is

Nic ke l is in corporat ed as a major or
mino r co ns titue nt in ap prox ima te ly
3000 alloys. Th e prin cipal alloyin g el-
eme n ts addcd to ni ck el are co p pe r,
iron, mol ybd enum, chromium, and co-
ball. See Figure 42 -1. The major nickel
alloy sys te ms are based on nickel and
nick el -chro mium. N ic ke l alloys have
an austenitic structure and behave simi-
larly to austenitic stainless stee ls in
many ways. Nicke l alloys are strength-
ened by co ld working or precipitation
hardening and may be heat-treated to
improve co rros ion resistance.
General Welding Considerations
for Nickel Alloys
Wel d abi lity fact ors for nic kel alloys
incl ude joi nt cl eanl in e ss, d is to rtio n,
heat requi rem ent s, weldi ng processes,
and fill er metal s.
the sing le mos t imp ort ant requirement
for weldin g nickel alloys . Nickel alloys
are extremely sensitive to cracking from
contamination. Sulfur, present in grease
and oil, is particularl y harmful to nickel.
Oxides can inhibit wetting, prevent fu-
sion of the base met al and filler metal ,
and can cause subsurface inclusions and
poor bead co nto ur. A regi on approx i-
mat el y I" on both sides of the joint
sho uld be thoroughl y deg reased to pre-
ve nt contaminatio n by sulfur, and me-
cha nic ally cl eaned to rem o ve o xid es
before welding. Me chanical cle aning is
accompli sh ed by grindin g, abra si ve
blastin g, or machining and pickling .
Nickel alfo.....s are ex -
Distortion. Di st orti on is po ssible in
tremely sensitive 10
nickel alloys because of their relatively cracking f rom con-
low therma l co nduc tivity, Low therm al tamination. an d the
jO;1I t mu st be thor-
co nduct ivity ca uses heat to be reta ined
oughly clean ed be-
in the we ld rath er than be dissipat ed fore welding .
into the base metal. The exceptio n IS

597
 ~1T1n'_~_"'~1T1n'_7'''

L
L 300 Series Stainless Steels ~
1 304L, 316L

It
I
-..,
Copper- 1
Nickels i
70-3O-Cu-Ni
90-10-Cu-Ni
More Fe for economy
r = r n" " r n = " " , High nickel:
Incoloy1" 825
Hastelloy!' G-3O
Carpenter 2OC8-3
Low nickel:
AI-6XN
904L
Sanicro 28
'--_ _--._ _- ' (Cn-7M) 25-6Mo

More Cu tor economy

rn~rn'+~=,""" Hastell ol!' C-276

Monel 400 (M-35) , HastelloY""C-4 {C·4Cj

Cu for general
Monel K·500 Hastellof!!' C·22
' -_ _--._ _- - ' Inconcrff 625 (CW-6MC)

Mo for resistance
r 0""""0
corrosion resistance to reducing agents
Corrosion
Crlor heat & resistant
Fe for s ectal ro erties corrosion resistance 50-50 Ni-Cr
Ni-Fe (low expansion, magnetic) Nickel 200 (CZ-l00) Chromel
Nickel 201 Heat/creep
Invar, or
Nilo 36 resistant
Mo lor resistance
Maraging to reducing acids
steels
Hastello~X Incone~617
Hastelloy€l8·2
(N12M-1N12M·2)
'----,---'-------'
RA333
, Inconer® 600
Inconer®718
Inooner®X-750
1 Decreasing

Inoolo~800
Incolo~ 800HT
A-286
'----,--- - - '

[7 '~ r ~ '_n ~. ~ Tri 1ll!1!fW _ 1!I'_ m_&w" _ W _"1

L , '300 Series Stainless Steels ~ 1304,316 ,310,330

F fgure 42-1. Nicke l is inco rporated as (J majo r or min or constituent ill approximat ely .1000 alloys .

commercially pure nickel, wh ich has
relatively high thermal conduc tiv ity.
However, since the coefficients of ther-
mal expansion of nickel alloys are simi-
lar to those of carbon steels and
low-alloy steels, the welding of nickel
alloys does not present significant dis-
tortion problems. Nickel-iron alloys are
an exception because they have very
low coefficients of thermal expans ion.
Heat Requirements. Since nickel al-
loy s are sen sitive to hig h heat input,
low heat input shou ld be used when
welding nickel alloys. High heat input
can lead to hot cracking, loss of corro-
sion resistance, or both . If hot crack-
ing is anticipate d, such as might occur
in a high ly restrained joint, the weld-
ing technique is mod ified to decrease
heat input, or a welding process with
lower heat input is substituted. Preheat
is not required for nickel alloys ; how-
ever, the joi nt area is heated to about
60°F (16°C) to eliminate moisture con-
densation that could lead to porosity.
The intcrpass temperature should be low
to minim ize tota l heat input. Cooling
methods that reduce the interpass tem-
perature should not introduce contami-
nants that cause weld metal cracking.
Posthcating is not required to restore
mechan ical properties, except for pre-
cipitation hardening alloys. Alloys that
sensitize when welded may require
postheating consisting of solution an-
nealing and quenching to restore cor-
rosion resistance.
Welding Processes. Almost all arc weld-
ing processes can be used for welding
nickel alloys; however, SMAW, GTAW,

598 ~ Weldin~ Skills

and GMAW are the most common pro-
cesses used. Not all arc welding pro-
cesses are applicable to every alloy
because of metallurgical characteristics
andlor availability of suitable filler met-
als. OFW should only be used when arc
welding equipment is not available. The
welding of nickel alloys is similar to the
welding of austenitic stainless steels ex-
cept that cleanliness requirements are
more stringent and groove openings are
increased to allow for the lower penetra-
tion of nickel alloys.
Filler Metals. Filler metals for welding
nickel alloys should have a chemical
composition that is similar to the base
metal. Covered filler metals for SMAW
normally contain additions of deoxidiz-
ing elements such as titanium, manga-
nese, and columbium to prevent weld
metal cracking.
Precipitation hardenable filler metal
will respond to the precipitation hard-
ening treatment used for the base metal.
However, the response is usually less
pronounced and the weld joint is gen-
erally lower in strength than the base
metal after the precipitation hardening
treatment.
Fluxes are available for SAW for
many nickel alloys. The flux composi-
tion must be suited to both the filler metal
and the base metal. An improper flux can
cause slag adherence, inclusions, poor
weld bead contour, and undesirable
changes in weld metal composition.
Welding Monel® and Inconel®
Monel" and Inconel'" are trademarks for
two groups of nickel alloys. When used
without qualification, they refer to al-
loy 400 (Monel" alloy 400) or alloy 600
(Inconel " alloy 600). Monel" and
Inconel" can be satisfactorily welded
using SMAW. Welding of Monel" and
Inconel" is performed almost as easily
as welding low-carbon steel. Although
Monel" and Inconel'" can be welded in
any position, better results are obtained
if welded in flat position. In general ,
SMAW should not be used on sheet less
than .050" (IS-gauge) thick; GTAW is
I]
best used on thin gauges. No preheat is Remove the oxide
.~ film/rom the surface
necessary to weld Monel" or Inconel", .= to he welded and use
The procedure for welding Monel" or heavily coated filler
Inconel" is as follows: metal specially de-
signed jor Monel"
1. Remove the thin, dark-colored ox- and lnconct".
ide film from around the area to be
welded. The oxide can be removed
by grinding, sandblasting, rubbing
with emery cloth, or pickling.
2. Use a heavily coated filler metal spe-
cially designed for welding Monel")
and Inconel'". Use DCEP current.
3. Hold the filler metal at a travel
angle of about 20° from the verti-
cal and ahead of the weld pool
when welding in flat position, as it
is easier to control the molten flux
and to estimate slag trappings. To
make welds in other positions, hold
the filler metal at approximately a
right angle to the workpiece .
4. Withdraw the filler metal slowly
from the crater to permit a blan-
ket of flame to cover the crater,
protecting it from oxidation while
the metal solidifies.
5. Use a minimum of weaving to pre-
vent depositing wide weld beads.
WELDABILITY OFCOPPER ALLOYS
Copper can be combined with many
elements to produce various alloys .
Copper alloys can be strengthened by
cold working or precipitation harden-
ing and generally possess good ther-
mal and electrical conductivity, which
affect their weldability.
Copper alloys are wrought or cast Commercially pure
coppers are wrought
and consist of commercially pure cop- or cast and are usn!
pers, modified coppers, beryllium cop- primarily for their
pers, brasses, tin bronzes, aluminum high electrical con-
ductivity.
bronzes, copper-nickels, and nickel-
silvers. See Figure 42-2. Many copper
alloys have leaded equivalents, which
contain a small amount of lead to im-
prove their machinability.
Commercially pure coppers are
wrought or cast. Wrought commercially
pure coppers contain at least 99 .9%
copper. They are used primarily for their
WeldahililY of Nonferrous Metals @o 599
 hi gh e lec tric al co nd uc tivity. Cas t
commercially pure coppers have lower
electrical and thermal conductivity than
equivalent wrought alloys because the
elements that must be added to ensure
a sound cas ting, such as silicon, de-
crea se co nductivity. Commerc ia ll y
pure coppers are soft, weak , and very
ductile. They include oxygen-free cop-
pers, deoxidi zed co ppers, and tough
pitch coppers.
Beryllium cop pers are wrought and
cas t copper alloys that co ntain sma ll
amounts of beryllium . Beryllium cop-
pers are prec ipitation hardened to ex-
trem e ly high lev el s of te nsi le a nd
fati gue strength, comparable to low-
alloy stee ls. Small amounts of cobalt
or nickel may be added to refin e the
grain size.
Brasses are wrought alloys of cop-
per and zinc. with 5% to 50% zinc con-
tent. Some brasses also co ntain other
e lements. Brasses are the most pop u-
lar and least ex pensive of the copper
alloys. T hey display a wide range of
mechanical properties, arc easy to work,
have a pleasing color, and exhibit good
corrosion resistance. Brasses consist or
alpha and beta brasses, tin brasses, and
leaded brasses.
Cast ing brasses contain spec ific al-
lo ying e le me nts to impro ve the ir
castability and strength beyond that of
regul ar wrought brasses. They consist
of combinations of tin, lead, iron, man-
ganese, aluminum, and nickel. Casting
bra sses ca n be poured int o co mplex
shapes with low porosity and good me-
chanica l properti es.

Everdur
Tombasi l

70Cuf3QNi
8OCull0Ni

Ni jar
corros,on
resistance

Sn f()( strengltl Tough pitdl

Copper eeo_idized
"""","free

#'!:...,~
-AO~ '3-';;:J'~ Be""
1-"~-"", '" sire ..,.,

' - - - "-;; "

Red brass
Muntz metal
Brass Naval brass
Admiralty brass
Various element s Lea dod brass Berylco 25 Modified
to improve caslability Berylco 165
and streng th Copper

l eaded brass
Manganese bronze

Figure 42·2. MallY copper alloy ... ha ve lead ed equivalents ttun contain a ,u I/all amollnt of lead 10 ;1Il1,nWl' their lIl/u'hillahility.

600 ~ Welding Skills

 Tin bronzes (phos phor bronzes) are
wrought and cas t alloys o f copper and
tin. T in bro nzes co nta in fro m 1.25 %
to 10 % tin, plus lead, zinc. nickel , and
phospho rus . Phosphorus ca n be added
as a deox idizer in cas tings to im prove
soundness and cleanliness. Tin bronzes
have hi gh stre ng th, good tou ghness ,
high co rros ion resistanc e. a nd a lo w
coe fficie nt o f fri cti on , making them
suita b le fo r bearin gs operating under
high loads. Tlwr",,,,lwe /r"IU,I'lrh·,I. II!<

Aluminum bron ze s a re wrought Copper (uhill':; has high thermal conductivity and is ('0111111011/.1' joined bv sweat soldering.

and cas t alloys of co ppe r that contain

bet w een 7% and 13 .5 % a lum in u m ,
plus sma ll a mo u n ts o f ma ng a nese,
Nicke l-s ilvers are wro ught and cast
nic kel , a nd iron . A lu min um bronzes
alloys of copper that contain between 5%
have good strengt h and excellent cor-
a nd 4 5 % zinc, a nd fro m 5% to 30 %
ros ion a nd wear res istance. Nick el is
nickel. Nickel has a strong decolorizing
added to alumin um bro nzes to further
effect on copper-zinc alloys (brasses) .
improve co rrosio n res istance . A lumi -
With greater than 20 % nickel, the color
nu m b ron zes are used fo r bu shing s
turns to silver-white and the alloy takes
and corro sion-resi stant parts.
on a brilliant poli sh . Nicke l-silvers are
S ilic o n bron zes a re w ro ug ht and
used for va lve trim , zippers, and cam-
cas t allo ys of copper that co ntain be-
era parts.
tween I % and 5% silicon and additions
of man gane se, iron , and z inc . Some
wro ught and cast silico n bronzes ha ve General Welding Considerations
lead ed eq u iv a le nts . S ilico n bron ze s for Copper Alloys
hav e hi gh stre ng th sim ila r to ca rbo n
Co ppe r and copper alloys are difficul t
stee l, good tou ghness, a nd exce lle n t
to we ld becau se of their high thermal
co rrosio n resi st an ce . T hey a re used
co nductivity, high coefficien t of thermal
fo r bearings, an d pum p a nd va lve
expansion, hot crac king susceptibili ty,
com ponents.
and high fluidit y. Fluidity is a measure
Copper-nicke ls are wroug ht and cast
of the viscosity or Ilowability of a liquid
alloys of co ppe r co nta ining up to 30 %
or molten solid. Leaded copper and cop-
nick el , plus mino r add itio ns o f iron,
per alloys should not be welded becau se
c hro m iu m, tin , or beryllium . Iron is
the lead creates porosity and promotes
added for increased resistance to erosion-
crac king within a weld.
cor ro sion in water. Eros ion-c orrosion
is the detrimental effect of ve locity or Welding Processes, Most arc welding
turbulence in a corros ive e nviro nment. processes as well as OFW ca n be used
Co pper-nickels ha ve moderate strength to weld co ppe r a lloys . The lo w he at
and better corros io n resi stance th an input of the oxyacetylen e name makes
othe r co ppe r alloys. T hey are used for OFW a relatively slow process com-
seawate r co mpo ne nts. pared w ith a rc we ldi ng . Co ppe rs and
certain high-cop per alloys are very dif-
ficu lt to resistance spo t and seam we ld
o Copper is resistant 10 oxidation, moisture.
and some organicchemicals. making it use-
be cau se o f th ei r hi gh e lectrica l a nd
the rmal co nduc tivi ties. Copper a lloys
jul for electrical conductors. wafer tubing.
heat exchangers. and chemical equipment. ca n be rea di ly j oin ed by braz ing an d
so lde ring .
Welt/abili ty of Nonferrous Metals €): 60)
 Filler Metals. Copper alloys are gener-
ally welded with matching filler met-
als. Filler metals that can be used to weld
copper alloys include covered and bare
filler metal. These may be used to weld
copper alloys to themselves or to other
metals. Many of these filler metals meet
AWS classifications. Silver alloys and
copper-phosphorus fi lle r metals are
most commonly used for brazing cop-
per alloys. See Figure 42-3.
Specific Welding Considerations
for Copper Alloys
Silicon bronzes have relatively low ther-
mal conductivity and only require pre-
heat when joint thickness is more than
2". Aluminum bronzes are susceptible
to hot crack ing, es pecially with less
than 7% aluminum . Alloys with higher
al uminum content are weldable with
adequate preheat. Copper-nickels have
thermal and electrica l conducti viti es
similar to ca rbon stee l and are rela-
tively easy to weld. Cleanliness is es-
sentia l and preheat is not required.
Nickel-silvers are similar to bra sses
because of their high zinc content and
should be brazed rather than welded.
Com me rcia lly Pure Cop pers. Com-
mercially pure coppers require preheat
from 250 0 r (121 °C ) to rooo-r
(538°C), depend ing on joint thickness.
High- strength anneal-resistant coppers
are welded with less preheat than is
requi red for other co mmerc ially pure
coppers to preserve their strength.

Ftgure ·.12·3. Fill er meta ls that

ca ll be used to 'Weld C0I'I' l'r alloys FILLER METALS FOR WELDING COPPER ALLOYS
include covered a ll" ha re filler
Base Metal Name Covered' Baret
metal and ba re rods . Mo nv of
these filler metals m('(', AWS clas-
Copper Copper ECu ERCu
sifi cauons.

Silicon Bronzes,
Silico n Bronze ECuSi ERCuSi-A
Brasses
Phospho r Bronzes,
Phosphor Bro nze ECuSn -A ERCuSn -A
Brasse s
Phosphor Bronzes,
Phospho r Bronze ECuSn- C ERCuSn-A
Brasses

Copper-N ickels Copper-Nickel ECuN i ERCu Ni

Aluminum Bron zes, Brasses, ERCuAI-Al

Aluminum Bronze ECuAI-A2
Silicon Bronzes, Manganese Bron zes ERCuAI-A2

Aluminum Bronzes Aluminum Bronze ECuAI-B ERCuAI·A3

Nickel-Aluminu m Bronzes - ECuN iAI ERCuN iAI

Manganese-Nickel-
- ECuM nNiAI ERCuMnNiAI
Aluminum Bronzes

Brasses, Copper Naval Brass - RBCuZ n·A

Brasses, Mangan ese Bron zes Low-fum ing Brass - RBCuZn-B

Brasses, Manganese Bronzes Low-fuming Brass - RBCuZn ·C

Nickel-Silvers - - RBCuZN-D

• AN SIJAWS A5 _6. 5peafication tor Covered Copper and Coppe r Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes
t AN S IJAW S A5. l , Specification forCcpper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes. AN SVAWS AS.S, Specification
for Filler Mefals lor Brazing and Braze Welding

602 ~ Welding Skills

 Oxygen-free coppers a re welded as
rapidl y as po ssible to minimiz e ox y-
gen pickup. Deoxidized co ppers are
the most commonly used type of cop-
per for fabrication by welding. Deoxi-
dized copper is susceptible to oxygen
pickup and requires silicon-containing
filler metal to minimize the effects of
oxygen pickup . Since co ppe r ha s a
very high coefficient of expan sion , pre-
cautions mu st be taken to prevent con-
tracti on of the j oint. Ji gs and fixtures
mu st be u sed to prevent movement
during c ooling . However, e ven when
jigs are used, contraction forces c an
cause cracking during cooling.
Special coated metal arc filler met-
als have been developed to weld sheet
co ppe r. The most common are ph o s-
phor bronze (EC uSn-A) and aluminum
bro nz e (EC uA I-A) . The j oint desi gn
used for deoxidized coppers mu st in-
clude a rel atively large root opening
and groove angle . Tight joints shou ld
be avoided to prevent buckling, poor
penetration, sla g inclusions, undercut-
tin g, and porosity. Copper backing
strips arc often ad visable.
Tou gh pitch co ppers contain a uni-
form di stribution o f cop pe r ox ide,
which is insufficient to affect ductility,
but can c au se problems when w eld-
in g. When heated a b o ve 1680°F
(916°C) for prolonged periods, the cop-
per oxide tends to migrate to the grain
boundaries, leading to a reduction in
strength and ductility. Additionally, the
copper absorbs ca rbon monoxide and
hydrogen , w hic h react wi th the cop-
per oxid e a nd rel ea se c arbon dioxide
and water vapor. Carbon dioxide and
water vapor are not soluble in copper
and exert pressure between the grains,
producin g internal cracking and
e mbritt le me nt.
Tough pitch c o ppe rs are not re c-
o m me nde d fo r gas weldin g becau se
gas welding c a us es e m b ritt le rn e n t:
brazing o r so lde ri ng sho u ld be used .
However, some weld s can be made with
SMAW in s itua t io ns w he re ten sile
stre ng th requirements a re e xtre me ly A WARNING
lo w (1 9, 0 00 p si or le ss), provided a
When wel ding brass,
high welding c ur re nt a nd high tr av el e nsure proper ventilation
of the work area to remove
speed are used. The high current a nd
harm ful zinc oxide fumes.
travel speed do not allow embrittlement
to develop.
Beryllium Coppers, Beryllium cop-
pers form an oxide film that inhibits
wetting and fusion during welding. An
ab solutely clean joint su rfac e is re -
quired and may be achi ev ed by abrad-
ing the surface. Beryllium co ppers are
welded in the soft annealed condition
and then precipitation hardened to
ach ie ve the required strength .
Brasses, Since the application of heat
tends to vaporize zinc, arc welding on
brass is diffi cult. When zinc volatilizes,
the zi nc fum es a nd oxide s o fte n ob-
Use heavi ly coal ed
tI
sc ur e vis io n and make welding hard
.E= p hosp hor-bron ze
to perform. Furthermore, the form ation • ~ filler me tals when
of oxides produces a dirty surface that weld ing tin bronze
and make sma ll de-
ruin s the wetting properties of the mol -
posits of heads at (l
ten metal. To arc weld brasses, us e time.
heavily coated phosphor-bronze filler
metal s and make s m a ll d eposits o f
metal. Preheat should be eliminated
and a lower welding current used.
Zinc va po rs ca n be minimi zed by
decreasin g or eliminating preheat, or
by u sin g lower weldin g current s.
High-zinc brasses have lower thermal
conductivity and require less preheat
than low-zinc brasses.
Tin Bronzes. Since the thermal con-
ductivity of tin bronze is similar to that
of stee l, it ca n be easil y welded. Wh en
using SMAW, a heavily coated phosphor-
bronze fill er metal sho u ld be u sed,
with DCEP current. The metal mu st
be abso lutely clean to en sure a sound
weld .
Tin bronzes are very susce ptib le to
hot cracking. To prevent hot cracking,
tin bronzes should be preheated to be-
tw een 30 0 ° F (149 °C ) and 400° F
(204°C). Hi gh welding c urr e nts a nd
high travel speed s are used a nd each
weld pass is peened.
Weldability of Nonf errous Metals @o 603
A CAUTION
To kee p ai rbor ne conce n-
tration s of berylli um
within allo wable limit s.
proper safety precaution s
must be ta ken when
melting. welding. Ilame
cutting. polish ing, huffi ng,
grind ing. and machin ing
berylli um coppers.
WELDABILITY OF ALUMINUM
ALLOYS
Aluminum alloys ca n be wro ught or
cast. Various elements are added to alu-
minum to produce alloys with specific
propert ie s. Aluminum alloys can be
strengthened by work hardening or pre-
cipitation hardening. The weldability of
aluminum alloys is influenced by clean-
liness requirements, heat requi rements,
and des ired appearance .
Alumin um alloys have low density,
good corrosion resista nce, and good
weldab ility. Co ld-worked alloys suffer
a loss of strength in the HAZ during
welding. Precipitation hardened alloy s
must be heat-treated after welding to
restore their strength.
Aluminum alloys consist of various
families (series) of wrought or cast al-
loys. Each series is identified hy a se-
q ue nc e of num bers. For e xam ple ,
wro ught aluminum manganese alloys
are identified by the 3XXX series. such
as allo y 3003 . Cast aluminum-silicon
a lloys are identified by th e 3XX.X
series , for ex ample alloy 356 .0 . See
Figure 42-4.
Temp er designations are alphanu-
meric notat ions tha t indicate the final
condition of co ld-work ed (H) or heat-
treated (T) metal. A number following
the letter indicates the condit ion. Tem-
per designation is separated from the al-
loy identific ation number by a hyphen.
For example, 3003-H2 designates quar-
ter hard aluminum manganese alloy.
General Welding Considerations
for Aluminum Alloys
General weldin g considerati ons for all
al uminum alloys include appearance,
cleaning requirements, heat require-
ments, we ldin g processes, and fi lle r
met als.

. -. .

8XX ,X

8XXX Other AI
Allo ys

3XXX
eg -3003

7XXX Zn lo r high strength 5i to lower m.p. and 4XXX

eg-707 5 Alumi num 4XX .X
7XX .X

Mg ror
moderate
strength

6XXX
..-606'

PH 3XX.X
eg-356.0
AI-Si with Cu A3560
Strengthening Mechanism: and/ or Mg
P H prOClptla l1Ofl hardefling
SH solution hardening
CW cold WOrking

Figure .t2·.t. A lum illllm 11110.....1' C(l/1.\1~ 1 of various f am ilies (series ) of wrougiu or nut alloys, each (1 ~1'11 icll is identifi ed hy (l ,W'q Ui ' II l"(' (!{ numbers.

604 @o Weldinli Skills

Appearance. The appearance of alu -
minum aft er welding is oft en of great
importance. GMAW an d GTAW can
pro vid e th e best as-w elded bead a p-
pearance. Welded parts may be g iven
a chemi cal or electrochemical (anodic)
surface treatment to pro vid e corros ion
resistance , coloring, or both. All flu x
must be remo ved fro m brazed , so l-
dered, or we lded joints prior to surface
treatment. Fill er metal s that contain a
large amount of silicon dar ken during
anodic treatmen t.
Cleaning Requirements. Cl eaning re-
quirements for aluminum alloy s a re
stringent becau se, during we lding, the
naturall y formed aluminum oxide sur-
face film thick en s and becomes a hin -
dr anc e . T he sur f ace film mu st b e
remov ed befor e fus io n or res is tance
welding, and mu st be pre vented from
re-for m ing by mean s of an inert ga s
shield or by pressure bet ween the joint
surfaces. [I' the surface film is not re-
mo ved, sma ll parti cl e s of un m elted
oxide will be trapp ed in the weld, caus-
ing a reducti on in du ctility, lack of fu-
sion, and weld cracking.
The aluminum o xide sur face film
may be removed electrically, me ch ani -
cally, or c he mica lly. Elec tric al cl ean -
ing occurs during we lding. The surface
film is blasted away by cathod ic bom-
bardm ent dur ing the positive half-cycl e
of th e sine wave , mak in g e lect ric a l
c le an ing a g o od m ethod of in sit u
c le a ning .
M ech ani c al cl eanin g is us u a lly
don e im med iate ly be fore we ld ing by
sc ra p ing th e su rface u sin g a c lea n
st ai n less steel w ire b ru sh wi th light
pressure to prevent burn ishing or con-
tamin atin g th e s u rf a ce . C he mic a l
cl ean ing requires a che mical so lutio n
to di ssol ve th e sur fac e fi lm . C he m i-
cal attack of the met al mu st be pre-
vented during cleaning by minimizing
expos ure time in the solution and , af-
ter we ld ing, by immediate removal of
residual flux.
Heat Requirements. The high th er-
TJl(' sutfucefilm must
mal c o nd uc ti vi ty and high th ermal
he removedfrom alu-
expansion coefficient of alum inu m minum alloys before
influence its weldability. Aluminum fusion or res istance
a lloys conduct heat three to five tim es welding . ami must he
prevented from re-
fast er than steel so that more heat in- fanning by meWLI' of
put is required tha n for steel , e ven an inert gas shield or
th o ug h th e m elt ing point of a lu m i- by pressur e between
the joint surfaces.
num is significantly lower than that of
s te e l. Preheat is oft en required fo r
thi ck joints, but mu st not e xceed
4000F (204 °C ) to pr e vent de trimen-
tal effects to the weld joint. Hi gh -
sp ee d weldin g proce ss e s w ith hi gh
heat input, such as GMAW, are favor-
able for aluminum welding . Th e high
th erm al co nd uctivity of a lum inu m is
beneficial in all -position welding be -
cau se th e rapid cooling of th e we ld,
coupled with its surface ten sion whe n
molten , re sults in rapid solid ification.
Dis tortion in aluminum alloys dur-
ing we ld ing is a bou t twi ce as grea t
as when welding stee l. The amoun t
of di stortion is inversely proportional
to the speed of welding. Addition -
all y, a vo lu me sh r in k a g e of about
6% , which occurs during so lid ifica-
t ion , in creas es the c h a n ce of ho t
c rac k ing in full y re strain ed joints .
Fi xtures for we ld ing aluminu m alloys
mu st b e d e sign ed to ac co m mo da te
both e xp ans io n and contraction , a nd
y et maintain th e proper ge o me tr ic
po sition for w elding .
Welding Processes. The welding pro-
cesses commonl y used for aluminum
are GTAW, G M AW, and resi st an ce
welding. GTAW is used for thin jo ints.
AC current is ge nerally used becau se it
pro vides a cleaning action on the po si-
tive half-cycle of the sine wave. Argon
is commonly used when welding alu-
minum and is used at a low flow rate .
He li u m in c rease s penetration , bu t a
higher flow rate is required. Filler metal
must be c lean and free of oxide; other-
wise, the we ld will be porous.
GMAW is appli ed to thick j oi nt s
and is much fa ster than GTAW. Pure
argon is normall y used for shie ld ing.
Weldability of' Nonferrous Metals ~ 605
 The filler metal must be kept clean to two reco mmended for oxyacetylene
prevent porosity. All aluminum alloys welding. Filler metal selection for weld-
may be resistance welded. ing' alum inum depends on a number
Filler Metals. Filler metals for weld- of factors, including base metal com-
ing aluminum alloys are classified by position, strength requirements, duc-
the same four-digit system used to des- tility req uirements, color match after
ignate wrought and cast aluminu m al- anodizing , corrosion resistance, and
loys. Filler metals for joining aluminum cracking tendency. Generally, one type
alloys fa ll in to th e lX XX , 2X XX , of filler metal usually satisfies severa l
3XXX, 4XXX , or 5XXX groups. The requirements for a specific alloy. See
IXXX and 4XXX groups are the only Figure 42-5.

FILLER METALS FOR WELDING ALUM INUM ALLOYS...

------------------------------------------------------
,
Base Metal
FlllI!I"Memt lJl!S
201·0. ~19.0J,33M,
-.
:~.0;A3~tMI:
~'j,\)i jl12:4,
.3~1,Oi A3~"!6~ :~Ijl;OJl\'H,Q,;
Wtl.rVOO5· ' :'6009'" '6905 -696i1;,
60(;;l;61O:1;'
.' .
206.0, S54.0,:35~,0; :i~"~9 s'w' I$~ ~,
41~~:.t43. ;' • ",,2.0 . :: 60 0'.,0:'" ' :6!64'-620:1
. ~,t ,.
224.0 CS55,O 0;(1 " ~35;0 l:.~l::i ·1:.0.51'
1060,1070, ER5356e .f,g ER5356e ,f,g ER404Sd.e ER4043e
1080 , 1350 ER4 145 ER4 145 ER4043d ,e ER53569 ER4043e ,g

1100 ,3003, ER5356e ,f,g

Ale. 3003 ER4 145 ER4 145 ER4043d ,e ER5356e ,l,g ER4043d.e ER4043 e ER53569 ER4043e ,g

20 14 ,2036 ER414S h ER414S h ER4145 - - ER4145 ER4145 --- - --

2219 ER2319 d
ER41 4S h ER414Se ,f ER4043 e ER4043 e ER4043 d,e ER4043 d •e --- ER4043e
3004,
Ale . 3004
- ER4043e ER4043e ER5356' ER5356' ER4043e ER4043 e " ER53569 ER5356i

5005, 5050 - ER4043e ER40 43 e ER5356' ER5356' ER4043e ER4043 e,' ER53569 ER5356'

5052,5652 - ER4043 e
ER4043 e
" ER5356' ER5356' ER4043 e ER53561,i ER5356' ER535B '

5083 - - ER5356 e •I ,9 ER53569 ER5 183 9 - ER53569 ER5 183 9 ER53569

5086 - - ER5356e •I ,9 ER5356 9 ER5356 9 - ER53569 ER53569 ER53569

5 154,5254 - - ER4043 e., ER5356 i ER5356' - ER5356' ER5356' ER5356'

5454 - ER4043 e ER4043 e •1 ER5356' ER5356' ER4043 e ER53561•1 ER5356' ER5554h •i

5456 - - ER5356e.1,9 ER53569 ER55569 - ER53569 ER5556 g -

B005,6061,
610 1,6151 ,
6201 ,6351,
ER4 145 ER4145e.l ER4043 e ,1,J ER535B' ER5356 eJ ,i ER4043 d ,e,j ER4043 e " ,J - -
695 1
6009,6010,
6070
ER4 145 ER4 145 e.f ER4043d ,e.i ER4043 e ER4043 e ER4043 e,',J - - -
7004,7005,
7039,710.0 - ER4043e ER4043 e,i ER5356 ' ER5356 9 - - -
7 12 .0
511 .0, 512.0 ,
5 13,0,514.0, - - ER4043 e ,i ER5356' - - - - -
535,0
356 .0, A3 56.0 ,
357 .0, A357.0, ER4145 ER4 145 e ,1 ER4043 e,k - - - - - -
4 13.0 ,443.0
A444.0
319.0,333.0,
354.0. 355 .0,
C355.0
ER4 145 h ER4 145 e •l ,k - - - - - - -
201.0, 206,0, ER2319d•k
224,0 - - - - - - - -
a . Se rvice corcmcns may hmlt the cooce of hiler meters . FIller metals ER 5183 , ER 5356 , ER5556 . and ER5654 ar e not ,ecommend ed lo r sustained elevale d l empe ml urn serv ICe
b. For ga s shielded a rc weldi ng pr ocesses onl y. For OAW ER l1 88. ERl l00 , ER4Q43 , ER404 7 , and ER4 145 filler mela ls a re used
c. WIl ere no filler me tal is iisl ed. Ihe base meta l co mbinalion is no l rec ommen de d 101welding
d . ER4 145 may be used fo r some applications
e. ER 5183 , ER5356 , ER5564, ER5 556, and ER56 54 may blo used . They may provide improve d Color match aft er anodizing trea tmen l . highesl weld duc tih1y, and higher weld slre ng th. ER5554 is suitable lo r s usta ined
elevated-Iem peralure ser vice
1. ER4 04 3 may be used fo r some appliealions
g , ER5 183, ER5356, or ER5556 may be used
h. ER23 19 may be used fo r some applicalions to supp iy high slrenglh when the we ldmen l is po stweld solution heal- treated and aged
i. ER404 7 may be used for some app lications.
j . ER4643 pl ov;des high slr eng lh in 'h- and lhicker groove welds in 6XXX a lloys w hen po stweld solu tion heal-lreal ed an d ag ed
k, Filter meta l of me sam e com position as jne base mela l may be used .

Figure 42·5...

606 ~ Welding Skills

 ·..FILLER METALS FOR WELDING ALUMINUM ALLOYS _.-
- .- - - -- -~---- -~ - - - --- -
---~ -- -- - _. . - -.- -- - --
~
-- -- -- .
Filler Metal Types·,b,e
1100, 1060,
Base Metal 5154, 5052, 5005 , 3004, 2014, 1070,
5086 5083 2219 3003,
525 4 5652 5050 Ale. 3004 2036 Ale. 3003 1080,
1350
1060,1070, EA5356 e.1.g ER404~·1I ER11W.t ER4043 e .g ER1188d.~
1080, 1350 ER5356 11 ER53569 ER4 14SeJ ER4 145 ER1100d
1100,3003.
Alc.3003
ER5356e.'·g ER5356 9 ER5356 11 ER4!l4J<' ER11QO-·l ER4043,"·g ER4 14Sd ER4 145 ER11W ·1 -
2014,2036 - - - - ER4 145 ER4 145 ER4 145" ER4 145" - -
22 19 ER4043" - - ER404 3e .g ER4043'" ER4043<l.· ER2319" - - -
3004 ,
Ale. 3004
ER5356' ER5356!1 ER5356 11 ER5356....i ER5356 l1 ER5356') - - - -
5005. 5050 ER5356' ER53569 ER53569 ER5356d .lI ER5356 1
" - - - - -
5052,5652 ER5356' ER535& ER5356\1 ER5654'.i - - - - - -

5083 ER53S611 ER53 5& ER5 18;3Q - - - - - - -

5086 ER5356" ER5356' - - - - - - - -
5154.5254 ER5654' - - - - - - - - -

.. . Fig ure ·U·S . Filla III £'W!S for Ireldi" x aluminum alloys are setectrd for 'he (w e of base metal to be welde d.

WELDABILITY OF MAGNESIUM Magnesium alloys are identified by a

ALLOYS four -part numb ering system indicating
chemical composition and temper des-
Magne sium is one of the lighte st com - ignation . See Figure 42-6.
mercial metal s. Magne sium is alloyed Th e temp er designation of mag ne-
with man y chem ica l elements to cre- sium alloys is included in the alloy des-
ate pro ducts with a high strength-to- ignation and is similar to the codes used
weight ratio. Som e magne sium alloys to describe aluminum alloys. For ex-
have strength-to-weight ratio s co mpa- ample, T6 describes a temper which is
rable to so me a luminum alloys and solutio n treated and artifici ally aged
high-strength stee ls. making them suit- (precipitat ion harden ed ).
able fo r hi gh -stren gth a pplicat io ns
whe re lo w wei ght is adv a ntageo us . ljl 7111.' best weklability
is achievedwith mag-
So me wro ught magnesium alloys are o Care must he taken when preparing or re- ~- nesium a lloys IIWI
contain a luminum
strengthened by col d wo rki ng or pre- pairing magnesium. Magnesium can heal lind :;IIC. ran' earth
cipi ta tion hardening. an d so me cast 10 a combustion point and will ignite.
elements. or thorium.
magnes ium alloys are strengthened by
preci pitation hardening.
Magn esi um a lloys are grouped
General Welding Considerations
bro adl y acco rd ing to their cost. Th e
for Magnesium Alloys
lower cost gro up of magnesi um alloys
contain from 2% to 10% aluminum. plus Th e best welda bility is achieve d with
minor amounts of manganese, silicon, magnesium alloys that contain aluminum
and zinc. The second gro up contains and zinc. rare earth elements, or thorium.
manganese, zinc, rare earth elements, These alloys are represented by the AM,
and thorium , plu s small am ounts of AZ, ZE, EZ, HK. HM, and HZ series.
zirconium to refi ne the grain size. The Alloys with zinc as the major alloying
se co nd gro up has bett er properties at element are more difficult to weld. These
higher temperatures, is more difficult to alloys are represent ed by the ZE. ZH,
produce. and is much more expensive. and ZK series.
Weldability of Nonferrou s Metals § 607
 ASTM MAGNESIUM ALLOY AND TEMPER DESIGNATION

FIRST PAR~RD PART\

/ DASH

IAlz19111CI-IT161
'-v-' '-v-'
SECOND PART / "- FOURTH PART

% @"'''''''''''''#, '" '" ~

, ~ e
Arst Part seeencsart ~
Ttiird
*' '" Part
· w ,,"," ",,,,,,,
: '
, Fourth Part

Disti nguishes between

Indicates the two Indicates the amounts of different alloys with the
principal alloying the two principal alloying same percentages of the Indicates temper cond ition
elements elements two principal alloying
elements

F-As-fabr icated
O-Annealed
A-Aluminum H10 and H11 -Sfiqhtly strain hardened
E-Rare Earth Elem ents H23, H24, and H26-Strain
H-Thorium hardened and partially annealed
K-Zircon ium Letters of alphabet
Whole numbers T4-80lulion heat-treated
M-Manganese except I and 0
T5-Precipitation hardened only
Q-Si lver 16-Solution heat-treated and
S-Silicon precipitation hardened
T-Tin IS-Solution heat -treated, cold
Z-Zinc worked , and precipitation hardened

Percentages of the two

Two main alloying elements
in order of decreasing per-
centage or alphabetically
if per centages are equ al
main alloying elements
Letter of the alphabet
assigned in orde r as
and arranged in same Letter followed by a number
compositions becom e
order as alloy designations
standard
in first part

Figure 42-6 . The designations [or m ag nes ium alloys consist of a [our-part num be ring system.

Weldability factors that mus t be con- Heat Requirements. Heat require-

sidered before welding magnesium in- ments for welding ma gnesium alloys
clude surfac e preparation , heat are di ctated by their high thermal
requirements, we lding processe s, and conductivity and high coeffic ient of
filler metals, thermal expansion , Becau se of th es e
Surface Preparation. Surface prepa- factors , thick work pieces and highly
ration is required to remove the oxide restrain ed joints generally require
film before welding magnesium. The sur- p reheat to prevent weld cracking,
face fi lm thickens as the temperature Welding Processes, GTAW and GMAW
increase s, becoming a hindrance to are commonly used for welding mag -
welding , The su rface must be thor- nesium. GTAW is generally used for thin
oughl y degreased to remove sur face sections and GMAW for medium to thick
pr eservatives and then chemically or sectio ns. Argon is the most common
mechanically cleaned to remove the shielding gas, but argon-helium mixtures
oxid e film. Variou s ch emical cleaning are also used , Most wrought alloy s can
so lu t io ns can be used, For critical be readily resistance spot welded, In re-
work, chemical cleaning is followed sistance spot welding, the metal is mol-
by me chani ca l cleaning with a clean ten for a very short time and the cooling
stainless stee l wire brush, using light rate is very high, so there is little time for
pressure to prevent gouging, harmful metallurgical changes to occur.
608 ~ Welding Skills
Filler Metals. Filler metals with a lower
melliog point and a larger freezing range
than the base met al provide good
weldability and minimize weld crack ing
in magnesium alloys. See Figure 42-7.
WELDABILITY OF TITANIUM
ALLOYS
Titanium alloys vary from low-strength
to high -stren gth. dependin g on their
metall urgical struc ture. High- strength
tit anium alloys have a high strength-
to-weight ratio. Strict attention to clean-
liness and gas atmosp here is required
wh en welding titanium .
Titanium alloys are groupe d into
alpha. alpha-beta. and beta alloys ac-
co rding to their metallu rgical struc-
ture . Alpha alloy s are ge ne rall y the
lo we st s tre ng t h. Alph a-bet a all o ys
have highe r strength than alpha alloys
and are annealed or preci pitati on hard-
ened. Bet a allo ys de velop ex tre me ly
high stren gths thro ugh cold working
o r precipitation hardenin g.
Alpha tit anium a lloys co ns ist o f
three gro ups: commerciall y pure tita-
nium, alph a alloy s. and near-alpha al-
loy s. C o m merc ia ll y pure tit anium
contains very small amounts of inter-
stitial elements. An interstitial element

Fi~u re 42-7. Filler 11/('10 1.1" wifh 11

FILLER METALS FOR WELDING MAGNESIUM ALLOYS' /011' ('1" melliuK !,OiIlT and larger
jrt'I''dIlX rang e than tlie hase metal
Filler Metal Types II/'(wide go od weldah ility Jor mag·
Magnesium
Base nesium (lJloy.~.
Alloy ERAZ61A ERAZ92A EREZ33A ERAZ101A
Metal
WROUGHT MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
AZl0A X X
AZ31B X X
AZ61A X X
AZ80A X X
ZK21A X X
HK31A X
HM21A X
HM31A X
M1A X
CAST MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
AM100A X X X
AZ63A X X X
AZ81A X X X
AZ91A X X X
AZ92A X X X
EK41A X X
EZ33A X X
HK31A X X
HZ32A X X
K1A X X
QH21A X X
ZE41A X X
ZH62A X X
ZK51A X X
ZK61A X X
• AN$ lfAWSA 519, SpecificatJOfllot MagneSIum A lloy Welding Electrodes and Rods

Weldab ;l;ty of Nonferrous Metals ~ 609


Stainless steel wire
brushes sho uld be
used to r(w/(Jl'eresi-
dues from titanium
alloys.
GMA IV is comnuml y used for welding a lumin um because wt'ld illg run be performed
rapidly. kel'pillM 11l'(/1 input low.
610 ~ WeldinK Ski lls
is a che mica l eleme nt add ed in small
amounts. who se ato mic size is signifi-
ca ntly less than the maj or ele ments
present in the metal. The prim ary dif-
ference between the various grades of
co mme rcially pure titanium is the in-
terstitial eleme nt co ntent. Alloys with
high er pu rit y (grades I and 2) ha ve
lo wer s tre ng t h an d lo we r hardn e ss
than allo ys of lo wer purity (grades 3
and 4). A lph a and near-alpha alloys
have improved strength over co mmer-
cially pure titanium and have high-tem-
perature strength. See Figu re 42-8 .
Alph a-beta titani um a lloys can be
stre ngt he ne d by so lutio n tr eatm en t
a nd pr ecipitati on hard enin g to
ac hieve high st rengt hs. Beta titanium
alloys are heat-treated to high strength
levels by so lutio n treatm ent and pre-
cipitatio n hardening. Beta alloys also
ha ve exce ptio na l wo rk hardenin g
cha racteri sti cs.
General Welding Considerations
for Titanium Alloys
Gen eral weldability co nsiderations for
titanium alloys are cleaning and shield-
ing, wel ding proc esses, and brazin g .
Cleanliness is the single most important
requirement for welding titanium alloys,
including effective inert gas shielding to
ensure that no atmospheric contaminants
enter the material during welding and
during cooling from the welding tem-
perature. When using a coated electrode
to weld titanium, welding can be per-
formed in a normal atmosphere .
Thi" IJncoln £/ ... ·/ri,- G H"I''' ''Y
~
. -. .
Ti-5AI-2.5Sn Grade 6
AI, Sn lor
high temperature
str""""
AI. II 101"
Comme rcially Pure
(CP) TI HGrade s
Ti-6AI-4V G_ 5
1-4
"' l~
"""""'"
reseta ~
Ti-Pd
G_,
7and 11
Fi gu r e ·U ·S . Titani um alto.....s p rovide a combina -
tion of light weigh t and rekui vetv high streng th,
o Titanium is thef ourth most abundant metal,
but the difficulty in extracting it results in
increased cost.
Cleaning and Shielding Require-
ments. C le a ning a nd shie ld ing re-
quirements before and dur ing welding
ar e of param oun t impo rtance whe n
we ldi ng ti tanium all oys. Con tam ina-
tio n by im puri ties such as ox ygen or
nitrogen must be carefu lly co ntrolled
to prevent britt le we lds . Oil , fi nge r-
prints, grea se. paint, and other foreign
matt er sho uld be re mo ved usin g a
su itabl e so l ve nt c leani ng met ho d .
C hloride-cont ai nin g so lve nts lea ve
re sidues that can cause cracking . Hy-
drocarbo n resid ues can result in oil
contaminat ion a nd e mb ritt le me nl.
On ly s tai n less ste e l wire bru she s
should be used to re mov e residues.
Welding Processes. Welding processes
used to we ld tita nium alloy s are
GTAW. GMAW, electron beam weld-
ing, laser beam welding, or resistance
welding. Preheat is not required for ti-
tanium all oys.
Welding must be performed with an
inert shie lding gas such as argon to
prevent oxyge n and nit rogen pickup.
The argo n shield mus t be maintained
on all metal surfaces above a tempera-
ture of IOOO°F (538°C). The shielding
gas used must be free of harmful
contaminants and must completely en-
velop both sides of the metal, both
during welding and as the weld cools .
The metal as it cools from welding tem-
perature must also be protected by a
trailing shield. See Figure 42-9 .
•
DIRECTION
OF WELDING :::::::::::::::::1
'=::Jl.iii~ TITANI U M
Figure 42·9. The metal co oling Fum welding rem -
perature must also he pro tected by a trailing shield.
Brazing. Brazing may be performed on
titanium alloys. Brazing has very little
effect on the properties of alpha alloys.
The mechanical properties of alpha-beta
alloys can be severely reduced by braz-
ing. The brazing temperature must be
below 1650°F (899 °C) to prevent re-
duction in mechanical properties. Beta
alloys are unaffected when used in the
annealed condition .
Specific Welding Considerations
for Titanium Alloys
Most titanium alloys do not require heat
treatment after welding to restore me-
chanical properties. Specific welding
considerations depend on th e alloy
group.
o When burning titanium, wear a dark fens
helmet to protect from the brightness of the
material.
Alpha Titanium Alloys. Alpha tita-
nium alloys have good weldability
because they are ductile. Welding or
brazing operations have little effect on
the mechanical properties of annealed
material. Commercially pure titanium
is usually welded with a filler metal
one grade below that of the base metal
because welding operations lead to
slight pickup of oxygen and nitrogen.
For example, grade 2 titanium (.25 %
0) is welded with grade I titanium
filler metal (.18% 0).
Alpha-Beta Titanium Alloys. Alpha -
beta titanium alloys may undergo
harmful strength, ductility, and tough-
ness changes when welded . Ti-6AI-4V
has the best weldability of the alpha-
beta alloys and can be welded in either
the annealed condition or the partially
precipitation hardened condition. Pre-
cipitation hardening may be completed
during postweld stress-relief heat treat-
ment. Alpha-beta titanium alloys may
suffer significant mechanical property
loss during welding. Alpha-beta tita-
nium alloys may be welded with com-
mercially pure titanium filler metals to
increase joint ductility.
Beta Titanium Alloys. Beta titanium
alloys are weldable in either the an-
nealed or the heat -treated condition .
Weld joints have good ductility but
relatively low strengths as welded .
Beta titanium alloys are welded with
matching filler metals. They are not
usually heat-treated after welding , be-
cause even though filler metals match
the base metals in chemical composi-
tion , their response to heat treatment
is different.
Weldahility af Nonferrous Meta ls €l' 611
 I. Nickel alloys are extremely sensitive to cracking from contamination, and the joint must be
thoro ughly cl eaned befo re we lding.
2. Rem ove the oxide film fro m the surface to be welded and use heavil y coated filler metals
spec ially designed for Mon el@and lnc onel " .
3 . Commercially pure coppers are wrought or cast and are used primarily for their high electri-
cal co nd uctivity.
4 . Use heavil y coated phosphor-bron ze filler metal s when welding tin bron ze and make small
depo sits of beads at a time.
5 . The surface film must he removed from aluminum alloys before fusion or resistance weld -
ing. and must be prevented from re-forming by mean s of an inert gas shield or by pressure
between the joint surfaces.
6 . Th e best weldahility is achi eved with magnesium alloys that contain a luminum and zinc,
rare ea rth eleme nts, or thorium .
7 . Stainless stee l wire bru shes should be used to remo ve residues from titanium all oys.

I. What is the copper cont ent of commercially pure coppers?

2. Brass is an allo y co nsisting of what elements?
3. What are the principal allo ying ingredient s in bronze?
4. Wh at is fluidit y?
5. What are some of the outsta nding prop erties of aluminum?
6. Why sho uld the surface film be rem oved before welding on aluminum?
7. Whi ch alloy ing eleme nts prov ide the best we ldability when added to magne sium?
8. Why mu st titanium alloy s be absolutely clean before and dur ing welding?
9. Why docs distorti on occ ur in nickel allo ys?
10. What must be done to the surface of Monel " and lnconel " before welding?
I I. When welding Monel " or Inconel " , what type of current should be used?

612 ~ Welding Skills

 ~U·'·.'·'l'.r1..-.....n. ,( -"'"

Distortion Contr

Distortion is the undesirable dimensional change of a f abrication. Distortion occurs because of 11 01 ' -
uniform expansion and contraction of weld metal and adja cent base metal f rom the welding process.
Distortion makes it difficult to maintain proper fit -up as welding progresses. Expensive remedial work
may be required to correct a job after completion. Distortion [rom welding also contributes to residual
stresses. Distortion is controlled by the welding procedure, and by restraints and heat shaping used to
accommodat e shrinkage. Fabrication codes and standards ha ve requirements fo r maximum allow-
able distortion .

