Respiration &

Photosynthesis
Energy flow

Energy flows into an ecosystem as

sunlight and leaves as heat
Photosynthesis generates O2 and
organic molecules, which are used
in cellular respiration
Cells use chemical energy stored in
organic molecules to regenerate
ATP, which powers work
 Light
energy

ECOSYSTEM

Photosynthesis
in chloroplasts
CO2 + H2O Organic
+ O2
molecules
Cellular respiration
in mitochondria

ATP

ATP powers most cellular work

Heat
energy
Summary equation for respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

glucose oxygen carbon
dioxide water
Definitions - Redox reactions

 The transfer of electrons during chemical

reactions releases energy stored in
organic molecules
 This released energy is ultimately used to
synthesize ATP
 During cellular respiration, the fuel (e.g.,
glucose) is oxidised and O2 is reduced
 Electrons from organic compounds are
first transferred to the co-enzyme NAD+,
which acts as an oxidising agent
ATP & NAD: ATP- chemical energy transfer

 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a coenzyme made of

adenine, ribose and three phosphates.
 Usually synthesised from ADP.
 Hydrolyses to ADP and releases energy.
 Main function is energy storage.
 This energy can be released for doing work in the cell.
 ATP:ADP ratio in cells is around 10:1
ATP & NAD: NAD- redox electron transfer

 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

(NAD) - coenzyme made of two
nucleotides joined by a
phosphodiester bond. One
nucleotide contains an adenine base
and the other nicotinamide.
 NAD exists in two forms, an
oxidized and a reduced form,
abbreviated as NAD+ and NADH
respectively.
 Main function is electron transfer.
 Stages of respiration

glucose
Glycolysis CYTOPLASM
pyruvate

CO2
Citric acid cycle
(Kreb’s cycle)

reduced NAD MITOCHONDRION

O2
Oxidative
Phosphorylation
H2O
ATP
Stages of respiration

Cellular respiration has three stages:

Glycolysis – breaks down glucose
into 2 molecules of pyruvate
Citric acid / Kreb’s cycle – completes
the breakdown of glucose, reduces
NAD
Oxidative phosphorylation –
accounts for most of the ATP
synthesis
 Electrons
carried
via NADH

Glycolysis

Glucose Pyruvate

Cytosol

ATP
 Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2

Glycolysis Citric
acid
Glucose Pyruvate cycle

Mitochondrion
Cytosol

ATP ATP
 Electrons Electrons carried
carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2

Oxidative
Glycolysis Citric phosphorylation:
acid electron transport
Glucose Pyruvate cycle and
chemiosmosis

Mitochondrion
Cytosol

ATP ATP ATP

Oxidative
phosphorylation
Glycolysis

 Occurs in cytoplasm
 Breaks down glucose into two molecules
of pyruvate
 Uses: glucose + 2ATP + 4ADP + 2NAD+
 Produces: 2pyruvate + 2H2O + 4ATP +
2NADH
 Net yield of 2 ATP
 Energy investment phase

Glucose

2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP used

Energy payoff phase

4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed

2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H+ 2 NADH + 2 H+

2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O

Net
Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O
4 ATP formed – 2 ATP used 2 ATP
2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H+ 2 NADH + 2 H+
 Energy investment phase

Glucose

2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP used

Energy payoff phase

4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed

2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H+ 2 NADH + 2 H+

2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O

Net
Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O
4 ATP formed – 2 ATP used 2 ATP
2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H+ 2 NADH + 2 H+
 Citric acid cycle

Also called Kreb’s cycle

Central Oxidative Pathway – used to
break down all metabolic fuels – i.e.
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins.
In the presence of O2, pyruvate enters
the mitochondrion
Before the citric acid cycle can begin,
pyruvate must be converted to acetyl
CoA (acetyl coenzyme A), which links
the cycle to glycolysis
 CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION

NAD+ NADH + H+

1 3
Acetyl CoA
Pyruvate CO2 Coenzyme A

Transport protein
 Citric acid cycle

Takes place in the mitochondrial

matrix
The cycle oxidises organic fuel
derived from puruvate
Generates 1 ATP, 3 NADH and 1
FADH2 per turn
FADH2 – Flavin adenine dinucleotide
hydroquinone – reduced form of
FAD
Pyruvate

CO2
NAD+
CoA
NADH
+ H+ Acetyl CoA
CoA

CoA

Citric
acid
cycle 2 CO2

FADH2 3 NAD+

FAD 3 NADH
+ 3 H+
ADP + P i

ATP
Citric acid cycle
 Citric acid cycle has 8 steps, each
catalysed by a specific enzyme
 Acetyl group of acetyl CoA joins the cycle
by combining with oxaloacetate, forming
citrate
 Next 7 steps decompose citrate back to
oxaloacetate, making the process a cycle
 NADH and FADH2 relay the electrons
extracted from food to the electron
transport chain
 Acetyl CoA
CoA—SH

NADH
+H+ 1 H2 O

NAD+
8 Oxaloacetate
2

Malate Citrate
Isocitrate
NAD+
Citric 3
NADH
7
acid + H+
H2O cycle
CO2

Fumarate CoA—SH
-Keto-
glutarate
6 4
CoA—SH

FADH2 5
CO2
NAD+
FAD
Succinate Pi NADH
GTP GDP Succinyl + H+
CoA
ADP

ATP
 Acetyl CoA
CoA—SH

NADH
+H+ 1 H2 O

NAD+
8 Oxaloacetate
2

Malate Citrate
Isocitrate
NAD+
Citric 3
NADH
7
acid + H+
H2O cycle
CO2

Fumarate CoA—SH

4
-Keto-
glutarate Net yield:
1 ATP
6 CoA—SH

FADH2 5

FAD
NAD+
CO2
3 NADH
Succinate
GTP GDP
Pi
Succinyl
NADH
+ H+
1 FADH2
CoA
ADP

ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation

Following glycolysis and the citric

acid cycle, NADH and FADH2 account
for most of the energy extracted
from food
NADH and FADH2 donate electrons
to the electron transport chain,
which powers ATP synthesis via
oxidative phosphorylation
Electron transport

The electron transport chain is in

the cristae of the mitochondrion
Carriers alternate reduced and
oxidised states as they accept and
donate electrons
Electrons drop in free energy as
they go down the chain and are
finally passed to O2, forming H2O
 NADH

50
2 e–
NAD+
FADH2

2 e– FAD
Multiprotein
40  FAD complexes
FMN
Fe•S Fe•S 
Q

Cyt b
Fe•S
30
Cyt c1 I
Cyt c V
Cyt a
Cyt a3
20

10 2 e–
(from NADH
or FADH2)

0 2 H+ + 1/2 O2

H2O
 Electron transfer phosphorylation

OUTER COMPARTMENT

NADH

INNER COMPARTMENT
Electron transport
 Electrons are transferred from NADH or
FADH2 to the electron transport chain
 Electrons are passed through a number of
proteins called cytochromes to O2
 Causes proteins to pump H+ from the
mitochondrial matrix into the
intermembrane space
 This creates a proton gradient
 H+ then moves back across the membrane
passing through channels in ATP synthase
ATP

ATP synthase uses the flow of H+ to

drive phosphorylation of ATP
Chemiosmosis – use of energy in H+
gradient to do cellular work
About 40 % of the energy in a
glucose molecule is transferred to
ATP during cellular respiration,
making about 38 ATP
INTER-
MEMBRANE
SPACE
H+

ATP
synthase

ADP + P i ATP

MITO-
H+
CHONDRIAL
MATRIX
 Electron transfer phosphorylation

ATP
INNER
COMPARTMENT
ADP
+
Pi
 1 Pyruvate from
cytoplasm enters
inner mitochondrial OUTER COMPARTMENT
compartment.

