Cell Biology

2016

S
 What are cells?

S Smallest structural and functional units of

life
S All organisms are made of cells:
S Unicellular
S Multicellular
 Cellular characteristics

S Have potential to survive on their own

S Are highly organized for metabolism

S Obtain and process energy

S Allow nutrients in and excrete waste

S Sense and respond to environment

S Have potential to reproduce

 What are cells?

S Have potential to reproduce: “All life comes only

from living things”

S Outer living boundary = cell/plasma membrane

S Contain ribosomes – protein synthesis

S All living organisms consist of one or more cells.

S The cell is the smallest unit having properties of life.

S Continuity of life arises from the growth and

division of single cells.
 How were cells discovered?
S Mid 1600s - Robert Hooke

observed and described ‘cellulae’

(cells) in cork
S Late 1600s - Antony van
Leeuwenhoek observed sperm,
micro-organisms

S 1820s - Robert Brown observed and

named nucleus in plant cells
 Why are cells so small?

S Most cells are tiny with volumes of 1 to 1000 µm3

S Many shapes and sizes

S Most require a microscope to be seen

S But some cells can be seen with the naked eye:

Why are cells so small?
 Why are cells so small?

S Surface-to-volume ratio - the bigger a cell is, the

less surface area there is per unit volume
S Cells communicate with external environment
through their plasma membrane
S Raw materials (nutrients, gases) get in, wastes
(CO2, ammonium) get out
 Why are cells so small?

S Above a certain size, material cannot be moved in or

out of a cell fast enough

S So, surface area of large cell would be inadequate

(too small) for exchanging large amounts of raw
materials and wastes

S Cells with large volume have greater needs than cells

with small volume i.e. large cells need more raw
materials and produce more wastes

S Therefore they need a larger surface area i.e. more

plasma membrane
Surface : Volume
 Surface : Volume

Diameter (cm): 0.5 1.0 1.5

Surface area (cm2): 0.79 3.14 7.07
Volume (cm3): 0.06 0.52 1.77

Surface- to-volume 13.17:1 6.04:1 3.99:1

ratio:
Microscopes modify light rays or accelerate beams of
electrons in ways that allow us to form images of specimens
that are otherwise too small to see.
S Light microscopes:

Simple OR compound
S Electron microscopes:

Transmission (TEM) OR Scanning (SEM)

 Light
ocular lens
Microscope
prism

objective lens - Glass

lenses
stage
- Objects of
condenser
200 nm
(1000x)
illuminator
- Dissecting
and
compound
source of illumination
accelerated electron flow (top to bottom)

condenser lens
specimen - Magnetic
objective lens lenses and
electron beam
- Objects of 0.2

intermediate lens nm (1000000x)

projector lens
Electron
viewing screen microscope
Transmission
Electron
microscope
 Transmission electron
microscopy
S Electrons pass through a thin slice of the specimen.
S Magnetic lenses focus the beam of electrons, sending
the magnified image to a screen.

Golgi body in the root

of a maize plant
 Interesting TEM images

http://ncifrederick.cancer.gov/atp/imaging-and-
nanotechnology/electron-microscopy-laboratory/eml-
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chlamydomonas_TEM_07.jpg protocols-and-resources/eml-image-gallery/bacteria_01-2/

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ebola_Virus_TEM_PHIL_1832_lores.jpg
 Scanning electron microscopy

S A beam of electrons is
focused through
electromagnetic lenses and
scanned across/over the
specimen.

S Electrons ejected from the

specimen are collected by a
detector to recreate the
image on a monitor.
Top: Ant head
Bottom: Velcro
Interesting SEM images
 Prokaryote vs Eukaryote

S Basic structure of all cells:

S Plasma/cell membrane

S Region/area where DNA is stored

S Cytoplasm

S Ribosomes
 Prokaryote vs Eukaryote
Prokaryotes (bacteria) Eukaryotes (fungi, protists,
plants, animals)
Smaller Larger

Simpler in structure More complex in structure

DNA concentrated in Nucleus enclosed by

membrane
nucleoid region, not
separated from rest of
cytoplasm by a membrane
Lacks organelles Contains many types of
membrane-bound
organelles with specialised
Most structures are common to
animal and plant cells:
• Plasma membrane (border post)
• Nucleus (control centre)
• Cytoplasm/cytosol (working area)
• Cytoskeleton (structure and support)
• Mitochondria (source of ATP)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (synthesis &
transport)
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (synthesis &
transport)
• Golgi apparatus (transport)
 Plant cell Animal cell
Cell wall Centriole
Central vacuole Flagella
Chloroplasts Tight, gap and
adhering junctions

Plasmodesmata
 Plant vs Animal (comparison)
BOTH ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL
Mitochondria Centrioles
Cell wall Rough ER Nucleus
Smooth ER Tight junctions
Chloroplasts Vesicles
Plasma membrane
Large, central Lysosomes
vacuole Gap junctions
Peroxisomes
Plasmodesmata Golgi bodies
Adhering junctions
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Theory of endosymbiosis

 Lynn Margulis.

 Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the descendents of

free-living prokaryotic organisms.

 Prokaryotes were engulfed by early eukaryotes and

became permanent internal symbionts.
Theory of endosymbiosis
Eukaryotes: Plasma Membrane

• Plasmalemma/cell membrane
• Outer living boundary
• Consist of:
• Lipids
• Proteins
Eukaryotes: Plasma Membrane

LIPIDS:
• Main component
• Phospholipids
• Sterols
• Cholesterol
fluid
• Phytosterols
• Glycolipids
 Membrane structure
Label your diagram:
hydrophilic heads

phospholipid
bilayer

proteins

hydrophobic tails
Phospholipids
Phospholipids - bilayer

• Main
component of
one layer cell membranes
of lipids
one layer
of lipids • Gives the
membrane its
fluid properties
 Membrane Proteins
Also contains different PROTEINS:
receptor recognition
proteins proteins

passive
transporters

active transporters
 Protein functions
• Maintain cell shape
• Cell signaling
• Enzymatic activity
• Transport
• Join cells
• Cell-cell recognition
 Fluid mosaic model

 Proposed by Singer & Nicolson (1972)

 Membrane is a mosaic of
 Phospholipids
 Glycolipids
 Sterols
 Proteins
 The membrane has the appearance of a fluid
because proteins and lipids drift in a single plane.
 Membrane – evidence 1

S Split membranes reveal embedded proteins

Freeze-fracture SEM
 Membrane – evidence 2
S Hybrid human-
mouse cell shows human mouse
some proteins drift cell cell

within membrane
plasma
fusion into membrane
S This can happen hybrid cell
only if the
membrane proteins proteins
proteins
are free to move from both
in fused
within the lipid bi- membrane
layer
 Plasma membrane functions
1. Defines cellular boundaries (compartmentalization)
S Intercellular (plasma membrane)
S Intracellular (organelles)
Functions of compartmentalization:
 Allows a large number of activities to occur simultaneously
in a very limited space
S Physically separates incompatible reactions
e.g. synthesis and breakdown of molecules
S Allows interconnected reactions to proceed at different
times
e.g. production of starch and release for use
Plasma membrane functions
2. Control movement (transport) of substances
 Passive or active

3. Detect external signals and self-recognition

S Hormones, electrical impulses etc.

4. Adhesion and mediates cell-to-cell

communication
S Cytoplasmic continuity between cells
S Adhesion proteins

5. Serve as sites for specific functions

S e.g. Enzymes embedded in the membrane
 Selectively permeable
Oxygen, carbon dioxide, Glucose and other large, polar,
and other small, nonpolar water-soluble molecules; ions
molecules; some water (e.g., H+, Na+, K+, Ca++, CI–);
molecules: water molecules:
Membrane-crossing mechanisms
S Diffusion

S Passive transport Ions and

small
S Active transport molecules

S Endocytosis

S Exocytosis
Diffusion: concentration gradient

S concentration gradient = the number of molecules or ions

in one region is different than the number in another
region

S in the absence of other forces, a substance moves from a

region where it is more concentrated to one where it’s less
concentrated - “down” gradient
Diffusion: process
= the net movement of like molecules or ions
from an area where they are more concentrated
to an area where they are less concentrated i.e.
down a concentration gradient
 Factors affecting diffusion rate
S Steepness of concentration gradient
S Steeper gradient, faster diffusion

S Molecular size
S Smaller molecules, faster diffusion

S Temperature
S Higher temperature, faster diffusion

S Electrical or pressure gradients

 Passive transport
Does not need energy
Requires presence of
transporter protein – specific
for one solute or group of
solutes – solutes diffuse
through a protein channel
inside the protein
Net movement is down a
concentration gradient.
Active transport
Needs energy (as ATP)
Requires presence of active
transporter protein - protein
is not just a channel, it is an
ATPase pump
Solute is pumped against its
concentration gradient.
 high
Concentration gradient

ATP

low
Diffusion of Passive transport Active transport
lipid-soluble of water-soluble through ATPase
substances substances
 Exo- and endocytosis
EXOCYTOSIS:
• Large molecules out
plasma membrane (export)
• Controlled internally
• Products from ER and
Golgi
cytoplasm

ENDOCYTOSIS: • Large molecules in

(import)

pinocytosis
• 3 pathways:
a. Receptor-
mediated
b. Bulk phase
cytoplasm c. Phagocytosis
Membrane cycling
(Endocytosis)
Exocytosis and
endocytosis
continually
replace and
withdraw
patches of
plasma
membrane
(Exocytosis)
Movement across plasma membranes

S Diffusion
S Osmosis

S Affected by:
S Fluid pressure
S Tonicity
 Osmosis
 = Movement (diffusion) of water across selectively permeable
membranes down a water concentration gradient (passive).