DISTORTION adju sting to the new volume require-

Distortion is the undesirable dimen-
sional change of a fabrication . Distor-
tion is related to the direction of the
weld and varies with the weld joint con-
figuration . Distortion in welding arises
from weld met al shrinkage and base
metal shrinkage that accompany cool-
ing. Distortion and shrinkage lead to
high residual stresses in the metal. The
part may be forced out of alignment
as residual stresses in the weld joint
ease and cause the part to move.
Weld Metal Shrinkage
Weld metal shrinkage occurs as metal
coo ls. produ cin g distort ion in a weld .
As a we ld begins to solidify. it is ex-
pand ed to its maximum. As the metal
cools and solidities, it attempts to con-
tract in volume, but adj acent base metal
pre vent s (re strain s) it from doin g so.
The restraint causes stresses within
tbe weld to increase and finally exceed
tbe yield strength of the metal. Once
the yield strength is exceeded . the weld
metal begins to stretch, thinning out and
Distortion in welding
ment s. On ly those stresses that exceed
is caused hy shrink-
the yield strength are relieved by this lIKi' ill the wetdmeta!
accommodation . By the time the weld 1I1/(1 I"e bas e meta !
reaches ambient temperature-assum- that occurs during
cooling .
ing it is completely restrained by the
base metal and cannot move-the weld
contains locked -in tensile stresses ap-
proximately equal to its yield strength.
Shrinkage in weld metal may be
transverse or longitudinal . Transverse
shrinkage is shrinkage that occurs per-
pendicular to the weld axis. Transverse Distortion of wekled
shrinkage dep ends o n the volume of .Hr uctll rl' .'i is eithe r
weld metal, plus the amount of the root trans verse (at C)O" to
111(.' weld axis) or lon-
opening. Som e shrinkage will occur XillU/illal (alo ng the
whether or not the joi nt is made with a len gth of the weld
luis).
root opening. Longitud ina l shrinkage
is shrinkage that occ urs parallel to the
weld axis. See Figure 43-1.
Groove Welds . Several weld passes are
ofte n necessary to complete a groov e
weld. The root pass creates little or no
distortion , but restrain s the two com-
pon ents bein g joined . As the second
pass solidifies , it shrinks, but the so-
lidified root pass offers restraint (no
movement ). so that the shrinkage must

613
 occur within the sec ond pass and to-
ward its upper surface . Succes sive
passes are larger and wider and there
is a greater mass of weld metal shrink-
ing. For groove weld s in carbon steel
with a 60° groove angle, the transverse
shrinkag e rate is typi cally 1/1 6" to 1/ 8"
per weld pass.
Fleure 43-1. Distortion is caused
by"wel d SlJrillktIKt'. which ca n he
I rwl.n'n .r!' (T) or longitudinal (L).
~
.- ". . - " _ " ..
(T) = TRAN SVER SE SHRINKAGE
(LI = LONGITUDIN AL SHRINKAGE
Each new pass goes through a so-
lidifying shrinkage cycle as it cools,
with the previous pa ss acting as re-
straint. The weld works like a hinge:
the weld root is the hinge pin, and the
face s of the joint (the flat parts of the
hinge) are drawn to one another with
the shrinkage of each pass. The result
is tran sverse shrinkage .
In a groove weld. the joint is also
strained in tension in the longitudinal
direction . Th e resulting di stortion is
observed as longitudin al co ntraction of
the weld. Longitudinal shrinkage is less
of a problem in groove welds than trans-
verse shrinkage. See Figure 43-2.
o Distortion in weld parts CCIll be controlled by
setting parts out of position so that the effects
of welding pull the parts into alignment. or
by welding partsin their corred position and
the n using heat-shaping methods to
straighten the parts. Restraints may be used
to hold parts in po sition; however, restraint
introduces residual stresses into the parts,
which also must be controlled.
614 ~ We/dilll( Skills
DISTORTED
WORKPIECE
LONGITUDINAL
DISTORTED
WORKPIECE
WORKPI ECE
TRANSVERSE
Figure 4J·2. Residual stresses ill grnovr welds cause
trmurerse and longitudinal dist ortion,
Fillet Weld s. Distortion in fillet welds
is more compl ex than in groove welds.
It results partiall y from the location of
the center of gravity of the workpieces
in relation to the fillet weld. A single
fillet weld create s transver se shrinkage.
For fillet weld s in carbon steel, the
transverse shrinkage rate is 1/ 32" per
weld pass (where the leg length of the
weld does not exceed three-quarters of
the ba se metal thi ckness). When the
root pass is laid, the work pieces being
joined bec om e integral with one an-
other. As more passes are laid, there is
more shrinkage at the face of the fillet
than at the root , because the face re-
ceives a greater amount of filler metal.
To ac commodat e the weld metal
shrinkage, the workpieces being joined
move to ward o ne a no ther. c rea ting
tra nsverse shri nkage. The grea ter the
number of weld passes, the greater the
distortion. See Figure 43-3.
A double fi lle t wel d. if properl y
made , do e s not ex h ibit tr an sverse
shrinkage . Howe ver, it is still suscep-
tibl e to longitudinal shrinkage. If the
fillet weld of the T-joint is above the
center of gravity of a welded structure ,
the metal distorts longitudinally upward
at its end s. If the fillet weld is below
the center of gravity, it distorts longi-
tudinally downward at its ends. See
Figure 43-4.
 Ftgure 43-3. Wh en weld heads
a rc deposited in a single fillet
weld, shrinkage occurs at the face
of the fill et because of the amount
[--"1 of filler metal deposited.
DISTORTED DISTORTED
WORKPIECE ~I WORKPIECE WO RKP IECE ~ WORKPIECE

SINGLE PASS MULTIPLE PA SS

Ftgure 43-4. In a d oubl e [illet

. -. . wel d, longitud inal d ist o rtion is
dete rmin ed hy the location of the
PULLING EFFECT cellter of g ravity.
DOUBLE FILLET OFWELD

J.
WELD NEUTRAL
CENTER AXIS
OF GRAVITY

- '" --

WELD ABOVE CENTER OF GRAVITY

CENTER
OF GRAVITY

-~~OUBLE WELD
FILLET PULLING EFFECT
OF WELD

WELD BELOW CENTE R OF GRAVITY

Base Metal Shrinkage tha t develop in the weld metal as it

During welding, the HA Z is heated
close to its melting point. Less than an
inch away, the base metal temperature
is substantially lower because it is less
affected by the heat of welding . The
inten se temperature difference causes
expansion of the HA Z, followed by
base metal movement. As the welding
arc moves along the joint, the source
of heat is relocated and the formerly
heated part of the base metal (the HAZ)
begins to cool and shrink. If the unaf-
fected base metal restrains it from con-
tracting , stresses in the HAZ build up.
These stresses , comb ined with stresses
cools, increase distortion in the base
metal.
DISTORTION CONTROL
Distortion may cause poor fit-up dur -
ing fabricat ion and lead to undes irable
stresses. Distortion control is necessary
to overcome poor fit-up and und esir-
able stresses, and to meet specific di-
mensional requirements . Fabrication
codes and standards have requirements
for maximum allowable distortion. Dis-
tortion contro l incl udes method s to
minimize or eliminate di stortion to
Distortion Cont rol :@; 615
 meet code requirements. Modifying the A square groo ve on thin metal s reduces
Modif ying the weld -
~
@J
-
ing procedure, /I S -
ing sp ecia l II'eM;1Ig
welding prucedure, using special weld-
ing techniques, usin g mechanical re -
di storti on but d o cs not co m p le te ly
eliminate it.
techniques.using "/('. straints, and heat sha ping are methods On sheet metal, tack weld s arc light.
chani ca t r e.HrtI ;IIIS,
that can help control di stortion. On very th in m eta l. s ma ll , close ly
and he a t shaping
cu n h elp co ntrol spaced tack we lds arc the onl y means
di stortion. of contro lling di stortion. After tack
Welding Procedures we lding , th e en tire joint shou ld be
T he we lding proced ure may he modi- lig ht ly hammered before we lding. On
fied to min imize or co ntro l distortio n. very thin material (26-gauge and thin-
Welding procedures that may be modi - ner), almost continuous tack weld s may
fied to prevent di stortion include fit- be required.
up and e dge preparation; preheat;
welding pro cess and travel speed; weld Butt Joint Fit·up and
metal depos ite d ; an d we ld passes. Edge Preparation
Fit-up and Edge Preparation, Proper Figure 43-5
Pmperfit-up is essen- fit - up a nd edge pre pa rati on hel p e n- GROOVE ANGLE ~
tial 011 thin ntetais . . '6 0'
Closely spaced tack sure that the correct a mo unt of we ld /\MAX~
weld s must be usn/ to metal is used in a joint. If gaps occ ur
nmtml distortion. in a joint, the we lder mus t slow down
to fill them . u sing more fi ller metal
--1 1-- . . . MAX
ROOT OPENING" /
than speci fied and increasing contrac -
COMMON BUTT JOINT
tion across the joint. Ensure tha t th e
joint has the proper fit- up and that the INCREASED ~ DEC R EASED
correct edge preparatio n is used to
ROOT x:: ' 30' GROOVE
O P EN I N G ::::,~ ANGLE
e limi na te the need for e xcessive fille r
metal and increased joint co ntrac tio n.
Underc ut spo ts in butt jo ints can be
•. ' - - BACKING BAR
INCREASED ROOT OPENING!
filled by we ld buildup on the edge of DECREASED GROOVE ANGLE
the bas e metal before welding to im -
prove poor fit -up . Joint preparation
cannot be manipulated for fillet we lds
SINGLE-J-GROOVE EDGE
as it can for gruove we lds . PREPARATION
For a butt joint, a m in imu m root
opening of Vs" is desired. A 60° groove
an g le allows for comp lete pe ne trat ion
at the root yet req uires mi nima l we ld
metal. For thick metal, increasing the DOUBLE·V·GROOVE EDGE
PREPARATION
root opening to 3;\6" allows the groo ve
angle to be de creased. Alternatively, a
J -groove ma y be used to reduce the
Fig u re ~O·5 . 8 11ft joint fi l -II/' and edg e preparation
amount of weld metal re quired . A be altered to help control distortion.
("( 11/

doub le- V-groove may be used , w hich

reduces by half the amo unt o f we ld
me tal ne ce ssa ry co mpa red w ith a
single- V. See Figure 43-5 .
If the root opening is increased and
the g roo ve an gle is red uc ed, th e
a mount o f metal deposited at the root
and at th e face of th e weld is more
equal. reducing tra nsverse shr inkage.
Preheat. Pro pe rly applied preheat can
hel p red uce we ld d istortion a nd re -
sid ua l stre sses becau se it lowers the
temperature g ra d ie n ts in the metal
around the weld . On steel , preheat also
reduces the tendenc y for cracking in
the HAZ or the weld metal.

616 ~ We/dillg Skills

Welding Process and Travel Speed.
The welding process used can influence
di stortion . Automati c and se miauto-
mati c welding processe s use higher
travel spee ds and greater deposition
rat es per pa ss than manual welding
proc esses, resulting in less distortion.
Additionally, with automatic welding
processes, progressive shrinkage of the
weld as it cools (which occurs in manual
weld ing durin g the interval between
passes made with a small-diameter tiller
metal. Making few er pa sses also re-
duces welding time, which reduces the
amount of heat at the weld so less ex-
pansion of the metal surrounding the
weld occurs .
. -. .
~
Figure 43-6. Ex cess weld metal
increas es distort ion in a weld .

RESULTING
DISTORTION
each weld pass) is eliminated.
When usin g manual welding pro-
cesses, GMAW produces less distortion
than GTAW, and PAW produce s less
distortion than GMAW. In addition, with
PAW, thicker metals can be welded than
L /.
/ " EXCESS WELD
METAL

can be welded with GTAW or GMAW. GROOVE WELD

Oxyfu el we lding proces ses produce
more distortion than arc weldin g pro-
cesses because heating of the base metal !fr~ DISTORTION
RESULTING
is slow and more heat is required to off- : J
set the heat loss from diffusion.
SUFFICIENT ! j
Weld metal should be depo sited in WELD BEAD ~: r EXCESS WELD
!I'~\ METAL
the shortest possible time to minimi ze
heat input. Increasing the travel speed p " " \,:'
reduces the amount of base metal af-
FILLET WELD
fected by the welding heat and reduces
distortion.
Weld Metal Deposited. The greater the
amoun t of weld metal deposited in a
Welding Techniques
joint, the greater the chance of shrink-
age. To minimize shrinkage, onl y the Variou s welding techniques may be
required amount of weld metal should used to balance shrinkage stresses and
be used . control di stort ion . Typ ica l welding
The effective throat in a fillet weld technique s used include back- step
determin es the weld joint strength. A welding and intermittent welding.
fillet weld that yields an effective throat Back-Step Welding. Back-step welding
size that is ju st s uffic ie nt for the is a welding pro ces s in which weld 111e greatest amount
strength requ ired by the we ld design of metal expansion
passes are mad e in the dir ect ion op- occurs when thejirst
is preferred. In a butt joint, excess weld posite to the progre ss of weldin g. weld head is depos-
metal in a highly convex bead does not Each weld pass lock s the workpi eces ited. Metal expands
increase the allowable strength of the less with each suc -
bein g joined. The greatest amou nt of cessive weld bead
weld in the design code, but does in- metal ex pa ns io n oc cur s wh en th e because (~r the lock -
crease shrinkage and di stortion . See firs t weld bead is deposit ed . Metal ing effect oj previous
Fig ure 43-6. back-step welds.
expand s le ss with e ach suc cess ive
Weld Passes. Shrinkage in a weld is we ld bead be c au se of th e lo ckin g
cum ulative . T he mor e we ld pa sse s effect o f pre viou s back -step we lds .
mad e, the more shri nkage occurs; A See Fig ure 43-7. Bac k-s tep we ld ing
few passes made with a large-diameter cannot be performed with aut om ati c
fi lle r metal ar e pre ferabl e to man y welding proce sses.

Distortion Control :€1 617

Ftgurc .t3-7. Back -st et we lding
is (l '»,£'1(/;//1: p roc'('.1".\· ;11 which weld
paHe ,~are mo(/(' ;11 the d irect ion
opposite 10 the prog ression of
1I'('/d;I/ 1:. BACK·STEP
WELDING
DIRECTION
r= IMechan ical restraints
• ~ cause u buildup of in-
.= ternai stresses in the
wekl to tilt' point that
tilt' .vie'" stress of tile
weld is exceeded.
Intermittent Weldin!:. Intermittent
welding is an allernative to back- step
we lding . Int ermittent we lding is per-
formed by depositing weld metal in
evenly spaced increments. On aT-joint,
welds are alternated on eitber side of
the joint. Three short (usually l ") weld
beads ar e mad e, and then two longer
beads (3x the length of the short beads)
are made on th e other s ide of the
T-joint. Th e direction of welding
should remain the same throu ghout the
process, but it is not necessary for the
direction to be oppos ite to the general
progr ession , as wi th ba ck- step weld-
ing. Se e Figure 43-8.
Figure ·13-8. I II intermittent we ld -
ing , weld metal is deposit ed ill
evenly spaced increments,
DIRECTION
OF WELDING : >
• straig htedge , sca le, o r dial ind ica to r
DOUBLE FILLET WELD
Intermittent we lding may be used
to reduce the amount of weld metal re-
quired and must be allowed by the de-
sig n cod e. Intermittent we ld ing is not
used wh ere corros io n is an iss ue be-
ca use intermitte nt fillet weld s cr eate
crev ices that may allow co rro sives to
ente r the weld area.
Mechanical Restraint Methods
A mechanical restraint is a device used
to restrict move me nt and co unteract
shrinkage stresse s that oc cur du rin g
welding. The restraint holds the part in
the desired position until welding is com-
pleted. The restraint causes a buildup of
intemal stresses in the weld until the yield
stress of the weld is exceeded. The part
is restrained until it cools and the inter-
nal stresses are eased. Once the part has
cooled, the restraint is removed, with little
distortion or movement. Movement does
not occur when the restraint is removed
because cooled, so l id metal is under
les s strain than hot , restrained metal.
Typical mechanical restraint methods are
strongbacks, back-t o-buck positioning,
and prebending.
Strongbacks. A strongback is a me-
chanical restraint device that is attached
to on e side of a we ld j oint to hold
workpieccs in alignm ent during weld -
ing. For example, cylindrical shell plates
that have been o ver-ro lled have seam s
that are peaked (pointed inward ) before
weldin g is started. The strongback pre-
vents angular misalignment during weld-
ing and preve nts further pea king as a
result of welding, while leaving the joint
free to shrink transversely.
Strongbacks may be used to pull the
bent struc ture int o alig nme nt. Flame
heating ca n then be sys tematic ally ap-
pli ed to th e res tr ain ed member. A
ma y be used to determine the move-
ment ac hieved. The part must remain
in the desired shape after it has cooled
and the ex terna l restraint has been re-
moved . The mechanical restra int is
only remov ed after the part has cooled
to room temperature.
Back-to-Back Positioning. Back-to-
ba ck positioning is a mechani cal re-
straint method that places identical
weldments back -to -ba ck and clamps
them together. The welds are completed
and both weldments are allowed to cool
be for e th e clamps are released. Th e
weldments counteract each other and
cance l out distortion. See Figure 43-9.
PARTS TO
BE WELDED
WELD
JOINT
used with heat shaping . Four ba sic
heating patterns are used when heat Thefour basic heat-
ing patterns used
shaping : line-, spo t-, Y-, and block- when heat shaping
heating. See Figure 43-10. metals (Ire the line-,
The line-heating pattern can be used spot-, V-, and block-
hearing.
on metal plate. The metal is heated on
the convex (high) side that is to be bent
down . A slightly oscillating torch fol-
lows the line, with the oscillations about
as wide as the metal thi ckness. Th e
torch progresses acro ss the metal at a
constant speed to bring the plate to tem-
perature . See Figure 40-1 I. Movement
in a line -heating pattern progress es in
a linear fashion with relatively little
width compared to its length .

C-CLAMPS
----
. -. . Ftgu r e 43- 10. Tile four basi c
heal shaping pauerns arc th e
line-. spot-. V-, and block -heating
me /hods .

Figure 43-9. Back-to-beck positioning counterac ts LINE HEATING SPOT HEATING

shrinka ge ill two identical components.

Prebending. Prebending is a mechani -

cal restraint method that relie s on lo-
c ating workpi eces out of position
before welding so that welding shrink-
V-HEATING BLOCK HEATING
age stresses pull the workpieces into
position . Prebending may be achieved
by modify in g th e fit -up or using
clamps to pre-sprin g parts before they Ftgure 43 · 11. Line -heating is
used to bring a distorted piece of
are welded. The clamps are removed metal hack into alignment.
after welding . Residual stresse s in the
part cause the part to straighten.

Heat Shaping
Heat shaping is the application of lo- Heat shaping is the
calized heating to cau se movement of FLAT POSITION application ojlocul-
ired heal ing to cause
a distorted part and restore its dimen-
DIR ECTION OF movement of a dis -
sions. Heat shaping is applied usin g MOVEM ENT OF torted part and re -
PART
an ox yacet ylene flame . Heat shaping store its dimensions.
requi re s temperature monitoring and
measurem ent of th e mo vem ent LINE -HEATING
achieved . In some cases, movement PATTERN
may be assisted with mech an ical de -
vices. For complete correction of dis- HORIZONTAL POSITION
tortion , mechani cal restraints may be
Distortion Control :@: 619
 The spot-heating pattern concentrate s weaving back and forth to create a rect-
heat in one area in a circular motion and angular area. Th e V- and block -heating
is applied with little. if any. forward mo- patterns can be used on structural steel
tion. The V-heating pattern starts at one shapes such as channel beams , l-beams,
point and moves in a linear fashion along and angles. See Figure 43-1 2. The pat-
a marked axis, weav ing back and forth. tern s are alternately appli ed to achieve
becoming progressively wider. The block- straightening. Two torches may be applied
heating pattern moves in a linear fashion, oppo site one another in specific cases.
Ftgurc ·B - I2 . Hea t shaping of
structural steel sections uses com-
binations (if v- (/",1 block-hea ting
patterns 10 CleMen ' straightening,
NOTE: ARROWS SHOW DIRECTION
OF MOVEMENT OF PART

L K.HEATING
V·HEATING
PATIERN PATIERN
CHANNEL BEA MS

it. CAUTION
When a materia l is being
heat shaped. its stren gth is
redu ced . If the materi al is
under load . the e ffects of
red uced streng th on the
mate rial's ability to support
100Id.\ must he determined :
other wise , ca tas trophic
failure ma y occ ur.

V·HEATING BLOCK.HEATlNG .... /

PATIERN PATIERN /

I-BEAMS

620 €1 WeldillK Skills

 To perform heat sha ping, th e area
to be heat shape d is marked with soap-
st o ne, paint stick , or other marking
material that is in sen siti ve to heat.
When heat shaping stainle ss steels and
ni ckel allo y s, the marking material
mu st co nta in minimal amounts (le ss
than 250 parts per million) of chlorides,
sulfur, or oth er harmful eleme nts s uch
as z inc; otherwi se , crac king may oc-
cur durin g heat applic ation .
The oxyacetylene torch is ignited and
the flam e adjusted. A localized area is
qui ckl y heat ed, with th e point of th e
flame far enough above the surface to
prevent the surface from melting. T he
torch is weaved slightly, but not advanced
in a heating pattern until the starting point
reache s the specified temperature. Heat
is progressi vely applied to the marked
area, maintaining the desired tempera-
ture at the poin t of the flame. The flame
is not backtracked over any area already
hea ted . A temperature-indicatin g crayon
or a co ntac t pyrometer may be used to
monitor the te m pe ra ture .
Distortion Control of
Components
S pec ia l c o ns ide ra t io ns ma y be rc -
quired to pr event di st ortion in flu sh
patches, pipin g bran ch connection s,
and eq uip me nt noz zl es.
A flu sh patch is a patch applied to a
component that provides a smo oth tran-
sitio n between the compone nt and the
patch . A flush patch is set mu ch like a
w indo w so that th ere is no ledge or
rai sed surface be tw een the patch a nd
the com ponent. A flush patch is used to
rep air thin, flat surfaces . Wh en a flush
patch is used , the surface may become
d istorted fro m shrinkage stress es. Dis-
to rtio n can be min imi zed using an in-
ter m itte nt wel din g tech n iq ue a nd a
slightly dish ed flush patch . See Fig ure
43- 13. Dishin g of the patch allows it to
draw in and settle relatively fre e from
stress . T he a mo unt of di shing should
be ahout equal to the thi ckness of the
metal bein g we lded.
A j ig or fixt ure must be used to restra in parts in position to control distortion
d uring welding.
Distortion may occur when welding
pipe branch connections. Distortion ca n
be tran sverse shr inkag e of a gro o ve
weld in adjoining pipe sec tions or un-
balanced sh rinkage in b ran ch welds.
Transvers e shrinkage of a groove weld
causes a reduction in the overall length
of the pipe. fn most cases, carbon stee l
shrinkage is approximately 'h6", plus or
minus 1/.'2", per butt joint. C arbon stee l
shrinkage should be allowed for in the
overall length of the piping assembly.
Branch we lds c a n cau se piping to
bow du e to shrinkag e on one s ide.
Branch weld s mu st be welded in se-
qu ence to m inimi ze di stortion of the
pipe. The branche s furth e st fro m the
center of the pipe assembly are welded
fir st bec aus e they cause less distortion.
If the pipe is bent because of we lds at
the first two branche s, the third bran ch
welding will stra ig hte n th e pipe. Se e
Figure 4 3-14.
Di stortion may occur during the
placem ent of nozzles on eq uipme nt,
such as on small-diameter heat exc hang-
ers, because the shell thickness is gener-
ally less than %". Distortion increases as
the metal cro ss sec tion (shell thickn ess)
becomes thinner. Distortion on equip-
ment nozzles appears as a flat spot on
the she ll wh er e th e no zzle is we lde d.
Distortion also causes the nozzle to sink
into the shell. When welding to thin parts,
an internal mechanical restraint, such as
a jack , sho uld be used to pr e vent th e
shell from collaps ing.
Distortion Control €>= 621
Ftgure 43-U. Flu ,\'1J patches on
thin surfaces may be welded with-
out distortion using WI intermit-
tent wdd;I/g technique (Ifill ,\1ightly
dished jlu.\'/1 patch. FIRST WELD SECDND WELD
DIRECTIDN DIRECTIDN
START
- t (THICKNESS
DF METAL)

~-
PATCH

I (APPRDXIMATELY)