4 As electrons
move through
the transfer
chains, H+ is
NADH 3 NADH and pumped to
acetyl-CoA FADH2 give up outer
electrons and compartment.
NADH
Krebs H+ to electron
Cycle NADH transfer
chains.
ATP ATP
2 Krebs cycle and ATP
5 Oxygen
preparatory steps: accepts
NAD+ and FADH2 ATP electrons,
accept electrons joins with H+ free
and hydrogen. ATP ADP to form oxygen
forms. Carbon + Pi water.
dioxide forms.

INNER COMPARTMENT
6 H+ flows back into inner
compartment, through ATP synthases.
Flow drives ATP formation.
CYTOPLASM glucose

4 ATP
2 ATP
Glycolysis
e- + H+ (2 ATP net)
2 NADH 2 pyruvate

e- + H+ 2 CO2
2 NADH
e- + H+
8 NADH 4 CO2
Krebs
e- + H+ 2 ATP
2 FADH2 Cycle

e- Electron
Transfer 32
Phosphorylation ATP

H+ water
e- + oxygen
Typical Energy Yield: 36 ATP
Fermentation
 Most cellular respiration requires O2 to
produce ATP
 Glycolysis can produce ATP with or
without O2 (in aerobic and anaerobic
conditions)
 In the absence of O2, glycolysis couples
with fermentation or anaerobic
respiration to produce ATP
 Fermentation uses phosphorylation
instead of an electron transport chain
to generate ATP
Alcohol fermentation

In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is

converted to ethanol in two steps,
with the first releasing CO2
Alcohol fermentation by yeast is
used in brewing, winemaking and
baking
 2 ADP + 2 P i 2 ATP

Glucose Glycolysis

2 Pyruvate

2 NAD+ 2 NADH 2 CO2

+ 2 H+

2 Ethanol 2 Acetaldehyde

(a) Alcohol fermentation

Lactic acid fermentation

 In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is

reduced to NADH, forming lactate as
an end product with no release of CO2
 Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi
and bacteria is used to make cheese
and yoghurt
 Human muscle cells use lactic acid
fermentation to generate ATP when O2
is scarce
 2 ADP + 2 P i 2 ATP

Glucose Glycolysis

2 NAD+ 2 NADH
+ 2 H+
2 Pyruvate

2 Lactate

(b) Lactic acid fermentation

 Glucose

Glycolysis
CYTOSOL

Pyruvate

No O2 present: O2 present:
Fermentation Aerobic cellular
respiration

MITOCHONDRION
Ethanol Acetyl CoA
or
lactate
Citric
acid
cycle
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
 Process that converts solar energy into
chemical energy
 Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis
nourishes almost the entire living world
 Almost all plants and algae (&
cynobacteria) are photoautotrophs, using
the energy of sunlight to make organic
molecules from H2O and CO2
 Almost all heterotrophs, including
humans, depend on photoautotrophs for
food and O2
Photosynthesis

 Occurs in chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts are structurally similar to and
almost certainly evolved from
photosynthetic bacteria
 Leaves are major locations of
photosynthesis
 Green colour from chlorophyll, the green
pigment within chloroplasts
 Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll
drives synthesis of organic molecules in
chloroplast
Photosynthesis

 CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through

microscopic pores called stomata
 Chloroplasts found in mesophyll, the
interior tissue of the leaf
 Chlorophyll is in the membranes of the
thylakoids of the chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts also contain a dense fluid
called stroma
 Leaf cross section
Vein

Mesophyll

Stomata
CO2 O2

Chloroplast
Mesophyll cell

5 µm
Photosynthesis

12H2O + 6CO2 6O2 + C6H12O6 + 6H2O

Water Carbon Oxygen Glucose Water
Dioxide
 Photosynthesis

 Chloroplasts split water into hydrogen and

oxygen, incorporating* the electrons of
hydrogen into sugar molecules
 Photosynthesis is a redox process in which
water is oxidised and carbon dioxide is
reduced

* incorporating – using something to make something else.