 Total number of solutes

(dissolved molecules or
ions) changes the water
concentration.

 Many solutes = low water

concentration.

 Few solutes = high water

concentration.
 Tonicity
 Refers to the relative concentrations of two
fluids.
 Hypotonic
fluids on either side of membrane differ; one
with fewer (lower) solutes
 Hypertonic
fluids on either side of membrane differ; one
with more (higher) solutes
 Isotonic
solutions have same concentrations
 Tonicity

10% sucrose
solution

5% sucrose 20% sucrose 10% sucrose

solution solution solution
hypotonic hypertonic isotonic
conditions conditions conditions

Water diffuses from hypotonic to hypertonic

 Fluid pressure

S Hydrostatic pressure
S = pressure that volume of water in a cell exerts against
enclosing structures
S = turgor pressure in plant cells
S The higher the fluid’s solute concentration, the higher the
hydrostatic pressure

S Osmotic pressure
S = internal fluid pressure (the amount of force) that prevents
inward diffusion of water (prevents increase in volume)
 Fluid pressure
S Osmoregulation = active regulation of the osmotic pressure
of a cell’s fluids

S Plasmolysis = process where a plant cell loses water when

placed in a hypertonic solution
 Other cellular components
S Common to plant and animal
cells:
SNucleus
SRibosomes
SEndomembrane system
SMitochondria
 Nucleus
Nuclear envelop
• Double membrane
(lipid bi-layers)
• Outer surface
continuous with ER
(usually rough ER) Nuclear pores
• Inner surface has • Protein clusters
DNA attachment
sites

Nucleoplasm
• Viscous liquid
containing dissolved
Nucleolus nucleotides and
• Dense area of condensed DNA enzymes
• More dispersed chromatin in remainder of
nucleus
Nucleus structure detailed
 Nucleus functions
S Genetic control of the cell

S Keeps the DNA molecules of eukaryotic cells separated from

metabolic machinery of cytoplasm – control boundary

S Makes it easier to organize DNA and to copy it before parent

cells divide into daughter cells
 Ribosomes
S Synthesised from
components made in the
nucleus
S Free or bound

S Produce proteins

S On ER - make proteins Small

subunit
that will be incorporated Large
subunit
in membranes or
secreted by the cell
 Endomembrane system
S Group of related organelles in which lipids are assembled
(smooth ER) and new polypeptide chains are modified (rough
ER)

S Consists of:
S Endoplasmic reticulum
S Golgi bodies
S Vesicles (such as lysosomes)
S Vacuoles

S Products are sorted and shipped to various destinations (either

inside or outside the cell)
 Endoplasmic reticulum

S A continuous membrane bound network of flattened sacs

(cisternae), tubules and associated vesicles that extends
throughout the cytoplasm

S Two types - rough and smooth ER

 Rough ER
Ribosomes
S Protein synthesis (‘rough’)
(ribosomes)
S Abundant in cells
specialized to secrete
proteins
S e.g. plasma cells that
produce antibodies;
pancreatic cells that Flattened sacs Vesicle
secrete digestive (cisternae) forming
enzymes
 Smooth ER
S Synthesizes fatty acids
and phospholipids
S Calcium storage

S Abundant in
hepatocytes (liver) -
modify and detoxify
No ribosomes
chemicals - convert
them to water-soluble
products -secreted
 Golgi apparatus/body
S Camillio Golgi

S Series of membrane-bound, disc-shaped sacs (cisternae) and

vesicles
S Lumen = internal space of each cisternum

S Has two sides (faces) – cis and trans

cis (forming) face
cisternae

internal space
(lumen) budding
vesicle
trans (maturing) face
 Golgi functions

S Receives, refines, stores and distributes chemical products from

the cell in vesicles

S e.g. Golgi enzymes tags protein products to mark their final

destination

S Vesicles arrive from ER and fuse with Golgi apparatus at

‘receiving face’

S Vesicles bud off at ends of membrane folds at ‘shipping face’ for

export
Golgi functions
 Vesicles

S A vesicle = a membranous sac that moves through the

cytoplasm and effect communication between parts of the
endomembrane system and the cell

S Responsible for transport/storage/ membrane building.

 Vesicle examples
a. Lysosomes
S Contain hydrolytic enzymes - digest
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and
lipids
S Other enzymes digest entire cells

b. Peroxisomes
S Contain enzymes that digest fatty acids, amino
acids, toxins (alcohol)
 Vacuoles
S Membranous sacs that bud from ER, Golgi or plasma
membrane.