JDINT
PREPARATIDN
AS REQUIRED
U WELD
B RE A K --"-'-;-@iiZil~ ;;;;;;_ _
FINISH
TACK WELDS

DISHING
ROUND

THIRD WELD
DIRECTlDN
PATCH

PATCH

SECD ND WELD
NOTE WHEN USING DIRECTIDN
SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING, OVAL
ENSURE THE WELD CAN
BE CD MPLETED ARD UND
CD RNERS WITHDUT STOPPING
THIRD WELD
FINISH DIRECTID N
/
~==dl~
-::J J-.-,-- PATCH
·~ r l
TACKWELDS~----"qt )T
FIFTH WELD
DIRECTIDN ----
~~~':;;~~;;~~~±I;:::!)
.
START SECDNDWELD
FIRST WELD DIRECTID N DIRECTIDN
RECTANGLE

welders ",u st pro - RESIDUAL STRESS trea tm e nt. Residu a l stresses ca n be

f('ct against residual
stresses as thei r
presence ge ne rally
goes unreco gnized
wail fa ilure occurs.
622 o@ Weidilll( Skills
Residual stress is loc ked -in stress in
ma ter ia ls th at occurs as a re sult of
manu fac tu rin g proc es se s s uc h as
casti ng , we ldi ng , for m in g , or heat
detrimental to metals, both alone and
under norm al service stresses, and can
co ntri bute to fa ti g ue and other me-
chanic al failure, Residual stresses can
also lead to stress corrosion cracking
of some materials in spec ific corrosive
env iro nme nts . Fo r exa mp le. welded
ca rbo n st ee l eq uipme nt a nd pipin g
o perating in hot caus tic se rvice must
be given stress relief heat treatment to
-
. -. .
WELD BRANCH ES
FURTH EST FROM
CENTER FIRST
Ftu ure "]·1". Balanced welding
of branch welds reduces l il t' 1('1/-
dencv of pipo W distort .

prevent cau stic stress cracking at the

weld. The presence of residual stresses
generally goes unrec ogni zed. so weld-
ers must be cautious to protect against
them before they occ ur.

WELD SEOUENCE:
A.B. C

o Residual stress and distortion control re-

quiremrnts for many welding applications THIRD BRANC H W ILL
are detailed ill AWSARE· 7, Residual Stress STRAIGHTEN DISTORTION
and Distortion . Other stcnulards and emit's CAUSED BY FIRST TWO
ma y also lIpply, depending Oil/he locale , WELDS

I . Distortion in wclding is caus ed by shrinkage in the wcld metal and the base metal that occurs
during cooling and by creating restraint thai exceeds the yie ld streng th of the material.
2. Distorti on of welded struct ures is either transve rse (at 90· to the weld ax is) or longitud inal
(along the length of the weld axis) .
3 . Modifyin g thc welding procedure. usin g spec ia l welding techniques. usin g mechanical re-
straints. or heat shaping can help contro l distortion .
4 . Proper fit-up is ess ential on thi n metal s. Closely spaced lack weld s must be used to co ntrol
distortion.
5 . Th e g rea tes t amount of meta l ex pans ion occurs whe n the first we ld bead is laid. Metal ex -
pands less with each successive weld bead because of the locking effect of previous back-step
weld s.
6 . Mechanical restraints cause a buildup of interna l stresses in the weld 10 the point that the yield
stress of the weld is exceeded.
7 . Th e four basic heating pattern s used when heat shaping metal s arc the line -, spot-, V-. and
block-heatin g patt ern s.
8. Heat shaping is the application of localiz ed heat to a structure to cause beneficial movement of
a pari to counteract distorti on.
9. To co mpletely correct distort ion . mechani cal restra ints may be used with heat sha ping.
10 . We lders must protect against residual stresses as their presence ge nerally goes unreco g nized
until failure occurs .

Distortion COII/ m l :§: 623

 I. How does the heat of welding cau se distortion ?
2. What happ en s to molt en weld metal as it cools that contributes to distortion?
3. In what two dire ctions does weld metal shrinkage occur?
4. How does preh eat help to redu ce distortion?
5. Wh y is it important to use only the minimum thickness of weld filler metal prescribed by
the applicable fabri cation code')
6. Is distortion mo re likely to occur in multiple-pass welds or single-pass weld s')
7. What is the differen ce between back-step welding and intermittent welding as distortion
prevention methods?
8. Name two methods of mechanical restraint used to pre vent distortion.
9. What is heat shaping?

624 ~ WeldinK Skills

 ~~'hl'W.' II.

Welding ymb I

Welding Technology

When fa bricating metal products, a welder may lise a print that details product specifications. The print
specifies where welds are to be located, the Ope ofjoints and correct weld sizes. Inform ation is indicated by
a set of svmbols that have been standardized by the American Welding Society (AWS).

WELDING SYMBOLS weld, the size of the we ld bead , the

A welding symbol is a graphical repre-
sentatio n of the specifications for pro-
ducing a welded joint. A welding symbol
has instructions attached as to the type
of weld required, the location of the
weld, whether it is a field weld or a shop
weld, and other referen ce data that are
necessary to do a complete welding job.
Welding symbols may be very complex
and carry a large amount of information,
or they may be quite simple. The weld-
ing symbol is designed so that specific
information has a designated location on
the symbol. See Appendix.
Reference Line
The foundati on of the we lding sy m-
bol is a reference line with an arrow at
one end. The arrow points to the loca-
tion of the weld. Instruct ions regard-
ing the type of weld are indicated either
above or below the reference line. See
Figure 44-1. Also included is reference
data such as the surface contour of the
REFERENCE LINE ' \
REFERENCE ____ . ,
DATA- - - ~ LOCATION
A welding symbol is
len gth of the weld, how we ld bea ds
(l graphical rep re-
are to be finished, and often, what type senta tion of the
of welding process is to be used . All sp l'djica lions [ or
welding symbol data are indicated with producing II welded
john.
geometric figures , num er ical va lues ,
and abbrevi at ions.
Designating Types of Welds
The most important factor in a weld -
ing symbol is the type of weld. Types
of welds are fillet. plug or slot, spot or
proje cti on , seam , o r gro ove. Weld
types are indicated by a weld symbol.
A weld symbol is a graphic symbol con-
nected to the reference line of a weld-
ing symbol specifying the weld type.
Groove weld s can be further divided
and classified according to the particu-
lar shape of the grooved joint. See Fig-
ure 44-2. Each weld has its own specific
symbol. For example. a fillet weld is instructions regard-
de signated by a right triangle. and a ing the '.'pl' of weld
an' indica ted either
plug weld by a rectan gle. The type of
above o r belo w she
weld used is directly related to the type n:fnl'll(,(, line.
of joint used: butt. lap. T. or edge.
Ft a ure "~-I . Till' [oundation of
ARROW the welding .~.\'II1 IJOI is 1I reference
line with lUI arrow ar one end.
OFWELD

WELD TY PE INDICATED
ABOVE AND/OR BELOW
REFEREN CE LINE

625
Figure 44-2. Types of welds are fil -
let. plug, spot or projection, seam,
and groove . Groove welds can he
. . ..
subdivided by the particular shape
of the hUH joint.

FILLET PLUG OR
o
SPOT OR SEAM
SLOT PROJECTION

II
SQUARE
V
V-GROOVE BEVEL
v Y
U-GROOVE
~
J-GROOVE
\ 1
FLARE-V
II
FLARE-BEVEL
GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE GROOVE

Symbol Location of a joint and can extend upward or

The anmv side is the
surface that is in the
direct lim' ofvision.(1f
the welda 17w other
side is the opposite
surface f?f the joint.
The location of the weld symbol on the
reference line specifies on which side of
a joint a weld is to be made. Weld loca-
tion is designated by running the arrow-
head of the refe rence line to the joint.
The arrow can be directed to either side
downward. A weld is said to be on ei-
ther the "arrow side" or the "other side"
of a joint. The arrow side is the surface
that is in the direct line of vision of the
welder. The other side is the oppo site
surface of the joint. See Figure 44-3.

Figure 44·3. Location of the weld

symbol on the reference line-s-on
the arrow side or on the other WELD
side-determines where the weld is REFERENCE LINE
to he made.
"OTHER
SIDE"

"OTHER SIDE" "ARROW SIDE"

ARROW LOCATION

Symbol Weld Symbol Weld

ARROW SIDE OTHER SIDE

Symbol Weld
BOTH SIDES

626 ~ Welding Skills

 If the weld is to be made on the ar-
row side, the appropriate weld symbol
is placed below the reference line . If
the weld is to be located on the other
side of the joint, the weld symbol is
placed above the reference line. When
----. - ..
r;ro.ffiro~~m
TO BE BEVELED
Ftg u re 4...·5. The arrow break
points toward the joint that
beveled.
""UI be

both sides of the joint are to be welded,

the same weld symbol appears above -, I
and below the reference line. Symbol Weld
A more comp lete treatme nt of
SINGLE BEVEL
sy mbo ls as they apply to a ll form s
of man ual an d mech ani zed we ld ing
can be found in AWS A2.4, Standard
Symbo ls for Weldin g, Bra zing , and
Nondestructiv e Examination, pub-
lished by the American Welding So- Symbol Weld
ciety. See Appendi x. DOUBLE BEVEL
The only exception to the indication
of weld location on the reference line is
in spot and seam weldin g. With spot or
seam welds . the arrowh ead is run to the Fillet, bevel, J-groove , an d f1are-
centerline of the weld seam and the beve l groove we ld sy mbols are
a pprop riate weld sy mbo l centered show n with the perpend icular leg al-
above or below the refer ence line. See ways to the left of the weld symbo l.
Figure 44- 4. If no arrow side or other Sec Figure 44-6.
side is important , the sym bol is placed
I'i~ u rc 44 -6. For [i llrt, bevel. ./.
astride the reference line to indicate ';I'OlJl>(' .lind ft are -bevrt groove
PERPENDICULAR LEG
this condition. APPEARS TO THE LEFT joints. the pe rpendic ular !l',t: ai -
On beveled jo ints. it is often neces- II'IIY.\"appears to the teft ofth(' weld
symbol.
sary to show which weld part is to be
beveled. In such cases, the arrow points / V
with a definite break toward the part FILLET BEVEL
to be beveled. See Figure 44-5 . Infor-
mation on welding symbols is placed le
10 read from left to right along the ref-
J·GROOVE
/
FLARE-BEVEL
erence line in accordance with the con-
ventions of drafting .

ARROW SIDE SIDE NOT IMPORTANT

Figure 44-4. For a .W"W " weld symbol. the arrow is rim fo the centerline of the weld seam , witts the appro pria te
,{YII/hol above or below tlie reference line. If side is not important. the s).m bol is placed (/.\"/1';(/" rite reference line.

Welding Symbols €1 627

 COMBINING WELD SYMBOLS
Wilen ilion' 'hall olle During fabrication of a product, it may
type of weld is re·
be necessary to make more than one type
quired. a symbol is
,\110 " '1/for ('lIch weld. of weld on a joint. Thus, a joint may re-
quire bo th a fillet and dou h le-b eve l
groove we ld . W hen more than o ne
type of weld is requi red, a symbol is
shown for each weld. Sec Figure 44-7.
-
Figure ....-7. A jo ;1II 1//01 requires
mo re ,!Jl/1/ Olle 1.\1)(' of weld i.f repre-
sentrd by a combined weld .\ )m bo l. . - ..
DOUB LE BEVEL GROOV E
FILLET WELD
Symbol Weld
<; SINGLE BEVE L GROOV E
DOUBL E FILLET WELD
Symbol Weld
Wl'!d .\'!Jl)"ijimtion is comm unicate d to the welder hy the welding symbo ls used on
the prints.
628 ~ Welding Skills
Fillet Welds
The leg size (width) of a fillet weld is shown
to the left of the weld symbol and is ex-
pressed in fractions, decimals, or metric
units (mm). When both sides of a fillet are
to be welded and the welds differ in di-
mensions, both are dimensioned. Both
welds are also dimensioned if the welds
have the same dimension. Where a note
appears on a drawing that governs the size
of a fillet weld, no dimensions are usually
shown on the symbol. See Figure 44-8.
The length of the weld is shown to the
right of the weld symbol by numerical
values represent ing the actual required
len gth . Wh en a fillet we ld wi th un -
equal legs is required, the size of both
legs is placed to the left of the weld
symbol with a note for cla rific atio n.
o Notes are used 0 11 p rints to provide add i-
tional information to the welder. Notes may
be general or specific. General notes ap -
ply a gi ven requ ireme nt to all items 011 the
p rint. Spec ific notes apply a gi ven require-
ment to II specific item em the p rint.
Intermittent Fille t Welds. The len gth
and pitch increme nts of intermi ttent
fillet we lds are show n to the righ t of
the we ld symbo l. Th e first fig ure rep-
rese nts the length of the weld section and
the second figure represe nts the pitch
(center-to-ce nter spacing) between the
welds. See Figure 44-9.
Groove Welds
There are severa l typ es of groove
welds that may requ ire partial or com-
plete penetration. and a particu lar bevel
depth. See Figure 44 -10. Their effective
throa t sizes (in fractions, decimals, or
millimeters) are as follows:
• For single-groove and symmetrical
doubl e-groove we lds that ex te nd
com pletely throu gh the weld parts
being joined, no size is included on
the welding symbol.
 Figure 44-8. The 11'1-: .~ ;::e ( lI'idtil)

. -" .
of tl /{' fil let weld is expressed (I.{ tI
fraction. decimal . or metric unit to
the l el l of 'he weld symbol. The
LEG SIZE lel/glh is indicat ed hy Ow actual
11I11/1(' 1'; ('(/1 value 10 the ri!{h t (~r the
WELD LENGTH

n
8V'.0-
weld svmhol.

/~
/ [
10 '

Symbol Weld Symbol Weld

SINGLE FILLET EQUAL DOUBLE FILLET

NOTE AND GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

A
USED FOR LEG SIZE CLARIFICATION

NCk: o/eN LEGONPi\RT 6

(~f,e,x~/f) PARTA
N

-~ %. ~-
Symbol Weld Symbol Weld

SINGLE FILLET WITH UNEQUAL LEGS UNEQUAL DOUBLE FILLE T

Figure ~ -9. The 1t'II1-:th and I'ilcll

. - .. . increments of intermittent welds
lire SI IO II'II to the r(~ h, of the weld
.sy mho l.

PITCH (10) ~

6-10
\

l PITCH (CENTER-TO-
CENTER SPACING)
LENGTH
(OF INTERMITIENT WELD)
Symbol Weld
WELD SECTION
LENGTH

• For groove weld s that exte nd o nly A di men sio n no t in parenthe se s

partly through the we ld parts be-
ing joined, or on non sym me trical
double-groove joints, the effective
throat (we ld size) is sho wn inpa-
rentheses to th e le ft of the we ld
sy mbo l.
when placed to the left of the weld
symbo l indi cates th e depth of the
bevel only. When both the effecti ve
throat and bevel depth are indicated,
the groove beve l depth is located to
the left of the effective throat size.

Weld il1M Sy m bo ls ~ 629

 • The root opening of a square butt joint
is shown inside the weld symbol. The
groove angle of a bevel is indicated
inside the weld symbol. The weld
symbol for the bevel can be placed
above or below the refere nce line.
The arrow is pointed al the joint to
be beveled. See Figure 44-11.
• The size of a flare-groove weld is
considered to extend only to the tan-
gent points as indicated by dimen -
sional lines. See Figure 44-12.
Plug or 5101 Welds
The size of a p lu g or slo t weld is
shown to the left of the weld symbol.
The depth, when less than comp lete
penetration, is shown on the inside of
the weld symbo l. Th e ce nter-to-cen-
ter spacing (pitch) is shown to the right
of the weld symbo l, and the groov e
angle of counter sink is shown below
the weld symbol. See Figure 44-13.

Fig ure ~·IO. Groove welds may

requi re I'tlrlill l or comptete penetra-
firm ami a certain here! depth.
. - .. .
/ EFFECTIVE THROAT INDICATED IN
~ PARENTHESES TO LEFT OF WELD SYMBOL

;--_<_2>8_)3 [ EFFECTIVE THROAT

38"

r
WELD PENETRATES
TO REQUIRED DEPTH
Symbol Weld
PARTIAL PENETRATION

NQ SIZE INDICATED WHEN

COMPLETE PENETRATION REQUIRED

Symbol Weld
COMPLETE PENETRATION

DIMENSIQN NOT BEVEL CUT TO

IN PARENTHE SES REQUIRED EFFECTIVE
INDICATES BEVE~ ~25 (2)8) r>; DEPTH SIZE "
DEPTH /
_-.1

WELD PENETRATES
TO REQUIRED DEPTH
Symbol Weld
DEPTH OF BEVEL

630 €1 Welding Skills


. - ..
/ : ~OOT OPENING INDICATED
/ INSIDE WELD SYMBOL
Figure 44· 11. Tile mol opening of
a .\·qlttlre butt joint is indicated in-
side the weld symbol. The groove
angle of{/ beve led groo ve j oiru can
hi' ind icared dhow o r below th e

/ F"""T1::T-
reference tine .
1I661

Symbol

GROOVE ANGLE INDICATED

INSIDE WELD SYMBOL, ABOVE
-~~"c.... O R BELOW REFERENCE LINE

Symbol Weld

Figure 44-12. The size of flare-v

. - .. groovr a nd flar e -bevel g ro o ve
welds is ind if'l/led hy dim ensional
lin es.

Dimensional Line Symbol Weld

Representation
FlARE-V-GROOVE

Dimensional Line Symbol Weld

Representation

FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE

WeldiflR Symbols ~ 63 1
Figure .... ~ 13 . I'lu X wetd tocauons
a re shown ill l'a ryi"x positions
around the welt! .~ymhoJ.
. - .,

DEPTH OF
FILLING

Symbol Weld Symbol Weld

SIZE DEPTH OF FILLING

PITCH
(
~~-r'-
, --1' " - 3"

rt---+---~

Symbol Weld Symbol Weld

ANGLE OF COUNTERS INK PITCH

Spot or Projection Welds to th e left o f the we ld sy mbo l. Th e

len gth of the we ld sea m is place d to
Spot welds are dim en sioned by either
the right of the weld symbol. The piteh
size or by strength. Size is designated as
of intermitt ent seam welds is shown to
the diameter of the weld and is expressed
the right of the length dimensio n. See
in fractions, decimals, or millimeters, and
Fig ure 44- 15.
placed to the left of the weld sy mbol.
The strength requirement, when used, is
placed to the left of the weld symbol and
is expressed as the required mini mum
shear strength in pounds per spot weld.
The spacing of spot welds is show n to
the right of the we ld symbol. When a
- . . .. .
[
REOUIRED NUMBER
OF SPOT WELDS

definite number of spot welds are needed ~~WELDING

in a joint, this number is indicated in pa- / \ \.. PITCH PROCESS

rentheses either above or below the ref- SIZE

erence line. See Figure 44- 14. SIZE DESIGNATION

STRENGTH
Seam Welds
Sea m welds are dime nsio ned either by
(IN LB PER
SPOT WELD) 1 PITC7
, /
size or by strength. Locat ion and des- 0(6)
igna tio n of sizes are similar to those STRENGTH DESIGNATION
used for fillet welds. Size is designated
as the widt h of the we ld in fractions, Ftgure 44-14. Spot ~1"('Jd des igtuuions incl ude size,
decim als, or millim eters, and is shown strength. spacing. and number of .I'II0{ welds.

632 ~ Welding Skills

- . - ., Field Weld Symbol
Welds to be made in the field (not in
a shop or at the place of initia l con-
st ruction) are shown by a darkened
tria ngular flag at the juncture of the
I E
' e:=
.=
Welds to he mode in
th e field (n ot in a
shop or at the place
(~f initial construc-
tion) are shown hya
darkened triangula r
flag at the juncture
reference line and arrow. The nag al-
of the reference lim'
SIZE DESIGNATION ways point s toward the reference tail and a rrow.
of the line. See Figure 44 -17.

/ 1"e"'O"'-LENGTH
Figure 44-17. Ttie field weld sym -
STRENGTH hot is placed at a right angle to the
(IN LB PER LINEAR INCH) REFERENCE reference line at the junction with
LINE the arrow. The jield weld sy mhol
STRENGTH DESIGNATION always [aces the reference tail.

Figure 44-15. Seam weld des ignat ions inclu de size. REFERENCE
strength, length cf weld scam . and {,itch of weld. TAIL
FIELD SYMBOL
FLAG
Th e strength of th e weld , when REFERENCE
used , is located to the left of the weld TAIL
symbol, and is expressed as the mini -
mum acceptab le s he ar stre ngth in
pounds per linear inch. REFERENCE
LINE

Weld -All-Around Symbol

When a weld is to extend completely
around a joint, a small circle is placed
where the arrow connect s the reference
line . See Figure 44-16. Changes in
direction of the weld require multiple
arrows on the welding symbo l to indi-
cate the location of the weld . Multiple
arrows are not used if the weld-all -
around symbol can be used instead.
Reference Tail
The reference tail is included only when
a particu lar welding specification. pro-
cedure, reference , weld, or cutting pro-
cess needs to be called out; otherwise, it
is omitted. This information is often in
the limn of symbols. See Figure 44-18.

. . .. .
WELD ALL-AROUND SYMBOL

Symbol Weld

Figure 44-16. ;\ small ci rcle app ears where the llrro w ("oll llcel s the ref e rence line to denote weld -all -aroun d.

Welding Symbol s ~ 633

Ffgu rc 44-18 . The ref erence tail is
used whrn some specifi c detail or
weld I'rOt'l',\'.\' is requ i r ed. SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING PROCE: Z
REFERENCE
TAIL
/ ~ <~
AWS CONSUMABLE INSERT !
CLASS SPECIFICATION
Abbrev iations in the tail may also call
out some specifications or welding pro-
cesses that are included on some other
part of the print. See Appendix.
Surface Contour of Welds
When bead contour is important, a spe-
cial flat, concave , or convex contour
symbol is added to the welding sym-
bol. Welds that are to be mechanically
fi nished a lso carry a finish sy mbo l
along wit h the cont our symbols. See
Figure 44- 19.
Back Weld and Backing Weld
A back weld and a backing weld refer
to a weld made on the opposite side of
the regular weld. A back weld is made
after the groove weld has been depos-
ited . Ba ck we lds a re occas io na lly
specified to ensure adeq uate penetra-
tion and provide additional strength to
a joint. This particular sym bol is in-
cluded opposite the weld symbol. Back-
ing we lds are made befo re a groove
weld is depos ited to prevent excessive
penetration of the weld metal. No di-
men sion s of back or backing weld s
ex cept hei ght o f re inforce me nt are
shown on the welding symbol. See Fig-
ure 44-20.
Melt-Thru Welds
When complete joint penetration of the
weld throu gh the metal is requi red in
welds made from one side only, a spe-
cial melt-thru weld symbol is placed op-
posite the regular we ld sy mb ol. No
dimension of melt-thru, except height
of reinforcement, is shown on the weld-
ing symbol. See Figure 44-2 1.

SURFACING CONTOURS
- . - - . . _. ... - -- --- -- ----- ~------- - ----- -- - - ------
SYMBOL
LEITER MECHANICAL METHOD
Flat Convex Concave

C Chipping / lfC / I1c / Vro

H Hammering
/ It.. / I1H
/ Vr.;

G Grinding
/ I1G / I1G / L1G

M Machining
/ ~ / I?i. / 'k.
R Rolling / I1R / 11. / ~

U Unspecified
/ It., / l1u / i1u
If.
I
I
Symbol
L j
/ FLAT CONTOUR OBTAINED
~ BY GRINDING WELD

Weld

Figure 44-19 . A filii. concave, or convex symbol added 10 tilt' welding symbol indicates how the surf ace should be contoured.

634 ~ Welding Skills

 Figure 44-20. The back or backing
weld symb ol is included opposite
• - . . I
the weld symbol, with a note in -
eluded in the reference tail.
GROOVE
WELD

BACK WELD MADE J

AFTER GROOVE WELD

Symbol Weld
BACK WELD

GROOVE
WELD

BACKING WELD MADE

BEFORE GROOVE WELD

Symbol Weld
BACKING WELD

Figure 44-21. A melt-thru symbol

. - ,. indicates that com plete joint pen-
ctration of/he weld is requiredfrom
one side on ty:
HEIGHT OF ROOT MELT-THRU SYMBOL
REINFORCEMENT " , / OPPOSITE OFWELD SYMBOL

/1t-
Symbol Weld r
SQUARE BUTT JOINT
Vs" ROOT
REINFORCEMENT

v,

Symbol Weld
FILLET JOINT

Welding Symbols ~ 635


Nondestructive 0-
anuna tion ( N D E )
symbols ar e sym -
bols that specify ex-
amination methods
ami requirements 10
verify weld quality.
Joi~UR.' -U-22. A XWfill"ill~ wdcl .~Jm -
htll,ll·j,h th(' requ irC'clclilllC'tl s;OII
placed 10 the h11. illt!imf('x that .wr-
[lIC t' S are to he built 1//1 hy wekling.
Surfacing Welds
Welds whose surfaces must be built up
by single- or multiple-pass welding are
de noted by a surfacing weld symbol.
The he igh t of the built -up surface is
indicated by a dimension placed to the
left of the surfac ing symbol. See Fig-
ure 44-22. Th e extent, location, and
ori entation of the area to be built up
are normally indicated on the drawing.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION
SYMBOLS
No ndes truc tive e xa minati on (N DE)
symbo ls are sy mbols that spec ify ex-
ami nation met hods and requi rements
to verify weld quality. The method of
examination requi red can be specified
. .,... ..
.
/ r
Symbol
JOINT BUILDUP
AREA TO BE
SURFACED 'I.
Symbol
PART SURFACING
on a se pa rate reference line o f the
welding symbol or as a separate NDE
sy mbo l.
Whether the NDE method is speci-
tied on the same refere nce line as the
weld symbol or on a separate reference
line. the order of operations is the same
as for multiple welding operations. The
re fe rence lin e furt hest fro m the ar-
rowhead indicates the last operation to
be perfo rmed. The operation on the ref-
erence line neare st the arrowh ead is
performed first. When used separately,
NDE symbols incl ude an arrow, refer-
ence line, exa mination letter designa-
tion , d im e nsion s, are as, number of
examinations, supplementary symbols,
tail, and specifications and other ref-
erences . See Appendix.
Yo,' THI CKNESS
I
Weld
'At THIC KNESS
Weld
1. A welding symbol is a graphical representation of the specifications for producing a welded
joint.
2 . Instructions regarding the type of weld are indicated either above or below the reference line.
3. The arrow side is the surface that is in the direct line of vision of the welder. The other
side is the opposite surface of the joint.
4. When more than one type of weld is reqnired, a symbol is shown for each weld.
5. Welds to be made in the field (not in a shop or at the place of initial construction) are shown by
a darkened triangular !lag at the juncture of the reference line and arrow.
6. Nondestructive examination (NOE) symbols are symbols that specify examination methods
and requirements to verify weld quality.

1. What is meant by the arrow side of the welding symbo l?

2 . What is meant by the other side of the welding symhol ?
3. Indicate the meaning of the followi ng welding symbols.

4 . What type of weld do these symbols indicate?

v
5. The se symbols represent what weld specifications?

6. These symbols repre sent what weld specifications?

'f,

/
I

Welding Symbols ~ 637

 7 . Draw completed welding symbols, including necessary information, to describ e the fol-
lowing weld s.

8 . What do these welding symbols mean ?

VT \
\ I

9 . What do these welding symbols represent ?

V, 6 /
~

10. Using thc appropriate table in thc appendix, identify thc parts of the mastcr welding
symbol shown.

11

638 ~ Welding Skills

Materials and fabrication standards and codes provide a common language for ensuring consistency
among products of various manufacturers. Purchase orders for materials must refer to materials stan-
dards. Certification accompanying products must be checked to ensure that the materials conform to
indicated standards. Fabrication standards and codes ensure that materials and welded products meet
specified mechanical property and quality requirements.

Quality requirements specified in materials and fabrication standards and codes are accepted by manufac-
turers, suppliers, and users as the basis for ordering and fabricating materials. The steps involved in speci-
fying, procuring, andfabricating materials are addressed by materials andfabrication standards and codes.

Quality requirements for welding are based on the possible risks and consequences offailure ofthe equipment
or component. Quality requirements for welding are established by industry groups and ensure the neces-
sary quality at a reasonable cost.

MATERIALS STANDARDS A specification is a type of standard

Materials standards are classified accord-
ing to the kind of information they con-
tain. Various organizations are responsible
for the development of materials stan-
dards. Materials standards are developed
and reviewed by qualified people orga-
nized into committees of producers, end
users, and general interest groups.
Classification of Materials
Standards
A standard is a document that, by agree-
ment, serves as a model for the measure-
ment of a property or the establishment
of a procedure. " By agreement" means
that all parties involved in the product,
including manufacturers , suppliers, and
end users, must agree to the use of the
standard as being fair and practical. Ma-
terials standards are classified as speci-
fications , recommended practices, and
codes. Sec Figure 45-1.
that indicates the technical and com-
mercial requirements for a product.
Material requirements are most often
described by means of specifications.
For example, ASTM A36 is a specifi-
cation for structural steel members used
in riveted, bolted, or welded construc-
tion of bridges and buildings, and for
general structural purposes. ASTM A36
indicates acceptable methods of manu-
facture and minimum acceptable prop-
erties of structural steel members.
A recommended practice is a type of
standard that provides instructions for Materials standards
and codes are devel -
performing one or more repetitive tech- oped by consensus
nical functions . For example, ASTM (agreement ) be -
E 165 is a recommended practice for tween parties repre-
senting producers,
conducting liquid penetrant testing. end users, and gen-
ASTM E 165 indicates standard test pa- eral interest groups.
rameters that should be followed to al-
low comparison between liquid
penetrant tests performed on different
welds or other items.

639
Figure 45-1. Materials standards
are clll.\'.I'ijied ns .I'pl'cijkatiOlI.I', rec-
ommended practices. and code s.
MATERIALS STANDARDS

I I
Specificat io ns Recommended Codes
Practices
• Indicate technical • Mandatory standards
and commercial • Provide instructions used by a [urisdic-
requirements for for pertorming a tional body
a product technical function

A code is a type of standard that is objective is to create documents that are

Codes a re manda -
lory standards that
IUlI'e bee n adopted
hy a jurisdict ional
body
Standards typ es in-
clude specifications.
revonnnemled prac-
tices, and codes.
Two ('1}('S of activity
in s tan dards c r e-
ation art.' new stan-
dards development
aml ex is ting sta n-
dards revision.
640 €1 Welding Skills
mandatory and is used by a juri sdictional
body. A code indicates what "shall" be
done rather than what "may" be done .
For example, ASME (Ameri can Society
of Mecha nical Engineers) International
administers the code for pressure piping.
The code for pressure piping covers spe-
cific types of piping, such as for steam
or petroleum products, and contains regu-
lations for the design and fabrication of
piping for the specific service catego ry
to achieve safe and reliable operation.
Standards Development
Standards are developed by standards
committees, Standards committees con-
sist of a balanced representation of pro-
ducers, end users, and certain general
interest groups to represent all interested
parties. See Figure 45-2. Balanced rep-
resentation ensures that standa rds are
created that are acceptable to all repre-
sentatives. Standards committees meet
regularl y, generally every six months, to
consider actions on standards for which
they are respon sible . Actions on stan-
dard s include new standards deve lop-
ment or revision of existing standards.
New Standards Development. New
standards developm ent is initiated by task
groups within standards committees.
New standards deve lopment is a rela-
tively slow and de liberate process. The
acceptable to the majority of producers
and end users whose businesses are af-
fected by them .
Task groups develop draft documents.
Draft docum ents are the starting poiot for
new standards . The applicable standards
committee review s the draft document
and suggestion s for improvement arc
balloted by the comm ittee. Balloting is a
forma l method of documenting and vot-
ing upon the reviewers' sugg estions.
Once the draft document is revised ac-
cording to the ballot , the task group is
disbanded . Th e revised draft standard
becomes the responsibility of the stan-
dards committee. See Figure 45-3.
It is not necessary to ballot all re-
viewer s' sugges tions. For example, edi-
torial content item s a nd nonrelevant
technical suggestions are not necessar-
ily balloted. Editorial content items are
propo sed segments of a standard that do
not affect technical co ntent. Nonrelevant
techni cal suggestions are propo sed seg-
ments of a sta ndard which, although
techni cal, are not within the scope of the
standard.
Several ballot s are usuall y required
before a draft standard is ready for re-
view out side the standards committee .
Outside review is also done through bal-
loting. Supplementary review(s) may re-
sult in the standard being returned to the
comm ittee for further work, and so on.
 Figure 45-2. Standards committees
cons ist of a balanced representation
(~r!,mducers, end users, and certain

Standa rds Committee general interest groups to represe nt

aI/ interested pa rties.
• For specific technology
area or sub-area of a
technology

I I
Producers End Users General Interest Groups
• Require standards • Require standards • Require standards
to produce or sell to conduct to pursue technical
products occupation or commercial devel-
opments or to protect
the public

Standards mu st be reviewed regu -

NEW STANDARDS larly to maintain their relevance to cur-
DEVELOPMENT rent technical and commercial practic es.
The formal time interval for standards
I review varies from two years to five
years , although review may be carri ed
Standards
Committee out whene ver there is anythin g signifi -
• Authorizes task cant to addre ss. The proce ss for exist-
group
ing standards revision is similar to that
I for new standards development. How-
ever, existing standards revision is usu-
Task Group
• Develops draft
ally confi ned to specifi c segments of the
document existing standard that may have become
irrelevant or obsolete through chan ges
I in technical or commercial practices.
Task Group Draft
Review Standard The specific segments are revised and
• Ballots to define
and improve
- • Moves to
standards
balloted . See Figure 45-4 .
The balloting process for exi sting
draft documents committee for
supplementary standards revision is mor e rapid than
• Reviews all
review new standards development becau se
suggested
changes fewer parts of the existin g standard are
• Develops draft reviewed . If the entire standard is ac-
standards
ceptable without changes, it is reissued
as a reaffirmed standard. If the stan-
Ffgure 45-3. The objective of ne w standards develop-
ment is the creation of docu ments that are acceptubie
dard is mod ified , it is issued as a re-
10 the majority of prod ucers and users whose business vised standard. Reaffirmed or revised
is affected hy them. standards carry the most curre nt date
Existing Standards Revision. Existing or revision numb er. The latest issue of
standards revision is the job of the re- any standard superce des pr eviou s is-
sponsihle committee . If necessary, re- sues. Thi s rule app lies to most, but not
sponsibility may be transferred to another necessaril y all, standards. Work with
comm ittee more closely aligned with the the late st issue of any standard, unless
contents of the standard. oth erw ise direct ed .
Materials & Fabrication Standa rds & Codes :@: 64 1
Figu re 45-4. £ci.~/iflg standards re-
vision is usually coafined 10 slJecific
segments ofWI existing standard that EXISTING STANDARDS REVISION
mav have become irrelevant or ob -
solete throug h cha nges ill technica l
o r co mmercial practices.
r
Stand ard
up for review

I
Sta ndard
mark ed up
with propo sed
chang es

T
Abstain
Disapprove Propo sed
No acti on
changes Approve taken
ballo ted

Non-persuasive
Disapproval is
persuasive or
Discussed
with
Disapproval I
~ Withdrawn
non-persu asi v e review

p ersuasive
Disapproval
Committee Maintained Revis ed
votes on stand ard
chang es issu ed

User Enquiry o Users who wish / 0 make recommendations

fo r revisions to standards usually do so
A user enquiry is a formal procedure de- through an approved query fonn or data
veloped by standa rds committees and fO/1l1 supplied b)' the standardsorguniiatlon:

code -creating organizations to help us-

ers interpret issues and offer suggestions.
The intent of all user enquiry procedure s
is to maintain a channel of officia l com-
rnunication between a standard- or code-
writing committee and end users on
questions or problems arising from the
use of a standard or code. User enquiry
procedure s include scope, purpose , con-
tent, and proposed reply.
• Scope identifies the segment of the
standard or code relevantto the enquiry.
One item is addressed per enquiry.
• Purpose states the intent of the user
enquiry-for example, to obt ain an
interpretation of a code requireme nt
or to request revision of a particular
segment of a standard .
642 €1 Weldillg Skills
• Content lists relevant paragraphs, fig-
ures, sketches, and tables in the code
or standard that bear upon the user
enquiry, with comp lete documentation
to permit the standards committee to
quickly and fully understand the en-
quiry. Technical justification must be
provided if the user wants to obtain
revision of the standard or code.
• Proposed reply to the user enquiry
should be indicated when necessary.
For example, when a revision of a
particular segment of the standard is
requested, the wording of a proposed
revision must be supplied by the end
user proposing the change.
 The result of a user enquiry may be a
temporary addendum to the standard or
code to per mit usage of the suggested
modification. Temporary adde nda con-
tain a time limit for the proposed modi-
fication before it is formally balloted as
a revision to the current version of the
standard or code.
MATERIALS STANDARDS
ORGANIZATIONS
Material s standards organizations that
produce standards for base meta ls and
welding consumables include ASTM in-
ternational (ASTM ). the Society of Au-
tomotive Engineers (SAE), Aerospace
Material Specifications (AMS), the Ameri-
can Welding Society (AWS), ASME Inter-
national, the American Petroleum Institute
(AP[), and the American National Stan-
dards Institute (ANS[). Additionally, the
Canadian StandardsAssociation (CSA), the
European Standards Council (CEN), and
the International Orga nizat ion for Stan-
dardization ([SO) develop standards glo-
bally, or for other countries.
ASTM International (ASTM)
ASTM International is the largest source
of materials standards. Fro m the work
of over 130 standards-writing commit-
tees, ASTM Intern ation al publishes
standard test method s, specifications,
practi ce s, guides, classifications, and
terminology. ASTM International stan-
dards cover metals, paints, plastics, tex-
tiles, petroleum, construction, energy,
the enviro nme nt, consumer products,
medical ser vices and devices, comput-
erized systems, and electro nics. ASTM
International has no technica l, researc h,
or testing facilitie s. Suc h work is do ne
voluntarily by 35,000 technically qua li-
fied ASTM Int ern a tio nal me mbers
worldwide.
More than 9 100 standards are pub-
lished each year in 70 volumes of the An-
nual Book of ASTM Standards. These
standards and related information are sold
worldwide . ASTM intern ational stan-
dards used for base metals in welding
contain information on the manufactur-
ing practices and performance character-
istics of ma te ria ls in various product
forms such as plate, bar, pipe, and rod.
o Standa rds organizations may develop stall-
dards that (Ire appli cabl e in their home
COW l/ I)' only. or, as in the case of ASTM
lnterno tion al, th at have been adopted
worldw ide.
ASfM International Standards Desig-
nation. The ASTM International standards
designation is based on a letter-number
combination, such as A36 or 8 315. If the
standard is tentative (issued on a trial ba-
sis), the year is followed by the letter T. If
the standard is revised a second time in the
same year, the date is followed by the let-
ter a. if it is revised a third time in the same
year, the date is followed by the letter b,
etc. If the standard is a metric equivalent
of another standard, the serial number is
followed by an M. A metric equivalent
standard is a version of a standard in which
all the units are indicated in metric (SI)
values. See Figure 45-5.
Embedded des ignations arc uni qu e
material s identification s that are part
of the standard. In most cases, an em-
bedded designation must be coup led with
ASTM International or ot her specifica-
tion number to unique ly defi ne a ma-
ter ial. ASTM International and other
materials standards usua lly refer to sev-
eral different materials that are described
by the prefix, grade, type, or class followed
by a unique designation. For example,
ASTM A 193 is a specification for alloy
and stainless steel bo lting materials.
However, to specify ASTM A I93 alone
is not enough. ASTM A 193 incl udes
embedded mate rials such as:
Variou s industrv
• Grade 87 (high-s trength, low-alloy
steel)
• Grade 88 class I (304 annealed stain-
tI
.~ groups write maleri-
.= als sta ndards an d
codes. but the largest
set cf standanlsis pro-
less steel) duced by A.S7M lnter-
• Grade 88 class 2 (304 cold worked national (ASIM).
stain less steel)
Materials & Fabrication Standards & Codes :@: 643
 LETT ER ONE TO FOUR
INDICATING DIGIT NUMBER
GENERAL
LETTER M INDICA/ ES
CLASSIFICATION METRIC VERSION
•/ / DASH
COPPER ROD BAR AND SHAPES
FERROUS METALS ' - YEAR OF ADOPTION
NONFERROUS METALS OR LATEST REVISION
CEMENTITIOUS, CERAMIC,
CONCRETE , AND MASONRY
MATERIALS
D MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
E MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS
F MATERIALS FOR SPECIFIC
SUBJECTS
G CORROSION, DETERIORATION,
OR DEGRADATION OF MATERIALS
ES EMERGENCY STANDARD
Fiaure 45-5. The A~TM 11I1l'fI/I/Jimwl standards designation is based (1/1 (I
Unified Numbering System. The uni-
fied numbering system (UNS) is a com-
mon embedded designation system that
unifies all families of metals and alloys.
The UNS uniquely identifies the chemi -
cal composition of alloys that have been
fixed by other specification bodies. If the
alloy is proprietary (produced by a lim-
ited number of suppliers). the chemical
compos ition is established by the pro-
ducer. The UNS consists of a capital let-
tcr followed by five numbers, The capital
lett er identi fies the a lloy famil y and.
where possible. the live numbers are re-
lated to the pre-UNS designation of the
alloy. See Figure 45-6.
Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) and Aerospace Material
Specifications CAMS)
The Society of Automotive Engi neers
Standards pertain- (SAE) and Aerospace Material Specifica-
ing to welding lire tions (AMS) follow standards for engineer-
published by AWS
and cover welding ing material s used in on- and off-road
processes, filler met- vehicles. aircraft, and spacecraft. The SAE
als, end health. is a major source of technical information
and expertise used in designing, building.
maintaining. and operating self-propelled
vehicles. whether land-, sea-, air-. or space-
based. SAE collects. organizes. stores. and
644 ~ Welding Skill"
LETTER INDICATING VERSION
REVISED AGAIN IN SAME YEAR
(a, b, C, etc)
STANDARD TIT LE
leite r-number com bination.
disseminates information on cars. trucks.
aircraft. space vehicles. marine equipment.
and engines of all sizes.
SAE and AMS standards are adminis-
tered by SAE and describe quality levels
required for end use. AMS standards gen-
erally contain the most stringent quality
requ irements of any standards because
tbey define the requirements for use in ex-
tremely critical services. AMS standards
may be used in applications outside of the
aerospace industry where stringent qual-
ity requirements j ustify the additional cost.
For example. critical forgings for extreme
cyclic (fatigue) applicatio ns may require
materials manufac tured to AMS specifi-
cations because the high degree of inter-
nal cleanliness required of materials that
meet AMS spec ifications ensures high
fatigue resistance.
American Welding Society CAWS)
American Welding Society (AWS) stan-
dards cover automatic, semiautomatic,
and manual welding. as well as brazing,
so ldering, cera mics, lamination. robo t-
ics. and safety and health issues. AWS is
orga nized into more than 180 commit-
tees. 125 of which are technical commit-
tees, involvi ng 1400 me mbe rs in the
production of standards,
 Figure 45-6. The unified number-
UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM
~
ing system C0I1Si.I".\' of a capital let -
ter f ollowed by five nu mbers. The
Vl9pNurr!lJlIr ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
TYPll
",.
.. of Melal
~ ." 4"'~
capita! lette r identifies the alloy
Axxxxx Aluminum and Aluminum alloys jamily and the five numbers indi-
Cxxxxx Copper and Copper alloys call' the pl"l' ·UNS designation of
the alloy.
Exxxxx Rare Earth and similar meta ls and alloys
Fxxxxx Cast Irons
Gxxxxx AISI and SAE Carbons and alloy Steels
Hxxxxx AISI and SAE H~Steels
Jxxxxx Cast Steels (except tool stee ls)
Kxxxxx Miscellaneous Steels and ferrous alloys
Lxxxxx Low meltina metals and alloys
Mxxxxx Miscellaneous nonferrous metals and alloys
Nxxxxx Nickel and Nickel alloys
Pxxxxx Precious metals and alloys
Rxxxxx Reactive and refractory metals and alloys,
Heat and corrosion resistant steels (inc luding stainless) Valve Steels,
Sxxxxx
and Iron-base "superalloys"
Txxxxx Tool Steel s. wrought and cast
Wxxxxx Welding filler metals
Zxxxxx Zinc and Zinc alloys

AWS standards also cover welding
consumables. Filler metals are one cat-
egory of welding co nsumables. Must
commercial filler metals are identified by
an AWS designation . Whenever possible,
welding consumabl es should be referred
to by AWS designation s rather than com-
mercial names.
Welding consumable requirements
are standardized by AWS in a series of
spec ifications based on the material
family. For example, AWS A5~ I de-
scribes standard carbon steel covered
arc weldin g e le ctro des . Embedded
weldin g consumables are identified by
letter-number designations within each
specification.
AWS specifications indicat e ch erni-
cal compositions of materials and me-
ch anical properties of the deposited
weld metal using standardized welding
procedures in a specified joint detail to
produce weld specime ns for testing.
When required, specifi cations may also
indicate other properties such as tough-
ness or an acceptable amount of poros~
ity, Mo st specifications include usability
parameters such as the weld position for
which the filler metal is designed, weld-
ing current that should be used , and in
the case of covered electrodes, the type
of coating. Size and packaging informa-
tion is also pro vided. AWS publication
FMC: Filler Metal Compari son Charts,
lists commercial name s for AWS fi ller
metal designations. See Figure 45 ~ 7 ~
The AWS identification of welding
filler metals co ns ists of letters and
numbers. The letters include R for rod ,
E for electrode, RB for rod or wire , and
ER for electrode rod or wire. Rod is
welding wire that is cut and straight-
ened. Rod may be flux -coated or bare .
Electrodes may be flux cored (tubular),
con sisting of a metal sheath packed
with fluxes and alloyin g cl em ent s.
Flux es, when used separate ly from
filler metals, are also c lassified. Sinc e
the welding con sumable identifications
embedded within AWS spec ifications
are unique, they are often referred to
without their spec ificatio n number ,
such as E70l8 or ER3 0 8 ~
ASME International (ASME)
ASME International publishes codes and
standards for the design, manufacture,
and installation of mechanical devices.
Materials & Fabrication Stand ards & Codes :€} 645
 A5.1, CARBON STEEL Covered Arc Welding Electrodes
See ANSI/AWS A5.1, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding

E6010
SOURCE PRODUCT
AIR UQUIDE CANADA INC. LA 6010
Aireo Filler Metals
American Filler Metals Company AFM 60 10
American Welding Alloys AWA6010
Arcweld Products, Ltd. EASYARC 10, EASYARC 10+
Askaynak Kaynak Teknigi Sanayi Ticaret A.S. AS S-6010
Bohler Thyssen Welding USA, Inc. Thyssen Cel 70, Bohler Fox Cel
CARBO-WELD Schweissmaterial1en GmbH CARBO RC 3
Champion Welding Products CHAMPION E6010
D&H Sechemn Electrodes Limited CELLUTHERME
Electromanufacturas S,A. West Area XL-6l0, ZIP 10-T, West Hode 600/10
ESABAB Pipeweld 6010
ESAB WELDING & CUTTING PRODU CTS SUREWELD 10-P, SUREWELD AP-l00
EXSA SA - Division Soldaduras OERUKON Cellocord P, PT
EXSA S.A. . Division Fontargen FON E 51 A. FON E 51 AT
HILARIU S HAARLEM HOLLAND BV HILCO Pipeweld 6010
Hobart Welding Products PIPEMASTER 60
HYUNDAI WELDING PRODUCTS, INC. S-6010 D
Indura S.A. Industria y Comercio INDURA 6010
Ind Iding Cor WELD N-

Amui....m W~lJing Sociny

Figure 45·7. AWS puhticution FMC: Filler Metal Comparison Charts, lists commercial names for AWS filler metal designations.

ASME International Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code materi als utilize se-
lected ASTM and AWS specifications for
base metals and welding consumables,
but with minor changes to those specifi-
cations where they are too broad for
boiler and pressure vessel applications.
ASME International Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code -appro ved material s and
welding consumables are assigned the
prefix letter S to indicate approval. Only
ASM E Co de- approve d materials and
welding consumables may be used for
fabrication or repair of equipment built
to the ASME International Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code.
ASM E Pressure Piping Code mate-
rials carry ASTM and AWS specifica-
ti on s for b ase met al s and we ldi ng
con surnable s, re spe cti vel y. Spec ific
ASME press ure piping codes indicate
which ASTM and AWS specifications
are approved.
The ASME International Boiler and
Pres sure Vessel Code con sists of l l
Sections. Each Section covers aspects
of design. fabrication and inspection.
care and operation. materials specifi -
cation s, non de str ucti ve te stin g. and
we ld ing and brazing qualificat io ns .
Som e Section s co ns ist of sub-pa rts
known as Divisions.

646 ~ Welding Skills

 The ASME International Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code is unique in that it
requires third-party inspection indepen-
dent of the fabricator and the user. Inspec-
tors are commissioned by examination by
the National Board of Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Inspectors (NB). These authorized
inspectors (AI) are employed by inspec-
tion agencies such as insurance compa -
nies or jurisdictional authorities. Users
who are qualified to carry out pressure
vessel fabrication and repair submit ap-
plications to have their own third-party
inspectors, or owner-user inspectors.
A company must exhibit a quality con-
trol system and quality manual before fab-
ricating a boiler or pressure vessel. The
quality control system is audited by the
authorized inspection agency and either
the jurisdictional authority or the Na-
tional Board. Based on successful audit
of the fabricator's quality system, ASME
International may issue the fabricator a
Certificate of Anthorization and a code
symbol stamp. The authorized inspection
agency is involved in monitoring fabri-
cation and field erection of boilers and
pressure vessels. The AI must be satis-
fied that all applicable provisions of the
ASME International Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code have been followed before
allowing the fabricator to apply its code
symbol stamp to the vessel nameplate.
Manufacturers and contractors who
regularly build or install pressure vessels
or pressure piping are required to have an
ASME International symbol stamp, indi-
cating they have been approved by ASME
International as an authorized manufac-
turer of the type of equipment specified.
Symbol stamps consist of letters desig-
nating the type of construction permitted.
American Petroleum Institute (API)
The American Petroleum Institute (API)
develops materials standards applicable to
petroleum storage and natural gas and pe-
troleum transmission by pipeline. Pipe
steels are low-carbon steels used in the oil
and gas industries and include drill pipe,
casing, tubing, and line pipe. API 50,
Specificationfor Drill Pipe, coversdrillpipe.
Casing is used to structurally restrain the
walls of oil wells or gas wells, to exclude
undesirable fluids, and to confine oil or gas
to subsurface layers. Tubing is used within
the casing of oil wells to conduct oil and
gas to ground level. API 5CT, Specifica-
tion for Casing and Tubing, covers casing
and tubing. Line pipe (transmission pipe)
is welded or seamless pipe used principally
for conveying gas and oil. API 5L, Specifi-
cation for Line Pipe, covers line pipe.
American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)
The American National Standards Insti-
tute (ANSI) is a standards organization
that adopts standards written and approved
by member organizations. ANSI connects
its member organizations by unifying their
adopted standards . ANSI standards have
been formally adopted at the national
level. ANSI functions as coordinator of
American national standards. ANSI also
manages United States participation in
international standards activities. An
ANSI-approved standard retains its spon-
sor organization designation but addition-
ally carries on the title page a descriptor
indicating it is an American National Stan-
dard. For example, ASTM A36/A36M,
Standard Specification for Carbon Struc-
tural Steel, is also an ANSI standard .
Canadian Standards Association
(CSA)
The Canadian Standards Association
(CSA) develops standards and certifica-
tion requirements used throughout
Canada. See Figure 45-8 . CSA standards
for filler metals are in general agreement
with AWS specifications. Since Canada
uses the metric (SI) system of units, the
familiar AWS embedded designations
such as E60XX or E70XX that are re-
lated to the tensile strength of the filler
metal in ksi are changed to three-digit
numbers corresponding to tensile
strength in megapascals (MPa) . CSA
standards also indicate the diameter of
the core wire in millimeters (mm) .
Materials & Fabrication Standards & Codes :0 647
Figure -15-8. The Canadian SUm-
dards Assoc iation (CS A) develops CANADIAN STANDARDS
standards and certification require -
mefll .{ used thn mgllOlil CUII(U/('.
Number Title
CSA W47.1 "Certification of Companies for Fusion Welding of Steel Structures"
CSAW47.2 "Aluminum Welding Qualification Code"
CSAWl17.1 "C ode for Safety in Welding and Cutting (Requirements for Welding Operato rs)"
CSAW178 "Qualification Code for Weldin lnsoecfion Oroanizat ions"
"Resistance Welding Qualification Code for Fabricators of Structural Members
CSA W55.3
Used in Buildings"
CSA S244 "Welded Aluminum Design andWorkmanship (Inert Gas Shielded Arc Process)"
CSAW59 "Welded Stee l Construction (Metal Arc Welding)"
C SA W48 "Weldino Electrodes"
CSA W 186 "Welding of Reinforcing Barsin Reinforced Concrete Construction"

European Standards Council (CEN) for low-carbon ste e l in a part to be

Purchase orders for
mater ial s ref er to
upptica ble mat eri-
als sta ndards urul
codes.
European st andards are produced by
the European Standards Council (CEN )
and are known as Euronorms. Euronorm s
ha ve the prefi x le tte rs EN. Euronorms
replace the standards of the individual
countries of the European Community
with s ing le document s for specific
items suc h as vario us ba se me ta ls and
filler metals .
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
Th e Internationa l Org anization for Stan-
dardi zation (ISO) promotes the devel op-
ment o f sta nd a rds to facilitate the
international exc hange of goods and ser-
vice s. ISO publishes several standards on
we lding electrode s.
USING MATERIALS STANDARDS
Materials standards provide information
on co mme rcially avail able base metals
and welding con sumables. The variations
between material s sta nd a rds permit
specification and proc urement co nsiste nt
with the design and service requirements
of the fabrication . Certification of prod-
ucts ensures that materials procured for
we lding and fabrication meet the speci-
fication s. The relatively high tempera-
tures a nd stresses ex perience d durin g
welding may lead to premature failure if
improper materia ls are used . For example,
the substitution of free-machining steel
we lded may lead to fai lure becau se the
pre sence of sulfur or se leni um in the
free-machining steel leads to hot crack-
ing. The spec ified base metal and filler
metal type s indicated in welding proce -
dure qualifi cation record s must be used .
w ith no substitutions .
Variations between Materials
Standards
Variations between materials standards
allow them to cover many industrial appli-
cations and meet a wide range of quality
requirem ents. Designers select standards
that meet the required quality level for
the intended service . Using a higher qua l-
ity than necessary add s to co st. Using a
lower quality tha n necessary may lead
to premature failure in service.
For example, ASTM A53 and A I06 are
specifications for two types of steel pip-
ing. ASTM A53 is specified for piping for
general use and is not made to any par-
ticular steelmaking process. ASTM A 106
specifies fine-grain steelmaking practice s
that resu lt in seamless stee ls (not shaped
by seam welding), less pron e to exh ibit
leakage throughout the pipe wall . These
feat ures make ASTM A 106 more appro-
priate for critical se rvice app lications
where fai lure from leakage or fracture
might lead to injury or significant prop-
erty damage. See Figure 45-9. The excess
cost involved in using A I06 for a general-
purpose application would be unnecessary
since A53 wou ld be acceptable.

648 ~ Welding Skills

 Fig u re 45-9. Specification ASTM
STANDARDS COMPARISON ;\ 53 is a gell era l steel f,ipiflf{ sped -

Most fication : ASIM AJ()6 is preferred

Standard Type Tit(El Description Uses f or critical applications.
*
:c91}l P}~~~
"Pipe, Stee l, Black • Resistance welded
Type E • Slight ly higher car bon
and Hot Dipped , Gen eral
ASTM A53 Spec ificat ion contact than Grade A
Zinc Coa ted , We ld- Gra de B use
• Not to fine-grain
ed and Seamless" steelmaking practice

"Seamless Ca rbon • Seamless

Stee l Pipe for • Balanc e of strength
ASTM A106 Specification Cr itical
Grade B and welda bllity
High -Temp erature service
• Made to fine-gra in
Service" stee lmaking pract ice

Certification A certificate of compliance ha s little

A certification is a notarized statement pro-
vided by a supplier verifying that a prod-
uct meets the specification under which it
is sold. Certification types include mill test
report, product analysis, certificate of com-
pliance, and filler metal approval.
A mill test report (MTR), or certificate
of analysis (COA), is certification issued
by the primary manufacturer (mill) veri-
fying the chemical analysis and mechani-
cal test properties of stock obtained from
a starting ingot or billet of metal. The
MTR is reviewed when the order is re-
ceived. An MTR allows the receiver to
check that the materials meet specifica-
tions. MTRs do not cost extra when re-
quested in the original purchase order.
Product analysis is supplementary
certification that a partic ular product
form is fabricated from a specific billet
of metal. Produ ct ana lysis is performed
on item s such as tubing or pipe fittings
to ensure that substitutions have not been
made d uring processing of the metal.
Testing procedures for product ana lysis
are usually destructive, and components
that are tested in order to generate a prod-
uct analysis must be discarded . Product
ana lyses may be included in the certifi -
cation as a supp lemental require men t in
ASTM spec ifications at addi tional cost.
Product ana lyses are req uired only at the
discretion of the user.
A certificate of compliance (CaC) is
a statement that a material meets the
specifications to which it was purchased.
A certification is a
value un less the supp lier has an accept-
notarized statement
able quality program that verities that the that a materia! meets
acce ptance steps are valid and have been specifications.
performed.
Filler metal approval is the process
of testi ng samples of as-received filler
metal to certify confo rmance to a speci-
fication, An approved inspector witnesses
we lding of test plates using electrodes A mill test report is
a ce rtification tha t
se lected at random and mechanical prop-
provides results of
erty tests carried out on sam ples of the chemical l1IuJ me -
test we ldmcnts.Approvals are granted for chnnical propert y
tests to indicate the
filler metals based on the results of the
ma teria! meets speci-
tests . The approved inspector places the jications.
approved product on a qualifi ed prod ucts
list (QPL).
Retention of filler metal on the ap-
proved lists ma y be subject to annua l
tests. Filler metal approvals inclu de cov-
ered electrodes; submerged arc electrode
wire with flu x co mbinations; and flux
cored arc we lding electro des with gas
combinations.
MTR Segments
MTR segmen ts indicate the conformance
of a material to the standard. The se in-
clude chem ical analysi s, m echanica l
properties, met hod of manu facture, and
spec ial requirements. Eac h MTR seg-
ment is c hecked aga inst the standard it
refere nces to ens ure the materials are as
specified . Incoming materials are exam-
ined to ensu re that their mark ings and di-
mensions conform to the standard.

Materials & Fabrication Standards & Codes :§: 649

 When required by codes or standa rds, Weld Filler Metals
it is necessar y to ve rify that received
Weld filler metals are se lected in co m-
material s co nform to the rele vant MTR
plian ce with AWS A5 .0 1. Fill er Metal
or product analysis. MTRs and product
analyses are turned over to the respon-
Procurement Guidelines. The purchase
sible organi zatiun after verificatiun or order mu st indicat e th e filler metal
maintained on file. Sec Figure 45 -10 . To specific atio n and embedded de signa-
verify conformance to the MTR or prod - tion. and filler metal diameter. length .
uct anal ysis, follo w the procedure: and quantity, To verify th at the filler
I . Verify that heal number(s) match metal meet s the specifica tion, the box
the heat numbers recorded on the and acc ompan y in g p aperwork a re
materi al s. ch eck ed . See Fi gu re 45- 11. Wh en the
2. Ver ify that the che mical composi- box is ope ned for use. seco ndary verifi -
tions are within the limitation s indi- cation is required. Second ary verifi cati on
cated by the materials specification. consists of supplementary inspection tech-
3. Verify that mechanical properties niques and may include verifica tion of
arc within the limitations indicated the marking or tab on each piece of filler
by the materials specific ation. metal and of the filler metal diameter;
4. Verify that special tests and supple- and if required for critical applicat ions,
mentary requirements co nform to may incl ude supple me nla ry che mical
the material s spec ification. a na lysi s.

Figure 45-1t). When required hy

codes or standards, it is necessary
10 ver({y that received materials
conform 10 the rete vans MTR or
. -. .
product analvsis.

Mill Test Report

·· 'Ma terial Test Report···
J .J . Metals Com pa ny
Houston, TX
Reference Number : Date: 02J08I2003
Cuslome r Name: SCorerite Fillin gs. Inc.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ItemDala - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
nem Descripl~on
1· 150 lap JOInt SA 1Q5
Heat Code
4H7
Heal Number
3891 7 \..!.I
f1'
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Chemical Proper ties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Heat Code C Si Mn P S Cr A1 Cu Ni Mo V Co CE
4H7 0.180 0220 0,660 0,009 001 ® 1lO 0.034 02 40 0,120 0020 0.003 0.004 O,OCKJ O,OCKJ 0.000

Mechanical Properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Yield Tensile R,d soot Lal. Shear Test

Strength Sirengttl
Eloog . A,,,,, Hardness
Pounds Expan . Frac . Temp

46.110 74.675 2900 6830 150-1 60

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Notes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

1. Verify MTR heat numbers match heat numbers on material

2. Verify MTR chemica l compos ition conforms to materials specif ication
3. Verify MTR mechanical properti es conform to materials specification
4. Verify MTR special tests and supplementary requirements conform to material s specification

650 ~ Welding Skills


1. Certification - Verify box description matches order exactly. Product must be labeled
with manufacturer, heat (or lot) number, address
2. Appearance - Verify description on body or tab conforms to specified AWS identification.
Container must be properly sealed
3. Measurement - Verify correct diameter
4. Chemistry - X-ray fluorescence (XRF)"
* if applicable
FABRICATION STANDARDS
AND CODES
Fabrication standards and codes are de-
veloped from many sources of experience
on the reliability of weldment designs for
different applications. Fabrication stan-
dard development has been driven by the
need to define an adequate weld versus
the perfect weld for a specific application.
Ongoing field experience and research
result in continuous refinement of weld
quality requirements in industry codes and
standards to maintain competitiveness of
each segment of business.
Industry-based professional organiza-
tions write welding codes and standards.
Codes are developed for regulated indus-
tries. Standards are developed for less
regulated or nonregulated industries.
Fabrication standards and codes cover
pressure vessels and storage tanks, pip-
ing systems, construction, transportation,
and heavy machinery. See Appendix .
Pressure Vessels and Storage
Tanks
Pressure vessels and storage tanks may
contain flammable, toxic, or corrosive liq-
uids and gases. Pressure vessel or storage
Figure 45-11. Secondary verifica-
tion consists of supplementary in-
spection techniques and may include
verification of the marking or tab
0 11 each pie ce of filler metal, the
filler metal diameter, and if required
for critical applications, supple-
menta ry chemical analysis.
tank leakage or rupture may lead to sig-
nificant loss of life and property dam-
age . Pressure vessel and storage tank
codes are written for the fabrication of
boilers and pressure vessels, nuclear
plants, storage tanks, and compressed
gas containment systems. Additional
in-service inspection and repair codes
address repair of boilers, pressure ves-
sels, and storage tanks that have been
. .
In service.
Boilers and Pressure Vessels. Boilers and
pressure vessels, and items classified as
pressure vessels, such as heat exchangers,
must meet the requirements of the ASME
International Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code in their design and fahrication. Many Fabrication stan -
dards and codes may
countries outside the USA and Canada be grouped into pres-
recognize and accept the ASME Interna- sure vessels and stor-
tional Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, age tanks, piping
systems. construction,
but an equal number of other countries
transportation, and
accept only their own national code. machinery.
A Manufacturing Data Report (MDR)
is a legal document signed by the repre-
sentatives of the manufacturer and the
manufacturer's authorized inspection
agency. An MDR certifies that all details
ofdesign, material,construction, and work-
manship conform to the ASME Interna-
tional Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Materials & Fabrication Standards & Codes :@: 651

Pre ssurr vesse l fab rication requirements are 1)1'ically co vered under the ASME In-
ternationa! Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
A WARNING
Ac ids sho uld be handled in
accordance with written
procedures to prevent personal
injury and equipment damage .
652 ~ We/dillg Skills
Clc<n-cr-Bn l<>k.,
Man y states require that an ASM E
symbol stamped pressure vessel be reg-
iste red with the Nati on al Board. The
pressure vessel is ass igned a number,
known as the National Board number.
The Natio nal Board number is shown
on the MDR and o n the vesse l name -
plate. The manu facturer sends two cop-
ies of the MDR to the National Board,
which keep s one on file and sends the
othe r to the state whe re the pre ssure
vessel will be installed.
A pressure vessel loses its ASME In-
terna tional Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code identity if the MDR is missing and
cannot be replaced. or if the nameplate
is obliterated. Depending on the j urisdic-
tional authority, such a vessel may need
to be replaced. A nameplate must always
be clearly visible. With an insulated ves-
sel, a cutout should be made to ensure
visibility. Do not paint over a nameplate
or otherwise obliterate it.
Information should be resto red to a
nameplate should it be removed or oth-
erwise de leted. The acid etc hing tec h-
nique often reveals information that has
been stamped on sheet metal. The acid
etching techniqu e co nsists of grinding.
etching, and neutralizing.
Stamped information is revealed us-
ing a pencil grinder to very lightly grind
the surface of the nameplate to reveal the
information.
To etch a surface, the vessel is gently
swabbed with a suitable acidic solution.
After etching, excess acid is neutralized
and removed by thoroughly flushing the
surface with water. Sufficient water must
flow over the surface to remove all traces
of acid both from the nameplate and from
the surface of the equipment.
By alternating grind ing and etching,
the nameplate stamping is made readable
again. It may be nece ssary to experiment
with the acid etching technique using a
piece of a luminum or stain less stee l
sheet meta l containing stamped ide nti-
ficat ions. The acid etching techn iq ue is
a viable method of restori ng damaged
stamped ide ntification tags on motors.
tanks, and other item s of equi pment.
Repairs to boile rs and pressure ves-
sels are covered by in-ser vice inspec-
tion and repair cod es, National Boa rd
Inspection Code (NB IC), or API 510.
dependin g on which code is recognized
by the state in which the work is done .
The purpo se of in-ser vice inspection and
repair codes is to mainta in the integrity
of pressure boilers and pressure vessels
after they have been placed in service
by provid ing rules and guidelines for in-
spection after installation. repa ir, alter-
atio n, and rer ating. Alteration is any
repair that does not restore a mech ani-
ca l co mpo nent to its origi nal de sig n.
Reratin g is revision of the allowab le de-
sign parameters of a mechanical com-
ponen t from the original design arising
from forma l study of its curren t condi-
tion. Rerating a pressure vessel results
in changes to the design pressure and
temperature, which must be recorded on
the nameplate.
Any welding done on the pre ssure
boundary of a pressure vessel is subject
to the requirements of the applicab le in-
service inspection and rep air code . A
pre ssur e boundary is a physical enve-
lope that contain s the working pressure
of a piece of eq uipment. Welding in a
plug or perform ing a weld repair to a
heat exc hanger tube-to- tubes heet j oint
is classified as a pressure vesse l repair
becau se it involv es welding directl y on
a pr essure boundary of the heat e x-
change r. See Figure 45- 12.
Rep air organizat ions that make re-
pairs or alterations wi ll usuall y have an
" R" or " NR" symbo l stamp iss ued by
the National Board of Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Inspectors.
"'iJ,::url' 45·12. Repairs made to /I 11m! exchanger tube -
to.rubesheet joint are classified as pres.mre vessel re-
pain because they involve wel d ing di rectly 0 11 a
prr ssurr boundary of the heu t exchanger:
Nuclear Plants. Nuclear plant co mpo-
nents such as nuclear reactors and mate-
rials used in nucl ear plants are cove red
by the pro vision s o f Section III of the
ASM E Intern ational Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code and the Nuclear Regulatory
Co mmission Specification, Quality As-
su ra nce Criteria [or Nu cl ear Pow er
Plants and Fuel Reprocessing Plants.
O ne exception is nuclear plant compo-
ne nts developed for naval ships. which
are co vered by a code issued by the De-
part ment of Defense (DOD) Nava l Sh ip
Divi sion Code , Sta ndard for We/ding
Reacto r Coolant and Associated System s
and Co mponents for Nava l Nuclear
POII'a Plants. The DOD code is similar
to Section III of the ASME International
Bo iler and Pre ssure Vessel Code. Be-
cause of the significant consequences of
a failure , nuclear plant codes impose the
strictes t certi ficati on req uire me nts o n
materials and the traceabil ity of all ma -
terials to the point of origin.
Storage Tanks. Storage tank s co nsist of
aboveground storage tank s and elevated
storage tank s. Abo veground storage tank s
usuall y contain various fluid s, suc h as
petrol eum product s and chemical so lu-
tions. and usuall y rest on a concrete slab
or dunnage. Dunnage is a series of steel
I-beam s parallel to one another. Elevated
storage tanks contain wat er, and ma y
co ntain petrol eum produ cts, and rest on
stee l towers. A ll storage tank cod es and
sta nd ards refe r to Sectio n IX o f th e
ASME International Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code for we lding qualifica tion.
Abo veground storage ta nks are de-
signed and fabricated based on the pres-
sure of the tank. API ST D 620 , Design
lind Construction (if Large. Welded, Lo w
Pressure Storage Tanks, covers the design
and construction of field-weld ed pressure
tanks used for storage of petroleum inter-
mediates and finished products und er a
pressure of 15 psig or less (low pressure).
API STO 650, Welded Steel Tanks fo r Oil
Storage. covers the material. design . fab-
ricati on , erec tion. a nd testin g require-
ments for vertical, cylindrical welded steel
storage tanks that are above grou nd and
not subject to internal pressure.
Fabrication requirements for elevated
stee l tanks are described in th e jo int
American Wate rwork s A ssociatio n
(AWWA) and Am erican National Stan-
dards Institute (ANSI) ANSIIAWWA
D I DO, Standardjor Welded Steel Tanksfor
""lfer Storage. TIle joint standard provides
a purchase specification to facilit ate the
manufacture and procurernent of welded
steel tanks for the storage of water.
Aboveground storage tank repair is cov-
ered in in-service inspec tion and repair code
API STD 653, Tallk Inspection, Repair. A/-
teration. and Reconstruction. API 653 is
based on accumulated knowledge of own-
ers, manufacturers, and repairers of steel
storage tanks. API 653 provides guidance
in the inspecti on , repai r, alteration, and
Materials & Fabrication Standards & Codes ::@: 653
 reconstruction of steel aboveground stor-
age tanks used in the petroleum and chemi-
cal industries. Welding requirements are
based on equivalence standard API 650.
Compressed Gas Equipment. The Com-
pressed Gas Association (CGA) develops
compressed gas equ ipment standar ds .
CGA C-3, Standards for Weldillg 0 11 Thin-
Walled, Steel Containers, covers welding
requirements in the manufacture and re-
pair of Departmen t of Tra nsportatio n
(Oaf) compressed cylinders.
Piping Systems
Piping sys tems, like pressure vesse ls,
may transport flamm able, toxic, or cor-
rosive liquid s. Piping systems are usu-
ally mor e susce ptible to ca tas tro phic
failure co nse quences compared with
pressure vesse ls or tanks becau se pip-
ing systems contai n many joints and
often con sist of long exposed run s that
may be subject to mech anical abu se .
Piping system design , fabrication, and
repair are co vered by codes that encom -
pass pressure pipin g, line piping, and
water pipin g.
Pressure Piping, Pressure piping in ther-
mal and nuclear power plants, refineries.
and chemical plants is designed and fab-
ricated in accordance with ASME B31,
Code for Pressure Piping. Pressure pip-
ing is usually medium - to thick-wall (de-
scribed by schedule) and medium- to
large-size (described by diameter). The
ASME Code for Pressure Piping is di-
vided into seven Sections applicable to
different end-use categories of pressure
plp mg.
Wel din g proced ures and qu al ifica-
tions vary acco rding to the applica ble
Section of the ASME Code for Pressure
Piping. Welding procedures and qualifi-
cations are generally in accordance with
Section IX of ASME International Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code unless other
codes or qualification s are referred to.
Pressure piping repair is covered by
in-service inspection and repair code API
570 , Piping Insp ection Code: Insp ection,
654 @o Wl'!dillg Skills
Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of 111-
Servi ce Piping Sys tems. API 570 is also
applicahle to AS ME B31 .3, Pro cess
Piping, and other pressure piping code
sec tions. API 570 establishes require-
ments and guidelines that allow ow ners
and users of pipi ng systems to maintain
the safety and integrity of the piping sys-
tems that have been placed into service.
All repair and alteration welding must
be done in accorda nce with ASME
B3 1.3, or the code to which the piping
system was built.
Line Piping (Cross Country Piping).
Line piping co ns ists of tran sm ission
and distr ibution pipin g that tran sport s
fuel gases. crude petroleum, and pet ro-
leum products. Transmission piping is
medium - to high -st rength steel, rela-
tively thin -wall and large-di amete r, and
conveys produ cts fro m locations of
producti on to intermediate faciliti es.
Distribution p ipillg is ca rbon- steel,
standard-si ze pip e of sma ll diameter
that conveys produ cts from intermedi-
ate faciliti es to co nsumers.
Tran smi ssion pipin g welding re -
quires spec ial techn iques and proce-
dures and is gove rned by API 1104. API
1104 applies to arc welding and oxyfuel
weldin g of piping used in the co mpres-
sion, pumpin g, and transmission of fuel
gases , crude petroleum, and petroleum
products. API 1104 prese nts methods
for the production of accep table welds
by qu al ified we lde rs using quali fied
we lding proced ures, mate ria ls, an d
equipmen t. It also co ntains acce ptabil-
ity standards and standards for repair of
weld defects. API I 104 also applies to
distribution piping where applicable.
Line piping repair and maintenance
are covered in API Recommended Prac-
tice 1107. The primary purpose of API
Recommended Practice 1107 is safety.
It prohibits unsafe practices and warns
against practi ces for which caution is
necessary. API Recomm ended Practice
1107 includes methods for the inspection
and repair of welds. and for installin g
appurtenanc es on loaded piping systems.
Water Piping. Water piping is made of supplementary rules applicable to stati-
low -carbon steel. AWWA C206: Field ca lly load ed struc tures , dynamically
Welding of Steel llilter Pipe, covers the loaded structures, and tubul ar structures.
welding o f circumferenti al joints as well
Sheet Metal. Sheet metal is metal that
as the fabrication and installation of spe-
is lis" th ick or less, corresponding to a
cials and accessories, Th e ma ximum
gauge number of II or higher. The higher
thickness of piping covered by AWWA the number, the thinner the gauge. Un-
C206 is 1\«". der norma l manual or se miauto matic
welding conditions, sheet metal as thin
Construction as .0 35" o r rou ghl y 20-gauge ca n be
welded. There are two sheet metal we ld-
Cons truc tio n ap plica tio ns of welding ing codes, which apply to structural and
encompass structural steel and aluminum nonstructural app lications,
used for buildings and highway bridges;
reinforcing stee l for concrete; and sheet
meta l. Welded j oint types and confi gu-
rations in co nstruc tion applications are
critical to the integrity of the component.
Ca tastrophic failure may cau se loss of
life, injury, and costly related damage.
Structural Steel. Structural steel fabrica-
tion practices for construct ing buildin gs
and edifi ces are co mprehensively regu-
lated to prevent unsafe conditions during
or after cons tru ction. St eel bui ldin gs
welded in most cities in Nort h America
are covered by codes and specifications.
Many large cities publish their own spe-
cific co des, while others fo llow AWS
D 1.1 , Stru ctural Welding Code-Stee l.
AWS Dl.I covers welding requirements
for any type of welded structure made from
commonl y used ca rbon and low-alloy
structural steels. AWS D 1.I does not ap- Th~ U ..m/" H ....tri r Comf'<"l.\"
ply to base metals less than 1/8 " thick. AlVS DJ .I. Structura l Weld ing Code- Steel. contains sections devoted excl usively to
Additionally, it contains allowable unit buildings.
stresses, structural details, workmanship AWS DI .3, Structural Welding Code-
standards, inspection procedure s, and ac- Shee t Stee l, covers require me nts for
ceptance criteria. AWS D 1.I contains sec- we lding shee t stee l having a min imum
tion s devoted exclu sivel y to buildings specifi ed yield point no greater than 80
(static loading), bridges (dynamic load- ksi. AWS DI.3 covers sheet steel with or
ing), and tubular structures. without zinc coat ing (galvanizing). The
Structural Aluminum. Structural alumi- weldin g may invol ve connecti on s o f
num is used for its lightn ess coupled with sheet or strip steel to thicker support ing
its stre ngth and atmos phe ric corrosion structural members, in which case provi-
resi stance. Welding requirements for sions of AWS DI.I , Structural Welding
structural aluminum are co ntained in Code-Steel, also apply.
AWS D 1.2, Stractural Welding Code- AWS D9.1 , Sheet Met al Weldin g
Aluminum. AWS DI.2 contains general Code, covers nonstructural sheet metal
rules for the regula tion of welding in alu- req uirem ents. AWS D9 .1 provides re-
minum cons truc tio n plu s additio nal, quirements for welding carbon stee l,

Materials & Fabri cation Standards & Codes @; 655

 low-alloy stee l, austenitic and ferritic
stainless steel, aluminum, copper, and
nickel allo y sheet steels. AWS D9. I pro-
vid es requirements for non structura l
fabrication and erection of sheet meta l
by weldin g and braze welding for heat-
ing, ventilating , and a ir conditioning
systems; architectural usage; food pro-
cessing equipment; and similar applica-
tion s. Where differenti al air pressure s
of more than 120" (30 kPa) of water or
structural requirements are involved
other standards are to be used . ' typ es of tran sport ation where there is
Reinforcing Steel. Reinforcing steel is
high-carbon steel rod used to reinforce
concrete for structural applications and
is manufactured to ASTM A6 15. AWS
D1.4, Structural Weldillg Code - Reinforc-
ing Ste el, covers requirements for weld-
ing reinforcing steel in most reinforced
concrete app licatio ns. AWS D 1.4 con-
tains regulations for welding reinforcing
steel, and provides acceptable criteria for
such welds.
Highway Bridges. High way brid ge
welding is under the jurisdiction of the
stale or provincial department of trans-
portation, either by refere nce to, or by
direct copy of AWS D I.5, Bridge We/d-
ing Code. AWS D 1.5 is a joint standard
of the American Associat ion of State
Highway and Tran spo rtation Officials
(AAS HTO) and the AWS. AWS DI.5
cov ers w eldin g requirement s for
AASHTO welded highway bridges made
from carbon and low-alloy steels. Failure-
critical members of a bridge may require
spec ial standards of welded workman-
ship only by organi zations bavin g the
proper per sonnel , ex perie nce , proce-
dures, knowledge, and equipm ent. A fa il-
ure-critical member is a tension member
or component wbose failure would likely
result in collap se of the structure.
Many states supplement the AASHTO
and AWS requirements with tbeir own
additio nal standards. Some states require
welder s to be examined year ly and be
certified by tbe state to work on bridges .
Some slates maintain rosters of certified
welders.
656 ~ Wdding Skills
Transportation
Tb e transportat ion indu stry repre sent s
a di verse set of end use s for welded
products. Welded joints in tra nsporta-
lion equipment are subject to ten sile ,
compressive , torsi onal , bending, and
shear stresses, in add ition to fati gu e
stresses because of loadin g and mot ion.
Transport ation welding is not as regu-
lated as weldin g in other industry seg-
ments, wi tb the exception of ce rta in
significant opportunity for catastrophe
in the event of failure. Tran sportation
weldin g standards and codes co ver au-
tomobi les and trucks, railroad cars and
locomotives. aircraft and aero space ve-
hicles, ships and barges. shipping con-
tainers, and underwater welding .
Automobiles and Trucks. Automobi le
and truck welding is usually carried out
by resistance we lding and robotic arc
welding. See Figure 45- I3. For high pro-
duct ion rates suc h as automo bile and
truck subassemb lies, multiple spot weld-
ing machines are used. Welding specifi-
cations for resistance and arc welding are
covered in joint standards created by the
SAE and tbe AWS. AWS Recommended
Practice D8.7, Automotive Weld Qualit}~
Resistance Spot WeldinK. covers quality
requirements for resistance spot welding
of common automoti ve sheet steel sys-
tems, excluding high-strength low-alloy
steel. AWS D8.8, A uto moti ve Fram es
Weld Quality- Arc We/dillK defines practi-
cal tolerance s for good fit-up in order to
achieve satisfactory weld quality in au-
tomotive structural parts j oined by ro-
boti c we lding . Metal stampings and
press-formed parts must be made to pro-
duce weld joint fit-up within tbe allow-
ances of the specification.
Railroad Cars and Locomotives. Repair
of railroad cars and locomotives is in ac-
cordance with AWS DI5. 1, Railroad
We/dillg Specification- Cars and Loco-
motives. AWS D 15. 1 is join tly deve l-
oped with the Association of Amer ican
Railroads (AAR) . Part [ covers specific
requirement s for welding in the railroad
industry. Part II covers specific req uire-
ments for we ld ing on railroad freight
cars oth er than tank car s. Welding on
freight cars is performed as required in
Part I exce pt as specifically detail ed in
Part II. T he rules for welding on tank s
in tank ca rs are co vered by the ASME
Intern at ional Boiler and Pressur e Ves-
sel Cod e. Part III of AWS 015.1 cove rs
specific requirements for welding loco-
motive s with em phasis on the we lding
of base metals less than '18" thick.
Chr y.\'!n Corpora liml
Figure 45-13. Automobile al/(I truck we/ding is U ,I'l/ -
ally perforfl/l'd hy robotic arc welding ,
Aircraft and Aerospace Vehicles. The
United States Dep artment of De fen se
(DOD) standard. MIL-ST D-195, Quali-
ficatio ns of Aircraft. Missile, and Aero-
splice Fusion Welders. establi shes the
procedure for we lders and welding op-
erators engaged in the fabrication of com-
ponent s I(Jr aircraft, missiles, and other
aerospace equipment by fusion weldin g
processes. T he standa rd is applicabl e
when requ ired in the contracting docu -
ments, or when invoked in the absence
of a specified welder qualification docu-
ment. MIL -STD -195 covers many weld-
in g proce sses, metal s, and level s of
proficiency for testing welders. Qua lifi-
cation to this standard is performed un-
der th e su pe rv is io n o f gov ern me nt
inspec tors .
Ships and Barges. Ship and barge we ld-
ing req uirement s are cove red by juris-
di cti on s o r insu rance co mpa nies . T he
Am eri can Bureau of Shipping (A BS)
issue s Rules fo r Building lind Classing
Steel Vessels. one section of which cov -
ers welding requireme nts. These rules are
required for ships registered and insured
in the United States. ABS also approves
specific we ld ing consumabl es in Ap -
proved Welding: Electrodes, Wire-Flux,
and Wire-Gas Combinati ons. Man y in-
surance co mpanies also publish spec ifi-
cations that cover welding. All United
States fede ra l gove rnment vessels arc
covered by codes issued by the U.S .
Co ast Guard or the Navships Division,
Departm ent of Defense. Their require-
ments are covered, respectivel y, in Ma-
rine Engine ering Regulations, subchapt er
F, Part 57 , Weldin g and Brazing ; and
Fabrication. Welding. and Inspection of
Ships Hulls. Navship s 0900-000-1000 .
AWS 0 3.5, Guide for Steel Hull Weld-
ing, provides information on practical
methods to weld stee l hull s for ships,
barges, mobil e offshore dri lling unit s,
and other marine vessels. The guide pro -
vides information on weldability of steel
plates , shapes, ca stin gs, and for gin gs.
Hull con struction is discussed in term s
of preparation of materials, erection and
fitting, and distortion contro l.
AWS 0 3.7, Guide for Aluminum Hull
Welding. provides infonnation on we ld-
in g aluminum hull s and re la ted ship
structures. It applies chielly to the we ld-
ing of aluminum hulls that are over 30'
in length and made of sheet and plate 0/16"
thick or more. The d istinction is made
because there are different requirements
for weldin g thin (less than 0/'6" ) and thick
(greater than \4" ) aluminum.
Shipping Containers, Shipping co ntain-
ers are used to transport gas under high
pressure and for tanks carrying liquid
petroleum and similar products. The fab-
rication of shipping containers is under
strict regulation because of the serious
consequen ces of failure . Th e United
State s Governm ent publishes the Code
of Federal Regulations (CFR), which in-
cludes standards that govern the fabrica-
tion o f s hi p ping con ta iners . T he
applicable standards are 49 CF R 178.345,
Mater ials & Fabricati on Standa rds & Codes €>= 657
 General Design and Construction Re-
quirements; and 49 CFR 178.337-
Specification MC 331, Cargo Tank
Motor Vehicles.
Underwater Welding. Underwater
welding can be performed in wet or dry
environments. Wet underwater welding
(welding in the wet) is done under fully
immersed conditions and produces rela-
tively poor quality welds that are in-
tended fur temporary applications. Dry
underwater welding (welding in the dry)
is achieved by creating a local underwa-
ter environment frcc of water in which to
perform welding. High quality welds arc
possible with dry underwater welding. See
Figure 45- 14.
AWS 03.6, Specification [or Under-
water Welding, covers the requirements
for wet and dry underwater welding.
Weld quality categories (classes) arc
linked to weld quality requirements.
Class A is for welds comparable in qual-
ity to above-water welding. Class B is
for less critical applications. Class C is
for applications where load bearing is not
a primary consideration. Class 0 is for
when it is necessary to meet the require-
ments of another designated code or
specification.
o Welders who want 10 advance in the un-
derwater welding field must currently be
or become trained, certified divers.
Heavy Machinery
Heavy machinery is subject to rotation,
vibration, sudden (impact) or slow appli-
cation of large loads, and load reversals
(fatigue). There are no codes that cover
welding of heavy machinery. However,
AWS publishes standards that cover the
welding of overhead cranes and material
handling equipment, machine tools,
earthmoving and construction equipment,
and rotating equipment. AWS standards
for heavy machinery welding indicate
minimum requirements for welded fabri-
cation of the types of equipment covered.

Figure 45-14. Hi{?h quality welds

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welding,

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658 0 Welding Skills

Overhead Cranes and Material Han-
dling Equipment. Overhead cranes and
material handling equ ipment weldin g
uses plate girder s and other welded plate
structures rather than rolled beams nor-
mally used in fabri cating s tee l for
bridges and huildings. Overhead cranes
and material handling equipment are
subject to vibration and moving loads.
Service conditions and the associated
fully reversihle loading to which cranes
and equipment are exposed results in a
large number of load cycles in a rela-
tively short period and local bending
stresses of sig nifica nt levels. AWS
D 14.1, Specification fo r Welding Indus-
trial Mill Cranes and Other Mat erial
Handling Equipment, covers base met-
als, filler metal s, joint de sign s, and
qualification of weld ers and welding
operators who work on overhead cranes
and material handling equipment.
Machine Tools. Machine tool welding
is covered in AWS DI4.2, Specification
J{Jr Metal Cuttin g Machine Tool
Weldments, which detail s requirements
for the manufacture and repair of ma-
chine tool components. including struc-
tur es and ca stin gs, Filler metal s are
recommended for the applicable base
metals and include carbon steels, low-
alloy steels, and a uste nitic sta inless
steels. Joint designs and unit stresses are
provided for fillet and groove welds.
Earthmoving and Construction
Equipment. Earthmoving and construc-
tion equipment we lding is covered in
AWS DI4.3, Specification for Welding
Earthmoving and Construction Equip -
ment, which applies to all structural
welds used in such equipment. AWS
D14.3 reflects welding practices used by
manufacturers within the industry and
incorporate s various methods that have
been prov en successful by individual
manufacturers. No restrictions are placed
on the use of any welding process or pro-
cedure, pro vided the weld produced
meets the qualification requirements of
the specification.
Rotating Equipment. Rotating equip-
ment welding, such as on fans, pumps, and
cnmpressors, is covered in AWS D 14.6,
Specification J{Jr Welding of Rotating El-
ements of Equipment. The standard cov-
ers base metals; welding processes: filler
metals; welding procedur e and perfor-
mance quafification; fabrication require-
ments; inspection and quality control; and
modification and repair.
Materials & Fabrication Standards & Code s :§: 659
 I. Materials standards and codes are developed by consensus (agreement) among parties representing
producers, end users, and general interest groups.
2. Codes are mandatory standard s that have been adopted by a jurisdictional body.
3. Standard s types include specifi cations, recommended practices, and codes.
4. Two types of activity in standards creation are new standards development and existing standards
reVI SIOn .
5. Various industry groups write materials standards and code s, but the largest set of standards is
produced by ASTM International (ASTM).
6. Standard s pertaining to welding are published by AWS and cover welding processes, filler metals,
and health .
7. Purchase orders for materials refer to applicable materials standards and codes.
8. A certification is a notarized statement that a material meets specification s.
9. A mill test report is a certification that provides results of chemical and mechanical property tests to
indicate the material meets specifications.
10. Fabrication standards and codes may be grouped into pressure vessels and storage tanks, piping
systems, construction, transportation, and machinery.

I. What types of groups must interact in order to create an effective industry standard?
2. What is the difference between a specification and a recommended practice ?
3. What is the difference between a standard and a code?
4. What organization is the largest source of materials standards?
5. Explain each of the components for an ASTM material designated as A193-97 grade B7 (i.e., A,
193, 97, and grade B7).
6. Why is it necessary to indicate not only the ASTM standard number for a material but also the
embedded grade, type, or class?
7. What are the AWS prefixes for rod, electrode, rod or wire, and electrode rod or wire?
8. How is an ASM E material identified compared with an equivalent ASTM material?
9. How is an ASME filler metal identified compared with an equivalent AWS material?
10. What is the difference between a certifica tion and a mill test report?
II . Does a certificate of compliance provide numerical information on analysis or properties of a material?
12. What type of information is contained in a manufacturing data report for a pressure vessel?

660 @o Welding Skills

/
pp ndix

Standard Weld ing Terminology 662

Master Chart of Welding and Joining Proc esses 663
Master Chart of Allied Processes 664
AWS Welding Symbol Cha rt-Basic Weld ing Symbols 665
AWS Welding Symbol Cha rt-Typ ic a l Welding Symbols 666
Misc ellaneous Weld Defects 667
Potential Effects of Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres 667
Weld Defect Evaluation Guide 668
Nondestructive Exa mination 670
NDE Examination Symbol 670
Spark Chart 670
Brinell Hardn ess Numbers 671
Low-Alloy, High -Strength Electrodes 671
Unit Prefixes 671
Welding Symbol 672
Electrode Selection Chart 672
Rockwell Hardn ess Conversion Table 673
Millimeter a nd Dec imal Inch Equivalents 674
Welding Procedure Specific ation 675
Proc ed ure Qua lification Rec ord 676
Perfo rma nce Qualification Test Record 678
AISI-SAE Designation System 679
ASTM Specifications for Chrome-Moly Steel Products 680
Decimal Inch Eq uivalents 680
List of Microetchants 68 1
Numeric al List of Etch ants 682
Letter Sizes 683
Pipe Fittings a nd Va lves 684
Drilled Holes 685
Drill Sizes 685
Standard Series Threads-Grad ed Pitches 686
Preferred Metric Screw Threads 686

66 1
 . . '.. ... ... . ...
-
. .
. r ni i a : F' ,<l f " " ' " 0/ 0/

Gas weld ing Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)

Stick we lding Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
TIG welding Gas tungsten arc weld ing (GTAW)
MIG welding Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Short arc Short circuiting transfer
Spray arc eI2}i~ ~~~ay transfer
jij~ , ...
Arc gap, electrode gap Arc length
Arc gas Orifice gas
Back-upbar Backing or backing bar
Blowhole, gas pocket, or worm hole Porosity
Burn-through Melt-thr ough
Cap pass Cover pass
Cold lap Incomplete fusion
Contacttube Contact tip
Cup or gas cup Gas nozzle
Downhand Flat position welding
Edge-flange we ld Edge weld in a flanged butt joint
Fill pass or filler pass Intermediate weld pass
Filler bead Intermediate weldbead
Flame cutting or gas cutting Oxygen cutting
Ground clamp, Welding ground, or
work connection Workpiece connection
Grou nd lead or work lead Workpiece lead
Included angle Groove angle
Joint opening Root opening
Land Rootface
Machine welding Mechanized welding
Metallizing Thermal spraying
Molten weld poo l We ld pool
Nondestru ctive evaluation or
Nondestructive testing Nondestructive examination
Parent metal Base metal
Postweld heat treatment Posth eating
Puddle or we ld oudc le We ld pool
Root gap Root opening
Shoulder Root face
Shrinkage stress Residual stress
Skip weld Intermittent weld
Silver soldering Brazing
Softsolder Solder
Hard solder Brazing filler metal
Suck- back Unde rtill
Vertical down Downhill
Vertical up Uphill
Wash pass Cover pass

662 ~ Welding Skill s

/
 MASTER CHART OF WELDING AND JOINING PROCESSES

ARC WELDING IAWl

arc stud welding SW
atomic hydrogen welding AHW
bare metal arc welding BMAW RESISTANCE WELplNG IRWl
carbon arc welding CAW flash welding FW
gas carbon arc welding CAW-G
pressure-controlled resistance welding RW-PC
shielded carbon arc welding CAW-S projection welding PW
twin carbon arc welding CAW-T resistance seam welding RSEW
electrogas welding EGW high·frequency seam welding RSEW-HF
flux cored arc welding FCAW induction seam welding RSEW-I
gas-shielded flux cored arc welding FCAW-G mash seam welding RSEW-MS
self-shielded flux cored arc welding FCAW-S
resistance spot welding RSW
gas metal arc welding GMAW
upset welding UW
pulsed gas metal arc welding GMAW-P
high-frequency UW-HF
short circuit gas metal arc welding GMAW-S induction UW-I
gas tungsten arc welding GTAW
pulsed gas tungsten arc welding GTAW-P
magnetically impelled arc welding MIAW
plasma arc welding PAW
shielded metal arc welding SMAW
submerged arc welding SAW
series submerged arc welding SAW-S
SOUp STATE WELDING ISSWl

SOLDERING IS)
dip soldering
furnace soldering
induction soldering
infrared soldering
iron soldering
DS
FS
IS
IRS
INS
-. WELDING
AND
coextrusion welding
cold welding
diffusion welding
hot isostatic pressure welding
explosion welding
forge welding
friction welding
direct drive friction welding
CEW
CW
DFW
HIPW
EXW
FOW
FRW
FRW-DD
resistance soldering RS friction stir welding FSW
torch soldering TS JOINING inertia friction welding FRW-I
ultrasonic soldering USS hot pressure welding HPW
PROCESSES

V
pressure gas soldering WS roll welding ROW

~-'-''"
USW

OXYFUEL GAS WELDING IOFWl

air acetylene welding AAW
oxyacetylene welding OAW
oxyhydrogen welding OHW
pressure gas welding PGW
OTHER WELDING AND JOINING
adhesive bonding AB
braze welding BW
arc braze welding ABW
BRAZING IBI carbon arc braze welding CABW
block brazing BB electron beam braze welding EBBW
diffusion brazing DFB exothermic braze welding EXBW
dip brazing DB flow brazing FLB
exothermic brazing EXB flow welding FLOW
furnace brazing FB laser beam braze welding LBBW
induction brazing 18 electron beam welding EBW
infrared brazing IRB high vacuum EBW·HV
resistance brazing RB medium vacuum EBW-MV
torch brazing TB nonvacuum EBW-NW
twin car:t>0n arc brazing TCAB electroslag welding ESW
consumable guide electroslag welding ESW·CG
induction welding IW
laser beam welding LBW
percussion welding PEW
thermite welding TW
American Weldinx SO<'l'('/)'

Appendix €l' 663

 MASTER CHART OF ALLIED PROCESSES

THERMAL SPRAYING CTHSPI

arc spraying ASP
flame spraying FlSP
wire frame spraying FlSP-W
high velocity oxyfual spraying HVOF
plasma spraying PSP
vacuum plasma spraying VPSP

ALLIED
PROCESSES

THERMAL
CUTTING (TC)

OXYGEN CUTTING IOC) HIGH ENERGY BEAM CUTTING ARC CUTTING lAC)
flux cutting OC-F electron beam cutting EBC carbon arc cutting CAC
metal powder cutting OC-P laser beam cutting LBC air carbon arc cutting CAC-A
oxyfuel gas cutting OFC air LBC-A gas metal arc cutting GMAC
oxacetylene cutting OFC-A evaporative lBC-EV gas tungsten arc cutting GTAC
oxyhydrogen cutting OFC-H inert gas lBC-IG plasma arc cutting PAC
oxynatural gas cutting OFC-N oxygen lBC-O shielded metal arc cutting SMAC
oxypropane cutting OFC-P
oxygen arc cutting OAC
oxygen gouging OG
oxygen lance cutting OlC

Amai,'IU' Wr/din K Sodell'

664 ~ WeldinK Skills

/
 AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY
Welding Symbol Chart
_.. _..
-
Basic Welding Symbols and Tl*r location Significance

.......-
'--'on
.....
..... ...... ...... .....
_
F11Jol
-no """"Ing

"""" / /
/ a / / e -, /
~
LJ @ <>
v <>0

t\
O1tIer Side
/ LJ / 0 / Uoed
Not
:e / "- <>
Not
Uoed
"- ED

~ ~
Not Not Not Not Not Not
Both Sides
Uoed Uoed Uoed Uoed Uoed usee
NoAm:NtSide
Of OtherSide
S9"""'"
Not

"""
No<
Uoed
0
-. """
No<
/
:@: Not
usee
No<
Uoed
No<

"""
.....- ......
'--'on
v ..... G..,...
U J .....v ""..- .............
Sc-'''''

-, 7, / ~ / ~ / ~/
""""-
//
:;c
II A
a- see -, II
/ ~
\/ Y
<, -----LA /
'c
"- Ie -, //

~ )(
Both Sides \ K X -, --f-A -. IE -, //
//
-,
~
NoArrrNi Side
or Other Side
Significance
Not
Uoed
" Nol
Uoed Uoed
Not
Uoed
Not Nol
Uoed
)(

Not
Uoed
Not
usee

Supplementary Symbols Locat ion of Elements of 8 Welding Symbol

WIlld-All-Around Rlle lW.ld Mott· ",", ConaUINIDM In. .rt Groove Ang le; Included Angl e

--~
01 Cou ntersink for Plug Welds

---Y'
r / ~.)
Root Opening; Depth
Contour Symbol

~
of R iling for Plug
~ G""",. We<. S ;,e
and Slot Welds
...·Ing_ I_ 1 ConI"",

(f.~~'
Depth 01Bevel;
F1uo1t Com. " Conco..

~p - Size or Strength
- ~
'0< ce"",nW- Center SpaCIng)

v:
l
01WeldS
\ \ SpecifiCalJOn.

~ ~=eId
Process, or Other
B• • lc JoInls
IdentlUcatlon of Arraw Side and Other Sid. Joint
Aete~
) (
ft~ 5ffi~ } - --h.r A~""A".
iii
""'nd

"""" d
Welding
S,""",
.... Jot..

"""" _\
of Joint
Como< Jotnl
Tail (May
Be Omined-.l
When
:.1
~N)
§ i~k:.
Betereoce
?:~
\ ~row Side Reference li ne Arrow

"
of Joint
/ t __ _ ~_~ is Not Used )
Number 01Spot. Seam,
Stud , Plu g, Slot ,
Con nect ing
Reference
/\'1 ,
/ J-')Ki- -(j? I,
/1 , Weld -
o r ProJection We lds
Eleme nts in This Area
Line to Arrow
Side Men be r
of Jo int or

V- a-
S,_
V t1 I, Remain As Shown When Tail ArrCNiSide
L a- _ . .:. d
WoIOng_ L _ and Arrow a re Rev ersed
~ Wel d Symbols Sha ll Be Contained. _
of Joint
d_ SyrrtIoI 01..Ic:ln: Wit hin Ihe l ength ot me Rel e rence line

--
T-JoInt .... JoInt ..... Jot nl Proceu Abbrevl8t:1oM
a- _

=\ ~_ d _
~

ArrowSide 01Joinl Where process abbreviations are to

"""" d

~
be included in the tU 01 ee welding

Y,' ~_ ;!:,:"'"~.ion
II syTTD:ll, reference is made to

" I,' .~,{{'~'~'~" J{" -- --.

"""" d
:;:;:;:; :;;;;j Table " Designation 01 Well:Mg
and AllIed Prooesses by Letters.

~1'~~--c! ~ ~m~ ::~ of ANSI/AWS A2-4-96.

Syn-bol
I' L """"
_ ,see

~
d
,, / Americ8n Welding Society
, 1,o
V.
J om'
L Othet Side JOOt- 550 NW LeJeune Road
of Joint Arrowof Welding SyrrboI Miami, FIooda 3312S

Ap pendix ~ 665
 AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY
Welding Symbol Chart
Typical Weld ing Symbols