S Various functions:
S Food vacuole
S Contractile vacuole in freshwater protist - expel excess water
S Central vacuole of plants – for
storage of organic nutrients
or growth
 assorted Endocytic vesicles form
5 Vesicles from the Golgi body vesicles at plasma membrane and
transport products to the plasma move into the cytoplasm.
membrane. Products are They might fuse with
released by exocytosis. the membrane of other
organelles or remain
Golgi intact, as storage
4 Proteins and lipids take on vesicles.
final form inside Golgi body. body
Modifications enable them to
be sorted out and shipped
to proper destinations. smooth ER

3 Vesicles bud from the ER

membrane and transport
unfinished proteins and lipids
to a Golgi body.
rough ER
2 In the membrane of smooth
ER, lipids are assembled.

1 Some polypeptide chains

enter the rough ER. Modifications DNA instructions for
begin. building polypeptide Exocytic vesicles bud
chains leave the nucleus from ER and Golgi
and enter the cytoplasm. membranes, travel to
Chains are and fuse with plasma
assembled on membrane.
ribosomes in Their contents are thereb
cytoplasm. released from the cell.
 Mitochondria
intermembrane space
• nucleotide
phosphorylation
repeated infoldings
outer of inner membrane
compartment (cristae)

inner
compartment matrix
• ATP synthesis
• DNA replication
• RNA and protein
synthesis

outer membrane inner membrane

• phospholipid • ATP-producing
synthesis machinery embedded
 Other cellular components

 Specialised plant organelles:

 Plastids
 Vacuoles
 Plant organelles: Plastids
S Chloroplasts
S Contains chlorophyll (green pigment)
S Converts sunlight energy to sugar through
photosynthesis

outer and inner

membrane layers

thylakoid
membrane

granum stroma
 Plastids
S Chromoplasts
S No chlorophyll
S Abundance of carotenoids
S Give colour to fruit and flowers (red and yellow)
 Plastids
S Amyloplasts
S No pigments
S Store starch
S Used during seed germination or plant growth
 Plant organelles: Vacuoles
S Has a single lipid bilayer called the tonoplast

S May occupy 50-90% of plant cell’s interior

S Functions:
S Helps cell grow as it expands (fluid pressure – turgor –
builds up inside and forces cell walls to expand)
S Stores amino acids, sugars, ions and toxic metabolic
wastes
S Lysosomal functions

tonoplast
 Other cellular components

 Specialised animal organelles:

 Centrioles
Animal structures: Centrioles

S Pair of small, cylindrical, microtubule-containing

structures

S Embedded in centrosomes of animal cells only

S Play a role in the formation of cilia and flagella

S Play a role during

cell division
 Extracellular structures: Cell junctions

In plants:
plasmodesmata
S Plasmodesmata
S Pore-like structures through cell
walls
S Allow continuity of plasma
membrane and cytoplasm of adjacent
cells
S Function: cell-to-cell communication
Extracellular structures: Cell junctions
In animals:
Prevent
diffusion of Facilitate
molecules flow of
between molecules
cells between
adjacent
Tight cells
junctions
Gap
Adhering junction
junction
Hold cells together
as tissues
Extracellular structures:Extracellular matrix

S Plant cell walls

Secondary
consist of: cell wall
S Primary cell wall
(composed of
cellulose)
S 3 layers of Primary
secondary cell cell wall
wall (composed
of lignin)
Extracellular structures:Extracellular matrix

S Animals have:
S NO cell walls
S Some surrounded by matrix called glycocalyx that consists of
S Glycoproteins and glycolipids (self-recognition and receptors)
S Hyaluronic acid and chondroitin (self recognition)
 Cytoskeleton
S Present in all eukaryotic
cells
S Basis of cell shape and
internal organisation
S Allows organelle
movement within cells
and cell motility
S Composed of
polypeptides
 Cytoskeletal elements
3 elements: microfilaments

microtubules

intermediate
filaments
 Cytoskeletal elements
S Microtubules
Tubulin
S Largest elements sub-units
S Composed of tubulin
S Arise from microtubule organizing centers
(MTOC’s or centrioles)
S Involved in shape, cell division and motility
S Functions:
S Form spindle apparatus during cell division Form tracks for
vesicle transport
S Form cilia and flagella
 Cytoskeletal elements
S Microfilaments
S Thinnest elements
S Composed of actin
S Take part in movement, Actin sub-
formation and maintenance of units
cell shape
 Cytoskeletal elements
S Intermediate filaments
S Only in animal cells of certain
tissues (e.g. muscles and nerve cells)
S Most stable cytoskeletal elements
S Provide mechanical strength and
support

one
polypeptide
chain