Do uble- Fill et Welding Symbol Chain Interm itt ent Fillet Welding Symbol Staggered jnterrmtt ent Fill et Weld ing Symbo l

--~ / lenglh
Pitch (ds&anCe
between c:entet&) ~ r """(- between oent8tI)

~-:~
~inaomonl>

~ 1/16 4
/"6 a-e \.-lenglh ~
'12 t\..3'6
-./'12 V '"' ''-.....
0rrisIi0n of IengIh indiaUes that
wekt extenDs between ebt'upe e:t'l8nges
In ctr-:tion or . . <iI...... i8d
sae
-~Ieg) ~
sae
_~ ..I ~ ....... ~-
r
Plug Welding Symbol Back Welding Symbol Backi ng Weld in g Symbol

=-.. . ~
Size (tlarreler
~""'''-I~. 1 Iiil
~
=""":.1
01 ~
/ -------_ . =>------T-v OR - - - - - - - - - -
v----T-<=--
-- - - ---- ------ ---- OR

=
""'-
314

~::t:'tea.d:. :'::S>:
2nd operation
/,,, C> , II opfntion

l\: \ V
Deplh , . operation
(0IT'iui0n rllling is ~)
l\:
Spot Weld ing Symbol Stud Weld ing Sym bol Seam Welding Symbo l
. ,...........
~ PItch
=~~
Size or IengIh

/ ' '12 0 ",,- -----.",. ~

. ,.-.1 <, __;
~J
RSW

L-... .....
seuere-arceve Welding Symbol seue re-v-a reeve Welding Symbol Doub le-Welding -Groove Welding Symbol

Weld sil8 \

_-l~
size ' - - - Root opening
~ ::ng
weld si;z:e J
12 (112) 1

~ Groove angle
Weld alze- - . /
Am:1N points toward
I'IV
1,·,1411". , /
membetto be prepared
Symbol with Back go ug in g Flare·V-Groove Weldi ng Symbol Flare-Bevel -Groove Weldi ng Symbol

Deplt> "
/
-~ (114) : ; C
<, r>:
~=- \..- Weld size
111'11C

Multiple Ref erence Lin es Complete Penetra tion Edg e Welding Sy mbol

1st operalion on line

_ e.....
7~
Intlcates ~ jon peneualion

....-~-~- / ~
""'-
~ Of joint pt8plIIralion

""- I;f'
l\: /
Flu sh o r Upset Welding Symbol s
~~
Melt ·Thru Symbol
_-.-/
.,.
Joint wi th Back in g

~7
Joint with Space r

With tnO<ified groove weld symbol

~
L Rool: i8ll ilOlcen l8liit

Flu sh Con tou r Symbol

~
......... _-
'R' indicatesbacking

Conv e l Contour Symbol

~ Double bevel groove

/' A l?'G "-.....

· 11 should be understoodthat theseCharts are intended only as shopaids. The only complete andofficial presentation of the standard weldIng symbols Is In/A2.4.

666 @o Weldill ~ Skills

 MISCELLANEOUS WELD DEFECTS
. . . --- -- - -- . -~ ~
-~ -~ ~- ~
---- * . -~ - -~ --- - -~ ..-
Problem Remedy
. . J:Iin~1.UllM
..~ .,.. '
Pause at each side of the we ld bead when using a weaving techn iqu e; use
Improper Electrode Mani pulation
pro per electrode angles

We lding current set too high Redu ce we lding current (use proper cur rent for electrode size and
welding posi tion)
Arc length too long Redu ce arc length

Travel speed too fast Redu ce travel spe ed

Arc blow Redu ce effects of arc blow ; reset workpiece connections
...... ..., ;·.. l)yllrlllp i ..... ".,
Travel speed too slow Increase travel speed

Incorr ect electrode angle Use proper electrode angle

Too large electro de Use sma ller electrode
" ... ,:c •. Spatter" . .
Arc blow Redu ce effects of arc blow ; reset wo rkp iece connections

Redu ce welding current (use prope r current for electrod e size and we lding
We lding current set too high
position )

Arc length too long Redu ce arc length

Wet , dirty, or damaged elect rode Prop erly maintain and sto re electro des

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF
OXYGEN-DEFICIENT ATMOSPHERES'
- - - - - - -
OxY!l!>n,""iltentt Effi>cts and SyJ1lpiomP
19.5 Minimum pe rmi ssible oxygen level
Decreased ab ility to work stre nuo us ly. May impa ir
15-1 9.5 co nd ition and induce earl y sympto ms in pe rson s wit h
coronary, pulmon ary, or circulat or y pr obl em s

Respiration exertion a nd pulse increases. Im pa ir ed

12 -1 4
coordination, percepti on, and judgment

Respiration furth er in cr ea ses in rat e a nd de pth, p oor

10- 11
judgment, lips turn blue

M ental failure , fainting, un con sc iou sn es s, as hen face, blue

8 -9
lip s , nau sea , and vomiting

8 min. 100% fatal; 6 min, 50% fatal; 4 min-5 min, recovery

6-7
w ith tr eatment

4- 5 Coma in 40 sec, co nvuls io ns, respirati on c eases, death

* values are approximate and vary with state of health and physical act ivities
t % by volume .
t at atmospher ic pressure

Appendix @o 667
 WELD DEFECT EVALUATION GUIDE...
-- -- -- -- - - -- --- - - -- - -
PreSSYT8 Vesaola Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping
rrJ::''oct01
_.- _.-
(per ASUE , Seetion VIII) (per ANS I Piping Code)

l~.
e-

.-.... P8nettabQn
l OO%X-~·

_.- -- Spo;>! X·Raf

_
10!l"4X-Ray"

_.- _...... arnaIer

Ran dom X-Ray"

None AlkMed

• Ma.unum 01 11>0' 0120% 01wall 1l'oic:knMs.

wr.::_, ..

N
o
~
• Mil""""'" IengIIl of 1 ',0;" ., 6 " _kl

-- -- --
• None ~ lor longI!uOnaI _ Ids
• MIl......" or ...... or2O"IOio of _ Itw:kness.
locolnpIete P8oeIta\lOn
duol kllllgrHc:lw hHlP
: ;::-~~~::.
I..adI 01 f usKJn
a t fI)(Jl pMilI

l..adIolF_at
~IloceOft>e-.
--
-- --
-- --
-- --
--
--
beads. 'cold lap "

.... eo-.o .... eo-.o Notc;o..e""d .... eo-.o

Stud not fedu(:e _ ttw:l<ness '" jess than Shall not 'educe _10 ~ kllellS man $hall not AIduce _ 1hIcI<_ '" _ than
$hall not reduce weld 1I1id" '''ss 10 less
1M........ Concev«y lhllV'l8l' maleRal. ConSour of COfIC8Yify _ . be ItWlnef matenaI ConIour orCOfIC8Yify $/VIn be
""""~ ma l",,,,1 ~...., ......
"'""'" "'""'"
.-....
• Maxilnum depth of 'hz'"Of 25 ' 01_
• Ma..numd8plll01 I'aP'ot2!>'Iroolwallllocl<-
Undera.Il at roal pas lhicl<ness. whi<:heYe<is smallef
Y"," 0110"41',",' "ch_is less .....·or lO'l\.1'. whic_'is_ • None allowed lor longi tudinal bull joInlS
rwt$t. w~rl$$ITl.r
• None allowed lor Iongf\\dnal bun jojnI$

Malerial Max imum

Slag Irduslons Thickrw>ss SIaiI Length • Maxim......lengl h 01 ~ TO where Tt is Ihicl<nau • Mal<.imlIm Iengt!l of '/,T' and width 1_ of • MaxImum l""lllh ol2Tl and wKlltlI"""". 01
elonga ted , ".cepI as less lhall or "Qual to Vo- W oImalerial, ... !h ",' MaxImum ~'Of',H' ",'o<"1TI
:v." 10 2Y." ,~,

~".
• Ma x"""", total ""'91" of T' on6 - _ !eng !" • Ma x...... m tofallengltl of T' in 12T' of weld • Mu,mum tOlai lengtn 01 4Tl on6 - _kl
gro alor than 2Y,- a-

• Maxomum '!ITI or ,,,' , wn icn ever is les s , 'M aximum 'l,TI or '!fI' , who:;hever is le ss .
, Ma ., mu m ind,v,dua l s ize s ha ll be smaller
gre atest d imension ot ind ivid ua l pore groa tes t d ,men slOnof ioo lVldua l pore
Puros lty
01 Y,tt or v,,' (or 'htt o r'I.- ~ t - separat ion)
Any s ize o r amo unt Is accepta ble ' Maximum 10tal area 3 X a rea 01 ma x,mu m ' Max imu m tOlal area 3 X a rea 01 max imum
• Tna lan g lh o f an dc cApta Ne cluster
s ingle a llowable po re lor any sq ua re inch s ing le allowall ie pore lor any s qua re ,ne h ot
s ha ll not e xce ed l he les s er ol t " or ar of weld w••

{For piping or elongated poros~y use slag ,ncluSion cr ite ria )

ExcI ssWlkl
A<ttmorc e men1
Met .rial
Thi ck ne "
¥.o- Io less ' ha n 1"
1"'0 less 'han 2"
2" 10 less than 3'"
..."
Maxi mu m
Hei g ht
'

'
Mat. rla l
Thl c knes .
~" to less than , -
I ' to leu tMn 2"
2" 10 loss than 3"
..
Mu lmum
S lag Ll n gth

w
'

'
Thi nn e ' Mat 'l
Th ick ness. (TI )
less lhan or eq ua l '0 'I.-
9' ''''181' ",an '1, - to 1',"
g' eatenhan W' to 1 ~
Maxim um
Height
'I .."

.... -
w
Th in ne r Ma t'l
Th lckne l . (TI l
less 'han or eq.ual to 'I,"
g 'I" '.' tMn 'I," to Y,"
9'eol'" lM n v,- to W
Max imum
He ighl

....,.'"-
'
3" to 1es5 1han 4- ,~' 3" to lOSStha n 4- ,~' greal... than 1- gr"I'" lha n 1-

E~SSI'o'eRoot Sa"", u E.cesa _ Ae,"""cemem

Same a s Excess Weld R","""",,,"""" Same as EIlCeSSWe kl Rell"Jlorc<wnonl Same as Excess Weld AeinIo«:<Imanl
PenelralJOn

...,.
"81"''''''
. .
H H
Clrcum.

"""
Cl.-cum . " 8I<fri. .. InSIde diameters of COI'I'\pOIJeflt al ends 10

"-
Thi d<_ Thick _
'"""*'
.'.' ..""
Max imum Maximum .....I..... m Maxi mum Insode Oramelerl of ~ at _ t o be
leSS than equal 10 W ,-, ,-' less IMIl Ot equal 10 "t. V.-' ,-, bo jooned rnJSt be a ligned engonee""Q jQlned """" be a~ _ enQ,neemg design
greahlO' 1I>an..... to V," ,-' ", design and wetdongprocedurtl N the extemaJ

gr....le. !han V," to II;"
~leIthalllWto2"
.' ""
greater cnanW' 10 """ and wetdong procedure II tile external SUffaces
IIOJrtaces 01 tile two ~ are not
w ' greateI' II>an V,- to ' I; " '
~. tile weld shal be 1ap<Ir1ld_
of tile two ~ are not &19*1. 1M weld
gre<tIer..... 1~ - 102" S/Illi DOl.aptIred befween the lWOsurlaces

--
~l8I ..... rtessorat YIol'o<'\Io" \Iolt 0<"'" lJeale< llIaIl 2" tessor at I'ooItOt'\lo" IWI Of~· ~ -~

- .... C-oo .... eo-.o .... "'""""" .... eo-.o

0-.

,OO\Iox......
Nocoa_"""",",~""""""Ps.~
n<9>SOt ...........

_x-Mo¥,_5poI x.....,_qoooIrIy_~_..,
.......
N o _ ~ ~overIaps~f'od9<I$

-§-
t.ongII1x:tonaI bull weldssama as lOO"lio )(-R;ty,

~_ .. _
',._-
'T .
f • • __
I _UHT-20b'
__
_

'JOO"I~"
··JOO"I~ll.c._O

668 ~ Welding Skills

/
 ...WELD DEFECT EVALUATION GUIDE
Types 01 pipelines Power Boilers
Qefecr l:o~'ltr~~:ID
~ . . ~
' (pet APl$\cqWl
. . ..
"

None allow ed (exce pt shallow cra ter c racks in the co ve,

(per ASME~Umr1)'

Cracks None Allowed Non.. A llowed

pass w ith maximum length of %;," )

• Maximum of 1" in len gth in 12" of we ld , or 8% of we ld

Inco mplete f'Bne t ration
length if less than' 2" Non a Allowed None Allowed
al rool pass
• Maximum iodiv idualle ngth of '"

• Maximu m indiv idual l€ ngfh of 2"

Inco mplete Penet ration
• Max imu m accumu lated length of 3" in 12" 01continuous None Allo we d None Allowe d
du e to high- low l it-up
weld

• Maximum Of 1" in length in 12" 01weld, or 8% Ofweld

Lack of Fus ion
le ngth if le ss than 12" None Allowed None A llowe d
at root pas s
• Ma ximu m ind ,vidua l leng fh of "
• Ma ximum indwidualler>gth 01 2"
Lac k of Fusional
Max imum a ccu mulated le ngth of 2" in 12" None Allow ed None Allowe d
sidewa ll or betwee n beads, "co ld lap' 01 cont inuous we ld
Pipe Maxi mum Ma ximum
Diameter Delecl TOlal
Melt-thro ugh less than 2V, · 00 y," Nol C ove red No t Cove red
greate r than or equal to 2Yo" 00 'I," %" "in 2"

11 nan sity of rdd iogm ph ic ,mag e of inl ern al concavoty is Sha ll nol redu ce we ld t ~i c ~ n e s s to tess than
Internal Co~cav ,ty less t~ an ba se mela l. any tength is allowa ble . If more thin ne, malerial. C o~lour 01 concavity shatt be Not Covered
de nse. then see bu rn -through abo\le smoo th

• Maximum deplh 'A, or 12'h% wa ll th ickrles s,

wh ic~eve r is sma ller.
Unde rcul at roo t
• Maxim um 2" length or ',< wa ll thi<;kn ess , w hic heve r is
, For hori:wn tal 00" jo ints : ma .imum dept h 'm'
1fJ>" or 10% t1, wh ichev er is le ss
pass or cover p~ss FOf vert ica l bu~ j oi~ts' maxim um dep th 'k ,"
less. for d epth of %<" to 'h>' Or 6% to 121'2% of wall
t h ic~rle ss. wh icheve r is less

• Maximum length 's 2" arxl width ,/,, " Maleri"l Max imu m Malarial Maxim u m
• Max imu m to1allength 2" in 12" of wekl. Par~lIe l slag lines Thi ck ne ss Slag Len g t h Th i ck ne ss Sla g L ength
are conside red separate il width of eil hef exce eds 'k' . le ss I han or equa l to h " 'I,' less Ihan or equa l to 'I," y,"
Slag Inclusion s
¥," to 2'1,' 'Al t wio 2Y," 'hI f
elongaled, excepl as noled
fso late d Slag InclusIOns
, Maxi mu m widl h 'h" an d 'h " len gth in 12" of weld
• No more l han 4 isolated incl usions of Yo' ma ximu m
greater l han 2'1," ,,' greate r I han 2'1. Y,"

width Ma x,mu m fength of It in ratt le "i)th Max imu m total le ngth o f t Tin 12t T lel'lgth

Sp he'i<;al' Ma ximum di mension ,,. " or 25% of wall

thic knass , whIChever is le ss
Clusl er: Max imum area of \'2' dia mel er with ma ximum
ind iv idua l po re di mension of 'I ,," , Max imum 17"enqtn
Poro sity
in 12" weld
Hollow Bead: Max imum length '1>"_ Max imum 2" lenglh
in 12" weld with individual discontin uitie s excee ding
'I," in lengl h sep ara ted by af km sl 2"
• For ahgned [Oun doo ind ication s, t he s u m ma t lo~
of diame te rs le ss 111a~ t in 12t1lengt~
Max imum individu al size shan be the sma ller
of y,t T or 0/",," : Of W t or 'l. if 1" separat ion
• The len gth 01 an acceplable c1usler shall nol
excee d l he lesser of 1" or ztt
• For al1grllld rou nde d ,nd icatio ns, the sum malion of diame te rs less
than t in 121T l en gt~
• Maximum ind ividual en e sha ll be t he smaller of W T or %>' :
Of 'Atl or 'I,' il l " sepa ratiOrl
• The le n gt~ 01 an acceplable cluste r shall not exceed the lesser
of 1" or 2I t

Mat er ial Plpeffi.o b-e Olhet We ld

Vert ica l Ho riUlnlal Thickness Maxi mum Max i m um
Material Jo in t J oi n t 0/",," ¥", "
greater l han '1',," 10 'Ii"
Thickness Ma xim u m Ma xim u m
Exces s W eld R emforce ment Ma ximum height 01 y,,' less Than or equat to 'h"
greater Iha n '1>" to 1" ""w
w-
0/,,"
grea ter l ha~ 1'2'10 1·
grealer than 1" to 2"
'V,,"
y,' "'""
gre ate r t ~a n 1" ;,,," y," greate r than 2" to 3"
greate r U'an 3" to 4"
'I,"o r'~f
'1,"o r '~i "'"
"'"
Excessive Roo t
Nol Cov ered Same as Exc ess W etd R einforce men t Same as Excess Weld Re inlo rcemenl
Penetra tion

Mat e,i al Long Circum.

Vertical misalignment tess l han or equal To10%t1 Of Thickness Max imum Max im u m
Max ,mum 'I,."
Y,.", whichever is farger less T~ an or equal 10 'Ii" WT '1,t T
Any greater offset , provided it is caused by dime nsiona l grea te r than y," to 'Y," 'I,t'
'.'
Misalignmant
variat ions, shan be eQually dislr ibute d afOund Ihe greate ' than :Yo"to 1'1.1"
Horizontal misalignment fess than or equal to 20%It 'I"
circumf erence of the pipe
01upper plate, with ". " macrrem grea te r th an 1 \'2" to 2 Yot'
2 " le sser of'
'."
'l,oTt or YO" 'lil t or 'I,"

Maximu m of 2" in any 12" or 8% o f weld le rlgTh excl uding

Accu mulation 01 D iscont inuities No t C overe d NOICove red
h igh-low corxlifion

R ights of Reje cTion - ' Sinc e ND E me thod s give limite<:t

i~ di ca l io ns , the Company may reject welds w~ich appe ar
No fi pp les , grooves, ab rupl ridg es, and valleys to avoid stress risers
Genera l to me el thes e standard s 01 acc eptabil ity, if in its opin ion
Tha d epTh01 the d efecT ma y be d eTrimen Tal to Ihe su anglh
01 wel d."

100% X-Roy_Random x·R"I'_aod 5po ' X· Rayare quality_ de , ohon. ,s ed the ASME pre. ,,"re ",,, • • I . rid ANSI """"• • 00 .... ""'" "•• rI whM "'" . r NDE """",,"' ''' ...."'"~Mn .''' o,eO
t t . weldttlick"" ..
, T . ,h""""m01er",lrtl d<nollS
J w . wold wOjrtl
, ",., UKT-20IOf spec ial hoaH reatori 'o"'ie st ools
, jOioltca'ogof)'A
•• ""nl <a'""","", B, C, anriD

Appendix ~ 669
 NONDESTRUCTIVE NDE EXAMINATION SYMBOL
EXAMINATION
SPECIFICATION OR ~~E'NLOE
Letter

L
OTHERREFERENCES
Method Desianation
EXAMINE -
Acou stic emission AET
NUMBEROf
(N) All-AROUND
~

Electromagnetic EXAMI NATIONS ../{ _ " _ }

ET

h
, e ~~ \ L
{i:;;--f+
i~}\'~"--
LENGTltJ.J..
Leak LT
Magnetic pa rt icle MT T ; ·':";'
«w r O BE
TAIL - EXAMIN ED
Neutron rad iographic NR T
BASIC ARROW
Pen etrant' PT EXAMINATION BASIC EXAMINAT ION
SYMBOL - SYMBOL

Proof ' PRT

Radiograph ic' RT
Ultrasonic" UT
Visual' VT
-meecos used tortesting pipe welds

Relative Color of Color af Quantity of Nature of

Metal Stream Volume
Len th' Stream Bursts Bursts Bursts
1. Wrought Iron Large 65 Straw White Very few
Forked
2. Machine Ste el (AISI 1020 ) Large 70 White White Few
Forked
3. Carbon Tool Ste el Moderately large 55 White Very many
Whi te Fine, repeating
4. Gray Cast Iron Small 25 Red Straw Many Fine, repeating
5. Whi te Ca st Iron Very small 20 Red Straw Few Fine, repeating
6. Annea led Ma ll. Iron Moderate 30 Red Straw Many Fine, repeating
7. High-Speed Steel (18-4- 1) Small 60 Red Straw Extremely few Forked
8. Austen itic Manganese Stee l Moderately large 45 White White Many Fine, repeati ng
9. Sta inless Steel (Type 4 10) Moderate 50 Straw White Mod erate Forked
10. Timqsten -Ch rorniurn Die Stee l Small 35 Red Strawt Many Fine, repeatingt
11. Nit rided Nitralloy Large (curved) 55 White White Moderate Forked
12. Stellit ee Very small 10 Ora nge Orange None
13. Cemented Tungsten Ca rbide Extreme ly sma ll 2 Light Orange Light Orange None
14. Nickel Very small' 10 Ora nge Orange None
15. Copper. Brass. and Alum inum None None
• actual length vanes WIthgrindIng wheel . pressure. etc .
i blue-white spurts
some wavy streaks

670 @o Weldill!! Skills

 2.00 158 316 47 3 632 788 945 4. 25 33 .6 67.2 101 134 167
2.05 150 300 450 600 750 89 9 4.30 32. 8 65.6 98.3 131 164
2.10 143 286 428 572 714 856 4.35 32.0 64.0 95.9 128 160
2.15 136 272 408 544 681 817 4 .40 31.2 62 .4 93 .6 125 156
2.20 130 260 390 520 650 780 4.4 5 30.5 61.0 91.4 122 153
2.25 124 248 372 496 621 745 4.50 29.8 59.6 89.3 119 149
2.30 119 238 356 476 593 7 12 4.55 29. 1 58 .2 87 .2 116 145
2.35 114 228 341 456 568 682 4.60 28 .4 56 .8 85 .2 114 142
2.40 109 218 327 436 545 653 4.65 27.8 55 .6 83.3 111 139
2.45 104 208 312 416 522 627 4.70 27 .1 54.2 81.4 108 136

2.50 100 200 30 1 400 500 601 4.75 26 .5 53 .0 79 .6 106 133

2.55 96 .3 193 289 385 482 578 4.80 25 .9 51.8 77 .8 104 130
2.60 92 .6 185 278 370 462 555 4 .85 25 .4 50 .8 76 .1 102 127
2.65 89 .0 178 267 356 445 534 4 .90 24.8 49 .6 74 .4 99 .2 124
2.70 85.7 171 257 343 42 9 514 4 .95 24.3 48.6 72.8 97 .2 122
2.75 82 .6 165 248 330 4 13 495 5.0 0 23 .8 47.6 71.3 95.2 119
2.80 79.6 159 239 318 398 477 5 .05 23 .3 46.6 69.8 93.2 117
2.85 76 .8 154 230 307 384 461 5 .10 22 .8 45.6 68 .3 91.2 114
2.90 74 .1 148 222 296 371 444 5 .15 22.3 44 .6 66 .9 89.2 112
2.95 71 .5 143 215 286 358 429 5.20 21.8 43.6 65.5 87.2 109

3.00 69 .1 138 207 276 346 415 5.25 21.4 42.8 64 .1 85.6 107
3.05 66.8 134 200 267 334 401 5.30 20 .9 41.8 62.8 83.6 105
3.10 64.6 129 194 258 324 388 5.35 20 .5 41.0 61.5 82.0 103
3.15 62.5 125 188 250 313 375 SAO 20 .1 40.2 60.3 80 .4 101
3.20 60 .5 121 182 242 303 363 5.45 19 .7 39 .4 59.1 78 .8 98.5
3.25 58.6 117 176 234 293 352 5.50 19.3 38 .6 57.9 77.2 96.5
3.30 56 .8 114 170 227 284 341 5.55 18.9 37 .8 56.8 75 .6 95 .0
3.35 55 .1 110 165 220 276 331 5.60 16.6 37.2 55 .7 74 .4 92 .5
3.40 53 .4 107 160 214 267 321 5.65 18.2 36.4 54 .6 72 .8 90.8
3 .45 5 1.6 104 156 207 259 311 5.70 17.8 35 .6 53 .5 7 1.2 89 .2

3.50 50.3 101 151 20 1 252 302 5.75 17.5 35.0 52.5 70.0 87.5
3.55 48 .9 97.8 147 196 244 293 5 .80 17.2 34.4 51.5 68 .8 85.5
3.60 47. 5 95 .0 142 190 238 285 5 .65 16.8 33 .6 50 .5 67 .2 84 .2
3 .65 46.1 92.2 138 184 23 1 277 5 .90 16.5 33 .0 49 .6 66.0 82.5
3.70 44 .9 89.8 135 180 22 5 269 5.95 16.2 32,4 48.7 64 .8 81.2
3.75 43.6 87.2 131 174 218 262 6.0 0 15.9 31.8 47 .7 63.6 79 .5
3.80 42.4 84 .8 127 170 212 255 6.05 15.6 31.2 46 .8 62.4 78 .0
3.85 41.3 82 .6 124 165 207 248 6.10 15.3 30.6 46.0 61.2 76.7
3.90 40.2 80.4 121 161 201 24 1 6.1 5 15.1 30 .2 45.2 60.4 75 .3
3.95 39 .1 78 .2 117 156 196 235 6.20 14.8 29 .6 44.3 59.2 73.8
• diameter of balle l Omm Ti"ill,' Of.I'I'n Te.,'I;n /: Muehine C"mp,mv. {n,..

LOW-ALLOY, HIGH-STRENGTH
ELECTRODES
..
Welding
Typ!!JSlIffill Api?liI!llJj~~ .
Carbon and molybdenum
E-701 8-Al Mega M 1,00 0,000 = 10'
steels
Kilo Th ousand k 1,000 = 10'
E-801 6-B2 C hromium-molybdenum
Hecto Hundred h 100 = 10'
E-801 8-B2L steels
Deka Ten d 10 = 10'
E-8016-Cl
E-801 8-Cl Unit 1 = 10°
Nickel steels Oed Tenth d 0. 1 = 10-1
E-801 8-C2
E-8018- C3 Centi Hundredth c 0.01 = l et'
E-901 6-B3 Chromium- molybdenum Milli Thousandth m 0.00 1 = 1 0~
E-9018·B3 L steels Micro Millionth 0.00000 1 = l et'
~
Manganese-m olybdenum Other smaller multiples
E-l 0016-D2 steels
Appendix ~ 671
 WELDING SYMBOL

CO NTO UR SYMBOL FINISH SYM BOL

ROO T OP ENING , FILL DEPTH ~ GROOVE ANGLE; GROOV E ANG LE

l
FOR PLUG AN D SLOT WELDS " ' \ O F CO UNTER S INK FO R PLUG WELDS
GROOVE WELD SIZ E WELD LENGTH

PREP ARATI O N DEPTH , 1\ , WELD PITCH

SIZE OR STR ENGTH ,...
FOR C ERTAIN WELDS \
SPECIFICATION , _ R ffi w} »> FIELD WELD SYMBO L
PROCESS , OR
OTHER REFERENCE ~ ()
{ (f)
~ I"9 P ARROW CO NNEC TS

TA IL OMITIED WHEN
REFERENCE NOT USED
{I iii

f-
Q.UJ
~
0 - }
- REFERE NCE LINE TO
ARROW SIDE ME MBER
OF JOIN T OR ARR OW
~ ~g SIDE OF JO INT
~UJ

BA SIC WE LD SYMBO L NUMBER O F WE LD· ALL·AROUND SY MBOL

OR DETAIL REFERENCE
(
N( )
SPOT, STUD, OR
PROJ ECT ION
WELDS
RE FERENCE LINE

~ ELEME NTS IN THI S A REA REMAIN - -+I

AS SHOWN WHEN TA ll AN D
ARROW AR E REVE RSED

ELECTRODE SELECTION CHART'

-- - - -- - - - - - - - - --- - -- - - --------- ---_..
Electrode ctasst
Variables
1• •_ _ _ l1li• • • •-
Groove butt weld s, flat « W') 5 5 3 8 10 9 9 7 9 10 10

Groove butt welds, all posit ions « %") 10 9 5 8 (b) 6 (b) 7 6 (b ) (b)

Fill et wel ds, flat or horizonta l 2 3 8 7 9 9 10 5 9 9 10

Fille t welds , all po sitions 10 9 6 7 (b) 7 (b) 8 6 (b) (b)

DCEP DCEP DCEN DC DC DC DC DCEP DCEP DCEP DC

Current (Clt:
AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC

Thin mate rial ( Y4''') 5 7 8 9 (b) 8 7 2 2 (b) (b)

Heavy plate or highly restrained joi nt 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 10 9 9 8

High-sulfur or off- analysis ste el (b) (b) 5 3 (b) 3 5 9 9 9 (b)

Depo sition rate 4 4 5 5 10 6 10 4 6 8 6

Depth of pene tration 10 9 6 5 8 6 4 7 7 7 8

Appearance, undercutting 6 6 8 9 10 9 10 7 10 10 9

So undness 6 6 3 5 9 7 8 10 9 9 9

Ducti lity 6 7 4 5 10 6 5 10 10 10 10

Low -temperatu re im pact strength 8 8 4 5 9 8 9 10 10 10 8

Low spatte r loss 1 2 6 7 10 9 10 6 8 9 9

Poor fit-up 6 7 10 8 (b) 9 8 4 4 4 (b)

Welder appeal 7 6 8 9 10 10 10 6 8 9 9

Slag rem oval 9 8 6 8 9 8 9 4 7 8 9

Rating IS00 a corope renve basis of same-s ue electrodes With 10 as the highest value. Ratings may change With size
t AW S
t DCEP--direct cu rrent electrode posi tive: DCEN--direct current elec trode negative: AG-altema llng current: De-direct cu rrent, either polarity
(b) Not recommended

672 @ Weldillg Skills

 ROCKWELL HARDNESS CONVERSION TABLE ... .
. . -_. -. - - . . . . --

Rockwell i Tensile :' Brinell

I Superficial Rockwell I Vickers Knoop , Brinell
.- ,Strength ': -

B A E 1ST 30T 45T Hardness Hardness

'OOOlbs
Hardness
'DO kg! 60 kg! ' 0 0 kg! '5 kg! 30 kg! 45 kg! Hardness 50 0 g! 3000 g! 500 kg!
square inch
'lf16" ball diamond Va" ball v'a" ball 1;'6" ball Y16" ball and over romm ball 10mm ball
100 61.5 - 93.1 83.1 729 240 25 1 240 116 20 1
99 60.9 - 92 .8 82.5 7 19 234 246 234 114 195
98 60.2 - 92.5 81.8 709 228 24 1 228 109 189
97 59 .5 - 92 .1 8 1. 1 699 222 236 222 105 184
96 58 .9 - 9 1.8 80 .4 689 216 23 1 216 102 179
95 58 .3 - 91.5 79 .8 67.9 210 226 210 100 175
94 57.6 - 91.2 79 .1 66.9 205 221 205 98 171
93 57 .0 - 90.8 78.4 65 .9 200 2 16 200 94 167
92 56 .4 - 90.5 77 .8 64.8 195 211 195 92 163
91 55 .8 - 90 .2 77 .1 63.8 190 206 190 90 160
90 55.2 - 89 .9 76.4 62.8 185 20 1 185 89 157
89 54.6 - 89.5 75. 8 61.8 180 196 180 88 154
88 54.0 - 89.2 75.1 60 .8 176 192 176 86 l SI
87 53 .4 - 88.9 74 .4 59.8 172 188 172 84 148
86 52 .8 - 88 .6 73. 8 58.8 169 184 169 83 14 5
85 52 .3 - 88.2 73 .1 57.8 165 180 165 82 142
84 51.7 - 87.9 72.4 56.8 162 176 162 81 140
83 5 1.1 - 87.6 7 1.8 55 .8 159 173 159 80 137
82 SO.6 - 87.3 71.1 54 .8 156 170 156 76 135
81 50 .0 - 86.9 70A 53 .8 153 167 153 73 133
80 49 .5 - 86 .6 69.7 52.8 150 164 150 72 130
79 48.9 - 86.3 69.1 51.8 147 161 147 70 128
78 48.4 - 86 .0 68 .4 50.8 144 158 144 69 126
77 47.9 - 85.6 67 .7 49.8 141 I SS 141 68 124
76 47 .3 - 85.3 67.1 48 .8 139 152 139 67 122
75 46.8 - 85.0 66 .4 47.8 137 IS O 137 66 120
74 46.3 - 84.7 65 .7 46 .8 135 147 135 65 118
73 45 .8 - 84.3 65 .1 45 .8 132 145 132 64 116
72 45.3 - 84.0 6 4.4 44 .8 130 143 130 63 114
71 44 .8 100 83.7 63.7 43 .8 127 14 1 127 62 112
70 44 .3 99 .5 83.4 63 .1 42 .8 125 139 125 61 110
69 43 .8 99 .0 83.0 62 .4 4 1.8 123 137 123 60 109
68 43 .3 98 .0 82.7 61.7 40 .8 121 135 121 59 108
67 42 .8 97 .5 82. 4 6 1.0 39.8 119 133 119 58 106
66 42 .3 97 .0 82.1 60 .4 36.7 117 131 117 57 104
65 41.8 96 .0 81 .8 59.7 37 .7 116 129 116 56 102
64 41.4 95.5 81.4 59 .0 36.7 114 127 114 - 100
63 40.9 95.0 81. 1 58.4 35.7 112 125 112 - 99
62 40.4 94 .5 80. 8 57 .7 34 .7 110 124 110 - 98
61 40.0 93 .5 80 .5 57 .0 33 .7 108 122 108 - 96
60 39 .5 93 .0 80 .1 56.4 32 .7 107 120 107 - 95
59 39.0 92 .5 79.8 55.7 31.7 106 118 106 - 94
58 38 .6 92 .0 79 .5 55.0 30 .7 104 117 104 - 92
57 38 .1 91.0 79 .2 54.4 29 .7 103 115 103 - 91
56 37 .7 90 .5 78 .8 53.7 28 .7 101 114 101 - 90
55 37.2 90.0 78 .5 53 .0 27 .7 100 112 100 - 89
54 36.8 89 .5 78.2 52.4 26 .7 - 111 - - 87
53 36.3 89.0 77 .9 51. 7 25 .7 - 110 - - 86
52 35.9 88 .0 77 .5 51.0 24.7 - 109 - - 85
51 35 .5 87.5 77. 2 50.3 23 .7 - 108 - - 84
50 35.0 87 .0 76 .9 49 .7 22 .7 - 107 - - 83
49 34.6 86 .5 76.6 49.0 2 1.7 - 106 - - 82
48 34 ,1 85.5 76 .2 48 .3 20 .7 - 105 - - 81
47 33.7 85 .0 75 .9 47 .7 19.7 - 104 - - 80
46 33.3 84 .5 75.6 47 .0 18.7 - 103 - - 80

Appendix ~ 673
 ...ROCKWELL HARDNESS CONVERSION TABLE
.. - . -
-- --- _._- - ~
... _. - . - - .- -- - -- _._- - -
Tensile
Rockwell Superficial Rockwell Vickers · Knoop Brinell Brinell
... .. - ..
Strength
B A E 15T 30T 45T Hardness Hardness
1000 lbs
Hardness
100 kg! 60 kg! 100 kg! 15 kg! 30 kg! 45 kg! Hardness 500 g! 3000 g! 500 kg!
squ are inch
Y,6" ball diamond Ye" ball Yta" ball Y~,ball V,S" baH ilnd over 10mm ball 10mm ball
45 32.9 84.0 75.3 46.3 17.7 - 102 - - 79
44 32.4 83.5 74 .9 45.7 16.7 - 101 - - 78
43 32.0 82.5 74.6 45.0 15.7 - 100 - - 77.
42 31.6 82.0 74.3 44.3 14.7 - 99 - - 76
41 31.2 81.5 74.0 43.7 13.6 - 98 - - 75
40 30.7 81.0 73.6 43.0 12.6 - 97 - - 75
39 30.3 80.0 73.3 42.3 11.6 - 96 - - 74
38 29.9 79.5 73.0 41.6 10.6 - 95 - - 73
37 29.5 79.0 72.7 41 .0 9.6 - 94 - - 72
36 29 .1 78.5 72.3 40 .3 8.6 - 93 - - 72
35 28.7 78.0 72.0 39.6 7.6 - 92 - - 71
34 28.2 77.0 71.7 39.0 6.6 - 91 - - 70
33 27.8 76.5 71.4 38.3 5.6 - 90 - - 69
32 27.4 76.0 71.0 37.6 4.6 - 89 - - 69
31 27.0 75.5 70.7 37.0 3.6 - 88 - - 68
30 26.6 75.0 70.4 36.3 2.6 - 87 - - 67

MILLIMETER AND DECIMAL INCH EQUIVALENTS' . . -._- - .

-. - - - -
mm n mm fIlm In mm In mm In mm In
1;50 = .00079 '%0 = .01969 1 = .0 39 37 26 = 1.02362 51 = 2.00787 76 = 2.99212
%0 = .00 157 '%0 = .02 04 7 2 = .0 78 74 27 = 1.06299 52 = 2.04724 77 = 3 .03 149
%0 = .00236 27/50 = .02 126 3 = .118 11 28 = 1.10236 53 = 2.08661 78 = 3 .07086
*150 = .003 15 '%0 = .02 205 4 = .1574 8 29 = 1.14173 54 = 2.12598 79 = 3 .11023
'%0 = .02 283
51,0 = .003 94 3%0 = .023 62 5 = .19685 30 = 1.18110 55 = 2. 16535 80 = 3 .14960
%0 = .00472 3\30 = .0244 1 6 = .23622 31 = 1.22047 56 = 2.20472 81 = 3.18897
71,0 = .00 551 ~50 = .02520
7 = .27559 32 = 1.2 5984 57 = 2.24409 82 = 3 .22834
8/50 = .00630
8 = .31496 33 = 1.29921 58 = 2. 28346 83 = 3 .26771
"'l'50 = .02598 9 = .35433 34 = 1.33858 59 = 2.322 83 84 = 3 .30708
%0 = .00 70 9 34/50 = .026 77
10 = .39370 35 = 1.37795 60 = 2.36220 85 = 3 .34645
' %0 = .0078 7 3%0 = .02756 11 = .43307 36 = 1.4 1732 61 = 2.40 157 86 = 3 .38582
11;50 = .008 66 3%0 = .02835 12 = .47244 37 = 1.45669 62 = 2.44094 87 = 3.42519
' % 0 = .0094 5 3%0 = .02 913 13 = .5 118 1 38 = 1.49606 63 = 2.48031 88 = 3.46456
' '\'50 = .0 1024 "'Y50 = .02 992 14 = .55118 39 = 1.53543 64 = 2.51968 89 = 3 .50393
10/50 = .0 1102 39/50 = .03 071
15 = .590 55 40 = 1.57480 65 = 2.55905 90 = 3 .54330
"Y50 = .0 118 1 ' 'roo = .03 150 16 = .629 92 41 = 1.61417 66 = 2.59842 91 = 3. 5826 7
"Y50 = .0 1260 41;50 = .03228 17 = .66929 42 = 1.65354 67 = 2. 6 3779 92 = 3 .62204
17/50 = .0 1339 '%0 = .0 3307 18 = .708 66 43 = 1.69291 68 = 2.67716 93 = 3. 66141
''!'50 = .0 14 17 ' %0 = .03386 19 = .748 03 44 = 1.73228 69 = 2.71653 94 = 3 .70078
l !o/SO = .0 1496 4%0 = .03465
20 = .7 8740 45 = 1.771 65 70 = 2.75590 95 = 3 .74015
2%0 = .0 1575 4%0 = .03 543
21 = .8 2677 46 = 1.8 1102 71 = 2.79527 96 = 3.77952
2%0 = .0 1654 = .03622
22 = .8 66 14 47 = 1.85039 72 = 2.83464 97 = 3 .81889
4%0 23 = .9055 1 48 = 1.88976 73 = 2.8740 1 98 = 3.85826
'%0 = .01732 4%0 = .0370 1 24 = .94 488 49 = 1.929 13 74 = 2.91338 99 = 3 .89763
'%0 = .018 11 ' '!'50 = .03780
'*150 = .0 1890 49/50 = .038 58 25 = .98425 50 = 1.96850 75 = 2 .95275 100 = 3 .93700
"Based on '/100 mm = .003973" 10 mm = 1 centimeter = 0.3937" 25.4 mm = 1"
10 cm = 1 decimeter = 3.937" 10 dm = 1 meter = 39 .37"

674 ~ Weldin g Skills

Form A.7.1 SUGGESTED
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPS)

Identification
Date _ Revis ion _
Co mpany name
Sup po rting PQR no .I s) _ Type - Man ual Semiautomatic
Welding p ro cess(es) _ Mechanized ( Auto matic
Backing: ves ( ) No (
Back ing material (t ype)
Mate ri al numbe r Grou p To material number Group _
Mate rial spec. type and grade To mater ial spec . type and grade - - - - - - - -
Base metal thickness range : Groove Fill et _
Deposited we ld metal th ickness range _
Fille r me tal F no . _ A no . _
Spec. no . (AWS) Flux tradename _
Elect ro de-flux (Class) _ Type _
Con sum able insert: Yes ( No ( Class if ications _
Shape _
Position (s) o f joint _ Size
Welding progression : Up ( Dow n ( Ferrite numbe r (when reqd .) _
PREHEAT: GAS:
Preheat temp., min _ Shield ing gas(es) _
Interpass temp., max _ Perc ent composi tion _
(continuous or spec ial heating, whe re Flow rate _
applicable, shou ld be recorded) Root shielding gas _
POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT: Tr aili ng gas composition _
Temperature rang e T rai ling ga s f low rat e _
Time range _
T ungsten electrode , type and size _
Mode of meta l transfer for GMAW: Short-circuiting Globu lar ( Spray
Electrode wire feed speed range : _
Stringer bead ( Weave bead ( Peen ing: Yes No
Oscilletlon _
Standoff distance
Multiple or single ele ctrode (
Oth er

Filler metal Current

Travel
We ld Ty pe & Amp Volt speed
layer (s) Proc ess Class Dia. po lari ty range rang e ran ge

e.g., Rem arks,

c omments, hot wi re
addition , techniqu e,
torch angle, etc.

Approved for Production by _

Employer
No te: Tho se items that are not applicab le should be marked N.A .

Amf/'iC<ln Welding Soci ety

App endix ~ 675

 Form A.7.2 SUGGESTED Page 1 012
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD ( PQ R)

WPS no. used for test Weld ing process(es)

Company Equ ipm ent type and mo del (sw)

JOINT DESIGN USED (2.6 .1) WELD INCREMENT SEQUENCE

Single ( Double weld ( HEATPOSlWELOTREATMENT (2.6.6)

Backing material Tem p.
Root opening Root face dimension _ Time _

Groove angle Radiu s (J -U) _ Other _

Back gouging : Ves ( ) No ( I Method _ GAS (2.6.7)
BASE METALS (2.6 .2) Gas type!s) _
Mater ial spec . To _ Ga s mixtu re pe rce ntage
Type or g rade To _ Flow rate _
Material no. To materia l no . _ Backing gas Flow rate _
Group no . To grou p no . _ Ro ot sh ield ing gas
Thickness _ EBW vacuum ( ) Absolute pressure ( )
Diameter (pipe ) ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (2.6.8)
Surfacing : Material Thic kness Electro de extension _
Chemical composition _
Other _ Standoff distanc e
FILLER METALS (2.6.3) Tr ansf er mode (GMAW) _
We ld metal analysis A no. _ Elect rod e d iameter tungst en _
Filler me ta l F no . Ty pe tun g sten electr od e _
AWS spec ification C urren t: A C ( ) DCEP ( ) DCEN ( ) Pulsed ( )
AWS classification _ Heat in p ut _
Flux c lass Flu x bra nd _ EBW: beam focus current Pul se freq .
Consumable insert: Spec . Class . Fi lament type Sh ape _ Size
Supplemental filler metal spec . Class . Other _
Non-classified filler metals _ TECHNIQUE (2.6.9)
Consumable g uide (ESW) Yes ( No ( Osci llation freq uency Weave w idth
Supp le men tal deoxida nt (EBW) _ Dwel l time _
POSITION (2.6 .4) Stri ng o r weave bead Weave wi dth
Po sit io n of g roove _ Fillet _ Multiple-pass or single pass (per side) _
Vertica l p rog ression : Up ( Do wn ( Nu mb er of electrodes
Peening _

PREHEAT (2.6.5) Electro d e spacing

Preheat tem p.• ac tual min . _ Arc timing (SW) Lift (
Interpass temp.. actual max. _ PAW : Conventional ( ) Key hole ( )
Interpass cleaning :

Pass Filler me tal Travel Fill er metal Slo pe Special notes

no. size Amps Volts spee d (ipm) wire (i pm) in ducti on (process. etc .)

Note: Those items that are not app lica ble should be ma rked N.A .

676 ~ Welding Skills

Form A.7.2 Page 2 01 2
TENSILE TEST SPECIMENS: SUGGESTED PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD paR No.
Type: Ten sile specimen size: Area :
Groove ( Reinforc ing bar ( Stud we lds ( )
Tensile tes t result s: (M inimum required UTS psi)

Ma x lo ad l y pe failure and
Spec imen n o . Width . in. T h ic kn e ss. in . Area , io .2 Ib UTS , psi locat ion

GUIDED BEND TEST SPEC IMENS· SPECIMEN SIZE:

T ype Result T ype Result

MACRO· EXA MIN AT ION RESULTS: Reinfo rcing bar ( S tud I

1. 4. _
2. 5. _

SHEAR TEST RESUL TS· FILLETS:

I MPACT TEST SPECIMENS

3.
1.
2. 3.=====
4.

T ype : Size :
Test tem perature : _
Speci me n location : WM = we ld meta l; 8M = base metal ; HAZ =heal -affecte d zone
Te st results:
Welding Spec imen Energy abso rbed Duct ile fr a ct u re Late ral ex pans ion
position location (ft.-Ib) area (percent) (mi ls )

IF APPLICABLE RESULTS
Hardness tests : ( ) Values Acceptable ( I Unac ceptab le (
Vis ual (sp ec ial w eldments 2.4.2) Acceptable ( ) Unacceptable (
Torque ( ) psi Acceptable ( ) Unacceptable (
Proof test ( ) Method Acce pta ble ( ) Unacce ptab le (
Chemical ana lysis ( ) Acce ptab le ( ) Una ccepta ble (
Nondestructive exam ( ) Process Acceptab le ( ) Unacceptab le (
Ot he r Acceptable ( ) Unacceptable (
Mechanical testing by (Company) Lab No . _
We cert ify t hat the state me nts in thi s Rec ord are co rrect and tha t the test we lds wer e pr ep ared . we lde d. and tested in
accordance with the req ui remen ts of th e Ame ric an Welding Soc iety Standa rd fo r Welding Procedu re and Perter-
mance Qualification (AWS 82 ·83)

Qualif ier : Reviewed by :

Date : _
Approved by :
Emp loyer

App endix § 677

 Form A.7.3 SUGGESTED
PERFORMANC E QUALIFICATION TEST RECORD

Name Identificat ion Weld er ( O pe rato r (

Soc ial sec uri ty number : Qu alified to WPS no . - - -- ----
Proces s(es) Manual ( Se miautomatic ( Autom ati c ( Mechanized (
Test base metal speci ficat io n To _
Materi al n um ber To _

Yes No )
AC DC )
Yes No )
Yes ( ) No ( )
POSITION T EST ED WELDMENT THICKNESS (T)

lGI 2G I 5G I 6G I 6GA I ) Diarn et er ts) I T)

1G I 3G ( IT) _
2G I 4G I
'GI 2G I 3G ( 4G ( Bar size Butt ( )
Spliced b utt I)
FILLET:
Pipe I 'F I 2F { 3F I SF ( ) Dia meter _ _ _ {T ) _ _
Plate I , , FI 2F ( 3F { 4F ( ) IT) _ _
Other (desc ribe)

Test resu lts : Rem ar ks

Vis ua l test N/A I Pass ( Fail I
Bend test N/A I Pas s ( Fail I
Macro test N/ A I Pass ( Fai l (
Tension test N/A I Pass ( Fail (
Rad io graphic tes t N/ A I Pass ( Fail (
Penetrant l est N/A I Pass ( Fail (

QUALIFIED FOA:
PROCESSES
GROOVE: THICKNESS
Pi pe lG ( 2G I 5G ( 6G I 6GA I (T) Min _ _ Max . Dia
Plale ,G{ 2G I 3G I 4G I I T) Min _ _ Max . _
Re bar ic ( 2G I 3G I 4G I Bar size Min Max. _ _
FILLET:
Pipe IF I ) 2F I 4F I 5F { IT ) Min _ _ Max . _
Plal e IF ( ) 2F I 3F I 4F I I T) Min _ _ Max . _
Reba r IF ( ) 2F ( 3F ( 4F { Bar size Min Max. _ _
Weld cladding ( ) Po sitio n (s) T M in Max . Clad Min _
Consumable insert ( ) Back ing type (
Uphill I ) Downhill I )
Single side ( ) Double side ( ) No bac ki ng ( )
Short circuiting I ) I ) Spray I ) Pulsed Spray I
Reinforc ing bar - bult ( ) or Sp liced bu tt ( )
The above na med pe rson is qualified for th e wel di ng pr ocess(es) use d i n thi s test with in the lim its o f essent ial
variab les i ncl ud ing mate ria ls and fi lter meta l variab les of the AW S Sta ndard for Welding Pro cedure and Perf ormance
Qua li fica tio n (AWS 82. 1).

Date tes ted _ Signed by _

Q ua lifier

678 ~ Welding Skills

 AISI-SAE DESIGNATION SYSTEM
- - - ..
Numbers Type of steel and/or Numbers Type of steel and/or
and Digits nominal alloy content, and Digits nominal alloy content
Carbon steels 93xx - 3.25% Ni; 1.20% Cr, .12% Mo
10xx - Plain carbon (1% Mn max) 94xx - A5% Ni; AO% Cr; .12% Mo
11xx - Resulturized 97xx - .55% Ni; .20% Cr; .20% Mo
12xx - Resulfurized and rephosphorized 98xx - 1.00% Ni; .80% Cr, .25% Mo
15xx - Plain carbon (L OO% Mn to 1,65% Mn max) Nickel-molybdenum steels
Manganese steels 46xx - .85% Ni and 1.82% Ni; .20% Mo and
.25% Mo
13xx - L75% Mn
48xx - 3.50% Ni; .25% Mo
Nickel steels
Chromium steels
23xx - 3,5% Ni
50xx - .27% Cr, A O% Cr, .50% Cr, and
25xx - 5% Ni
.65% Cr
Nickel'i:hromium steels
51xx - .80% Cr, .87% Cr, .92% Cr, .95% Cr,
31xx - 1,25% Ni; ,65% Cr and ,80% Cr 1.00% Cr, and 1.05% Cr
32xx - 1,75% Ni; L07% Cr Chromium steels
33xx - 350% Ni; 1,50% Cr and 1,57% Cr 50xxx - .50% Cr }
34xx - 3,00% Ni; ,77% Cr 51xxx - 1.02% Cr C LOO% min
Molybdenum steels 52xxx - 1 A 5% Cr
40xx - ,20% Mo and ,25% Mo Chromium-vanadium steels
44xx - A O% Mo and ,52% Mo 61xx - .60% Cr, .80% Cr, and .95% Cr;
Chromium-molybdenum steels .10% V and .15% V min
41xx - .50% Cr, .80% Cr, and .95% Cr; .12% Tungsten-chromium steel
Mo, .20% Mo, .25% Mo, and .30% Mo 72xx - L75% W; 0.75% Cr
Nickel'i:hromium-molybdenum steels Silicon-manganese stee ls
43xx - 1.82% Ni; .50% Cr and .80% Cr; .25% Mo 92xx - 1AO% Si and 2.00% Si; .65% Mn, .82%
43BVxx - 1.82% Ni; .50% Cr; .12% Mo and Mn, and .85% Mn; 0% Cr and .65% Cr
.25% Mo; .03% V min High-strength low-alloy steels
47xx - 1.05% Ni; A5% Cr; .20% Mo and .35% Mo 9xx - Various SAE grades
81 xx - .30% Ni; AO% Cr; .12% Mo Boron steels
86xx - .55% Ni; .50% Cr; .20% Mo xxBxx - B denotes boron steel
87xx - .55% Ni; .50% Cr, .25% Mo Leaded steels
88xx - .55% Ni; .50% Cr; .35% Mo xxLxx - L denotes leaded steel

Appendix ~ 679
 ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR CHROME-MOLY STEEL PRODUCTS
Type Forgings T\l~!?es Pipe Casti ngs Plale
A335-P2
1hCr· 1hMo A182- F2 A2 13-T2 A369·FP2 A356-G R5 A387 -Gr2
A426·CP2
A182 -F12 A335-P12
1 Cr·lh Mo A336- F12 A213--T12 A369·FP12 - A387-Gr2
A426·CP 12

A199-T l1 A33 5-Pl1 A217-WC6 /11

A182- Fl 1/Fl 1A A356-G r6 A387-Gr l 1
1V4Cr-1hMo A200-Tl l A369·FP 11
A336- Fl 1/F11A
A213-T11 A426-CP1 1 A389-C23
A199-T22 A335-P22
A182- F22/f22a A200-T22 A369-FP22 A2 17-WC9 A387-Gr2 2
21/.Cr-' Me
A336-F22/F22A A2 13-T22 A426-CP22 A356-Grl0

A199-T 21 A335-P21
3 Cr-l Mo A182-F 21
A336-F 21/F21A
A200-T21 A369-FP21
A426·CP 21
- A387·Gr2 1
A2 13-T2 1

A 199·T5 A335-P5
5 Cr-lh Me A 182-F5IFsa A200-T 5 A369 -FP5 A217·C5 A387-Gr5
A336- F5IF5A A213-T5 A426-CP5
A335·P5b
5 Cr- lh MaSi - A2 13-T5b A426· CP5b - -

5 C r-1hMaTi - A213-T 5c A335-P 5c - -

A 199-T7 A335-P7
7 Cr-'h Mo A 182-F7 A200·T7 A369 -FP7 - A38 7-G r7
A213·T7 A426-CP7
A 199-T9 A335·P9
9 c r-t Me A182·F9 A200-T9 A369·FP9 A217-C 12 A387·Gr9
A336-F9 A213-T9 A426-CP9
A 199-T9 1 A335·P9 1
9 Cr- ' Me and V+Nb+ N A 182-F9 1 A200-T9 1 - A387-Gr9 1
A369· FP91
A2 13-T9 1

Fraction Decimal fraction Decimal Fraction Decimal Fraction Decimal

1/. . 0 .0 15 625 17/ 64 0 .265625 3%4 0 .5 15625 47/ 64 0 .765625
V32 0 .03125 %2 0 .2 8 12 5 '1i:32 0 .53125 2%2 0 .781 2 5
%4 0 .04 6875 1% 4 0 .2968 75 35/64 0 .5468 75 5%4 0 .796875
5/16 9/16
1;' 6 0 .0625 0 .3 125 0 .5 62 5 ' :Y' 6 0 .8 12 5
%4 0 .078125 2%4 0 .32 8 125 3%4 0 .578125 5:\'. . 0 .8 281 25
%2 0 .0 9375 1% 2 0 .34375 19/ 32 0 .59375 2%2 0 .84375
7/.. 0 .109375 2:Y.. 0 .359375 39/64 0 .609375 5%4 0 .859375
'Is 0 .1 25 % 0 .375 % 0 .625 % 0 .875
%4 0 .14062 5 2% 4 0 .390625 4%4 0 .64 0625 57/64 0 .890625
%2 0 . 15625 '%2 0 .4 062 5 2%2 0 .65625 29/32 0 .9062 5
1''164 0 .171 875 27/ 64 0 .42 1875 4%4 0 .6 71875 59/64 0 .921875
:Y,. 0 .1875 7/ 16 0 .4 3 75 ''Y16 0 .6875 ' 0/'6 0 .9375
':Y.. 0 .2031 25 29/64 0 .453125 4%4 0 .703125 6%4 0 .953125
%2 0 .2187 5 '%2 0 .4 6875 2%2 0 .71 875 31;3 2 0 .96875
' %4 0 .2343 75 3% 4 0.484375 47/64 0 .73 4375 6%4 0 .9 8 43 75

680 o@ We/dinK Skill"

 LIST OF MICROETCHANTS'
-
Alloy Family Common 'Name for Etchant ASTM E407 No. t
Carbon and low alloy steels Nital or Picral 74a, 76
Tool steels Nital 74a
Cast irons Nital 74a
Austenitic stainless steels Oxalic 13b
Precipitation hardening stainless steels Fry's 79
Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels Viella's 80
Heat resistant castings Glyceregia 87
Ni, Ni-Cu, and Ni-Fe Acetic-nitric-water 134
Ni-Mo Chromic-HCI 143
Ni-Cr-Mo (Alloy C-276) Oxalic 13c
NI-Cr-Mo (all other) Hydrochloric-methanol 23
Ni-Fe-Cr-Mo (Alloy 20 Cb3) Hydrochloric-nitric 88
Ni-Fe-Cr-Mo (all other) Hydrochloric-copper sulfate 25
Ni and Fe base superalloys Kalling's or Glyceregia 94,87
W, Mo Murakami's 98c
Ta, Cb Sulfuric-HF-peroxide 163
Ti Kroll's 192
lr Nitric-HF-hydrochloric 66
AI Keller's 3
Mg Acetic-glycol 119
Pb Acetic-nitric-glycerin 113
Sn,Sn-Pb Nital 74d
linc Chromic-sodium sulfate 200
Cu alloys Ammonium hydroxide-peroxide 44
Cu-ln Phosphoric-water 8b
. Exercise extreme caution in handling all chemicals, especially HF. Followsafetyprecautions described in ASTM E407.
t See numerical list of etchants

App end ix €l' 681

 NUMERICAL LIST OF ETCHANTS...
-
Elchanl Composition Procedure

3 2 ml HF (a) Immerse 10 to 20 sec. Wash in stream of warm water. Reveals

3 ml HCI general structure .
5 ml HNO, (b) Dilute with four parts water-<:olor constituents -mix fresh.
190 ml water
8 10 ml H,PO , (b) Electrolytic at 1 V to 8 V for 5 to 10 sec.
90 ml water
13 10 g oxalic acid Electrolytic at 6 V.
100 ml water (b) 1 min
(c) 2 to 3 sec
23 5 ml HCI Electrolytic at 6 V for 10 to 20 sec.
95 ml ethanol (95%)
or methanol (95%)
44 50 ml NH,OH Use fresh. Peroxide content varies directly with copper content of alloy
20 to 50 ml H,O, (3%) to be etched. Swab or immerse up to 1 min. Fiim on etched alumin-
O to 50 ml water inurn bronze removed by No. 82.
66 30 ml HF Swab 3 to 10 sec or immerse to 2 min.
15 ml HNO,
30 ml HCI
74 1 to 5 ml HNO, Etching rate is increased , selectivity decreased with increased
100 ml ethanol (95%) percentage of HNO, .
or methanol (95%) (a) Immerse a few seconds to a minute .
(d) Swab or immerse several minutes.
75 5 g picric acid Immerse 1 to 2 sec at a time and immediately rinse with methanol.
8 g CuCI, Repeat as often as necessary. Long immersion times result in
20 ml HCI copper deposition on surface .
6 ml HNO,
200 ml ethanol (95%)
or methanol (95%)
76 10 g picric acid Composition given will saturate the solution with picric acid.
10 ml ethanol (95%) Immerse a few seconds to a minute or more.
or methanol (95%)
79 40 ml HCI Swab a few seconds to a minute.
5 g CuC ~
30 ml water
25 ml ethanol (95%)
or methanol (95%)
80 5 ml HCI Swab or immerse a few seconds to 15 min. Reaction may be
1 g picric acid accelerated by adding a few drops of 3% H,O,.
100 ml ethanol (95%)
or methanol (95%)
82 5 g FeCI, Immerse 5 to 10 sec.
5 drops HCI
100 ml water
87 10 ml HNO, Warning: Nijrogen dioxide gas given off. Use hood.
20 to 50 ml HCI
30 ml glycerin Mix HCI and glycerin thoroughly before adding HNO,. Do not store.
Discard before solution attains a dark orange color. Swab or
immerse a few seconds to a few minutes. Higher percentage of
HCI minimizes pitting. A hot water rinse just prior to etching may
be used to activate the reaction. Sometimes a few passes on tile
final polishing wheel is also necessary to remove a passivesurface.

682 § Welding Skills

 ·..NUMERICAL LIST OF ETCHANTS
Etellllnt • u ~ll,\l!~\ll~ " ::'. PTocedure
88 10 ml HNO, Warning: Nitrogen dioxide gas given off. Use hood.
20 ml HCI
30 ml water Discard before solution attains a dark orange color. Immerse a few
seconds to a minute . Much stronger reaction than No . 87.
94 2 g CuCI, Submerged swabbing for a few seconds to several minutes .
40 ml HCI
40 to 80 ml ethanol (95%)
or methanol (95%)
98 10 g K,Fe(CN), Warning: Extremely poisonous hydrogen cyanide given off. Use
10 g KOH or NaOH hood. Poisonous by ingestion as well as contact.
100 ml water
To discard, neutralize (or turn basic) with ammonia and flush down
acid drain with water. Use fresh.
(c) Swab 5 to 60 sec. Immersion will produce a stain etch.
Follow with water rinse, alcohol rinse, dry.
113 15 ml acetic acid Use fresh solution at 80°C (175°F),
15 ml HNO,
60 ml glycerin
119 1 ml HNO, Swab 1 to 3 sec for F and T6, 10 sec for T4 and 0 temper.
20 ml acetic acid
60 ml diethylene glycol
20 ml water
134 70 ml H,PO, Electrolytic for 5 V to 10 V for 5 to 60 sec. Polishes at high currents.
30 ml water
143 0.01 to 1 g CrG, Allow solution to age a few minutes before using. Swab or immerse
100 ml HCI a few seconds to a few minutes.
163 30 ml H,SO, Immerse 5 to 60 sec. Use this solution for alternate etch and polishing.
30 ml HF
3 to 5 drops H,O, (30%)
30 ml water
192 1 to 3 ml HF Swab 3 to 10 sec or immerse 10 to 30 sec. HF attacks and HNO,
2 to 6 ml HNO, brightens the surface of titanium. Make concentation changes
100 ml water on this basis.
200 A- 40 g CrG, Immerse in Solution A with gentle agitation for several seconds.
3 g NaSO, Rinse in Solution B.
200 ml water

B- 40 g CrG,
200 rnl water

;OBit!:
ra
A .2 34 G .2 61 L ,290 a v .377
B .238 H .266 M .295 R W .366
C ,242 I ,272 N .302 S X .397
0 .246 J .277 0 .316 T Y .404
E ,250 K ,281 P ,323 U Z .4 13
F .257
*in in.

Appendix ~ 683
 PIPE FITIINGS AND VALVES
FlANGED SCREWE{ BELL & FW<GED $CR EWEl: eeu e FW<GED SCREW< BEU&
SP1GOT SPlOOf SPIGOT

~
BUSHING --D- REDUCING FLANGE -D- AUTOMATIC
BY-PASS VALVE
1i
-J ---3 -P 0
1i
CAP BUll PLUG AUTOMATIC
REDUCING VALVE

REDUCING CROSS
~++ PIPE PLUG --K] ((: STRAIGHT CHECK
VALVE -If'--.JI- --f'-J- ~
STRAIGHT-SIZE
CROSS
+++ CONCENTRIC
REDUCER {>I- -{>t- ~
COCK ~u~ ~ u ~ 'jUE-
C ROSSOVER +"+ ~ ECCENTRIC
REDUCER q -bt ~
-tt4 -&-
t ! t
DIAPHRA GM VALVE
45° ELBOW SLEEVE +-+ -1--+ 'j---E-

90° ELBOW
r rr STRAIGHT-SIZE
TEE tIt r-I-t +4 FLOAT VAlVE
.(;'1.,..
-ICXJI-
- f ~~ ~
---ckJ-
ELBOW-
TURN ED DOWN o-r G--1 G-+ TEE - OUTLET UP f-0-f t-0-t -10E- GATE VALVE -H><Jt- -{X}-- ~

ELBOW - TEE - OUTLET

0--i 0---l 0-7 t-e-I t-B-t
TURNED UP DOWN
** MOTOR-OPER ATED
GATE VALVE -tr4 ~
LL ~ ~ .r,
BASE ELBOW DOUBLE-SWEEP
TEE
GLOBE VALVE --t\XJt- -iXJ- ~

~T
DOUBLE-BRANCH
ELBOW REDUCING TEE
kY tAt +.If
~ -*-
MOTOR-OPERATED
GLOBE VALVE

J? F ~T
LONG-RADIU S SINGLE-SWEEP
ELBOW TEE

~ ¥
ANGLE
REDUCING ELBOW
CC SIDE OUTLET TEE -
OUTLET DOWN ~ r€H ~ HOSE VAlVE

:tt r r
SIDE OUTLET GATE

~ ~ ~
ELBOW - SIDE OUTLET TEE- HOSE VALVE -IlX)J --{X)J
OUTL ET DOWN OUTLET UP

SIDE OUTLET
ELBOW-
OUTLET UP ~~ <r UNION ---J+- -+-
GLOBE
HOSE VALVE -\l)(]J --{X)J

ST REET ELBOW
-c. ANGLE
CHECK VALVE
rf r LOC KSHIELD
VALVE -ikH- -tG-
CONNECTING
PIPE JOINT -1f- -t- -+-
ANGLE GATE
VALVE-
ELEVATION

ANGLE GATE
~ r- OUICK -OPENING
VALVE ~~
EXPANSI ON JOINT -IClI- --£3-- --'.E::f- VALVE - PLAN 00- (3:}--

LATERAL

ORIFICE FLANGE
PY
--4:f-
:r ANGLE GLOBE
VAlVE -
ELEVATION

ANGLE GLOBE
VALVE - PlAN
r- r-
(3:}- 0:J----
SAFETY VALVE

GOVERNOR-
OPERATED
AUTOMA TIC VALVE
-#Jt- -t:\2r -*

1,
... ~ .. -
.~

684 €l' Weldillii Skills

_ _~ _u. ~ , ~
DRILLED
~ _ _ HOLES
_
V ~ ~ , ~ ~ . A~_' ~__ _ A •• • '" • ~ , • _ _,

~
~ 1O. 00 DRILL
NOTE ~ NOTE ' \
rti l7.0 0 CBORE

ffi
· ~ DR I L L

@r
¢ 3 5 7 DRIL + 7,50 DEE P

. ~ ~ REAM
" . 1.2 5 DEEP

/ CBORE
~D I A
/ REAM DIA ~D R I LL D I A
~ THROUGH/
REAM ED , CBORE
DEPTH
,: ,: HOLE
,

,
, I
) c o~--
i 1" - DEPTH L-H+-' ,~ D R I L L DIA
BLIND
HOLE -
DRILLED AND
DRILLED HOLE DRILLED HOLE COUNTERBORED HOLE

~
0 ' 5 0 0 DRILL

B8 m
. ¢ .500 DRI LL Oi DRI LL
.750 CDRILL
,5 00 DEEP
82· CSK
0t SFACE
- + -I- ,875 DIA •

/ ' ( DRILL ~ CSK DIA I SFACE

~D IA ~D IA

",, ,-,,
,, ,,
, , ,

L-+++--'/ _ DRILLOIA L-++-+--'~ DRILL DIA L-+++--'/_ DRILLDIA

DRILLED AND DRILLED AND DRILLED AND
COUNTERDRILLED HOLE COUNTERSU NK HOLE SPOTFACED HOLE

••
SIZE"
DRILL
DJAME;:TER
SIZE;:
:01:~fER SIZE;: ,tHffill\±; SIZE' Dlf~~LfER '
DRILL
SIZE D1AME;:TE;:R
DRILL
SIZE D1AME;:TE;:R
1 .228 0 17 .17 30 33 .1130 49 .0730 65 .0350 81 .0 130
2 .2210 18 .1695 34 .1110 50 .0700 66 .0330 82 .0125
3 .2 130 19 .16 60 35 .1100 51 .0670 67 .0320 83 .0120
4 .2090 20 .1610 36 .1065 52 .0635 68 .0310 84 .0 115
5 .205 5 21 .1590 37 .1040 53 .0595 69 .0292 85 .0 110
6 .204 0 22 .1570 38 .10 15 54 .0550 70 .0280 86 .Q105
7 .20 10 23 .1540 39 .0995 55 .0520 71 .0260 87 .Q100
8 .1990 24 .1520 40 .0980 56 .0465 72 .0250 88 .0095
9 .1960 25 .14 95 41 .0960 57 .0430 73 .0240 89 .0091
10 .1935 26 .14 70 42 .0935 58 .0420 74 .0225 90 .0087
11 .19 10 27 .144 0 43 .0890 59 .0410 75 .02 10 91 .0083
12 .1890 28 .14 05 44 .0860 60 .0400 76 .020 0 92 .0079
13 .1850 29 .1360 45 .0820 61 .0390 77 .Q180 93 .0075
14 .1820 30 .1285 46 .0810 62 .0380 78 .0 160 94 .0071
15 .180 0 31 .1200 47 .0785 63 .0370 79 .0145 95 .0067
16 .177 0 32 .1160 48 .0760 64 .0360 80 .0 135 96 .0063

"in in.

App endix § 685

 STANDARD SERIES THREADS - GRADED PITCHES
NOMINAL UNC UNF UNEF
DIAMETER I P..l TAP DJ3lLL TPI TAP DRILL TPI TAP DRILL
o (.0600) 80 3/ 64

1 (.0730) 64 No . 53 72 No . 53
2 (.0860) 56 No . 50 64 No . 50
3 (.0990) 48 No. 47 56 No. 45
4 (.1120) 40 No. 43 48 No. 42
5 (. 1250) 40 No. 38 44 No . 37
6 (. 1380) 32 No. 36 40 No . 33
8 (.1640) 32 No. 29 36 No . 29
10 (.1900) 24 No. 25 32 No. 21
12 (.2 160) 24 NO. 16 28 No. 14 32 No.13
V. (.25 00) 20 No . 7 28 No . 3 32 %2
5/,. (.3125) 18 F 24 I 32 %2
% (.3750) 16 5/ 16 24 Q 32 1% 2

7/ , . (.4 375) 14 U 20 2%4 28 1;-32

\I, (.5000) 13 27/ 64 20 29/64 28 15;32

9/, . (.5625) 12 3Y64 18 3% 4 24 "'l'64

% (.6250) 11 '%2 18 3%4 24 37/ 64

'\I,. (.6875) 24 41;64

% (.7500) 10 2%2 16 11;16 20 4%4

''Jr,. (.8 125) 20 49/64

'Ie (.87 50) 9 49/ 64 14 '*",6 20 53/64

'5/,. (.9375) 20 57/64

1 (1.000) 8 7/ 8 12 59/64 20 6%4

PREFERRED METRIC SCREW THREADS ~

COARSE (GENERAL PURPOSE) FINE

Nominal Size Tap Drill Nominal Size Tap Drill Nominal Size Tap Drill Nominal Size Tap Drill
and Thd Pitch Diameter' and Thd Pitch Diameter" and Thd Pitch Diameter" and Thd Pitch Diameter"
M 1.6 x 0.35 1.25 M20 x 2.5 17.5 - - M20 x 1.5 18.5
M2 x 0.4 1.6 M24 x 3 2 1.0 - - M24 x 2 22.0
M2 .5 x 0.45 2.05 M30 x 3.5 26.5 - - M30 x 2 28.0
M3 x 0.5 2.5 M3 6 x 4 32.0 M36 x 2 33.0
M4 x 0 .7 3.3 M42 x 4 .5 37 .5 - - M42 x 2 39 .0
M5 x 0 .8 4.2 M48 x 5 43.0 - - M48 x 2 45 .0
M6 x 1 5.0 M56 x 5.5 50.5 M56 x 2 52.0
M8 x 1.25 6.8 M64 x 6 58.0 M8 x 1 7.0 M64 x 2 60.0
Ml0 x 1.5 8.5 M72 x 6 66 .0 M lO x 1.25 8 .75 M72 x 2 68.0
M12 x 1.75 10.30 M80 x 6 74.0 M 12 x 1.25 10 .5 M80 x 2 76 .0
M16 x 2 14 .00 M90 x 6 84 .0 M16 x 1.5 14.5 M9 0 x 2 86.0
- - Ml 00 x 6 94.0 - - Ml 00 x 2 96 .0

IiSIi ~ WeidinK Skills

Glossary
acety lene: A colorless gas with a very distinctive. nau-
seating odor that is highly combustible when mixed
with oxygen. Unstable at pressures above 15 psi. Used
in oxyacetylene welding. See oxyacetylene welding.
acoust ic emission testing (AE): A proof test that con-
sists of detecting acoustic signals produced by plas-
tic deformation or crack formation during mechanical
loading or thermal stressing of metals.
acrylic: A one-part UV (heat-core) or two-part adhesive
that can be used on a variety of materials.
actu al throat: The shortest distance from the face of
a fillet weld to the weld root after we lding. See
weld fa ce.
adhesive bond ing: The joi ning of parts with an adhe-
sive placed bet ween the faying (mating) surfaces,
which produces an adhesive bond.
adhesive wea r: The removal of metal from a sorface by
welding together and subsequent shearing of minute
areas of two surfaces that slide across each other un-
der pressure.
air carbon arc cutting (CAC ·A) : A cutting process in
which the cutting of metals is accomplished by melt-
ing with the heat of an arc between a carbon elec-
trode and the base metal.
air cut time: The time that a piece of equipment spends
inthe nonproductive activity of moving fromone weld
to another.
alignme nt ma r ker : A center punch mark made across
the joint in various locations.
alloy : Metal that consi sts of more than one chemical
element. w ith at least one of the elements being a
pore metal.
alteration: Any repair that does not restore a mechani-
cal component to its original design.
687
alt ernating current (AC): An electrical current that has
alternating positive and negative values. See current.
amme te r: An instrument that measure s amperage
(amperes).
amperage : The quantity of electricity measured.
ampere (a m p or A) : A unit of mea sure for electric-
ity that expresses the quantity, or numb er, of elec-
trons fl owing th rou gh a co nduc tor per u nit of
time . See conductor.
a nae robic adhesive: A one-part adhesive or sealant that
cures due to the absence of air which has been dis-
placed between mated parts.
a ngle beam : A vibrating pulse wave traveling other than
perpendicular to the surface.
annealing: Heat treatment process that softens a metal
by heating it to a suitable temperature, holding it at
that temperatore, and cooling it at a suitable rate.
arc hlow: A deflection of the welding arc hy magnetic
forces that occor along the electric flow.
arc strike: A discontinuity that results from arcing of
the electrode and consists of any localized remelted
metal, heat-affected metal. or change in the surface
profile of any base metal.
a rc voltag e (wor king voltage) : The voltage present af-
ter an arc is struck and maintained.
a rc weld ing (AW): A group of processes that produce
coalescence of the metals by healing them with an
electric arc.
armature: The part of the generator that rotates with
the shaft and delivers the electricity.
a r rowhead: A termination of the carrier line in the shape
of an arrowhead.
arrow side: The surface that is in the direct line of vi-
sion of the welder.
artifact: A nonre levant indication that appe ars on a
radiograph.
A-scan presentation: A method of data presentation us-
ing a horizontal base line that indicates distance or
time, and a vertical deflection from the base line that
indicates relative amplitude of the returning signal.
autogenous weld : A fusion weld made without filler
metal.
au to- refr igeration: Coolin g that occurs when gas ex-
pands, as in the sudden release of gas from a pipe or
piece of equipment.
a xis: Strai ght line around which a geometric figur e is
gener ated.
backlire: A quick recession of the flame into the welding
tip, typically followed by extinction of the flame.
backgouging: The removal of weld metal and base metal
from the weld root side of a welded joint to facilitate
complete fusion and complete joint penetration when
welding on that side is completed.
backhand welding: A welding technique in which the
torch is directed opposite to the progress of welding.
backing symbol: Supplementary symbol indicated hy a
rectangle on the opposite side of the groove weld sym-
bol on the reference line. See supplementary symbol.
backing weld: A weld made at the back of a single groove
weld which is deposit ed before any welding on the
opposite side is done.
backlighting: A lighting method that uses a diffused light
source to eliminate or soften shadow detail.
back (transverse) pitch: Distance from the center of one
row of rivets to the center of the adjacent row of riv-
ets. See rivet.
back-step welding: A welding process in which weld
passe s are mad e in the dir ection opposite to the
progress of welding.
back-to-hack positioning: A mechanical restraint method
that places identi cal weldments back-to-ba ek and
clamps them together.
back weld : A weld made in the weld root opposite the
face of the weld.
688 €1 Welding Skills
hake-out: A temperature-control process used on a cast-
ing to remove ~ydrogen and other contaminants that
could cause cracking during welding.
balloting: A formal method of documenting and voting
upon the reviewers' suggestions.
bar: Round-, square-, or rectangular -shaped structural
steel. See structural steel.
base metal: The metal or alloy that is to be welded.
base metal material specification: The chemical com-
position or industry specification of the base metal.
base metal thickness range: A procedure qualification
variable that indicates the range of base metal thick-
nesses covered in the procedure qualification record.
base metal weldability classification: An alphanumeric
system that groups base metals with similar welding
characteristics.
bead: Narrow layer or layer s of met al depo sited on
the base metal as an electrode melts. See base metal
and elec trode.
beam: I-shaped structural steel. See structural steel.
bending strength : A combination of tensile and com-
pressive forces, and is a property that measures resis-
tance to hending or deflection in the direction that the
load is applied.
bending stress: See flex ural stress.
bend test : A destructive test used to determine the ductil-
ity of a weld by bending a welded specimen around a
standardized mandrel.
bevel: Sloped edge of an object running from surface
to surface.
binocular microscope: A light micro scope that pro-
vides a low-magnification, three-dimensional VIew
of the surface .
biprism: Two uniaxial double-refracting crystals.
bird nesting: The tangling of welding wire in the drive
roll as a result of misalignment between the drive roll
and the liner.
blend grinding: A mechanical repair method in which a
thinned, pitted, or cracked region of a part is smoothed
to create a gentle transition with the unaffected surface.
blind hole : Drilled hole that does not pass through.
blind rivet: Rivet with a hollow shank that joins two parts
with access from one side. See rivet and shank.
bloom: A slight haze that appears on tbe surface of the
spec ime n and is ev idence of the first appearance of
the microstructure.
bourdon tube: A coiled fluid-co ntaining tube that straight-
ens out as the internal pressure on the fluid is increased.
brazed joint tension shea r test: A shear test that deter-
mines the strength of filler metal in a brazed jo int.
braze welding (BW) : A j oin ing process that produ ces
a coa lesce nce o f metals with filler metals that begin
to melt at temperatures above 840 °F (4S0 °C j, be low
the mel ting po int of the metal s joined , and in which
the filler metal is not di stributed into the jo int by cap-
illary action.
brazing (B ): A group of joining processes that produce a
coalesce nce of meta ls using nonferrous filler metals
that have a melting point below that of the base metal.
brazing symbol: Graphic symbol that shows braze loca-
tions and spec ificat ions on prints.
brazing temperature range: T he temperatu re ran ge
wi t hin w hic h the base metal is heated to e na ble
the fi lle r metal to we t the base met al and fo rm a
brazed joint.
break line: Line that shows internal featur es or avoids
show ing continuous features.
brightlield illumination : An illuminati on pro cess in
which the surface features perpe ndic ular to the opti-
cal axis of the microscope appear the brightest.
Brinell bardness test: An indentation hardness test that
uses a machine to press a 10 mrn diameter. hardened
stee l ball into the surface of a test specimen.
brinnelling: Localized plas tic deformation or surface
denting ca used by repeated local impact or over load.
brittleness: Lack of ductili ty in a metal. See ductility.
broken-out section: Partia l section view which appears
to have been broken nut of the object. See section view.
buildup lighting: A lightin g method that combines (add-
ing or de leting) light so urces to achi eve the desired
lighting effect.
burst: A complex branchin g of the carrier line.
buttering: A surfacing weld variation that app lies sur-
facing metal on one or more joint surfaces to provide
compatible base metal for subsequent completion of
the weld .
butt joint: A weld joint in which two workp ieces are set
approx imately level to eac h other and are pos itioned
edge-to-edge . See II'<,/d joint.
calibration block: A piece of material of specified com-
position. heat trea tment. geometric form. and surface
finish. by which ultrason ic eq uipment ca n be assessed
and ca librated for the examination of mater ial of the
same general co ndition.
calibration standard: A ca libration block or a refer-
encc block .
capillary action: The force that distributes liqui d fill er
metal through surface tension betwee n the faying sur-
faces of the j oint.
carbon equivalent; A for mula based o n the chem ica l
co mpos ition of a steel, which provi des a numer ica l
value to indicat e whether preheat and postheating
are require d.
carburizing: Case- hardening process for low -carbon
steels that uses an environment with sufficie nt carbon
potent ial and a tem perature above the upper critical
temperature. See case hardening.
carhurizing flame: A redu cing flam e in which there is
an excess of fuel gas.
carrier line : An incandescent (glowing) streak that traces
the trajecto ry (path) of eac h particle (spark) .
cartesian coordinate system: A sys tem of locating points
in space defined by perpe ndicular planes.
case hardening: Process of hardening low-carbon or mild
stee ls by adding carbon, nitrogen, or a combination of
carbon and nitrogen to the outer surface, forming a
hard. thin outer shell.
cast: Metal heated to its liquid state and poured into a
mold. whe re it cools and reso lidi fies.
casting alloy: Allo y poured into a sand or permanent metal
mold. See alloy.
cavitation: Surface damage ca used by collapsing vapor
buhbles in a flowing liquid.
certificate of analysis (COA ): See m ill tes t report.
certifieate of compliance (COC): A sta tement by a manu-
facturer. w ithout supporti ng documentation. that the
supp lied meta l meets specifications.
certification: A notarized statement provided by a sup-
plier verifying that a product mee ts the spec ification
under which it is sold.
cbamfer: Sloped edge of an objec t running from surface
to side . See edge.
Glossary :@; 689
channel : C- shape d structural steel used in conjunction
with other structur al shapes as support members or
combined to serve as an I beam. See stru ctural steel.
charpy: Impact test specimen supported horizontally be-
tween two anvils with the pendulum allowed to strike
opposite the notch .
Charpy V-notch test: A toughne ss test that uses the energy
produced by a dynamic load, and measure s the energy
needed to break a small machine-notched test specimen.
check valve: A valve that allows the flow of liquid or gas
in one direc tion only.
chemical analysis : A destructive quantitative identifi-
cation method that requires removal of a small sample
(I g to 2 g) of metal for chemical analysis of its con-
stitue nt elements.
chemical inhomogeneity: Any disturbance in the chemi-
cal composition gradi ent of a metal.
chemical polishing: A polishing process that uses chemi-
cal reactions to remove the rough peak s on the speci-
men surface.
chemical properties: Properties of metals that are di-
rectly related to molecular composition and pertain-
ing to th e chemical reactivity of metals and the
surro unding environment.
chemical spot testing: A semi-quantitative identification
method that uses chemicals that react when placed on
certain types of metal s.
chill plate: A metal plate used to prevent overheating dur-
ing welding.
chisel testing: A qualitative identification method that
identifi es metal by the shape of the chips it produces.
circular magnetization: A concentric magnetic field pro-
duced by a straight conductor, such as a piece of wire,
carrying an electrical current.
code: A type of standard that is mandatory and is used by
a jurisdictional bod y.
coefficient of thermal expansion: The change in unit
dimension , such as length , cau sed by a 10 rise in
temperature.
cold crack: A crac k that develops aft er so lidification
is complet e.
cold mechanical repair: A mechanical repair method that
consis ts of spanning a cra ck in a failed part with struc -
tural repair component s anchored into sound base metal
on both sides of the crack .
690 €l' Welding Skills
cold worked: Metal that is hammered, rolled , or drawn
through a die . .
color-coding: An identification marking that consi sts
of colored str ipes painted on one end of metal to al-
low for permanent storage or temporary storage and
subsequent retrieval from a metal service cent er or a
user's storeroom.
color test: Metal identification test that identifies metal s
by their color.
combined weld symbols: Weld symbols used when the
weld joint, weld type, and weld ing operation require
more information than ca n be specified with one weld
symbol. See weld symbol, weld j oint, and weld type.
commntator: The part of an armature that connects the
armature to the insulated copper bars on which the
bru shes ride.
compression : Stre ss caused by two equal forc es actin g
on the same axial line to crush an object. See stress
and axis.
compressive strength: The ability of a metal to resist
being crushed.
concave: Cur ved inward.
concave root surface: A depression in the weld extend-
ing below the surface of the adjacent ba se metal caused
by an underfill in the root pass of a weld.
condnctor: Any material through whi ch electri city
flows easily.
confined space: A space large eno ugh and so config-
ured that an employee can phy sicall y enter and per-
form as signed work, ha s limited or restricted means
for entry and exit, and is not de signed for continuous
employee occupancy.
constant-cnrrent welding machine: A welding machine
in which a steady supply of current is produced over a
wide range of welding volta ges cau sed by changes in
arc length.
constant pitch: Standard screw thread serie s with a set
number of threads per inch regardless of diameter. See
standard series.
constant potential: Generation of a stable voltage
regardless of the current output produced by the weld-
ing machine.
consumable insert: Spacer that provid es proper opening
of a weld joint and becomes part of the filler metal
during welding. See weld joint.
consumable insert sy m bol: Supple me ntary symbo l in-
dicated by a square on the oppo site side of a groove
weld on the referen ce line. See supplem entary' sy mbol
and groo l'e weld.
continuous magnetization metbod: An MT examination
technique in which the magnetic part icles are applied
while the magnetizing force is ma intained .
contour sym bol: Suppleme ntary symbol indicated by a
horizontal lin e or arc parallel to the we ld symbol, which
specifies the shape of thc co mpleted we ld . See supple-
mentary sy m bol and weld symbol.
convex: Curve d outward.
cooling rate: T he ra te o f temperature c ha nge o f a we ld
joint over tim e fro m the we ld ing temperature to
room te mperat ure.
corner joint: A j oint form ed whe n two wo rkpieces are
po sitioned at an approximate right angle in the shape
of an L.
corrosion: Combin ing metals with elements in the envi-
ronmen t tha t lead s to de terioration of the metal.
cnrrosion aUowance: An additional thickness of metal above
the design thickn ess that allows for metal loss fr om cor-
rosion or wear without reducing the design thickness.
cou n te r bored bole: Enla rge d and recessed hol e with
square sho ulders.
counterdrilled hole: Hole with a cone-shap ed opening
be low the outer surface.
coun te r sin k : Tool that produces a co untersunk hole. See
countersunk hole.
cou ntersu nk hol e: Hole with a con e-shaped opening or
rece ss at the outer surface . See countersink .
couplant: A liq uid subs ta nce used bet ween the searc h
unit and the test surface to pe rm it or imp rove the tran s-
m ission of ult rasoni c energy.
cover pass: T he final weld pass deposited .
crack: A fracture-type d iscontinu ity characteriz ed by a
sharp tip and a high ratio of length to width, and width
to opeoing displ acem en t.
cr a ter: A depress ion in the base metal that is made by
the we lding heat source at the termination of the weld
bead . See base metal.
creep: Slow plastic e longation that occurs duri ng extended
service und er load above a specific tem pe ratu re for
that metal. See strain.
cr it ica l temperature: Tem pe rature above whic h steel
m ust be heated so it will harden when qu en ched .
crosschecking: A series of pa ra lle l cracks about 'h " a part
that occur in brittl e deposits (with hardness greate r than
HR C 50) as they undergo stress re lief.
cryogenic properties: Abi lity of a metal to resist failo re
when subjected to very low tempera tures .
crystal (t r a nsd u ce r) : The piezoe lectric e lement in a
search unit that converts e lectrical e nergy to ultrasoni c
e nergy and vice ve rsa.
crystal structure: A spec ific arrangement of atoms in an
orde rly and rep eating three-dimen sion al pa ttern.
cubic foot: 1' _0" x 1'-0" x 1'-0" or 172 8 c u in.
cubic inch: I" x I" x I" or its equivalent.
Curie temperature: The temperature of magnetic trans-
forma tion, abo ve which a metal is non ma gnetic , and
below which it is magnetic.
curing: A process that converts the adhesive from its ap-
plied co nditio n to the final solid state.
current: The amount of electron flow through an electri-
ca l c ircuit. See cond uctor.
cutting plane line: Lin e that shows where an obj ect is
imagined to be cut in order to view intern al features.
cyaniding: Process of hard enin g low-carbon stee l by hea t-
ing it in sodium cyanide or potass ium cyanide.
cyanoacrylate adhesive: A one-part ad hesive that cures
instantl y by reacting to trace surface moistu re to bond
mated parts.
cyclical lead: A load that varies with time and rate, but with-
out the sudden change that occurs with an impact load.
darkfield illumination : An illumina tion process tha t il-
luminates the sp ecimen at suf fic ie nt ob lique ness (a
narrow an gle to th e surface) so that th e co ntrast is
co m p le te ly re versed fro m t hat ob ta i ne d w ith
brightfie ld illuminati on .
defect: O ne or more indications whose aggregat e size .
shape, orie ntation, loc ation , or properties fail to meet
the acceptance criteria of the a pplicable fabric ation
code or standard.
demagnetization: The elimination or red uct ion of residua l
magn etism created by MT.
density testing: A se m i-q uantitative identificat ion method
that measures the den sity of an unkn own metal.
Glossary ~ 691
depth of fusion : Di stance from the fu sion fac e to the
weld interface. See fu sion f ace and weld interface.
derating: A low er ing o f the c urrent output level of an
AC we ld ing machin e when being used for GTAW.
design th ickn ess: Th e thickness of metal required to sup-
port the load on a part .
destructive testiug: Any type of testing that damages the
test part (spec ime n) .
developer: A mat erial that is applied to the test sur-
fac e to accel erate bl eedout and e nh a nc e the co n-
trast of indi cations.
developing time: The elapsed time between the applica-
tion of the developer and the examination of the part.
diffraction: A modification of light in which the ray s
app ear to be deflected to produce fring es of parallel
light and dark colore d band s.
diffused light: A lighting source that uses a semi-opaque
scree n (such as ground gla ss) to diffu se the light source,
redu ce glare, and soften harsh detail s.
dilution: A change in the co mposition of welding filler
metal in the weld deposit ca used by melted base metal.
direct current (D C): An electrica l current that flow s in
on e dir ection only. See current.
direct current electrode negative (DCENj: Flow of c ur-
rent fro m electrode (- ) to work (+). See electrode.
direct current electrode positive (DC EP) : Flow of cur-
rent from work (-) to electrode (+ ). See electrode.
dissimilar metal welding: The joining of two metal s of
different co mpos ition usin g a compatib le tiller metal
to ens ure the weld meets required properties.
d istortion: Th e und esir abl e dimensional change of a
fabrication.
distribution piping: Carbon-stee l, standard-s ize pipe of
small diameter that conveys products from intermedi-
ate facilities to cons ume rs.
double-bevel-g roove weld: Groove weld having joint
members beveled on both sides with the weld made
from both sides. See gm ove we/d.
double-flare-bevel-groove weld: Groove we ld having
two radiused joint member s with the weld mad e from
both sides. See groove weld.
double-flare-V-groove weld: Groove weld having radiused
joint members with the weld made from both sides. See
groove weld.
double-groove weld: A groove weld that is mad e from
both sides. See groove weld.
692 ~ Welding Skills
double-J-groove weld: Groove weld having joint mem-
bers grooved in a J shape on both sides with the weld
made from both sides . See groo ve weld.
double-square-groove weld: Groove we ld having square-
edged joint member s with the weld mad e tram both
sides. See groove weld.
double-If-groove weld: Groo ve weld having joint mem-
bers grooved in a U shape on hoth sides with the weld
made from both sides. See groove weld.
double- V-groove weld : Groove weld havin g j oint mem-
ber s angled on both sides with the weld mad e from
both sides . See groove weld .
downhill welding: Welding with a downward progres-
sion. See vertical welding.
drag: Lag between the top of the cUI and the bottom as
cutting proceeds.
drag angle: The angle where the electrode is pointing in
the direction opposite of welding.
drill: Round hole in a material produced by a twist drill.
dry magnetization metbod: An MT examination tech-
niqu e in which the ma gnetic particles are in a dry pow-
der form.
ductility: A measure of the ability of a met al to yield
pla stically under load , rather than fracture.
dunnage: A series of stee l I-beam s parallel to one another.
dnty cycle: The percentage of time during a spec ified
test period that a weldin g machine can be operat ed at
its rated load without overheating.
dwell time: The total time penetrant is in contact with
the co m pone nt su rfac e, including ap plic atio n and
drain tim es.
dynamic electricity: E lectricity in motion in an electric
current. See current.
ear muffs: A device worn over the ears to reduce the
level of noise rea ching the eardrum.
earplugs: A devic e inserted into the ear canal to reduce
the level of noise reachin g the eardrum.
eddy current: An electrical curre nt caused to flow in a
conductor by the time or space var iation, or both, of
an appli ed magn etic field.
edge: Intersection of two surfaces. composed pr imarily of high-velocity electrons, im-
pinging on the joint.
edge joint: Weld joint formed wheo the edges of two or
more parallel or nearly parallel workpiece s are joined . electroplating: The application of a thin, hard chrome
See weld joint. coating to repair minor damage.
ed ge preparation : The preparation of the work piece embrittlement: The comp lete loss of ductility and tough-
edges by cutting, clea ning, or other methods. ness of a metal. so that it fractures when a sma ll load
is applied.
effective throat: The minimum distance between the weld
face and the we ld root, minus convexity. epoxy: A two-part adhesive that cures when res in and
hardener are combined.
elastic deformation: Ability of a metal to return to its
original size and shape after loading and unloading , equipment calihration standard : A test piece that con-
tains typical discontinuities that demon strate that cali-
elastic limit (yield): The maximum stress to which a ma-
bration equipment is detecting the discontinuities for
terial is subjected without any permanent strain remain-
which the part is being inspected.
ing after stress is co mpletely removed .
erosion (low-stress abrasion): A form of abrasive wear
electrical circuit: Path taken by electric current flowing from
in which the force of an abrasive and the surface causes
one terminal of the welding machine, through a conduc-
the removal of surface material.
tor, and to the other terminal. See current and conductor.
eroslon-cerrosion: The detrimental effect of velocity or
elect rica l conductivity: The rate at whic h electric cur-
turbulence in a corrosive environment.
rent flows through a metal.
essential variable: A we lding qual ification variable
electrica l properties: Ability of a metal to conduct or
which, if altered, shall be considered to affect the me-
resist electricity or the now of electrons.
chanical properties of the weld.
electrical resistivity (resistivity): The electrical resistance
etching: The controlled selective attack on a metal sur-
of a unit volume of a material.
face for revealing the microstructural detail of a pol-
electrical resistivity testing: A semi-quantitative identi- ished spec imen.
lication method that uses differences in electrical re-
examiner: A person who is qualifi ed, or quali fied and
sistivity to identify metals.
certified, to conduct certain types of NDE processes.
electrode: A component of the welding circuit that con-
excess weld reinforcement: Weld metal built up in ex-
ducts electrical current to the weld area . See weld bead.
cess of the quantity required to till a joint.
elect rode angle: The angle at which the electrode is held
explosion welding (EXW) : A welding process that pro-
during the welding process.
duces a weld by extreme impact of the metals through
electrode holder: A handle-like tool that holds the elec- controlled detonation .
trode during welding. See electrode.
electrogas welding (EG W): A welding process that uses
an arc between a filler metal electrode and the weld
pool, using approximately vertical we lding and a back-
ing bar to control the molten weld metal.
elect ro lytic polishing: A poli shin g process in which
the mount is the anode (co nnec ted to the posi tive
term inal) in an elec tro lytic solutio n and curre nt is
passed from a meta l ca thode (con nected to the nega- face reinforcement: Reinforcement on the same side as
tive terminal) . the welding . See filler metal.
electromagnetic exa mination (ET): An NDE method that failure-critical member: A tension member or compo-
uses elec tromagnetic energy having frequencies less nent whose failure would likely result in collapse of
than visible light to yield information on the quality of the structure.
the part being tested.
failure mod es and ettects an alysis: A failure analysis pro-
electron beam welding (EBW) : A welding process that cess that provides a diagnosis of the technical cause of
produces coa lescence with a concentrate d beam , failure using experience gained from previous failures.

Glossary ~ 693
fa lse indi ca tion: An NDE indication interpreted to be
caused by a discontinuity at a location where no dis-
continuity actually exists.
fast-fill electrode: An iron powder electrode that has a
soft arc and fast deposit rate. See electrode.
fast-freeze electrode : An electrode that produces a
snappy, deep-penetrating arc and fast-freezing deposit.
See electrode.
fatigue: Failure of a material operating under alternating
(cyclic) stresses at a value below the tensile strength
of the material.
fa tigue strength: Property of a metal to resist variou s
kinds of rapidl y alternat ing stresses. See stress.
fay ing surface: Part of the joint member which is in full
contact prior to welding. See cap illary action.
ferromagnetic material: A material that can be magne -
tized or strongly attracted by a magnetic field.
ferrous metal: Any metal with iron as a major alloy-
ing element.
field rivet: Rivet placed in the field. See rivet.
tield weld symbol : Supplementary symbol indicated
by a triangular flag rising from the intersection of
the arrow and reference line , whi ch spec ifie s the
welding operation is to be completed in the field at
the location of final installation. See supplementary
sy mb ol.
file testing: A qualitative identification method in which
a file is used to indicate the hardn ess of steel com -
pared with that of the file.
filler mefal: Metal depo sited in a welded, brazed , or sol-
dered joint during the welding process.
filler metal approval : The process of testing samp les
of as-rece ived filler metal to certify conformance to
a specification.
filler metal quantity: The depo sited weld metal thick -
ness range for groove or fillet welds.
filler metal specification: Identifi cation of filler meta l
by AWS number or other specification designation.
filler metal usability classification: An alphanum-
er ic method of grouping fill er metal s with similar
characteristics.
fillet weld: A weld type of approximately triangular cross
section joining two surfaces at approximately right
angles. See weld type .
fillet weld break test: A break test in which the speci-
men is tested with the weld root in tension.
694 o@ Welding Skills
fillet weld leg: Distance from the joint root to the weld
toe. See joint root.
fillet weld leg size: Dimension from the root of a weld to
the toes of a weld after welding. See fillet weld leg.
fillet weld shear test: A shear test in which a tensile load is
placed on a fillet weld specimen so that the load shears
the fillet weld in a longitudinal or a transverse direction.
fill-freeze electrode: An electrode that has a moderately
forceful arc and deposit rate. The rate is between those
of the fast-freeze and fast-fill electrodes. See electrode.
fill lighting: A lighting method that uses a small region
of a brighter light to increase detail on a dark area of
a subject.
fitting: Standard conn ection used to join two or more
pieces of pipe.
fit-up : The positioning of pipe with other pipe or fittings
before welding.
flxed automation system : A system that uses machines
designed for a single production function.
fixture : A device used to maintain the correct posi-
tional relationship betw een workpieces as required
by print specifications.
flame spraying: A thermal spraying process that uses an
oxyfuel gas flame as a source of heat for melting the
coating material.
flanged joint: A joint in which one of the joint members
has a flanged edge at the weld joint.
flash arrestor: A safety device that prevents an explo-
sion or a backfire in the torch or torch head from reach-
ing the regulator and the acetylen e cylinder.
flashback: A recession of the flame into or back of the
mixing chamber in a flame torch or flame spray torch.
flashlight: A lighting source that provides a pulse of very
intense light.
flash welding (FW): A resistance welding process that
produces a weld at the faying surfaces of a joint by the
intense heat of an arc that occurs when the workpieces
are contacted and by the application of pressure after
heating has been substantially completed.
flaw (indication): A discontinuity that can be detected
through NDE techniques .
flexible automation system: A system that uses pro-
grammable movements of the torch and sometimes
the workpiece .
flexural (bending) stress: Stress caused by equal forces
acting perpendicular to the horizontal axis of an object.
fluidity: A measure of the viscosity or flowability of a
liquid or molten solid.
fluorescence: The ability of certain atoms to emit light
when they are exposed to external radiation of
shorter wavelengths .
flush patch: A patch applied to a component that pro-
vide s a smooth transition between the component and
the patch.
flux : A material that hinders or prevents the formation of
oxides and other undesirable substances in molten metal.
flux cored arc welding (FCAW): An arc welding pro -
cess that uses a tubular electrode with flux in its core,
forced cooling: Rapid cooling of a solidified weld joint
between passe s using wat er.
forehand welding: A welding technique in which the
torch is directed toward the progress of welding.
forged: Metal formed by a mechanical or hydraulic press
with or without heal.
forge welding (FOW): A welding process that produces
a weld by heating the metal s to welding temperature
and applying forceful blows to cause deformation at
the faying surfaces.
fork : A simple branching of the carrier line .
foundry mark: An identification marking embossed on
the exterior of castings.
fracture test: Metal identification test that breaks the
metal sample to check for du ctility and grain size.
See ductility.
frequency : The number of cycles per second in an AC
sine wave .
fretting: Surface damage between two materials, usu -
ally metal , caused by oscillatory movement between
the surfaces .
friction welding (FRW): A welding process that joins
two metal parts that rotate or are in relative motion
with respect to one another when they are brought into
contact and pressure is appli ed between them.
full skip: One complete reflection of the ultrasonic beam.
fusion: Meltin g together of filler metal and base metal.
See filler metal and base metal.
fusion face : Surface of the base metal that is melted dur-
ing welding. See fusion.
fusion welding: Welding that uses fusion of the base metal
to make a weld.
galling: A condition that occurs when excessive friction ,
caused by rubbing of high spots on the surface, results
in localized welding with subsequent spalling (forma-
tion of surface slivers) and furth er roughening of the
rubbing surfaces.
gas metal arc welding (GMAW): An arc we lding pro -
cess that uses an arc betw een a continuous wire elec-
trode and the weld pool.
gas-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G): An
FCAW variation in which the shield ing is obtained
from both the CO 2 gas flowing from the noz zle and
from the flux core of the electrode.
gas tungsten arc spot welding: An arc welding process
that produces locali zed fusion similar to resistance spot
welding hut doe s not require accessibility to both sides
of the joint.
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): An arc welding pro -
cess in which a shielding gas protects the arc between
a nonconsumable (does not become part of the weld)
tungsten electrode and the weld area. See electrode.
globular transfer: The transfer of molt en metal in large
droplets from the welding wir e to the workpi ece across
an arc.
gouging: A cutting process that removes metal by melt-
ing or burning off a portion of the base metal to form a
bevel or groove.
gouging (high-stress ahrasion): A severe form of abra-
sive wear in which the force between an abrasive body
and the wearing surface is large enough to macroscopi -
cally gouge, groove, or deeply scratch the surface.
grain: Individual crystal in a metal that has multiple cry s-
tals . See crystal.
grain structure: Pattern of the grains in a metal. See
grain.
graphitization: The formation of iron carbide that re-
sults in loss of ductility.
grinding: The mechanical removal of metal from the sur-
face using hard , brittle grains of an abrasive material.
grip: Effective holding length of a rivet. See rivet.
groove face: Surface of the joint memher included in the
groove of the weld.
groove weld: A weld type mad e in the groove between
the two workpieces to be joined. See weld typ e.
Glossary €1 695
grounding device (ground): Co nnection betwe en weld -
ing cable and we ld parts in the weldin g circuit.
guided bend test: A bend test in which a rectangular piece
of we lde d met al is bent aro und a U-shaped die and
forced into a U shape.
hardfacing: Application of filler metals which pro vide a
coating to protect the base metal from wear cau sed by
impact, abrasion , erosion, or from oth er wear. See filler
metal and base metal.
hardness: Th e resistance of a material to deformation,
indent ation, or scratc hing.
heat-affected znne (HAZ) : A narrow band of base metal
adj acent to the weld joint who se properties and/or
metallur gical structure are altered by the heat of weld-
ing. See base meta l and mecha nical prop erty.
heating rate: Th e rate of temp erature change of a weld
joint ove r time from room tempe rature to the weld-
ing temperature.
heat inpnt: The amount of heat applied to the filler metal
and the base metal surface at the required rate to form
a weld pool , plus the additional heat required to com-
pensate for heat that is conducted away from the weld.
heat shaping: The application of localized heating to cause
movem ent of a distorted part and restore its dim ensions.
hertz (Hz): The international unit of frequency equal to
I cycle per second.
high-carbnn steel: Steel with a carbon range of 0.45 % to
0.75 %.
hot crack: A crac k formed at temperatures near the
completion of solidification.
hot melt adhesive: Thermoplastic material that is appli ed
in a molten state and cures to a solid state when cooled.
hydrogen-assisted cracking: Loss of toughn ess in steels
resultin g from hydro gen atom s created at the surface
of the metal by corros ion that diffu se into the HAZ
and the base metal.
hydrostatic te sting (hydrotesting) : Pro of testing of
clo sed container s suc h as vessels, tanks, and piping
systems by filling them with water and applying a pre-
determined test pressure.
696 ~ Welding Skills
image quality indicator (IQI): A device or combination
of devices who se demonstrated image determines ra-
diographic qualit y and sensitivity.
impact damage: Removal of material from and dama ge
to a surface caused by repetiti ve collisions or impact
between two surfaces.
im pact load: Load that is applied suddenly or intermit -
tently. Sec load.
impact strength: Ability of a metal to re sist load s that
are applied suddenly and often at high velocity.
impact testing: S pec ia l te sting performed on small,
notched specimens, to simulat e a stress co nce ntra-
tion effe ct.
inclusion: Entrapped foreign solid material in depo sited
weld metal, such as slag or flux , tung sten , or oxide.
incomplete fusion: A lack of union (fusion) between ad-
jacent weld passes or base metal.
incomplete penetration : A condition in a groove weld
in whic h weld metal does not extend through the
joint thickness.
inert gas : A ga s tha t do cs not readily co mbine with
other clements.
inspector: A per son who is qualified , or qualified and
certified, to appl y the results of NDE flaw character-
ization to determine whether the flaw s meet the ac-
ceptance criteria of the applicable fabricati on code
or standard.
intergranular penetration: Penetra tion of molten metal
along the grain boundaries of the base metal that leads
to embrittlement of the base metal.
intermediate weld pass : A sing le pro gre ssion of weld-
ing subsequent to the roo t pass and before the cover
pa ss.
intermittent welding: A stress -red uction technique in
which the continuity of the weld is broken by recur-
ring spaces between weld s.
intermittent welds: Short sections of fillet welds applied
at specified intervals on the weld part. See fille t weld.
interpass temperature: Weld area temperature between
passes of a multiple-pass weld . See weld pass.
interpass temperature control: Maintaining the tempera-
ture range within the weld between weld passes until
weldin g is complete.
interstitial clem en t: A c hemica l eleme nt adde d in sma ll
amo unts. whose atomic size is sig nifica ntly less than
the major e lements present in the metal.
in ve r te r: An elec trica l de vice tha t cha nge s DC current
into AC c urrent.
j oin t design: The shape , dimensio ns, and configuration
of the joint.
joint penetration: T he dept h of the we ld metal fro m the
we ld face into the joint.
joint root: The porti on of a weld joint where joint mem-
bers are the closest to each other.
kerf: The widt h of the cut metal.
killed steel: Stee l th at is completely deoxidi zed during
steel production by adding silicon or alum inum in the
furnace ladle or to the mo ld.
lamella r tearing: A subsurface terrace and step-like crack
pattern in wrought steel base metal oriented parallel
to the base metal working direction.
laminar di scontinuity: A discontinui ty that is re lative ly
thin and flat.
lap joint: A we ld jo int betwee n two ove rlap pi ng
work pieces in parallel planes. See weld joint.
large rivets: Rivets with a sha nk ¥2" or greater in diam -
e ter, See rivet and shank.
laser beam welding (LBW): A we lding process that pro-
duces coalescence with the heat from a laser beam im-
pin gin g on the joint.
liquid impingement: Progressive material removal fro m
a surface by the striki ng act ion of a liquid .
liquid penetrant examination (IYr): An NDE tec hniq ue
th at uses dyes suspended in high -fl uid ity liq uid s to
pe net rat e so lid mat eri al s and ind ica te the prese nce
of disconti nuit ies.
liquidus: T he lowest temperature at wh ich an alloy is com-
pletely molten.
liquidus temperature: The melti ng temperature of a
filler metal.
load: External mechanical force app lied to a component.
See stress.
load cell : A device that uses the elastic deformation of a
spring or diaphragm that is ca librated to indicate the
mechan ical load applied to the specimen.
longitudinal crack: A crack with its major ax is or iented
ap prox ima tely parallel to the we ld axis .
longitudinal magnetization: A magn etic lield prod uced
when the current-carrying co nd uctor is co iled an d the
magneti c field is parall el to the ax is o f the co il.
longitudinal shrinkage: Weld metal shrinkage tha t oc-
c urs parallel to the weld ax is.
longitudinal wave: A compress ion wave that re present s
wa ve moti on in which the par ticle oscillation is in the
same dir ection as wave prop agati on .
low-carbon steel: S tee l with a ca rbo n ran ge of .05%
to .30%.
low heat input welding: A stress-red uction technique that
decreases the a mo unt of heat ap plied to the we ld.
machinable electrode: Electrode whose deposits are soft
and ductile enough so that they can ea sily be machined
after wel ding. See electrode.
machining: Precise shapi ng to a desired profile using spe-
cial tool s to remove material.
macroetchants: Dee p etchants that are intended to develop
gross features such as we ld solidifica tion struc tures.
m agnetic field: Th e space within and arou nd a magne-
tize d part or conductor carryi ng c urrent in whic h a
magnetic force is exerted.
Glossary ~ 697
magnetic leakage field: The magnetic field that leaves
or enters the surface of a part at a discontinuity or
change in section configuration of a magnetic cir-
cuit.
magnetic particle: A finely divided ferromagnetic ma-
terial that is capable of being individually magnetized
and attracted to distortion in a magnetic field.
magnetic particle examination (MT): An NOE method
that uses a strong magnetizing current and a finely di-
vided powder to detect defects.
magnetic response testing: A qualitative identification
method in which a magnet is laid on the sutface of an
unknown metal to test for a magnetic force.
magnetism: The ability of a metal to be attracted by a
magnet , or to develop residual magnetism when placed
in a magnetic or electrical field.
main lighting: A primary lighting method that uses a
light source at a vertical angle of 40 0 to 600 to the
subject.
malleability: Ability of a metal to be deformed by com-
pressive forces without developing defects such as
those encountered in rolling, pressing, or forging.
manufacturing data report (MDR): A legal document
signed by the representatives of the manufacturer and
the manufacturer's authorized inspection agency.
margin: Distance from the edge of a plate to the centerline
of the nearest row of rivets. See rivet.
material safety data sheet (MSDS): Printed material that
includes data about every hazardous component com-
prising I % or more of a material 's content and used
hy a manufacturer, importer, or distributor to relay
chemical hazard information to the employee.
materials nonconformance report: A form created by
the receiver of the metal to audit manufacturer paper-
work regarding supplied metals.
materials test report (MTR): A certified statement is-
sued by the primary manufacturer indicating the
chemical analysis and mechanical properties of the
metal.
mechanical hond: The joining of two components by
locking, compression, or surface tension.
mechanical property: A property of metal that describes
the behavior of metals under applied loads.
mechanical repair: A repair weld process that consists
of methods that do not create a metallurgical bond be-
tween the restored parts or at the restored surface.
698 ~ Welding Skills
mechanical restraint: A device used to restrict move-
ment and counteract shrinkage stresses that occur dur-
ing welding.
medium-carbon steel: Steel with a carbon range of .30%
to .45%.
melting point: The temperature at which a metal passes
from a solid state to a liquid (molten) state.
melt-through: A discontinuity that occurs in butt welds
when the arc melts through the bottom of the weld.
metallograph: A metallurgical microscope equipped
to photograph microstructures and produce photo-
micrographs.
metallurgical bond: The joining of two components by
atomic fusion.
metallurgical structure: The arrangement of atoms in
repeating patterns within a metal.
metallurgy: The study of the influence of crystal and grain
structure of metals on the mechanical, physical, and
chemical properties of metals.
meter: A device used to measure and indicate the flow of
a gas, liquid, or current through a system.
metric equivalent standard: A version of a standard in
which all the units are indicated in metric (SI) values.
microanalysis: Chemical analysis of extremely small re-
gions of the specimen surface using tools such as en-
ergy-dispersive X-ray analysis or electron probe
microanalysis.
microhardness test: A microhardness test is a type of
indentation hardness test that uses light loads of less
than 200g.
microstructure: The appearance of the metallurgical
structure of metals when they are specially prepared
to reveal their features.
mill test report (MTR): Certification issued by the pri-
mary manufacturer (mill) verifying the chemical analy -
sis and mechanical test properties of stock obtained
from a starting ingot or billet of metal. See certificate
oj analysis (eGA).
mock-up: A simulation of the repair area on which the welder
performs work in the expected position of the repair.
modulus of elasticity: A measure of the stiffness of an
object under tension or compression.
multiple-impulse welding: A form of resistance weld-
ing in which welds are made with repeated electri-
cal impulses.

neutral name: A name that has neither oxidizing nor
carburizing characteristics.
nil duetility transition (NDT) temperature test: A
toughness test that measures the temperature at which
the fracture behavior of a metal changes from ductile
to brittle in the presence of a stress raiser.
noise reduction rating number (NRR): A number that
indicates the noise level reduction in decibels (dB).
Nomarski illumination: An illumination process that il-
luminates the specimen using polarized light that is
separated into two beams by a biprism.
nondestructive examination (NDE): The development
and application of technical methods to examine ma-
terials or components in ways that do not impair their
future usefulness and serviceability.
nonessential variable: A qualification variable that
may be changed in a WPS without requalification
of the WPS.
nonrelevant indication: An NDE indication caused by a
discontinuity that, after evaluation, does not need to
be rejected.
notch effect: A stress-concentrating condition caused by
an abrupt change in section thickness or in continuity
of the structure.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA): A federal agency that requires all employ-
ers to provide a safe environment for their employees.
ohm: The basic unit of measurement of resistance and
impedance. One ohm is the resull of I V applied across
a resistance that allows I A to now through it.
open-circuit voltage: The vall age produced when the ma-
chine is ON and no welding is being done.
open root joint: An unweldedjoint that does not use back-
ing or consumable inserts.
optical emission spectrometer: An instrument nsed for
optical emission spectroscopy that is placed on the
surface of an unknown metal.
optical emission spectroscopy: A semi-quantitative iden-
tification method that separates and analyzes the light
emitted from an unknown metal surface when it is
arced by an electric current.
other side: The opposite snrface of the joint.
overheating: Microstructural damage or change caused
by cutting operations.
overlapping: Extending the weld metal beyond the weld
toes or the weld foot.
oxidation: The combination of a metal with oxygen in
the air to form metal oxide.
oxidizing flame: A flame in which there is an excess
of oxygen.
oxyacetylene welding (OAW): An oxyfuel welding pro-
cess that uses acetylene as the fuel gas.
oxytuel cutting (OFC): A group of cutting processes that
use high heat temperatures generated by burning a fuel
gas in oxygen to accelerate the chemical reaction be-
tween oxygen and the base metal to sever and remove
the metal.
oxyfuel welding (OFW): A group of welding processes
that use heat from the combustion of a mixture of oxy -
gen and a fuel for welding.
paperwork: Physical certification or documentation pro-
vided by a product manufacturer or supplier.
pass: Each layer of bead deposited on the base metal.
peel test: A shear test in which a specimen is gripped in a
vise and then bent and peeled apart with pincers to
reveal the weld.
peening: The mechanical working of weld metal using
impact blows.
penetrant: A solution or suspension of dye.
permit-required confined space: A confined space that has
specific health and safety hazards associated with it.
personal protective equipment: Equipment worn by
welders to prevent injury.
photomacrography: The documentation of macroetched
samples using photography.
physical failure analysis: A failure analysis process that
provides a diagnosis of the technical canse of failure
using rigorous analytical methods.
Glossary ~ 699
pipe j ig: A device tha t hold s sect ions o f pipe or fittings
hefore tack we lding .
pitting (spalling): The formi ng of local ized cavities in
metal resulting from corrosion, repetitive slid ing or
rolling surface stresses. or poor electroplating.
plane-strain fracture toughness test: A tough ness test
that measures the resista nce of metals to brittle frac-
ture propagation in the presence of stress raisers such
as weld defects.
plasma arc cutting (PAC): A cuttin g process uuu uses a
constricted arc to remove molt en metal with a high -
veloc ity j et of ioni zed gas.
plasma arc welding (I'AW): An arc we ld ing process that
uses a co nstricted arc betwee n a nonconsum able tung-
sten electrode and the weld poo l (tra nsferred arc). or
between the e lectrode and const ricti ng no zzl e
(non-transferred arc ).
plasma sprayin g: A thermal spraying process in which
a plasma torch is used as a heat source for melt ing
a nd p rop ell in g the s ur fac ing mat eri al to th e
workpiece.
plastic strain: Strai n that rem ains permanent after the
stress is removed.
plug weld: A we ld made in a circ ular hol e in one
workpiece, fusing that workpiece to another.
pneumatic testing: A proof test in which air is pressur-
ized inside a closed vesse l to revea l leaks.
pularity: The po sitive (+) or negative (-) state of an
object.
polarized illumination: An illum ination process that re-
veals microstructural features in meta ls that are opti-
ca lly anisotropic.
polarizer: A device into which norm al light passes and
from which polarized light emerges .
polysullide adhesive: A one- or two-part adhesive or seal-
ant that cures by evaporation or catalyst.
polyurethane : A o ne- or two-part adh es ive w ith ex -
ce lle nt flexib ilit y that cures by eva po ratio n. cata-
lyst . or heat.
positioner: A mec hanical device that suppo rts and moves
wor kpieces for maximum loading, welding, and un-
loading efficiency.
postheating: The reheat ing of the we ld area to a high
temperature, holding for a predetermined time at tem-
perature, and coo ling at a specifie d rate.
700 ~ WefdillR Skills
prebending: A mech anical restra int method that relies
on locating workpieces out of pos ition before welding
so that we lding shrinkage stresses pull the workpieces
back into position.
preheat : The heating of the jo int area to a predetermined
temperature in order to slow the coo ling rate .
prequalified PQR: A we lding proce dure specification that
complies with the stipulated co nditions of a part icular
fabrication standard or co de and is acce ptable for use
und er tha t cod e without requiring addit ional qualifi-
cation testing .
primary weld: A weld that is an integral part of a struc-
ture and that d irect ly tra nsfers the load . See load.
procedure qualification re cord (P Q R): Documentation
of the we lding variables used to produce an accept-
able test weld and the results of tests co nducted on the
we ld to qualify a WPS .
prod: A set of hand -held electrodes used to transmit the
magnetizing current from the source to the material
being inspected.
prod method: A wet or dr y continuous method in which
portabl e prod-t ype e lectrica l co ntac ts are pressed
against the areas to be examined to magnetize them .
product analysis: A ch emical report that a parti cul ar
metal, such as tubin g or piping, is made fro m a par-
ticular heat of metal.
projection weld: A resistance we ld type prod uced by the
heat obtained fro m the resistance to the flow of weld-
ing curre nt. See weld type , fusion, and base metal.
projection welding (I'W): A we lding process that pro-
duces a weld using heat obtained from resistance of
the wor kpiece to the we lding current.
proof testing: The application of speci fic loads to welded
structures, without failure or perma nent deformat ion,
to assess their mech anical integrity.
proportional limit: The maximum stress at which stress
is directly proportional to strain. See stress.
pulsed spray transfer: A spray transfer mode in which
curre nt is cycled from low to high . at which point spray
transfer occ urs .
pulse-echo mode: A UT inspec tion method in which the
prese nce and position of a reflector are indicated by
the echo am plitude and time .
pure metal: Metal that consists of one chemica l element.
push angle: A travel angle where the electrode is angled
to point in the direc tion of we lding.

qualitative ideutifieatiou: Metal identification by a quali-
fied person to confirm the identit y of an unknown metal.
radiograph : A permanent, visible image on a recording
medium pr oduce d by pen etrating radiati on pa ssin g
through a material bein g tested .
radiographic examination: The use of X ray s or nuclear
radiation (gamma rays) to detect various types of in-
terna l and external discontinuities in material.
reaming: Enlarging and improving the surface quality of
a hole.
rec ommend ed practice: A type of standard that pro vides
instru ctions for performing on e or more repetitive tech-
nical function s.
re ctifier: An elec tric al device contained within a trans-
former welding machine that changes AC current into
DC current.
re d hardness: The capacity to resist softening in the red
heat temp erature range.
reducing flame: See carburiring fl ame .
red uction : Loss or remo val of oxygen during the weld-
ing process.
reference hlock: A test piece of the same material, shape ,
and significant dim ension s as a particular object un-
der ex am ination, and whi ch ma y contain natural or
artificial discontinuities or defect s.
refl ected light: A lightin g source that houn ces light off a
white card, wall, or ceiling.
rei nforcement: Amount of weld metal that is piled up
above the surface of the pieces bein g joined .
r eleva nt indication: An NDE indication caused by a dis-
continuity that requires evaluation.
rerating: Revi sion of the allowable de sign parameters of
a mechanical component from the original design aris-
ing from formal study of its current condition.
r esid ual magnetization method : An .MT examination
technique in which magneti c particles are appli ed af-
ter the mag netizing force has been disconn ected.
residual stress: Stress that occurs in a joint member or
material after welding ha s been completed, res ulting
from thermal or mechani cal co nd itions.
resistance: The opposition of the mat erial in a co nductor
to the passage of electric current, ca using the electri-
cal energy to be transform ed into heat.
resistance welding (RW): A group of weld ing processes
in which fusion occurs from the heat obtained by resis-
tance to the flow of current through the metals joined.
restraint: A clamp or fixture used to redu ce distortion by
preventing movement o f the we ld during coo ling, but
which does not necessarily reduce residual stress.
retentivity: The ability of a material to retain a portion
of the applied magnetic field after the magn et izin g
force has been removed.
right angle: Angle that cont ains 900.
rimmed steel: Steel with little or no deo xidi zer addit ion.
ripple: The shape within thc deposited bead caused by
the movement of the welding heat source. See bead.
rivet: Cy lindrical metal pin with a preformed head.
rivet pitch: Distance from the ce nter of one rivet to the
center of the next rivet in the same row. See rivet.
rohot: A programmed path device used to positi on the
torch and at times the workpi ece .
Rockwell hardness test: An indentation hardness test that
uses two loads, supplied sequentially, to form an inden-
tation on a metal test specime n to determine hardness.
roll welding: A weldin g procedure that applies heat and
pressure to interlo ck the faying surfaces of the we ld.
root head: A weld bead that extends into or includes part
or all of the joint root.
root cause failure a nalysis: A failure analysis process that
determin es how to prevent a failure from recurring by
understanding how the actions of humans or systems
may have led to the technical cause of the failure.
root edge: Weld face that comes to a point and has no
width. See weld face .
r oot face : T he portion of the groove faee with in the
joint roo t.
root opening: The distance between joint members at the
root of the weld before welding.
root pass: The initial weld pass that pro vides co mplete
penetration throu gh the thickness of the j oin t mem-
ber. See weld pass and penetration.
Giossarv €l' 70 1
root reinforcement: Reinforcement on the side opposite
the one on which welding took place. See filler metal.
root surface: Surface of the weld on the opposite side of
the joint on which welding was done .
rough polishing: A polishing process that is performed
on a series of rotating wheels covered with a low-nap
cloth (cloth containing a small amount of fiher).
run-off tah: A piece of metal of the same co mposition
and thickness as the base metal that is tacked to the
weld to allow the weld to he completed on it.
screw thread series: Groups of diameter-pitch combinations.
sea lant: A product used to seal, fill voids, and water-
proof parts.
scam weld: A continuous weld between overlapping
workpicces in which coalescence produces a continu-
ous seam or series of overlapping spot-welds. See weld
type . fusion. and spot weld.
search un it (probe): An elcctroacoustic device for trans-
mitting or receiving ultrasonic energy. or both.
secondary weld : A weld used to hold jo int member s and
subassemblies toget her.
section view: Interior view of an object through which a
cutting plane has been passed. See CUlling plan e line.
segregation: Any concentration of alloying chemic al el-
ements in a specific region of a metal. See base metal.
select ive plating: A form of electroplating used for touch-
up repairs on worn or dama ged parts.
self-shielded n ux cored arc welding (FCAW-S): An
FCAW variation in which shielding gas is provided
exclusively by the flux within the electrode core.
semikilled steel: Steel in which deoxidizers only partially
kill the oxygen-carbon reaction .
semi-quantitative identification: Metal identification by
applying a physical stimulus to an unknown metal to pro-
duce a signal that is interpreted against a set of standards.
sensitization: Precipitation of chromium carbides in stain-
less steels from exposure to high temperatures. as in
welding, typically in the HAZ.
servomotor: An AC or DC motor with encoder feedback
to indicate how far the motor has rotated .
702 ~ We/diIlN Skills
shank: Cylindrical body of a rivet. See rivet.
sheared plate: Plate that is rolled between horizontal and
vertica l rollers and trimmed on all edges.
shearing: The parting of material when one blade forces
the material past an opposing blade.
shear strength: Ability of a metal to withstand two equal
forces acting in opposite directions.
shea r stress (shear): Stress caused by two equal and par-
allel forces acting upon ao object from opposite direc-
tions. See stress.
sheet: Structural steel 'Yt6" or less used to cover large ex-
panses of a structure. See structural steel.
shielded meta l are weld ing (Sl\IAW): An arc welding
process in which the arc is shielded by the decompo-
sition of the electrode coating.
shop ri vet: Rivet placed in the shop. See rivet.
short circuiting transfer: A metal transfer mode in which
molten metal from consumable welding wire is de-
posited during repeated short circuits. See electrode.
shrinkage stress: Stress that occurs in weld tiller metal
as it cools, contract s, and solidities.
silicone: A one- or two-part adhesive or sealant that cures
by evaporation or·ca talyst.
single-bevel-groove weld : Groove weld having one joint
member beveled, with the weld made from that side.
See gm o ve weld.
single-fla re-bevel-groove weld : Groove weld having one
straight aod one radiused joint member. with the weld
made from one side. See g IVo \'e weld.
single-flare-V-groove weld : Groove weld having radiused
joint members, with the weld made from one side. See
groove weld.
single-groove weld : A groove weld made from one side
only. See groove weld.
slng le-J sgroove weld : Groove weld having joint mem-
hers grooved in a J shape on one side. with the weld
made from the grooved side. See g m o l'e weld.
single-square-groove weld : Groove weld having square-
edged joint members, with the weld made from one
side. See gmol'(' weld.
single-Ll-groo ve weld: Groove weld having joint mem-
bers grooved in a U shape on one side, with the weld
made from the grooved side. See groove we/d.
single-V-groove weld : Groove weld having both joint
members angled on the same side, with the weld made
from the grooved side. See gr()(J\'e weld.
slag inclusions: Small particles of slag (cooled flux)
trapped in the weld metal which prevent complete
penetration.
sleeving: A weld repair method that applies surfacing to
badly worn shafts by welding snug -fitting semicircu-
lar forms to cover the shaft surface.
slope: The shape of the volt-amp curve on a GMAWweld-
ing machine.
slot weld: A weld type made in an elongated hole in
one workpiece, fusing that workpiece to another. See
weld type.
slurry: A mixture of solid particles in a liquid.
slurry erosion: The progressive loss of material from a
surface caused by slurry moving over the surface.
soldering (S): A group of joining processes that produce
a coalescence of metals with nonferrous filler metals
having a melting point below that of the base metals.
See filler metal and base metal.
soldering copper: A tool that consists of a copper or steel
heating tip fastened to a rod with a wooden handle.
solidification temperatnre: Temperature at which the at-
oms of a metal assume their characteristic crystal struc-
ture. See crystal.
solid particle impingement: Wearing away of a surface
by repeated impacts from solid particles.
solidus: The highest temperature at which an alloy is com-
pletely solid.
solidus temperature: The highest temperature that a
metal can reach and remain in a solid state .
solvent-base adhesive: A one-part adhesive with a rub-
ber or plastic base that cures by solvent evaporation.
space lattice: Uniform pattern produced by lines con-
nected through the atoms.
spacer symbol: Supplementary symbol indicated by a
rectangle centered on reference line. See supplemcn-
tary symbol.
spark testing: A semi -quantitative identification method
that identifies metals by the shape, length, and color
of the spark produced when the metal is held against a
grinding wheel rotating at high speed.
spatter: A discontinuity that occurs when metal particles
are expelled during fusion welding and do not form
part of the weld.
special series: Screw thread series with combinations of
diameter and pitch not in the standard screw thread
series. See screw thread series.
specitication: A type of standard that indicates the tech-
nical and commercial requirements for a product.
specific heat: The ratio of the quantity of heat required
to increase the temperature of a unit mass of metal by
10 • compared with the amount of heat required to raise
the same mass of water by the same temperature.
spin testing: Proof testing of rotating machinery done by
spinning it at speeds above design values to develop
desired stresses from centrifugal forces.
splat: A flattened particle that cools rapidly and solidi-
ties as it strikes a metal surface,
spotface: Flat surface machined at a right angle to a drilled
hole. See right angle.
spotlight: An intense lighting source that uses a single
bulb in a reflector.
spot weld: A weld made between overlapping workpieces
in which coalescence forms a series of separate circu-
lar welds. See weld type and fusion.
spot-weld tension shear test: A shear test that determines
the strength of arc welds and resistance spot welds.
spray and fuse (spraywelding): A two step thermal spray
process in which a thermal spray coating is deposited
and subsequently fused by heating with a torch or by
placing the part in a furnace.
spray transfer: A metal transfer mode in which molten
welding wire is propelled axially across the arc in
small droplets.
staggered intermittent fillet welds: Intermittent fillet
welds that have a staggercd pitch and arc applied to
both sides of a weld joint.
standard: A document that , by agreement, serves as a
model for the measurement of a property or the estab-
lishment of a procedure.
standard series: Screw thread series of coarse (UNCI
UNRC), fine (UNF/UNRF), and extra-fine (UNEFI
UNREF) graded pitches and eight series with constant
pitches. See screw thread series.
starved joint: A joint that contains insufficient adhesive
to create an optimum bond.
static electricity: Electricity at rest or electricity that is
not moving.
static load: A load that remains constant. See load.
stator: The stationary part of a generator that produces a
rotating magnetic field.
steel deoxidation: The process of removing a controlled
amount of oxygen from steel during steelmaking.
Glossary @o 703
stencil marking: A n ide ntific ation marking that consists
o f continuuus or repeated ink markin gs o n the metal.
stickou t : The amou nt of unmelt ed electrode exte nding
beyond the end of the gas noz zle when using GMAW
and FCAW as the welding process.
sto poff: A material used to outline areas that are not to
be brazed .
straight bead: A type of weld bead made without an y
appreciable weavi ng motion .
straight beam: A vibrating pul se wave traveling perpen-
dicular to the surface.
strain: The acco mpanying change in dim en sion s when a
load induces stress in a material. See stress .
strength: The ability of a metal to resist deform ation from
mechanic al force s exerted on it.
stress: The internal resistance of a materia l to an exter-
nally app lied load . See strain.
stress relieving: Process of heatin g a metal to a suitable
temperature. hold ing it at that tem perature to reduce
res id ua l stresses. and coo ling it slow ly to minimi ze
the development of new residu al stresses . See stress.
strongback: A mechanical restraint device that is attached
to one side of a weld joint to hold work piece s in align-
ment durin g welding.
structural steel: Steel used in the erection of a structure.
structural weld repair: Restoration of a load-bearin g struc-
ture by we lding to meet performance requirements.
stud weld: A we ld type made by jo ining threaded studs
with other parts using heat and pressur e. See weld type.
submerged arc welding (SAW): An arc we lding proce ss
that uses an arc bet ween a bare metal electrode and
the weld pool.
subresonant vibration: Vibration frequency less than the
resonant frequency of the weld.
subsurface deformation: Microstructural damage or
change produced by cutting and that occ urs below the
surface of the specimen.
supplementary essential variable: A qualification vari-
able, for metal s where impact testing is required. that
requires a new wel ding proc ed ure specification .
supplementary sym bo l: Symbol used on welding sym-
bols to further define the ope ration to be completed.
surface feature: A part of a surface where change occu rs.
surfacing: The application of a layer or layers of materi al
to a surface to ob tain desired properti es or dimen sions.
704 ~ Welding Skills
surfacing weld: A weld applied to a surface. as op posed
to a joint. to obtain desired properties or dimensions.
surfacing weld repair: The app lication of a layer. or lay-
ers. of weld metal to restore corroded, worn, or cavi-
tated co mpo nent s to extend their useful life.
swea t soldering: A process whereby two surfaces are sol-
dered togeth er witho ut allow ing the solde r to be seen.
tack weld : A weld used to hold wor kpieces in proper
alignment until the final we lds are made.
tail: Part of a we lding symbo l included when a speci fic
welding process. speci fication. or procedure mu st be
indicated. See weldin g symbol.
teach pendant: The input meth od that the robot program-
mer uses to move the robot and create robot programs.
tee: T-shaped struc tura l steel made of I beam s cut to speci-
fications by mill or suppliers. See stru ctu ral steel.
tensile strength: A measure of the maximum stress that
a material can resist under tensile stress. Sec loud.
tensile test: A destructi ve test that mea sure s the effects
o f a tensile force on a material.
tensile test macbine: A testing machine co mposed of two
major components that are the mea ns of applying the
load to the spec imen and the mea ns of meas uring the
applied load .
tension (tensile stress): Stress ca used by two equal forces
acting on the same axia l line to pull an objec t apart.
tension shear test: A shear test in which a prepared speci-
men is pulled to failure in a tensile testin g machin e.
theoretical throat: Distanc e from the face of a fillet weld
to the root before welding. See fillet weld. weld [ ace,
and weld root.
thermal conductivity: The rate which metal transmits heat.
thermal equilibrium: A steady-state co nd ition in which
time is available for the diffusion o f atom s.
thermal expansion: A measure of the change in di-
mension of a me mb er caused by heating or cooling .
See metal.
thermal properties: On e of the physic al proper ties of
metal. Includes melting point, thermal co nductivity.
and thermal expansion and contraction .
thermal spraying (THSP): A group of processes in
which finely divided metallic or nonmetallic materi-
als are deposited in a molten or semi molten condi-
tion to form a coating.
thermoelectric potential sorting: A semi-quantitative
identification method that uses measurement of the elec-
tric potential generated when two metals are heated.
threaded fasteners: Devices such as nuts and bolts that
join or fasten parts together with threads.
through hole: Drilled hole passing completely through
the material.
T-joint: A weld joint formed when two workpieces are
positioned at approximately 90° to one another in the
form of a T.
torch positioner: A fixed-path mechanical apparatus that
moves the torch in a specified path.
torch testing: A qualitative identification method that
identifies a metal by the melting rate , the appearance
of the metal when heat is applied, and the action of the
molten metal.
torque: Product of the applied force (P) times the dis-
tance (L) from the center of application.
torsion (torsional stress): Stress caused by two forces
acting in opposite twisting directions. See stress.
torsional strength: The measure of a material's ability
to withstand forces that cause it to twist.
toughness: The ability of a metal to absorb energy, such
as impact loads, and deform rather than crack or fail
catastrophically. See ductility.
toughness test: A dynamic test in which a specimen is
broken by a single blow and the energy absorbed in
breaking the piece is measured in foot-pounds (ft-Ib).
transformer: An electrical device that changes voltage
from one level to another.
transmission piping: Medium- to high-strength steel,
relatively thin-wall and large-diameter, that conveys
products from locations of production to intermedi-
ate facilities .
transverse crack: A crack with its major axis oriented
approximately perpendicular to the weld axis.
transverse shrinkage: Weld metal shrinkage that occurs
perpendicular to the weld axis.
travel angle: An angle less than 90° between the elec-
trode axis and a line perpendicular to the weld axis
and in a plane determined by the electrode axis and
the weld axis .
travel speed: The rate at which the electrode is moved
along the weld area. See electrode.
tubing: Round-, square -, or rectangular-shaped structural
steel. See structural steel.
ultimate tensile strength: A measure of the maximum
stress (load) that a metal can withstand.
ultrasonic examination (UT): An NDE method that in-
troduces ultrasonic waves (vibrations) into, through,
or onto the surface of a part and determines various
attributes of the material from its effects on the ultra-
sonic waves.
ultrasonic welding (USW): A welding process that
produces a weld by applying high-frequency vibra-
tory energy to workpieces that are held together
under pressure.
undercutting: Creating a groove in the base metal that is
not completely filled by weld metal during the weld-
ing process.
underfill: A discontinuity in which the weld face or
root surface extends below the adjacent surface of
the base metal.
undesirable microstructure: The creation, through the
heat of welding, of microstructures that are preferen -
tially attacked in a corrosive environment.
unified numbering system (UNS): A common embed-
ded designation system that unifies all families of
metals and alloys.
union: Fitting consisting of three parts having threads
and flanges which draw together when tightened.
universal plate: Plate that is rolled between horizontal
and vertical rollers and trimmed only on the ends.
uphill welding: Welding with an upward progression. See
vertical weld.
upset welding (UW): A resistance welding process that
produces a weld on the faying surfaces by the heat ob-
tained from resistance to the flow of current through
the surface contact areas while under constant pressure.
user enquiry: A formal procedure developed by stan-
dards committees and code-creating organizations to
help users interpret issues and offer suggestions.
Glossary ~ 705
vacuum box testing: The application of a partial vacuum
to one side of a structure and examining for the pres-
ence of leaks.
variable load: Load that varies with time and rate, but
without the sudden change that occurs with an impact
load. See impact load.
variable voltage control: A control that spans a range of
voltages and is used to set the open-circuit voltage on
a welding machine.
vertical weld : A we ld with the axis o f the weld ap-
proximately vertical. Se e downhill welding and "p-
hil/ welding .
very-high carbon steel: Steel with a carbon rang e of
0.75% to 1.7%.
vibratory stress relief: The appli cat ion of subreso nant
vibration during welding to control distortion, or after
cooling to provide stress relief.
Vickers hardness test: An indentation hardness test that
uses an indent er with a 136 0 square- base diamond
cone , and that may be used to test hardness in the base
metal, weld metal, and HAZ.
viscosity: The resistance of a substance to Ilow in a fluid
or semi-fluid state.
visual examination (VT): Applicatio n of the naked eye,
assisted as necessary by low-power magnification and
measuring devices, to monitor welding quality.
visual identification: Metal identifi cation that consists
of checking the appeara nce of the base metal or filler
metal for key features that identify the metal type .
volt (V): Uni t of measure for electricity that expresses
the electrical pressure differential between two points
in a conductor. See conductor.
voltage: The amount of electrical pressure in a circuit.
voltage drop: The voltage decrease across a component
due to resistance to the now of current. See current
and resistance.
volt-amp curve: A curve that shows how the voltage var-
ies in its relationship to current between the open cir-
cuit (where there is static elec trical pote ntial but no
current is Ilowing) and short circuit (where the elec-
trode touches the workpiece).
voltmeter: An instrument used to measure voltage.
706 ~ Weldillg Skills
wallpapering: A weld repair method that uses thin, usu-
ally Y16". sheets of corros ion-resistant material that are
welded to a corroded surface.
water-base adhesive: A one-pan adhesive that cures by
water evaporation,
weave bead : A type of we ld bead made with tran s-
verse oscillation .
weaving: A welding technique in whi ch the e nergy
source is moved transversel y as it progresses along
the weld joint.
weld-all-around symbol: Supplementary symbol indicated
by a cirele at the intersection of the arrow and reference
line, which specifies that the weld extends completely
around the joint. See supplementary symbol.
weld bead: Weld that results fro m a we ld pas s. See
weld pass.
weld contonr: Cross-sectional shape of the completed
weld face. See weld face.
weld cracks: Linear discontinuities that occur in the base
metal, weld interface, or the weld metal . See base metal
and weld interface.
weld defects: Undesirable characteristics of a weld which
may cause the weld to be rejected.
weld discontinuity: An interrupti on in the typical struc-
ture of a weld.
welder certification: A written statement that the we lder
has produced welds meeting a prescribed standard of
welding performance,
welder performance qnalification: A test that demon-
strates a welder's ability to produce welds that meet
required standards.
welder registration: The act of approving a copy of
the welder's certification document by an appropri-
ate authority.
weld face: The exposed surface of the weld, bounded by
the weld toes on the side on which welding was done.
See weld toe.
weld finish: Method used to achieve the surface finish.
See base metal.
weld gauge: A device for measuring the size and shape
of welds.
welding: The coalesce nce or jo ining together of metals,
with or without a filler metal, using heat, pressure, or
heat and pressure.
welding procedure qualification variable: A condition wet magnetization method : An MT examinati on tech-
(pa rameter) tbat affec ts the integrit y of a we ld j oint. nique in which the magn etic panicles are suspended
in a liqu id medium.
welding procedure specification (WPS): A document
pro vidi ng the required we lding variables for a spe- whipping: A manual we lding technique in whic h the arc
cific a pplication to ens ure repeatabili ty by properly is m o ved qui ckl y backward an d forwa rd as it
trained we lders and welding operators. progre sses alon g the weld joi nt.
welding symbol: A graphical represent ation of the speci- work angle: An angle less than 90 ° in a line perpendicu-
fications for produ cin g a welded joint. lar to the workpiece and in a plane determined hy the
electrode axis and the weld axis.
weld interface: Th e boundary between the weld metal
and the base metal in a fusion weld . working voltage: See (lrc voltage.
weld joint: The physical configuration at the juncture of workmanship stnndard: A section of a joint similar to
the workpieces to be welded. the one in manufacture in which portions of each suc-
cessive we ld pass are shown.
weld leg: The distance from the joint root to the weld toe.
wraparound guided hend test: A bend test in which a
weld metal: Th e portion of a fusion we ld that is com-
specimen is bent aro und a sta tionary mandrel a speci-
pletely melt ed during weldi ng.
fied amount to expose weld discontinuities.
weld overlay: The application of surfacing using a welding
proces s that creates a metallurgical bond with the base
metal throu gh melting of the surfacing metal.
weld pass: A single pro gression of welding along the
we ld joint.
weld reinforcement: The amount of weld metal in ex-
cess of that required to fill the joint. X-ray fluorescence spectrography (XRF): A nonde-
structive quantit ati ve identi fication method that uses
weld repair: A repair weld process that consists of meth-
a gamma ray beam to identify an unknown metal.
ods that join failed part s or restore their surface using
a welding process.
weld root: Th e area whe re filler metal intersect s base
metal and extends the furthest into the weld join\.
weld symbol: A graphic symbol connected to the refer-
ence line of a we lding sy mbo l specifying the we ld
ty pe .
yield point: The location on the stress-s train curve where
weld tbroat: Distance throu gh the center o f the weld an increa se in strain occ urs without an increase in stress.
from the face to the root. Sec weld fa ce and weld root.
yield strength: The level of stress w ithin a metal that is
weld toe: Th e int er section of the ba se metal and the suffi cient to cau se plastic 110w.
weld fac e.
yoke: A temporary horse shoe magnet made of so ft. low-
weld type: The cross -sectional shape of the weld after ret entivity iron that is ma gneti zed by a small coil
filler metal is added to the joint. wound around the hori zontal bar.
weld widtb: The distance from toe to toe across the face yoke method: A dry co ntinuo us meth od of MT for de-
of the we ld. tecti on o f surface discont inuit ies.

Glossary ~ 707
708 0 Welding Skills
Index
A See ampere
A B Sf'f' adhes ive bonding
abrasion -re sistant iro n. 574
abrasive cleaning. ,,0 1
abrasive d oth. 259
A BS SCi' America n Bur eau o f Shipping
AC See altern ating current
accide nt. 10
accident report form. 10
ACIlX Sec altern ating current/direct current
ace tyle ne. 49. 262. lJW
acetylene cy linder. -19. 6 1
acetylene hose. 56 Set' al.m hose
acetylene torch . 69
AC H F Set' AC high -frequency
current; AC hi gh-frequency weldi ng
AC high -fre quency cur rent. I XO. 191
AC high-frequen cy we ldi ng , 161. 1M . 166
acid. 2S I
acid dippi ng. 3 13
ac id etching tec hnique. 652
aco ustic e m ission testi ng. 44 6
acrylic. 36 1. 375 See a/so adhesive
actual throat. 30. 3 /
ada pti ve co ntrols. 369-371
adhesi ve. 30 2-306. 360 See al.m ad hesive
bonding: ad hesive applica tio n
type s. 36(1- 361
ad hes ive bondi ng. 301 . 30 1-303 . 359.
359-36 1 See al.w mechanical repair
ad hesive applica tion ..\ 0 2-306
surface preparat ion. 30 I
adhes ive wear. 266. 267 Set' also wear type
AE See acoustic emi ssion testin g
Aerospace Material Sp ecifi cutious. 644
aeros pace vehicles. 657
AI See authorize d inspector
air car bon arc cutti ng. 290--293
air pressure. 290
electrode ho lder. 29 1
elec trod es. 29 1
weld ing mach ine . 290
air carbon arc go uging . ] 12. 4X7
ai rcraft. 6 57
air c ut lime . ] &.l-
a ir-gas mi xture. 254
ai r pressu re
plastic weldin g. 377
AISC Set' Ame rica n Insti tute o f Stee l
Cons truc tion
ulignmcut. 44
alignm ent mark er . 312
alloy carbide. 572
alloy iro n. 572, 57 3- 574 S CI' also cast iro n
alloy metals. 115
alloy steel . 20X. 55 5-566 . 55 6
hard ness les t. 395
welding consideratio ns. 55S -566
alpha bra ss. 600
alternating current, 90. 124. 168. 1tJ..l. +l1 Sef'
lll.'W} welding machine: alternating nun-Ill
electrode. 107. 109
fo r GTAW. 163. 16+-1 65
a lte rnati ng currc nvdircct curren t. W
alum inum . 47 . 70. 74---75. 115. 163. 167 .
16 K. 172. 175. 179. 189 . 19 2. 206. 207 .
230.2.'1-233.254. 256. 277.303 . .H 9.
34 1. 345. 348 . 352. 362. 5 19. 600 . (107
c utting . 2XX
GTAW.1 9 1
jo int de sign. 74
so lde r. 259
structu ra l fabr ication . 65 5
weld ing. X3. 189
welding wire. 2m
a lumin um alloy. 2-19. 29 1. 477
appearance. 60-1
cleaning req uirem ents. h05
families. (j().J
tiller metal. 60 5
heat req uirem e nts. 00 5
welding co ns ide rations. 603 -606
weldi ng processes. 605
aluminum bron ze. 599. 60 I
alu minu m bron ze surfac ing weld . JOX Set'
atso surfac ing weld repa ir
aluminum ox ide. 277
Am erican Bureau or Shipping. 657
American Institute of Steel Cons truction. -10
Amer ican National Sta nda rds Institute .)'('e
AN S I Intern ational
Am erican Pet ro leum Institute . 330. 6-l-7
ca..; ing and tub ing. &.l-7
d rill pipe. 6-17
line pipe . 647
pipeline requirements. 505
American Society of Mechanical Engi -
neers St'f' AS ME Intern atio nal
Ame rican Society o f No ndestruc tive
Testing. 413
Recommended Standar d SNT-TC IA. 4 13
709
Ame rica n Society for Te stin g and
Ma terials See AST M Intern ational
Am eri can Wate rwork s Ass oc iat io n. 6 53
welding stee l water pip e. 655
A merica n Welding Societ y. 5, 106. :130.
644-64 5
con sumable insert classification. 323
e lec tro de c lassi fica tion. 106. lOb- lOX.
242. 2-13
ti ller metal classification. 253. 274. 48X
mechanica l weld testi ng. 405
robotic and automatic co mponents. 370
robotic welding sa fety. 372
S truc tural Welding: Code. -10-1. 407.
500. 504
weldi ng procedure and pe rfo r mance
q ualifi cation. 495
weld sym bols . (127
ammeter. 90
ammonia. 252
ammonium hydro xide-perox ide. 4 5\)
amp See am pere
amperage. 9 ()
a mpe re. 1)0
amplifier. 443
anae robic ad hesive . 36 1 See a l.w adhesive
ang le beam. ·UO
Ann ua l Book of AS T M St andard s. M 3
SCf' al.\o AST M lmcmational
anode. 3-1\). 5-19
an odi zing. ] 0 1
AN S I Inte rnatio nal. 14 . 647
pipe- c lass ification..\ 19
ro bot weld ing safe ty. 371
weld ing procedu re and performance
4uali lil:at ion. 4 95
a ntimon y. 259
anvi l effect. -tOX
A PI S('/, Americ an Petroleum Institute
appearance. 53H
apprenticesh ip pro gram . 5
arc. 117- 120
length . 117. 123- 124. 124. 14 7
res tarti ng. 131
sta rting . IX). 2 16
s trik ing , 121
arc hIm..'. 127- 12X. /2N. 520
arc spray ing. 278 Set' a/.WI thermal sprayi ng
equi pment. 278
arc strike. -IR3
arc vo ltage . 9 1. 92 SCt' a/so voltage
arc weld ing. .\ . 22
strength t..:=-.I. 3X9
 argon. 163. 169. 174-1 75. 191 . 194. 197. backfire. 50. 66
205. 207-2 11. 243. 252. 273 backgougi ng, 3 12. 487
argon-Cff. . 208-2 11. 245 bac kha nd welding. 77. 83
argon -hcliurn -Cfr., 208 backing bar. 179. 191 . 215. 312. 359
argon -hydrogen . 2&8 backi ng blocks. 2 15
argon-oxygen. 208 back ing rings. 32 1. 323
arrow side , 626 backin g strips. 2 15
artifact, 441 backing weld. 634. 635
A-scan presentat ion , 43 1 backli ghtin g. 462. 4(j3
ASME International. 330, 640. 645-6-t7 hack-step welding. 3 12. 586. 593. 617. 6/8
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. 4Ol. back-to-beck positioning. 619
407.444. 488. 496. 646. 652 back weld. -l0. 634
welder requirement s. 504 symbol. 634. 635
pipe classification , 3 19 bainite. 558
Pressure Piping Code, 646, 654 hake-out. 3 14
residual stress measurement, 4 11 hall peen hamm er See peenin g
ASNT See America n Soc iety of Nonde- barges. 657
struc tive Testing bar heater. 380
ASTM International . 639. 643-644 base metal . 29• ..t85. 487-488. 5 16
Brinel l hardness testing. 395 failure location . 389
drop weight lest to determine nil hardness test. 395
ductil ity tran sition temperature. 40 2 identifi cation. 3 11-3 12
fract ure toughness tes t. 40 9 material specification. 487
guided bend test. 391 thickness range. 488
hardness conversion tables. 398 ultraso nic examination . 432
macroscopic exami nation. 461 weldability clas sification. 487
microhardncss testing. 398 base metal shri nkage. 6 15
pipe classifica tion. 3 19 beam-in-air process. 349 See also electron
plane-strain fracture toughne ss testing, 401 beam welding
Rockwell hardness tes t. 397 bending strength. 528
standards desig natio n. 64 3. 644 bending stress See tlex ural stress
tensile testing. 386 bend speci me n. 407- 408. 410
Thermoe lectric Potential Sorti ng. 550 bend test, 390-394. 505 See also
ultrasonic e xamination. 432 destructive testing
Vicke rs hardness test, 398 berylliu m. 12. 192.348.599
ato mic hydrogen. 558 heryllium co pper. 600
austenite. 583 welding conside rations. 603
austenitic manganese steel. 557 beta brass. 600
we ldi ng co nsiderat ion s. 565 -566 beveled edges. 136
austeniti c stainless steel. 208 . 312 . ..t69. bevel-groove weld . 38
473.5 19.581. 582 beveling. 286. 293
weld ing con sidera tio ns. 592 -593 pipe. 322
auth orized inspector. 647 be veling machin e. 322
autoge nous weld. 2 binoc ular micr oscop e. 46 1
au tomatic po lish ing. 454 bipr ism. 459
machine . 454 bird nest ing. 203
automatic welding. 332-33..t blast cleaning. 251. 313
automobiles. 656 blend grindi ng. 305-306. 306 See also
auto-refrigeration . 401 mechanical repair
AW See arc welding block-heatin g, 620
AWS See American Welding Society hloom . 456
AWWA See America n Waterwor ks blowhole s See surface porosity
Association blowpipe See torch ; welding torch
axis plane. 366 . 36 7 blowtorch. 261
bo iler
standards and code s. 65 1
be rates. 25 1
boric ac id. 25 1
bor on. 278
Bou rdon tube . 385
B Set' brazin g branch weld. 621. 623
710 0 Weidillii Skills
brass. 12.47. 192.249. 259. 341, 345.600
weldi ng cons iderations. 603
brasses. 599
braze See filler metal
brazed joint tension shear test, 389 See
also tens ion shear test
braze welding . 3R. 249-264. 256. 257
cas t iron , 257-258. 574. 576
disadvant ages. 258
filler metal. 258
flux. 258
procedure. 257
shear test. 3139
vertical positi on. 257
brazin g, 249-264. 485 . 5 16 See al.W! dip-
brazin g; furnace heating; indu ction
braz ing; resista nce brazing
ca st iron. 576
joint desig n. 250-25 I
mnc roetch test. 507
manual process. 254-255
produ ction pro cess. 255-256
surface prep aration. 25 1
titanium alloys. 6 11
welder qualification. 507
bra zing flux. 494
bra zing position . 494
brazing procedu re qua lification testing. 500
brazing qualifi cation variable s. 493-494
brazing tempe rature range, 493
breakaway plat es. 370
brea k lest. 402-405 Set' also destructive
testing
brightfield illum inatio n. 458
Brincll ball. 396
Brin cll hardn ess numb er, 396
Brinell hardn ess test, 395-396. 396 . 408
brinelling, 266 . 268 See "/JO wear type
bronze. 12. 47. 192. 259. 277. 303
bronze bearin g surfacing weld repair. 308
See also surfacing weld repair
hugs Set>ex ternal welding
bu ildup
depositing in nat position. 226
buildup lightin g, 462. 463
burs t. 548
buttering. 312. 314. 516-51 7. 51 7
cast iron. 576
butt joint. 32. 33-34, .i8. 4 1. 72- 73. 74,
135 , 135- 137. 143, 151. 157. 17N. 179.
181. 214 . 231. 250.494 See also
double-V but t joint: multiple-p ass bun
joint singfe- puss burt joi nt; single- V
butt joint ; square butt joint
defect s. 72
fit-up. 6 16
n at position . 186--1 87. 226. 590
groove angle. 6 16
plastic. 376
roo t open ing. 6 16
uphill position . 590
---------
butt-welded fittings, 32 1 cathode . 349. 549
BW See braze welding cav itation. 266. 267 See also wear type
cavity. 473-475
C-clamp. 100. /0 1
ce llulose potass ium. 105. 107
ce llulose sod ium. 105. 107
CEN See European Standards Council
ceramic, 277
CAC-A See air carbo n arc cutting ceramic guide See ferrule
cadmium, 12 cert ificate o f an alysis, 649 See also
calcium carbide, 49 materials test report
calcium carbonate, 106 certificate of co mpliance. 538. 649
calci um fluoride, 106 ce rtification. 5, 649
calibration block. 432 cesium- 137.436
calibration standard, 432 CFR Set' Code of Federal Regulations
caliper, 4 14 Charp y specimen. 399. 400
Ca nad ian Sta ndards Association , 647 Charp y V-no tch test. 399-401, 400. 402.
cap illary action. 249. 258. 4 18 409 See also toughness testing
capped steel. 558 check valve. 55. 56
carbides. 277 chem ical analysis. 3 12. 553
carbon, 555 chemical cleaning method. 20. 605 See
welding wire, 203 also hazardous substance
carbon diox ide. 197,205.205-2 11. 243. chemical co nversion. 30 I
244-245. 252 chemical inhomogeneity. 532
ca rbon equi valen t. 559 chemical polishing. 455
calc ulating. 559 Chemica l Spot Testing. 549-550
car bon mon oxid e. 252 chill plate. 586
carbon steel. 108. \94. 208. 231-232. c hipping. 487
245.249. 277. 29 1 chipping hamm er. 100. / 0/
cutting, 288 usc. 129
high -carbon . 106, 113. 194. 555 chisel testing. 543
welding considerat ions. 562 chloride. 251, 62 1
joi nt preparation. 232 chlorine. 4 19. 54 1
low-carbon. 175. 194. 209. 283. 555 chrome-moly steel. 108. 556
qualification test. 394 welding conside rations. 563-564
welding conside rations. 56 1 ch romium. 567. 569. 572. 573. 58 1. 597
medium-carbon. 106. 113. 194. 209. 555 chro mium iron. 574 See also abrasi on-
hardness test. 395 resistant iron
welding co nsiderations. 56 1-562 chromium ox ide. 277. 305
repair welding. 3 13 ch uck. 35\
wcldab ility. 555-566 circuit. 9J
welding considerations. 55K--5W. 558---566 c ircular magnetization. 425
carb urizing name. 65 clampin g force. 359
carrie r line. 548 cle aner. 4 18
Cartesia n coordinate plane, 366, 367 clea ning
Ca rtesian coordinate system, 367 aluminum a lloys, 605
cast iron. 47 . 70. 73, 115. 245, 249, 283. cleaning solvent. 259
29 1.34 1. 567 cleaning welds. 129
braze welding. 257-258 cleavage. 30 1
cutting. 287. 296 clip test. 563
fill er metal . 73 clothin g, 15. 16. 102
joint preparation. 574 clu ster porosity. 474
repairing crac ked casting. 578-579 CO . Set' ca rbon dioxide
repair welding. 574 COA See ce rtificate of analysis
weldab ility.571-579 co balt. 597
weldi ng. 82 surfacing powder. 272
welding processes. 576 cohalt-60. 436
cast stai nless stee l. 584-585. 586 co balt alloy. 277
corrosion-resistant. 585 cae See certificate of compliance
heat-resistant. 585 code. 640
weld ing co nside rations. 594 Code of Federa l Regu lations. 657
coefficie nt of thermal expans ion. 5 18. 5 19
co pper alloy. 601
nickel alloy. 597
welding stain less stee l. 585
cold crack, 468. 560 Set! also crack
cold lap. 222. 223
cold mech anical repair. 303. 304 See also
mechanica l repair
cold mounting, 452
cold weldin g. 362
cold work tool steel Sa tool steel: cold work
collet, 170. 346
color, 539. 540
color- coding. 54 1 S('(, a/.HI markings
columbium. 345. J4 X. 352
co mpac ted graphite iron. 572 . 573 S ('('
also cast iron
compact tension specimen. 40 I
composition of weld metal. 5 15
compressed a ir. 262
co mpression. 525
com pressive streng th. 525
co ncave roo t surface. 482
co nductor. 89
confined space. I I. 315
non-permi t 12
permit-required, II
confined space entry perm it. 3 16. 317
constant-curren t powe r so urce. 357
constant-current welding machi ne See
weldin g mach ine: co nstant-curre nt
constant potential. 199 See also welding
machin e: constant-voltage
con stant-poten tia l welding machin e Sa
welding machin e: constant-vo ltage
constant-vo ltage power source. 357
co nsta nt-voltage welding machi ne See
weld ing machine : co nstant-vo ltage
construction
standards and codes. 655
construct ion equipment welding. 659
co nsumable insert. 323 . 592
co nsumable insert rings. 323
co ntact tip. 200
co ntent. 64 2
co ntinuous fillet weld. 308
continuous magnetization method. 426
contro lled atmos phe re. 252
cooling rate. 5 13
copper, 47. 70. 11 5. 175. 192. 207. 235.
249. 259. 339. 34 1. 345. 352. 362. 5 19.
573. 597
commerc ially pure. 599. 60 2- b03
copper alloy. 192. 249. 29 1
families. 6()()
filler metal. 601
weldability, 599---603
welding processes. 60 1
co pper- nicke l. 60 \
co rner joint. 32. 35. 35-36. 38. 41. 73.
137. 178. 179. 215. 250
Index ~ 711
 plastic. 376 testing, 390 dro p weight test. 402
corner weld, 38 demagnetization. 427 dry magnetization method . 427
co rros ion allo wance, 306 density. 545 ductile iron, 303. 572 See also cast iron; iron
corrosio n resistance . 53 2- 535 de nsity testing. 544-545 , 545 ductile-to-b rittle transition temperature See
corrosion -re sistant iron . 574 deoxidi ze d copper. 192 See a/so copper nil ductility transition temperature test
co uplan t, 430 dcoxidizers. 205 ductility. 205. 385. 522
cover pass. /33. 134 See also weld pass deoxi dizing age nts. 243 testing. 390
pipe welding. 326 depo sition rate . 109. 113. 204 . 6 17 dunn age. 653
crack. 467-473. 4(JR See also cold depth of field. 46 1 dup lex stainless steel , 58 3, 584
crack: crater crack: hot crack: root crack deratin g, 164 weld ing co nside rations . 593
crash detection mo unts. 370 design thickness. 306 Duriron" . 574 See also corros ion-resistant
crater. 30. 125. / 26 destructive testing, 383-4 11 See also testing iro n
co ntrolling. 126 pipe weld . 334. 334-33 5 duty cycle. 98
crater crack. 222. 223. 469. 469-470 types. 383-405 dwe ll time. 420
creep, 524 detector. 44 3 dynamometer. 385 Se e also load cell
crosschec king. 308 deterg ent cleani ng, 419
crow n. 326 de veloper. 41 8, 421
CRT display. 430. 432 de velo ping time. 422
crysta l. 430 diffraction . 55 1
crystal structure. 51t. 5 /2 diffused light. 461. 462
CSA See Canad ian Standards Association dilution. 268. 270. 5 15
C urie tem perature. 542 dip-brazin g. 255. 256 E-7018 elec trode welding techn ique. 154
c uring. 303 direct curre nt. 90 , 94 . 181 See also ear muff. 17, 18 See also car protection
chemical reac tion, 303 weldin g machin e: direct c urre nt earp lug. 17, 18 Sec also ear protection
solvent evaporation. 303 arc blow. J 27 ea r protection . 17-1 8
current . 89. 89- 9 1. 90. 117. 124 , 344 fo r GTAW. 163. 164. 166- 168 earthmoving equipment weldi ng. 659
adju stment. 119 direct current electrode negative. 90. 93. EBW See electron beam weld ing
selec tion. 124 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~1~ 1~1~ ECuA I-A2 See filler metal: for brazing
cutting. 22. 283- 297. 449 . 449-45 1 198. 273 cast iron
cast iron. 287 direct current electrode positive . 90. 107. EC uSn-A See filler metal : for brazing cast
machine. 283 109. 124. 166. /67. 192. 194. 197. 235 iron
manual, 283 direct curre nt rectifier. 354 ECuSn·C See tiller metal: for brazing cast
round stoc k. 287 disassem bly. 313 iron
safe ty precautions. 293 discontinuity, 443 edd y current, 442
tool s. 450 test. 392 edd y current testing See electromagnetic
cutt ing machine. 283 SeC' also plasma arc display, 44 3 ex amination
CUlling machin e dissi milar metal welding, 5 15 edge join t. 32. 36. 3R. 4/. / 78. 179. 214
cutting tip, 284 distortion, 529. 530. SW, 57 1. 6 13. 613---{)23 plastic. 376
cutting torch. 283. 284-285. 285 St't' also aluminum alloys . 605 edge preparat ion. 44 . 486
plasma arc CUlling torch distort ion control. 307. 3 12. 6 15-62 1 edge weld. 38
ace tylene pressure. 285 di stribution pip ing. 654 effec tive throat . 30. 3 1
oxygen pre ssure . 285 dithizonc test. 313 EGW See e lectrogas welding
CW Sec cold welding DOD See United States Depa rtmen t of ela stic limit, 387
cya noacrylate adhesive. 36 1 See also Defen se electrical characteristics. 485 . 49 1
adhesive double bevel "l-joint. 34 electrical circ uit. 89
cyclical load. 525 double fillet lap joi nt. 35 e lectrical conductivity. 520
cyl inde r. 50-5 1 double fillet weld. 6 14. 6 /5 e lectrical hazards. U
double-groove weld . 37 electrical resistivity. 520
symbol. 62 8 electrical resistivity testin g. 550--55 1
• double-groove weld specimen, 405, 409 ele ctrica l strip heater. 380
double-J T-joint. 34 , 35 e lectric coil. 442
doubl e-U butt joint. 33. 34 elcctrie shock. 23
double-V butt jo int, 33. 77. 179 electric soldering gu n. 26 1
dark field illumination. 458 edge preparation. 136 e lectric soldering iron. 26 1. 262
DBIT See ductile -to-brittle tran sition double-V joint, 575 electric soldering penc il. 261
temperature double-wall RT. 438. 439. 440 electrode. 29. 105-115. 118. 119 See also
IX: See direct c urrent dow nhill weldi ng. 85. 153. 183, 215 tung sten e lectrode
DCEN See direc t current electrode negative depositing heads in vertical position. 155 bare . 106
DCEP Set' direct current electrod e positive pipe weldin g, 326. 328 base metal prop el1ies:-i-OH
defect. 4 13 travel angle. 153 carbon-gra phite . 29 1
dela mination drag ang le. 2 15. 216 classification. 106

712 €1 Welding Skills

 conservation. 109-110 electroplating solution. 3()..t fatigue. 522. 523
co ntinuous wire . 197. 209 electroplating tank . 304 fatigu e stre ngth. 3().t
co pper-clad carbon-graphite. 29 1 electrostatic discharge. 442 fatigue stress. 307
deep-penetrati ng. 109 elon gation . 385. 387 fatigue-testing machin e. 4DI
deposition rate. 109 ca lculation. 388 fuyi ng surface . 39. 249
diameter. 109 measure ment. 388-389 fayin g surfaces. 30 1
E-70 18 embri ttlc me nt. 522 FCAW See n ux cored arc weldin g
welding techniqu e. 154 emery cloth. 25 1 FCAW-G Set' gas-shielded flux cor ed arc
fast -fill. III encirc ling coil. 442 wel di ng
fas t-free ze. 109. 11 0. 148. [53 ENi-CI St' f' nickel FCAW-S See self-shielded flux cored arc
fill-freeze. 109. II L 148. 153 EN i-FeCI See nickel-iron we lding
flu x core d. 239. 240. 242 -243 epoxy . 36 1, 37.'5 See also adhesive Federal Aviation Administration. 3 11
gripping. 119 epoxy phenoli c adhe sive. 302 ferrite. 572 . 5H3
GTA spo t welding. 34 3 equip ment . 98- 100. 99. 343- 344 See also ferrite number. 592
"inside-out". 239 shop equipmen t; weldi ng: equipme nt fcrritic stainless steel. 208. 583. 5X4
iron pow der . li D. 112 automat ic weldi ng. 370--37 1 preheat. 59 1
E-6027. 11 2 setup. 4 15 we lding conside rations. 59 1- 59 2
E-7014 . 112 eq uipment calibration standard. 44 3 ferromagnetic material. 424
E-7024. 112 erosio n. 266 See also wear type ferrou s alloys . 106
low-hydrogen. 106. I 10. 113 erosion-corrosion. 266 . 601 ferrous metal. 163. 167
E-7016 . 113 esse ntial variable. 496 ferrul e. 346
E-7018 . 113 ET See electromagnetic exa mination field weld symbol. 633
mild steel. 105. 110. 111 -1 12 etching. 40 8. 419 . 449. 455-459 filament. 349
E-60 10. III. 126 etch test. 402 file resting. 544
E-60 1l. III . 126 Eurcnonn s. 648 filing. 25 1
E-60 12. III Europea n Sta ndards Co uncil. MR filler metal. 30.70.73. 75. 163. 169. 175.
E-6013. 11 1-11 2 exa mination. 455--459 See also weld 253. 259. 273. 3 15. 485 . 488 -490. 650
mov ing in severa l directions. 130 eva luation adding. 70. I X2
noncon sum able tungsten. 163 exa miner. 41 3 aluminum. 175
pipe welding . 326 excess weld metal. 6/ 7 appli cation . 253
reverse polarity. 109 excess weld reinfo rceme nt. 4XI. 4HI-482 carbon steel. 576
selection. 108. 123 See af.wl reinforcement cast iron. 576
spot weld ing . 338-339 exhaust system. 12 See also ventilation co mpo site. 272
storage. 109- 111 ex plosion weldi ng. 36 1 copper. 175
stra ight polarity. 109 cxtcns omctc r. 386 copper alloy. 576
tubula r wire. 242 external welding. 333 for alumi num alloy. 605
electrode angle. 117. 125 EXW Set' explosion welding for brazing cast iron . 578
elec trode ex tension. 180. 243 eye protection . 14-18 for cast iron. 576--578
electrode holder. W--ICXl. 11 8. Jl 9. 160.314 for copper alloy. 60 1
C AC -A. 29 1 for magnesium alloys. 609
electrode lead . 118. 1/9 for nickel alloy. 599
electrode ove n. 100. 10 1 for stainless stee l. 588-589
clcctrogus welding. 359 for too l steel. 569-57D
clcctrographic chemical spot test. 549. 550 identifi cation . 554
clcct rogra phic technique . 549 low-allo y steel. 569-570
electrolytic method . 48 matchin g. 569 - 570
electrolyt ic polishin g. 455 FAA Set' Federal Aviation Adm inistration movi ng. 70- 7 1
elec tromagnetic examin ation . 442-444 fabrication drawing number, 30t.) nickel alloy. 576
equipment calib ration . 443 fabrication standards and codes. 65 1-659 nonfe rrou s. 249
inspection eq uipment. 44 3 face-bend specimen. 335 . 39 1. 392 See powder. 253
longitudinally welded pipe or tubing. 444 atso specime n rod. 253
procedures. 44 3 face-bend test. 392 See also wraparound selection. 70
requirements, 44 3 guided bend test soft. 569-570
electromagnetic induction . 442 face-feedi ng, 253 soft buildup material. 57D
electron beam weld ing. 348-35 1 face reinforcement. 30 stainless stee l
eq uipment. 349-35 1. 350 failure analysis. 299-300 . 449 class ification. 588
ope rating controls. 35 1 failu re-critical member. 656 strength test, 389
procedure. 35 1 failure location . 385. 389 strip. 253
processes. 349 failure modes and effect s anal ysis, 299 triple deoxidized mild steel. 175
electronic radiation detector. 434 falloting, 6-W wire. 253
electroplating. 304 See also mechanical repair false indication. 413 filler metal approval. 649

Index § 713
 filler metal qua ntity, 489 go uging. 29 1. 292 tool steel. 569
filler metal specification. 488 flat welding, 40, 4/ , 109. 133- 146,2 15 FM C: Filla Metal Comparison Charts.
filler metal usability classification. 488 butt joint. 79. 143, 186- 187.226.590 645, 646
fillet, 384 corner joint, 80 FN Sa ferri te numher
fillet weld. 37, 38, 134, 214,2/5,471 , 524 depositin g beads. 185, 225 focu sing coil. 349
disto rtion . 6 14. 6/5 a luminum. 189 forced -ai r nu x feeding method . 357 See
radio graphic examinati on. 44 1 mild steel. 246 also flu x
shear test. 389 with filler meta l. 186 forced cooli ng. 5 14
stainless steel. 590 depositing bui ldup. 226 forehand welding. 77
surfac ing test. 390 flange butt joint. 80 forge welding. 36 1
symbo l. 626 , 628, 62 9 joints. 134- 137 foundry mark . 54 1 Set' also mark ings
weld er requ irement s. 504 . 507 aluminum . 189 four -stage belt sandin g. 453
Filler weld break tes t. 404-405, 405 lap joint. 8 1. 227 four-stage wheel gr indin g. 453
fillet weld jo int. 307 multiple-pass filet lap joint. 141 FOW See forge weldin g
fi llet weld shear test. 389 See also shear test multiple-pass fillet "l-joint . 142 fracture toughness spec imen. 409
fill et weld specime n. 409-4 10 multiple-pass lap joi nt. 247 fractu re toughness test. 409
fillet weld test. 5()..l. outside comer joint. 143 free -machining stee l. 555. 556 See also
fill-free ze elec trode See electrode : fill-freeze ro und stoc k. 144 carbon steel
fill lightin g. 462. 463 single-pass fillet Ttjoim. 141 welding cons iderations. 562
fill pass St'f' inte rmedi ate weld pass single-pass lap joint. 140 frequency. 90
final poli shing. 45 3-455 single- V butt joint. 84 frequency converter. 358
fine grinding, 45 1-453. 453. 459 "I'..joint. 8 1 fretting, 266. 267 SCt' also wear type
firebr ick. 287 flaw. 4 13 friction weld
fired clay. 2 15 fl exib le automation system. 364-37 1 lest. 40 2
lire extinguisher flex ible automation welding. 363 See al.w frictio n welding. 35 1. 352. 38 1
cla sses. 26 automatio n in produ ction weld ing FRW See friction weld ing
fire hazard s. 25 flexura l stress. 528 fuel gas req uirements. 492
fire pre vcntion. 25 Flowmeter. / 75. 20 1. 241. 245. 280 ful l-open comer joint. 35. 36
fi sh eyes. 205 Iluidity. 60 1 full -section specimen. 405
fittings Sf'f' pipe fittings fluorescence, 352. 4 19 full skip. 432
fit-up, 4 1-44, 44, 109, 322,6 16 Fluo rescent screen. 434 full-wa ve rectifie r. 97
fixed automation sys tem. 363 . 363- 364 Fluorides. 240 . 25 I fume e xtraction system. 240. 24 / See also
fixed automation weldi ng. 363 See also ffuoroborates. 25 1 ve ntilation syste m
au tomat ion in prod uction weldi ng flush co rner joint. 35 furn ace. 26 1
fi xed automation weldin g system Set' fixed flush patc h. 62 1. 622 fuma ce heating, 255
automati on sys tem nux, 70, 73, 75, 25 1- 252, 259- 260 See fusion Set' incompl ete fusio n
fixture. 44 also rosin test. 39 1. 404
flame . 65 app lica tion . 253 fusion face
chara cteri stics. 66 corrosive, 259 ultrasoni c examination. 433
co ntrol. 66 gra nular, 356 fusion weld
test ing. 67 liquid. 252 test. 402
fl am e c utting See thermal c utting molten. 256 fus ion we lding. 30
flame spraying. 277. 277-278 See a/so noncorrosive. 259 FW See flash welding
thermal spray ing paste. 252
flanged join t. 36. 73 powder. 252 . 253
flare-bevel- groove weld. 38 removal. 256
flare- groove we ld residue. 256
symbol . 63 / zinc-ch loride. 259
flurc-v -groov c weld. 3~ n ux cored arc weldin g. 4. 239. 307 See galling. 266. 267, 268 See also wear type
flash arrestor. 50 also gas-shielded !lux cored arc galvanized metal. 339
regu lator-mounted . 50 welding: self-shielded flux cored arc galvanized shee t steel. 259
torc h-mo unted. 50 weld ing galvanized steel. 12.473
flashba ck. 50. 66 adva ntages. 240 gamma rays. 433. 434 . 435
flash bun weld applicat ions. 245 gas flow meter. 244
test. 40 2 cast iron . 576. 578 gas flow rute , 244
flashin g. 38 1 depo siting beads. 246 gas lens. 170
flashlight. 461. 462 equipment. 240 gas metal arc weld ing. 4. 74, 197- 211,
flush weldin g. 34 1-342. 342 See also mechan ized process . 240 213- 230, 231-237, 239, 307, 308, 315,
resistance welding multiple-pass lap joint. 247 345- 346, 369, 504, 5 16, 562
fl at brazing. 494 mu ltiple-pass T-joinl. 248 aluminum a lloy. 605
Ilat cutt ing semiautomatic process. 2..m applications. 231- 237

7 14 ~ Weldin g Skills
 automa tic. 346 horizonta l weldi ng proced ure. 183 sy mbo l. 628- 630. 630
bun joint. 226 joint prepara tion. 177- 179 symbols. 626
cast iron. 576. 578 lap joint. 181- 182 we lder req uirements. 504. 507
curre nt select ion. 197-1 98. 198 horizont a l posit ion. 187 GTA See gas tungsten arc spot weld ing
depo siting beads in fhu position. 225 magnesium alloy. 608 GTAW See gas tungsten arc w eldi ng
de positing buildu p in n at posi tion. 226 manu al proc ess. 177 GTAW-P See pulsed GTAW weld ing
discont inui ties. 222 mech ani zed process. 177 guided ben d test, 334. 390. 39 1. 5().l See
di stortion. 617 nickel alloy. 598 also bend test; des tructive testing
eq uipme nt. 200- 209. 201 ove rhead welding procedu re. / 83. 183- specime n. 392
joint. 230 1R4
joint preparation. 214 pipe we ldi ng. 332
lap joi nt. 227 proc edures. 177. 177-1 90
magne sium alloy. 608 robotic process. 370 . 37J
mec han ized . 346 semia utomatic process. 177
meta l tran sfe r modes. 218-222 stainless stee l. 588. 592
mul tiple -pass T-joint. 228 titani um alloy. 6 10 hal f-open comer j oint. 35
nic kel a lloy. 598 T·joint. 181-1 82 hal f slee ve. 308
pipe wel ding. 332 hori zon tal posit io n. 188 ha lf-wa ve rec tifie r. 96
posit ion ing wo rk. 2 15- 2 16 vertica l position . 188 hand feed welding. 378. 379
proc edures. 213 vertical welding procedure hand gri nde r. 10 /
setup. 2 16 do wnh ill. 183 hardfuci ng, 265
we ldi ng a joint. 217 uphill . / 83 ha rdne ss. 52 1. 522. 560
robotic pulsed. 369 weld o verlay. 272 co nversion tables. 398
semiautom atic , 197.200. 213.345--346. gauge lengt h. 385 reduct io n. 250
34~ ge nerato r. 97. 443 scale. 398
sta inless stee l, 588 . 592 co nstant-current. dua l-con trol, 97 spec ime n. 408-409, 4 10
starting the arc. 2 16 glob ular transfer Sa metal tra nsfe r modes: test. 395. 395-405 See also destructive
titanium alloy. 6 10 globular transfer testin g
T-joi nt. 229 glove s. 16-27. / 7. /02 HAZ Sa heat -affected zon e
tool steel. 569 G MAW Sa gas metal arc welding hazard ous substance . IH-22
weaving motions. 235 G MAW productio n spray. 37 1 cleaning method. I S-20
weld back ing. 215 gog gles. /5. 57 hcadcap. 102. ' 59
welding wire SeC' elec trode: co ntinuo us gou ging. 266. 283, 29 1- 292 See also heat-affected zo ne. 106. 249. 5 16
wire wear type failure locatio n. 389
welding machines. 198- 200 nat position . 29 1. 292 heat ed surface wel ding See heated -tool
we ld overlay. 272 hori zon ta l position . 292 we lding
gas nozzle. 170 vertica l positio n. 292 heated -too l we lding. 380-38 1
gas-oxygen mixtu re. 254 G raham method . 346-347. 348 See also proced ure. 38 1
gas pressure stud welding heating rate. 5 13
plastic we lding. 377 g rain. 5 1 J heal inp ut. 49 1--492. 5 12- 5 14. 5 /3
ga..-shielded nux cored arc welding. 239. 240 grain growth. 250. 59 1-592 calc ulation. 5 13
gas to rch. 262 See also torch grain struc ture. 5 11- 5 12. 512 heat-resistant iron . 574
gas tungsten arc spot we lding. 342-345 graphite fl akes. 572 heat sha ping. 6 19. 6 19-621
See also produ ctio n wel ding graphitiza tio n. 556 heat tint. 587
eq uipme nt. 343-344 gravity feed method, 357 See also nux heavy stee l. 76-78
procedure. 344-345 gray iron. 303. 572 See also cas t helium . 163. 174-175. 194 . 197. 205.
gas tungsten arc weldi ng. 3-4. 74. 163- iro n; iro n 20 7- 211
J7~. 177- 190. 191- 194. 307. 315.5 16. repai r weld ing, 574 helmet. l--l. 15. 102
562 See also pul sed GTAW we lding grinde r. 136. 3 14 herm eti c sea ling. 359
aluminum alloy. 605 grinding. 25 1. 273. 3 13. 3 16. 449. 4R6. hertz. 90
aluminum joi nt, 189 487 See also fine grinding: rough high-carbon stee l See carbon stee l
applicat ions. 191-1 94 gri nding high-speed too l steel See tool steel: high-speed
automatic proce ss. 177 grinding whee ls. 178 high-speed weldi ng, 379 . 3RO
butt joi nt. 181 grit blasting, 279 high-strength/low-allo y stee l See steel:
n at pos itio n. 186- 187 groov e angle, 42. 3 12 high -stren gt h/l o w-all oy
current selec tion. 164-1 68 pipe we lding. 32 1 high-stre ss abra sion See go uging
depositing bead s o n mild steel in nat plastic we lding. 376 hig h-sulfur stee l See steel: high-sulfur
position . 185 sy mbol. 63 / high-veloci ty oxyfuc l flam e sprayi ng.
with fille r metal. 186 groove weld. 37, 215. 47 1. 613-6 14 277- 278 See arm thermal sprayi ng
disto rtio n, 6 17 ductility test, 390 hole-drill ing method . 4 11 See aha residual
eq uipme nt. 163- 176. 170 speci me n. 405-409. 406 stress mea surem en t

Index ~ 7 15
 hori zont al braz ing. 494 impact resistan ce. 205 joi nt See butt j oint: co me r joint: lap
horizonta l cutting impact testing. 52 1 joint: o utside comer joint: "l-joint
gou ging. 292 incl usi o n. 475-477 alu minum . 230
hor izon tal weld ing. 40. 41. 85. 109. 147. test. 39 1 clearance. 250. 251. 260. 494
147- 14X incomplete fusion . 428 , 443. 477. 477-479. effic iency, 385
buu joint 86 4 78 fla t position. 134- 137
depositing straight beads. 149 testi ng, 390 alumi num. 189
fillet we lds. 590 inco mplete pe netration. 477-479. 478. 4 79 integrity. 263
GTAW proc edure. 183 lncon el'", 345. 599 plastic welding. 376
lap joint . 187 incorrect shapc . 47 9-482 pre paration. 41-44.214.4 15
lap we lds. 590 indications See flaw pipe. 32 1- 324
multiple-pas s butt joint. 151 non relevan t. 422 joint design. 109, 4S5. 486-487
multiple-pass T-joint. 150, 228 . 248 relevant, 422 joint member thickness . 559
procedure. 148 induction brazing. 255 jo int pe net ratio n, 30
single- pass kK)P joint. 149 induc tion we lding. 38 1 joint mot, 30. 3 I
T-jo int. 87. 188 Ind ustrial Fas teners Institute. 540
hose. 56--57 inert gas. 174. 205
care. 57 inerti a welding See friction welding
hOI alkaline washing. 30 1 infrared rays. 13. 102
hot chemical solution method . 20 See also inju ry, 10
hazardous substance lnncrshield ", 239 See also sel f-sh ielded
hot crac k. 468. 529 See also crack flux cored arc weldin g
in-service inspect ion and repair codes See kerf. 283. 287. 288
hot gas weld ing. 377- 380 See also plastic
we ld ing weld repair : repair code s key ho le. 324. 325
hot melt adh esive. 36 1 Sa also ad hesive inside coil. 442 killed steel. 557
kineti c energy. 35 1
hot mounting. 451 in spection coil. 443
inspe ctor. 4 13 knurling tool. 279
hot plate. 3S0
krypton. 20S
hot wi re welding. 184 interg ranular penetration. 472
hot wo rk See too l steel : hot work iruermediarc weld pass. 133. 133-134.
hot work too l steel Set' tool steel: hot work 327 See also weld pass
HRB Sel' Rock well B pipe weld ing. 325
usc Set' Rockwel l C inter mi ttent fillet weld. 308
HSLA steel See steel: high-strength/low-alloy intermittent weld
HVOf See high-veloc ity ox yfuel flam e symbol. 628. 629
spra ying intermittent welding. 3 12. 530. 586. 593. 618
lamellar tearing, 47 1-472. 472
hyd raul ic load. 385 too l steel repair welding. 571
lamin ar discont inuity. 429
hyd roc arbon. 375 International Organization for Sta ndardiza -
lap joint. 32. 35. 38. 4 / . 73.74. 134. 140.
hydroch loric ac id. 25 1. 459 See ah a tion . 648
14 1. 149. 156.1 78. 179. 181- 182. 214.
muriatic acid intcrpass clean ing. 492
250. 260. 494 See also multi ple -puss
hydro gen . 57. 58. 75. 197. 205 intcrpuss tempe rature control. 4SS. 491. 513
lap joi nt; single-pass lap joint
hig h-purity. 252 interstitial e lement. 610
nat position. 227
hydro ge n-assisted cracki ng. 532 inverter. 97
horizontal position. 187
hydrogen c rack. 470. 558 See also crac k inverter weldin g machine. 168 See also
overhead position. 162
tool stee l. 569 welding machine
plastic. 376
hydrostatic testing, 3 16. 444-446. ·U5 iodin e and pota ssium iodid e so lution. 460
lap weld
hydrotesting See hyd rostatic testing ionized gas . 287
stainless stee l. 590
Hz See hertz IQI See image qual ity indica tor
laser bea m theory. 352-3 53
iridium - 192. 436
laser beam we lding. 352- 353
iron. 47. 283. 362. 555. 597. 600
laser location sys tem• .369
iron ca rbide. 572
laser scam tracker. 369 Scr also scam tracker
iron ox ide. 105. 107
latent hcnt. 288
iron powder. 105. 107
lathe. 178. 279
ISO See International Organ izat ion for
LBW See laser beam welding
Standardization
icing. 245 lead. 12.99.259.341 . 599.600
isotope camera. 436
illumination. 458. 458 -459 leaded brass. 600
image distortion. 434 . 435 lead identification marker. 438
image enlargement. 434 leather apron. 17. 102. 159
image q uality indicator. 436. 43 7
image sharpn ess. 434
impact damage. 266. 268 See also wear type
impact load. 525 J-groo vc weld. 38
leather jacket. 17. 159
leather sleeves. 102. 159
lens See helmet
lighting. 461 -462. 46 2
,
I
,I
I
I
I
I
I
716 @ Welding Skills i
I
lime sto ne. 106
Linc oln Electric Manu facturing Compa ny.
239
line -heating. 619
line piping. 654
line rs. 323
line-up cla mp. 322
liqu efaction colu m n, 47
liquefied pe trole um gas Ser propane
liquid-air method. 47
liquid impingement. 266. 2fl(}-2 fl7 See
CI/SO wear type
liq uid met al e mbr iulcmcnt. 472-474. 473
liquid penetrant examination. 303. 3 I3.
3 16,335, 4 17--423,419.465 Sef' also
non destructi ve examinat io n
liq uidu s temperature . 250
1001d, 524
load -bearing ca pac ity, 385
hid ce ll, 385
load -extension curve. 386. 3X7
lock. 303
locomotives. 656
lon gitudi nal crac k. 468
longitudi nal guided be nd test, 410
lo ngitu d inal magn etization. 426
lon gitud inal shear streng th specimen. 409
lon git udi nal shrinkage , 6 13, 614
longitudinal wave, 43 1
lon g itud inal weld specimen. 40 7
low-carbon stee l See carbon steel
lo w heat input welding, 53 1
low -h yd rog en . 107
lo w -hyd ro ge n potassiu m. 107
lo w-h yd rogen sodi u m, 107
low- stress abrasio n See erosion
LPG See pro pane
Luders bands. 387
mach ine cutting See cutting
mach ine 100 1 welding, 659
machining, 25 1, 313. 4S6
mac roct ch an ts. 4 59
mucroctching. 459-46 1. 46 1
macr octch test. 507
macroscopic exa mina tio n. 459-462
magnesium. 115. 163. 167. 172, 179.
192-194.207
magn esium alloy. 249
filler metal. 609
hea t requ irements, 608
surface preparatio n. 608
we lding co nsiderations. 607--609
welding processes, 608
magnesium -alumin um silicate. lOb
mag netic fi eld. 424
magnetic flux . 424
magnetic leakage field , 4 24
magnet ic particle. 424
magnet ic particle examination. 303. 316 ,
423. 423 -429. 465
ind ication s. 428--429
proced ure, 4 26-427
Magnetic Response Testing. 542. 542-543
magnetism , 520
main lightin g. 46 2. 463
ma lleabil ity. 524
ma llea ble cas t iron. 70
malleab le iron, 249, 572. 573 See also cas t
iro n
mandrel. 392
manganese. 205. 206. 555. 567. 581. 600. fm
ma nifold system. 50
manual cutti ng See c utting: man ual
manu al we lding See welding: ma nual
manufactu rer paperwork, 537-538
Manu facturing Data Report , 65 1
MA PP See rnethylacc tylcne-propudiene
stabi lized ga s
M APP-o xygc n, 254
mark ings. 540
martensite , 558, 572
mart ensiti c See stainless stee l: martcnsitic
mart ensi tic stainless stee l, 58 1-5 82. 583
til ler meta l. 59 r
welding co nside ratio ns, 590--59 1
material handling eq uipment, 659
Materi al Safe ty Data Sheet. 2/. 2 1-22
ma teria ls nonconformance report, 538. 539
materials standards . 639 -643. 640
use or. 64 8-650
variatio n. 648
materials standards organizations. 6-t3-6-t8
materials test report, 53 7
mating surfaces See Iaying surfaces
maximum load . 385
~1DR See Manu factu ring Data Report
mech anical hond o 279
mechanical cleani ng method . 20. 597 . 605
See also abrasive c1e..ming: gri ndi ng:
hazardou s substance
mechanical force , 524, 526
mechanical load , 385
mechanica l prope rty, 520
mechanical repa ir. 30 1-306 See also repa ir
we ld ing
mech anical restraint , 6 18-6 19
mec ha nized welding See we lding :
mechanized
medium-carbon steel See carbon steel
mela mine. 375
melting point , 5 18
melt -through. 482, 483
melt-through weld
sy mbol. 634 , 635
metal identification, 537-554
met al inse rt. 38 I
metallograph. 45 7
metallograph y. 449-462
me tallurgical bond. 265
metallu rg ical microscope. 456. 45 7
metallu rgical structure, 5 11-5 14
metallurgy. 5 11-536
metal stitching Sec cold mechanical repair
meta l substitution. 538
meta l tran sfer mod es. 2 18-222
glob ular tran sfer. 220, 23 1
pu lsed spra y transfer, 220- 222
we ld ing machines, 222
short circuiting transfer, 218. 23 1. 233, 235
spray transfer. 2 1&-220, 219. 23 1. 233,
235
met hy lacety lene -propadiene stabi lized gas.
57. 58. 262 . 284
met ric equivalent standa rd, 643
metric system. 647
microanalysis. 454
microhard ness test, 398
microh ard ne ss tester. 398
microscope. 459 See also metallurg ical
microsco pe
microscopic examinat io n, 449-459
micro stru ctu re. 534
M IG welding Sf'f' gas metal arc welding
mild steel. 173. IR5. IR6- 187. 187. IXX.
20X. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 246. 247
mill. 649
milling machin e, 178
mill test report . 649, 650
mirror, 4 14
mo ck -up. 3 15
mock -up test. 500
mod ulus of ela sticit y, 527
mo ld too l steel See tool steel: mo ld
mo lten salt bath. 256
molybdenum. 277. 279. 345. 348. 567.
569.572.573.58 1.597
Monet" . 345, 599
mou nting, 45 1-453 See also co ld
mounting: hot mounting
mounting res in. 45 1
MSDS See Material Safety Data Shee t
MT See magn etic particle: examin ation
MTR See materials test report; mill lest report
multiple-im pu lse we ld ing, 34 1 Set' also
re sista nce wel d ing
multiple-pa ss butt j o int, 151
mu ltiple-pass fillet lap joi nt. 141
multi ple -pas.... fillet T-joint. 142
multiple-par...s lap joint
llat position, 247
ove rhead position, 16 2
mul tiple -pass sing le- V buu joint. 161
multiple-pass T-joint. 150
horizon tal position, 228. 248
overhead position. 162
multipl e-pass wel d. 3 1, 133. 133-134.
Index ~ 717
 .J76 See also weld pass nitrides. 205 GTAW procedure. / 83. 183-1 84
multiple-spot spotwelder See spotwe lder nitrogen. 48. 197. 205. 252. 377. 58 1 mult iple-pass lap joint. 162
muriatic ac id. 259-260 nitroge n-hyd roge n gas . 288 multiple-pass single- V butt joint. 16 1
nodu lar iron See ductile iron mu ltiple-pass T-joi nt. 162
noise reduction rating number. 17 T-joi nt. 229
Nom arski illumination . 459 trave l angle. 160
nomi nal pipe size. 3 19 work an gle. 160
nonconsumable tungsten elec trode. 163 ove rhea ting. 45 1
nondestructive examination. 309. 413 . ove rlap. 147. 481
413-446. 4 N . 465. 499 ove rlapping. 127
na meplate. 5-t0. 652
pipe weld. 335 o xida tion. 280. 520
Nat ional Board Inspection Cod e. 652 symbol . 636 oxide. 251
National Board of Boiler and Pressure non essential variable. 496 oxid e incl usion . 477
Vessel Inspector s. 64 7
nonferrous metal. 163. 167. 254 See also oxidizing flame. 65
Nationa l Elect rical Manufactu rers
aluminum alloy: copper alloy: magne- oxidizing gas . 288
Assoc iatio n. 98
sium alloy: nickel alloy: titanium alloy oxyacetylene. 254
National Fire Protection Assoc iation. 26
cutt ing. 287 oxyacetylene welding. 2. 22,47,85, 308, 314
natu ral gas. 262. 284
we ldabi lity.597- 6 12 a luminum. 74-75
NB See National Board of Boiler and cast iron , 73- 74
nc nrelevnnt indication. 4 13
Pressure Vessel Inspector s
notch effect. 466 hea vy stee l. 76- 78
NB IC See Na tional Board Inspection Code nozz le. 200-20 1. 20 1 pipe welding. 332
NDE See nondestructive examination
GTA spot weldin g. 3.J.J we ld overlay. 27 1
NDT See nil ductility transition tempe rature
NPS See nominal pipe size oxyfuel c utting gasses . 284
test
nuclear plant oxyfuel gas c utting. 283-287. 284 , 3 12
needle valve. 53. 262. 284 stan dards and code s. 653 beveling. 286
Nelson method. 346. 3.J7 See also stud
nuclear radiation. 433 ca st iron. 287. 296
welding nugget. 40 piercing holes. 285- 286. 286
NEMA See National Elec trical Manufuc- null point method . 550 round stoc k. 287
turers Assoc iation
numerica l control system . 349 stee l. 294
neon . 205 oxy fuc l gouging. 4X7
neu tral na me. 65
oxyfucl weldin g. 2. 307. 485. 5 16
NFPA See Nat iona l Fire Protection
cast iron . 576
Association
cast iron filler metal. 577
Ni-Hard", 574 See also abra sio n-resistant dis tortion. 617
iron nickel alloy. 598
Ni-Resisr" , 574 See also corrosion-resistant
stainless steel. 588
iro n OAW See oxy acetylene weld ing
tool steel. 569
nick -break speci me n. 409 . 4 10 Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
oxyfuel welding qua lification variables. 492
nick -break test. 402 -4().t. 505 tration. 9
oxygen . 48. 197. 204-205
nickel. 115. 192. 207. 29 J. 345, 352. 569. O r C SCt' oxyfuel gas c utting
deficiency. 3 15
573. 574, 5H J. eoo off-li ne programming software. 367. 368 oxygen cylinder, 48 , 6 1
nickel alloy. 3 12 OFW Set' oxyfuc l weldin g oxygen hose. 56 Sa also hose
clean ing. 4 19 ohm. 89 oxy hydroge n. 254
distort ion , 597 oi l-purging cylinder. 47
families, 598 open-circuit voltage. 9 1. 92 See also voltage
filler metal. 599 ope n root joint. 507
heat req uireme nts. 598 o perator con tro ls. ) 64. 368
join t cleanl iness. 597 optica l e mission spectro me ter. 55 1
nick el-ch romi um . 597 optical em ission spectroscopy. 55 1. 55 1-552
repa ir we lding. 3 13 optical viewi ng syste m. 349. 350
weldin g co ns idera tions. 597-599 oscill osco pe. 429 PAC See plasma arc c utting
welding processes. 598-599 OS HA See Occupational Safety and pack ing nut. 53
nickel-chromium Sec' nickel alloy Health Adm inistration pain ting. 129
nickel-iron other side . 626 paint rem oval, 4 19
tiller meta l, 576 out -of-positio n weld ing. 245 paperwork . 537 See also manuf acturer
nickel -silver . 601 o utside comer joint, 143 paperwork : supplier pap er wor k
nickel steel. 70. 555 overhead c ranes. 659 partia l-thickness spec imen. 407
weld ing consideratio ns. 565 overhead welding. 40• .JI. 85. 85--86. 86. PAW See plasma arc welding
nil d ucti lity transition tem perature test. lOY. 159-1 60 pearli te. 572
401-402 See (11m toughness test ing
nitric acid. 251. ..t59
butt joint, 88
depositing beads. 161
peeling, 30 1
peel test. 389. 390 See also shear test I
718 ~ Welding Ski lls
I
peenin g, 308, 314, 492 , 53 1, 57 \ to rch . 355 tool stee l, 569
cast iron, 575 weld overlay, 272, 273 prequalifi ed PQR , 499
pcnctrameter See ima ge qual ity indicator pla sma spraying, 276, 276- 277 See also press ure
penetrant , 4 18, 42 1 the rmal spraying cy linder, 54
pen etration. 72, 126, 133, 222, 223-224, pla stic , 375-382 wo rkin g. 54
224, 449 See als o incomplete penetra- ty pes, 375 pres sur e pipi ng, 654
tion ; intergran ular penetration plastic strain , 387 pressure-sen sitive tape , 302
lest, 39 1. 404 pla stic welding, 375-3 82 pressur e test, 3 16
penn y See ima ge quality indi cator joints. 376 pressur e vess el
personal prote ctive equ ipment . 12, 13, 102, pro cedure, 377 standa rds and codes, 65 1-654
/59, 4 10 tec h niq ues, 375-377 pressur e weld
phenolic plastic, 375 plat e fillet weld specimen, 410 test, 402
phe nolic resin . 302 plating solu tion . 304 primary weld, 520
pho sphating, 30 1 PLC See programmable logic contro ller prob e See searc h unit
pho spho rus, 600 plug weld, 38, 39 probe-typ e dete ctor co il, 444
photo graphi c film, 434 sym bo l, 626, 630. 632 procedure qualifi cation record, 385, 390.
photoma cro graphy. 461 pneumatic testing , 446 485 ,498-50 1
physical failure analysis, 299 polarity, 90. 9/ prod , 425
piercin g holes, 285-286 polarized illu mination , 459 prod method, 427 See also magneti c
pin end. 385, 386 polarizer , 459 particl e examination
pipe polishing, 449 See also automatic polishing; produ ct ana lysis, 537 , 649
cla ssifi cation, 3 19-320 chemical polishing; electrolytic polishing; production welding. 337-362
diam eter, 320 final polishing; rough polishing c ircles, 363
wall thickness. 320 pol yacrylate esters, 302 linear sea ms, 363
pipe clamps . 330 polyam ide, 375 radial sca ms, 363
pipe fittings. 321 See also butt-welded pol yest er, 375 programmab le logic controller. 364
fittin gs; socket fittings poly ethylene . 375 projection weld . 38. 39
pipe j ig, 324 polyfluoride, 375 sy mbo l, 626
pipe system polypropylene, 375 proj ection welding. 340 , 340--34 1 See also
standards and cod es, 654 --655 pol ystyrene , 375 resistance wel d ing
pipe welder, 6 polys ulfid e adhe sive , 361 See also proo f testing. 444
cert ification, 326, 330-33 1, 507 adhesive propane, 262, 284
pipe weld ing, 3 19-335 polyurethane, 36 1 See also adhesive prop ane gas torch. 262
connec tio ns, 320-32 1 pol yvin yl chloride, 375 prop ort ional lim it. 386
ele ctrode selec tion, 326 poros ity, 194,222,223,404, 4 74,474- proposed repl y, 642
joint alignm ent , 322 475 protect ive clothing, 57, 15 9 See also
j oi nt design, 322 test, 391 personal protective eq uipme nt
j o int preparation, 321, 32 1-324 position welding , 330 pro tector cap, 48
methods, 33 1-333 positioner, 44, 159 PT See liquid pen etrant e xamin atio n
sta nda rds, 330-33 1 postflow timer . 174 pulsed GTAW welding, 184
tec hniques, 326-330 posthcating, 73, 307, 308, 314, 485, 491, pulsed spray tran sfer See met al transfer
test position s, 330--33 1, 33 / 531, 558, 560 mod es: pulsed spray tra nsfe r
we ld pa ss, 324-326 cast iron, 575 pul se- echo mode , 43 1--432
pit s, 453 nick el alloy, 598 purpose, 642
pittin g, 266, 268, 308 See also wear type powder spra y material, 277 push ang le, 2 15, 2 /6
plane -strain fracture tou ghn e ss test, 40 I po wer source , 370 automatic we ld ing, 37 1
pla sma , 276, 288 eng ine -driven, 97, 97-98 PVC See polyvin yl chloride
plasma arc cutting, 287-290 static, 95-97 PW Sa proj ection weldi ng
manua l proces s, 288 pow er wire bru sh ing, 3 13
mechani cal process, 289-290 PQR See procedure qualification record
plasm a arc c utting machine, 290 See also pre bending, 619
cutting machine precip itat ion harden ing stai nless steel, 584,
plas ma arc cutting torch, 288 See also 585
cutting torch we lding co nside ratio ns, 593-5 94
pow er supply, 289 prehea ting, 73, 75, 307, 308, 485, 49 1, 5 13,
pla sma arc welding, 4, 272, 307, 353, 560, 57 I, 6\6
353 -355 al uminum alloy s, 605 QPL See q ualifi ed produ ct s list
distortion, 6 17 calculating temperature, 559 qual ified produ cts list, 649
equ ipme nt, 354, 354-355 cast iron , 575 qu ali tative ide ntifica tion, 542-544
robotic process, 370 nickel alloy, 598 quantitativ e identification methods, 552- 554

Ind ex ~ 719
 respirator. / 2 Se e also ventilatio n ,
respirato ry equipme nt. 240 See a/so
re spirato r
restr aint. 53 1
retentivity. ..f27
radia tion . 14 S St'!' solde ring
reverse polarity See direc t current electrode
rad iograph . ..f3..f SAE Scr Soc iety of A utomotive Engineers
positive
eva luatio n proc ed ure. 441 safety. 9. 100- 102. 3 15- 3 16
rheo stat. 199
radiographic examination. 335, 433-442. 465. arc welding. 22- 25. 23
RIA See Robotic Industries Assoc iat ion
504 See also nondestructive examination cutting. 22. 293
rimmed steel. 557
pro cedure req uirem en ts. 435--438 cylinder. 50----51
ripple. 30
rad iog raphic fil m. 434. 438 equipmen t operati on , II
robot. 364
processing defects. 442 hazard s. 11
robot controller. 365
radiography. 3 16 oxy acetylene weldi ng. 22
Rob otic Indu strie s Associ ation. 37 1
rad ioisot ope. 436 safety glasses. 15 . 102
robot ic we lding machines. 5
rado n. 205 salt bath. 251
robo t inte rface . 369
railroad cars . 656 sand blas ting. 273. 30 1
robot manipulator . 366
rapid coo ling. 5 14 sanding, 251. 30 1
robot wor k area. 37 1
re;lsscmbl y. 316 SAW See subme rged arc welding
operating space. 37 1
recomme nde d pract ice. 639 sca le. 589
restricted space . 37 1
rec tangular spec ime n. 385. 405 See also sco pe. 642
safeg uarded space. 37 1
specime n sealant. 360
Rock we ll B. 397
rect ifier. 95 scamcr. 364
full-wa ve. 97
Rock well C. 397
scam soldering. 262 . 263
half-wave. 96
Rockwel l hardness sca le. 397
sea m tracker. 369
Roc kwell hard ness test. 396--397, 397. 40 8
rectifying column. 47 Se 3l 11 weld. 38. 39
Rock we ll testing machine. 396
red hard ness. 56 9 symbol. 626. 632-633. 633
reducing flame See carburizing flame rod spray material. 277 SC3 11l welding. 339-340. 3-10 Sec also

red uction, 385. 3X7

roll welding, 330, 36 1 resistance we lding
ca lculatio n. 388 root bead. 30, 324 search unit. 430
measurem en t, 388- 389 roo t-bend spec ime n. 335. 39 1. 392 See sec o ndary we ld. 520
reference bloc k. 432 also speci men seg rega tio n. 532
reference line, 625 root- bend test, 39 2 Set' also w raparound selec tive plati ng, 304. 305
refe rence tail. 633-634. 634 guided bend test self-shielded flux cored an: welding. 239. 240
reflected light. 46 1. ~62 roo t ca use fail ure ana lysis. 299 semiauto ma tic welding. 332
regulato r. 54. 54-55 . 201. 244 roo t crack. 472 . 4 73 See af!;o crac k semikilled steel. 557
care. 55 roo t face. 30. 43 semi-q uantitative ide ntificatio n. 5..f4-552
hea ter-eq uippe d . 245 pipe welding. 32 1 sensitive leak test 3 16
high-volume. 245 root ope ning. 30. -/3. 44. 3 12 sensitization. 590. 59 3
single-s tage. 54 pipe welding. 32 1 sensitized paper, 434
two- stage. 5..f plastic welding . 376 se rvo mo tor . 365
reinforc em ent . 449 sy mboL 63 J al tern ating current. 365
rein forcing stee l. 656 root pass. 30. 133. 469 See al.w weld pass di rect curre nt, 365
relevan t indication. 4 13 pipe welding. 324. 325 setup co ntrols. 35 1
repair code s Se t' weld repa ir: rep air cod es ultra sonic exa minat ion. 4 32. 433 SG S t'i' spheroidal graphite
repair welding, 2l)<J-3 l6 See aIM} weld repair roo t pass examination , 4 15 shade. 102 Sa also helm et
clea nup, 3 16 rosin. 259 Se e also flux she aring. 486
stainless stee l tank. 300 rotating equipmen t weldi ng. 659 she ar strength, 389
tool steel. 57 1 rough g rinding. 449-45 1. 459 shear stress. 527
resid ual magnetiz ation method . 427 too ls. 451 shear test. 389-390 Sa also destru ctive
res idua l stress. 529- 53 1. 560. 622--623 rough polishi ng. 45 3-455. 454 testing
res id ua l stress measuremen t. 4 10--411 round specimen. 385 See also specimen shear wave . 43 1
res istance. 89 rou nd stoc k. 144 sheet metal. 655
res istance brazing, 255. 256 cutting. 28 7 shielded metal M e weld ing. 3. 89. 93. 94.
resistance -co il heater. 380 ROW See roll we lding 95.97.98- 100. 105-11 5. 11 7-1 20.
res istance welding, 4. 337- 342. 485 RT See radio gra phic 123-1 29. 133-146. 147- 148. 153- 154.
machiner y, 338 examin atio n: radiographic testing 159-1 60. 213. 307. 314. 516
spot wel d strength test. 389 ruler. 4 14 cas t iron. 57 6. 578
resistance wel ding proce d ure q ualifica tion run -off tab . 470 cas t iron filler metal. 577
test. 5(X) rust. 283 equ ipme nt. 118. 119
resistance welding qual ificatio n variables. 495 rust and scale remo val. 4 19 intermediate weld pass. 325
resistiv ity See elec trical re sistivity RW See resistance welding nickel alloy. 598

720 €1 Welding Skills

 pipe weld ing. 332 slope. 199 preparation safety. 4 10
stai nless stee l. 588 slot weld. 38. 39 spheroidal graphite. 573 Scr also ductile iron
1001 steel. 569 slur ry. 267 sphe roidiz ation. 573
we ld o verlay. 27 1 slurry erosion. 266. 267 See also wear type spin testing. 446
shielding gas. 163. 169. 173- 175. 197. 21X). SMAW See shield ed metal arc welding spin-welding See frictio n we lding
2ll4-209. 23 1. 232. 24/ . 344. 4S5. 49 1 soap stone, 285 spla t. 279
flow rate. 208-209 Soc iety of Automotive Engineers. 644 spot-hea ting. 620
for mag nesium alloys. 60 8 soc ke t fittings. 321 spot light. 461. 462
for titanium alloys. 610 solde r spot weld. 38. 39
GMAW sta inless stee l. 588 50/50 See solde r: hal f-and -hal f shear test. 389
shielding gas cylinde r. 244 bar. 259 sy mbol, 626. 632
shielding gas regulator. 24 / ca ke. 259 spotweldcr. 338. 339
shielding gas supply. 20 1 flu x. 259-260 multiple-spo t. 339
shielding gas sys tem. 370 nu x-core wire. 259 port abl e. 339
shim stock. 43h, ./37 half-and -half. 259 si ngle-s pot. 339
shipping co ntainers, 65 7 lead -silver, 259 spot welding. 338 See aI-WI resi stan ce welding
ships. 65 7 paste. 259 e lectrodes. 338-339
shock resisting S<'C' tool steel: shock resisting ribbon , 259 spot- we lding g un See spotwclder
shoc k resisting tool stee l See too l steel: so lid wire. 259 spot-weld ten sion shear test, 389 See also
shoc k re sisting tin-a ntimon y. 259 tension shear test
sho p eq uipme nt. UX). /0 / tin-lead alloy. 259 spray and fuse. 278. 305 See also therma l
short c ircuit. 95 tin-zinc. 259 spray co ating: therm al spray ing
short circuiting transfer See metal transfer so lde ring. 249~264 . 258- 264 See also spray gun. 275
mod es: short circuiting tran sfer stea m soldering: swea t soldering spray transfer See metal transfer modes:
sho ulder. 384 applica tion s. 259 spray transfer
shrinkage. 6 13 See also base metal cast iron . 576 spraywelding See spray and fuse
shrinkage: we ld metal shrinkage de vices. 26 1. 262 square butt joint. 33 See also buu jo int
shrinkage stress. 5 28 de-we tting, 263 square-groove we ld. 38
shrinkage voids. 474. 475 filler meta l, 259 sq uare T-j oin t. 34 See also T-joint
SI Se e metric sys tem heatin g devices. 200-262 stainless stee l, 173. 20 X. 245 , 249, 259.
side- bend te st. 392 See also wraparo und inspecting solde red j oints. 263 277. 2S3. 29 1. 339. 345. 352. 477 See
g uided be nd test joint design. 260 . 26 1 also austeni tic stainless stee l: ferritic
silico n. 192. 205. 206 . 278. 567. 573. 574. no n-we lting. 263 slainless steel
f:JJ7 See also co pper o verheat ing. 263 arc we lding processes. 588
silico n bron ze. 601 techniq ues. 262- 263 butt joi nt in nat posit ion . 590
silicone. 36 1. 375 See also adhesive solde ring co ppe r. 260-261 . 262 butt j oint in uphill positi on. 590
silver. 259. 599 solid panicle impi ngement . 266 See also clea ning. 4 19--420. 587
single be vel butt j oi nt. 33 wear type c utting. 287. 288
single beve l Ttjoint. 3./ solid us te mperature . 250 filler metal. 588-589
single fillet lap j oint. 35 solvent. 25 1. 42 1 G MAW. 233-235
single-groo ve weld , 37 cleaning. 30 1, 3 13. 4 19 GTAW. 192
symbol, 628 dipping. 3 13 heal tint. 58 7
single-J 'l-j oin t. 34 wiping. 30 1 horizo ntal ti lIet wel d. 59()
single- pass fillet 'f-joi nt. 141 solvent-base adhesive. 36 1 See also adhe sive horizon tal lap weld. 590
single- pass lap joint. 140 . 149 so nic we lding See induction we lding joint design. 588
single-s pot spo tweld e r See spotwcld c r spacers . 323 joi nt preparation. 587
single-U butt joi nt. 33 spalling See wear type rnartensitic. :!08
sing ie- U g roove sparkligh tcr. 5 7 remo val of heat tint. 587
j oint preparatio n. 32 1 spark test grinde rs. 54 7. 548 repai r welding. 300. 3 13
single- V butt joint. 33. 76.77. 179 spa rk testing, 3 11. 545-548. 546 weldabili ty. 58 1-59.t
edge preparation , 136 gray iron . 572 welding co nsiderat io ns. 585-595
over head position . 16 1 malleable iron. 57 3 welding current. 589
with root face , 136 white iron . 573 weld ing technique , 589- 590
single- V groo ve spatter. 483 welding wire. 203
jo int preparat ion . 32 1 special purpose tool steel See tool steel: standard. 6.'9
single-V joint. 574 speci al purpo se deve lopme nt. 640-64 1. (H 1
single-wa ll RT. 438. 439 speci ficatio n, 639 revision, 64 L 642
slag. 100. 105. 123. 129. 242. 243. 4(}j. 589 spec ific hea l, 5 19 standards co mmittee. MO. 6-11
slag incl us ion. 476 specimen. 385. 39 1. 392. 393. 399. 401. 402 starved jo int. 303
sleeve. 250 or ient atio n. 449--450 static load. 525
sleeving. 308 See also weld repair prep aratio n. 405-4 11. 459 steam clea ning. .'13. 419

Index ~ 721
 steam method. 20 Srr also hazardous su rface porosi ty. 474 See a/so porosity arc weld strength, 389
substance surface tensio n. 252 base metal. 432
stee l. 47. 115. 249. 259. 303. 339 See a/so surfacing. 137. 145.265.265-281. 516 integrity. 4 16
carbon stee l: heavy steel: mild met hods. 268 -28 1 bead rollover. 416
steel: nicke l steel: stain less stee l wel ding . 268 -274 blowh ole. 415
cutting. 294 wea r types. 2 66-2M~ cavi ty. 449
high -alloy. 277 surfacing powde r. 272 crack , 4 14, 4 15, 417 , 423, 434, 44 1,
high-strengt h/lo w-all oy. 209 surfaci ng weld, 39. 137. 485 44 2,449
high-sulf ur. 106. 113. 114 chemical composition. 495 crater crack. 428, 441
low-alloy, 10K, 194, 20R, 245, 249, 556 ductility test, 390 crater deficiency, 4 14
welding conside rations. 562- 563 sy mbol, 636 delamination , 390
weldin g wire. 203 surfacing weld qualifi cation variables, dimensional accura cy. 416. 4 17
steel deoxidation. 557 494-495 di sco ntinuity, 41 7
steel studs. 579 surfaci ng weld repair. 307-308 See also ductility. 385. 390
steel woo l. 259 weld repair elonga tion. 388
stencil mark ing. 54 1 automatic process. 307 fa ilure loca tion. 385
stickout. 173. 1!i0. 204 swe at solde ring. 263 filler metal strength. 389
stick welding .~'(' shielded metal arc welding sy nchron ized motion . 369 fille t weld. 44 1
stitching pin. 303 fusion. 390. 405. 423. 428, .w I. M2. 449
stopo ff. 252 fusion face. 433
storage tank gas pocket 402. 434
standards and codes . 65 1 grain size. 402
sto . . .e pipe welding See position welding hard ness. 395
straight bead. 492 incl usio n. 449
straight beam , 430 joint efficiency. 385
straightedge. 4 14 T-joinl, 32, 34, 34-35, .IN, 4 / , 73, 135, 141, joint misalignmen t. 4 17
straight polarity See direct current elect rode 142, 150. 157, / 7N, 179, 18 1-1 82,2 14, join! penetratio n, 4 17. 429, 44 1
negative 250. 471 Sa also double bevel 'l-joint: lamin ar discontinuity, 429
strain. 524. 525 double-J "l-joim: multiple-pass "l-joint; lamination. 423
strain ga uge roselle. 411 single bevel f -joint : singlc-J 'I-joint; load-bearin g capacity. 385
strain-harde ning proper ty. 385 single-pass T-joint; square T-joint maximu m load, 385
strain rate. 399 horizontal position . 188 ove rlap. 402. 414. 4 17, 423
strength. 520 ove rhead position . 162. 229 penetration. 402. 4 14. 434 . 449
stress. 524. 525 . 6 13 plastic. 376 piled-up beads. 416
stress relief heat treatment. 593 speci me n. 40 5 pipe, 442
stress-strain curve Sec load-extension curve vertical position, 188 pipe welds, 334-335
stretcher strains. 387 tack weld, 40, 72, 133, 3 14, 404, 616 plastic deforma tion capability. 390
striker See sparklightcr pipe welding. 324 porosity. 402. 405. 4 15. 4 17. 429. ~I,
stringer head . 3 14 See also weld bead tack welder. 503 442 , 449
strongback. 61 X qua lifi catio n. 40-1 red uction. 388
structural aluminum. 655 tad welding. 380. 490 reinforce ment. 4 17. .w I
struc tural steel fabrication. 655 tantalum. 348 root pass, 4 15, 432 . 433
structural weld repa ir. 306-307 . 307 See teach pendan t. 366. 367 root penetration. 4 17
also weld repair tensile force. 383 shear strength. 389
studding. 579 tensile strength, 249, 385, 525 shrinkage cavity, 4 14
stud weld, 39 measurement, 3XX shrinkage void. 429
stud welding. 346-347 tensile stress, 525, 613 slag depo sit. 415
submerged arc welding. 4. 273, 356-357 tensile test. 334. 383-389. 505 See also slag incl usion. 402. 429 . 434. 441 . 442
equipment. 357 destructive testing spot weld stre ngth, 389
semia utomatic. 356 specimen. 384. 386 S(,(, a/so specimen strai n-hardening pro perty. 385
stainless stee l. 588 tensile test machine. 383. 385 See a/so surface discontinuity. 390. 423. 44 1
welding machin e. 356 universal testing machine tensile force. 383
weld overlay. 273 tensio n, 525 tensile strength. 385
subresonant vibration. 53 1 tensio n shear speci men . 409 toe crac k. 428
subsurface deformation. 45 1 tension shear test. 389 See also shear test to ughne ss. 399
subsurface poro sity. 474 See also porosity tension spec imen . 405--407 transverse crack . 428
sulfur, 41 9, 54 1, 621 testing, 383-4 11, 413-446, 449, 449-462, tun gsten incl usions. .w 1
sulfuric acid. 25 1 465-483.485-501, 503- 509 See also undercut. 4 14. 417 . 44 1
supplementary esse ntia l variable. 496 destru ctive testing: nond estructive underfill. 4 17
surface co ntour examination weld body. 433
weld sym bol . 634 appearance. 416 wormhol es. 44 1

722 ~ Weldil1li Ski lls

test jig , 39 1 weldability, 567 ultrasoni c cle aning. 419
thermal conductivity, 5 19 welding proc ess , 569 ultrason ic exa mination, 335 , 429--433, 465
stainless steel, 586 torch. 5 1- 53, 169,254,355, 370 See also nond estructive examination
thermal cutting. 486 air-cooled. 169. 171 electronic com pone nts, 430
thermal equilibrium, 514 air-gas, 254 procedure requirements, 43 1--432
thermal expansion. 5 1R. 5 / 9 bottl ed- gas, 262 ultrasoni c thickness meas uremen t, 306
calculating, 5 1R care, 53 ultrasonic waves, 429. 43 1
thermal spra y coating material , 274 holding , 69 ultra sonic welding, 358 , 358-359
thermal spray coat ings, 279, 305 See also injector. 52 equipment. 358
mechani cal repair ligh ting, 64-65 proc edure, 358-359
therm al spra ying, 39, 274-278 See als o medium -pressure . 52 ultra violet rays, 13. 102
arc spra ying; name spraying; high- movin g. 69 . 70, 71 underbead crack, 205. 470, 470---471 See
velocity oxyfuel nam e spraying; plasma PAW, 355 also crack
spraying; spra y and fuse shut OFF. 66 undercutt ing, 127, 147 , 305, 324. 480 ,
part desi gn. 279 testing, 543-544 480-4 82
surface preparation , 279 water-cooled, 169. 171 underfill, 482
Thermoelectric Potential Sorting, 550 torch positioner, 364 See also fixed underwater weldin g, 658
thermoplastic, 375 automation system undesi rable microstructure, 534
thermosettin g plastic , 375, 45 1 torch rest. 287 unifi ed numbering sys tem. 644. (j45
thermosetting resin See thermosetting tor sion , 528 Unifon n Building Code, 40
plastic torsional strength, 52 R United Stat es Departm ent of Defen se. 657
thorium , 173, 607 torsional stress . 528 univ ersal pendul um impact tester, 399
throat crac k, 469 touch sensor system, 369 univ ersal testing machin e, 384, 385
thru arc scam tracker. 369 See also scam tou ghness, 52 1 UNS See unified numbering system
track er test, 399--402 See also destructive testing unzippin g, 30 1
THSP See thermal spraying trainin g, 5 uphill welding, 85. 153-154, 154. 183
T1G See gas tungsten arc welding transducer, 358 See also crysta l butt joint, 590
tin. 259. 600 transferred arc, 289 butt joint in vertica l position, 157
tin bras s, 600 tran sformer. 95 depositing beads in vertical position, 156
tin bron ze, 599 transform er-rectifi er pow er source, 95, 96 lap joint in ve rtical position , 156
weldin g con sideration s, 603 transmi ssion piping , 654 pipe weldin g, 329, 329-330
tinning. 26 1 transportation. 6 56~65R T-joint in vertical position. 157
tin plat e, 259 transverse crack, 468 , 470 travel angle, /54
tip, 53, 63, (,4, 75, 492 tran sverse shrinkage, 613, 614 upset weldin g, 342 See also resistanc e
care, 53 trans verse tension shea r spec imen, 409 welding
multiflamc, 254 transverse weld specimen , 407 urea, 375
plastic weld ing. 37X travel angle, 125, 160,21 5 See also drag urethan e, 375
single. 254 angle; push angle user enquiry, 642-643
tip cleaner. 53, 101 travel speed, 71. 11 7, 124,492 USW See ultrasoni c welding
titani a coating, 107 trigger. 20 I, 202 UT See ultrasoni c examination
titania potas sium . 105 trisodium phosphate, 20 UW See upset welding
titania sodium. 105. 107 truck s, 656
titanium . 11 5,206, 207. 249.291 . 345. tungsten. 34X, 352, 567 , 569
348, 352 tung sten carbide, 305
titanium alloy. 249. 477 , 485--486 tungsten electrode, 169. 171-1 73, 172
brazin g. 611 alloyed tungsten, 172
cleanin g, 4 19--420 pure tungsten, 172
cleaning requirements, 6 10 shape, 173
shielding gas, 610 thoriat ed, 173 V-groove weld, 38
weldability. 609- 6 11 tung sten inclusion , 477 V-heating, 620
we lding proc esses. 610 tungsten inert gas weldin g See gas vacuum box testing, 3 16, 446
toe crack. 472 , 4 73 tungsten arc welding vacuum chamber, 35 1
tool steel , 567-57 1 vacuum chamber process, 349 Sec also
cold work, 567 electron beam weldin g
gro ups. 568 vacuum pumping system. 35 1
high -speed, 567, 569 vanadium, 206 . 567, 569, 572, 573
hot work , 567, 569 vapor degrea sing, 25 L 30 I. 4 19
mold, 567 variable load Sa cyclical load
shock resisting. 567 ventilation, 12, 240
special purpo se, 567 If-groove weld , 38 ventilation system , 12, 100, 10 1,240
water hard enin g, 567 ultimate tensil e strength. 3R7 vertica l cu tting

Ind ex €l' 723

 gougi ng. 292 weld area. 449 pipe See pipe welding
vertica l downflow brazing. 494 weld backin g. 2 15 positions. 40 . -II. 485. 4-90
vertical upflo w brazing. 49-t weld bead. 29. 69- 70 procedu res. 6 16-6 17
vertical weld. 153 co ntro l. 154- procc ...sc.... 2. 4S5 . 6 17
vertical welding. 40. -11.85. 109. 153- 154 in.
deposit ing. 71. 130. 155. 156 railroad cars. 656
butt joint. 87 in n at po...ition. 185. 189,225,24- 6 ships. 65 7
uphill. 157 with filler metal. 79. 186 tech niq ues. 4-85. 4-9 1-492. 617-tl 18 See
depositing bead.. starting and stopping. 328 also Whipping- motion techniq ue
down hill. 155 weld bod y terms. 29- 3 1
uphill. 156 ultrasonic ex nminntion. 4 33 tnJds. 656
GTA \V weld defect. 4-fl5. 466 underwater See underwater we ld ing
down hill . 183 ....'cld de...ign s. 40-44- uphill. R5
uphill. 183 weld di scon tinuities. 465-483 vertical position See vertical welding
lap joint weld discontinuity. 4-65. 465-1. 83 we lding ap para tu.... 5 1-57. 52. 6 1
uphill. 156 welde r. 6. 50 3 assembly. 6 1-tl7. 62
T-j oinl. 188. 229 qualification. 4 15 5( '1' (11.\0 welder weldin g cable. 141. 2M . 314-. 316
uph ill. 157 performance qualificat ion weldin g: current
vibratory energy. 3,g weld er certific atio n. 50 3 for ...rainles s steel. 5X9
vibratory ... tres... relief. 53 1 we lder helpe r. 6 weld ing en ginee r. 6
Vickers hardne..x number. 39 7 welder operator. 6 weld ing equipment Sre equipment
Vickers hardness test. 397-398. .l08 welder performance qualification. 390. 503. welding ga ses . 57-58
vinyl. :n5 503- 50 9 w elding gauge. 414
visco sity, 360 orating. 507, 509 we ldi ng gloves. 2X7
visua l examinatio n. 335. 4 14--l 17. 50·t, pipe. 507 welding gun. 197. 200- 20 2. 201. 240.
465 Sa a/,\'(/ nondestructive examination plate. 506-5 07 2-11 . :!42
utter we lding. 4 16--417 ...hcet steel . 507 . 50S air-cooled. 202. 24:!
before welding . 4 15 standards and codes. 5(>3-505 automatic. 202
during welding. 415-4 16 struc tural mem be rs. 506-507 FCAW-S. 2-12
visual identi fication . 538-54 2 welder pcrf onuancc qualification testing. 407 fume extractor. 242
vo!t'lge. 91-93 product-specific tests. 505-5 09 metal shield. 24 2
auto matic weldin g. 37 1 welder registration, 503 pistol grip. 242
d isplay. 9/ weld eva luation. 3X3-4 11. 4 13-446. 449- semiautom atic . 202- 211
voltag e drop. 9 1 46 2. 46 5-4X.l. 4R5-50J. 503 - 509 shielding gas nozzle. 24-2
vo ltage-sen sing wire feeder See wire we ld face. 30. 3/ tungsten arc. 34-3
feeder weld failure loc ation. 389 ventilation system. 240
vo lt-amp curve. 94 weld gauge. 417 w atc r-cookmt system. 242
VT SI'(' visual exami nat ion welding. I. 3 w atcr-coolcd. 202. 2-l2
aero-pace vehicles. 657 weldin g head . 359
airc raft. 657 wel ding htKK1. /51.)
automobiles. 656 welding inspector. 6
backh and . 77 we lding instru ctor. 6
barges. 65 7 w eldi ng layou t and set- up person. 6
ca-a iron. 574 welding: IC3d. 99. 2fX)
ci n·ui l.l)J welding machine. 93. 11 K uv. 2UI . 2.uJ.24/
wall paperi ng. 3()& See also weld rep air co n...truct ion equipme nt. 659 altern ating current. 184-. 24 I
wa rpage . 250. 571 current. 89- 9 1 auto matic surfac ing. 307
wash ing. 292. 293 development . 2 consrant-c urrer n. 89. 94. 95. 168. 169.
wash ing lower. 47 downhill. 85 200. 241
water-base adhesive. 361 See a/so adhesive equipment See eq uipme nt constant-potential See weld ing mach ine:
water-coo lant system. 245 Oat position S l't' n at weld ing constant- voltage
water-cooling pump. 154 furl' ha nd. 77 con ...tent-voltage. 199. 24- I
water hardening tool stee l See too l steel: heav y machinery. 65 8-tl59 d iesel -po wered. 9 7
water hardenin g highway bridges. 65 6 direct current. 14- I. 3-0
wear type . 266--268
wea ve bead. 492
wea ve patterns, 137. 138. 370
cresc ent. 137. /38. 154
horizontal position See hori zontal
weld ing
location. 43
locomoti ves. 656
FCA\\'. 241. 2-12
gasoline-powered. 9 7
GMAW. 19K- 200
inverter. 168- 169
/
I
figure eight. 137. /38. 154 man ual. 332 output . 93
rotary, 1.l7. /38. 154 mech an ized. 33:! pulsed spray transfer. 212
weaving, 137. 144. 154 methods. 33 1- 333 rating . 98
weld all-around symbol. 63 3 over head pos ition See overhead weldi ng SAW. 356

724 § Weldill g Sk ills

weldi ng metallurgy. 5 11-536 safe ly. 3 15-3 16 workpiece positione r/ho lder. J64 See also
we lding ope rator. 503 surface cleaning. 3 13 fixed automation sys tem
welding performance qualification record. 5O-l weld ing process. 3 14 wormhole, 475
weldi ng procedure qualifica tion. 485---501 weld repa ir plan. 309- 3 16 WPQ See welder performance qua lificatio n
welding procedure qualification record. 385. determining necessity of repairs, 309.....) II WPQR See weldi ng perfo rmance
390 weld roo t. 30. 3 I qualification record
weld ing procedu re qualifica tion variable. weld sched ule. 35 1 WPS See we lding proced ure spec ification
485-495 weld stresses. 466-467. -/67 wraparou nd guided bend test . 392- 394,
we lding procedure speci fica tion. 383. 4 85. weld sy mbol. 625 . 625--{,36 393. 4 10 See also bend test
495. 495-496. 5114 location. 626 bend locat ions. 393
welding screen . HXl. 101 weld toe, 30. 31
welding seq uence mo nitoring. 415 weld trave l speed
weld ing supervisor. 6 automati c welding, 37 1
welding tip See tip weld type. 36-40. 38. 625 . 626
weld ing torch See torch weld width. 30. -149
weldi ng wire See elec trode: continuous wet magnetization method. 427
wire wetting. 258
weld interface. 5 15 wetting age nt. 25 t
X-ra y fluorescence analysis. 3 12. 488
weld joint. 3 1. 38 whipp ing. 154
Xcray fluorescence spectrography, 552-553.
we ld leg. 30. 31 whipping- motion tech niqu e. 126
553
weld metal, 5 15 whiskers. 222. 224
X-ray machin e. 436
calc ulating compos ition. 5 15 white iron. 57 1, 572. 572- 573 See also
X rays. 433. 434. 4.15
weld me tal shrinkage. 613-6 14. 6/4 ca st iron
xenon . 205
weld overlay. 268 alloy, 574
XR F See X-ray fluore sce nce analysis; X-
base metal preparat ion . 273 wire brush . /01
ray fluorescence spec trography
filler metal. 273 usc. 129
GM AW. 272 wire brushing, 25 1, 273. 30 1
GTAW. 272 wire feed control pane l. 202
OAW. 27 1 wire feeder . 184. 197. 20 1. 202- 204. 203.
PAW. 272, 273 240. 241.244.31 4. 370
SAW. 273 co nstant-speed. 202 , 244
SMAW. 27 1 controllable, 202
weld pass. 29, 6 17 Set' also cove r pass; drive rolls. 203. 244
intermediate weld pass; root pass four-ro ll syste m. 203. 244 yield point, 387
pipe welding. 324-326 pull type. 203. 204 yield strength. 529
weld pool push -pull type. 203. 2114 yoke. 426
ca rrying without tiller meta l. 78 push type. 203 . 203- 2 11, 244 yoke method . 427-428
moving. 69 voltage -sensing , 244 . 357
we ld profile, 449 wire feed speed. 19~t 244 . 280
weld regions. 5 f.1. 5 14-5 17 au toma tic welding. 371
weld reinforcement. 30 wire feed syste m. 357
weld repair. 30n-308 See also repair wire spray materials. 277
we ld ing wor k angle. 125. 160. 215
disassem bly. 3 13 hori zontal position . U 8
equipment. 3 14-3 15 work boot s. 17. 102
inspection, 3 16 working voltag e See arc voltage zinc. 12.277. 3 13. 54 1, 600. 603. 607. 621
pers onnel. 3 15 wor kman ship standa rd. 416 zinc alloy. 34 1
prehea ting. 3 14 workpi ece connection. 100. 118. 1/9. 316 zinc chloride See flux: zinc-chloride
procedu res. 3 13-3 16 workp iece lead. 118. 119 zirco nium. 173. 249. 277. 29 1. 348. f.iJ7
repair codes. 309 -3 11 workpiece po sitione r. 368. 368-369 zirconium alloy. 249

Index 0 725
Using the Welding Skills CD-ROM
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Welding Skills, 3rd Edition, 11011' ill j idl colo:- has been comp letely revised to cover att aspeas (if the IG 111 11 11111/11 111111111111111
technology. TIlls classic textbook is renowned In the field and continues the tradition oj presenting fundamental 1 0 00 1 74 1 6
deta iled illustrations, descriptive photographs. and concise text. Hands -oil exercises, updated AWS terminology . IH; '.Y/J I )/fll.\ , {//fU
inf onnativefactoids supplement essential content throughout the book. New chapters in this edition inclulm .lt"',- -
Repair Welding
Metallography
Weld Discontinuities
Metal Identification
Wcldahility of Common Metals
Distortion Control
Material s and Fabricat ion Standards and Codes
Topics significonttv expanded in this edition include:
Welding Safely
Welding Metallurgy
Automation and Robotic Welding
DestructiveTesting and Nondestructive Examination
Welding Procedure and \Velder Performance Qualification
The comprehensive CD-ROM included in the bookfeatures:
Quick Quizzes" that provide an interactive review of key topics covered
An Illustrated Glossary that defines terms and incl udes links to selec ted illustrations. video clips, and animated gra phics
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Media Clip s that depict welding processes and procedures
Reference Material that provides Internet links to related organizations and resources

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