Two stages of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis consists of the

light-dependent reactions (photo)
and light independent reactions
(Calvin cycle – synthesis)
Light-dependent reactions

Occur in thylakoids
Split water
Release oxygen
Two products:
Reduce NADP+ to NADPH
Generate ATP from ADP by
phosphorylation
Light-independent reactions

Calvin cycle
Occurs in the stroma
Forms sugar from CO2 using ATP
and NADPH
Begins the process of carbon
fixation - incorporating CO2 into
organic molecules
 H2O

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i

Light
Reactions

Chloroplast
 H2O

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i

Light
Reactions

ATP

NADPH

Chloroplast

O2
 H2O CO2

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i
Calvin
Light Cycle
Reactions

ATP

NADPH

Chloroplast

O2
 H2O CO2

Light

NADP+
ADP
+ P
i
Calvin
Light Cycle
Reactions

ATP

NADPH

Chloroplast

O2 [CH2O]
(sugar)
Sunlight

 Light travels in rhythmic waves

 Wavelength is the distance between crests
of waves
 Visible light consists of wavelengths that
produce colours we can see

Wavelength of light (nanometers)

 Pigments

Different pigments absorb different

wavelengths
Wavelengths that are not absorbed
are reflected or transmitted
Leaves appear green because
chlorophyll reflects and transmits
green light
Pigments

Chlorophyll a is the main

photosynthetic pigment
Accessory pigments, such as
chlorophyll b, broaden the
spectrum used for photosynthesis
Carotenoids absorb excessive light
that would damage chlorophyll
Light harvesting

 Photosystems are found in the thylakoid

membranes
 Consist of a reaction centre complex
surrounded by light-harvesting complexes
 The light-harvesting complexes (pigment
molecules bound to proteins) funnel the
energy of photons to the reaction centre
Light harvesting

A primary electron acceptor in the

reaction centre accepts an excited
electron from chlorophyll a
This is the first step of the light
reactions
 Photosystem STROMA
Photon
Light-harvesting Reaction-center Primary
complexes complex electron
acceptor
Thylakoid membrane

e–

Transfer Special pair of Pigment

of energy chlorophyll a molecules
molecules
THYLAKOID SPACE
(INTERIOR OF THYLAKOID)
Photosystems

 Photosystem II (PS II) functions first and

is best at absorbing a wavelength of 680
nm
 The reaction centre chlorophyll a of PS II is
called P680
 Photosystem I (PS I) is best at absorbing
a wavelength of 700 nm
 The reaction centre chlorophyll a of PS I is
called P700
{chlorophyll is green because it absorbs red and blue
wavelengths of light}
Light dependent reactions

 The primary pathway involves both

photosystems and produces ATP and
NADPH using light energy
 A photon hits a pigment and its energy is
passed among pigment molecules until it
excites P680 (PS II)
 An excited electron from P680 is
transferred to the primary electron
acceptor
 Primary
acceptor
2
e–

P680

1 Light

Pigment
molecules

Photosystem II
(PS II)
Light dependent reactions
P680+ (P680 that is missing an
electron) is a very strong oxidizing
agent
H2O is split by enzymes, and the
electrons are transferred from the
hydrogen atoms to P680+, thus
reducing it to P680
O2 is released as a by-product of
this reaction
 Primary
acceptor
2
H2O e–
2 H+
+
1/ O 3
2 2
e–
e–
P680

1 Light

Pigment
molecules

Photosystem II
(PS II)
Light dependent reactions

 Each electron “falls” down an electron

transport chain from the primary electron
acceptor of PS II to PS I
 Energy released by the fall drives the
creation of a proton gradient across the
thylakoid membrane
 Diffusion of H+ (protons) across the
membrane drives ATP synthesis
 Primary 4
acceptor
2
Pq
H2O e– Cytochrome
2 H+
complex
+
1/ O 3
2 2
Pc
e–
e–
P680 5

1 Light

ATP

Pigment
molecules

Photosystem II
(PS II)
Light dependent reactions

 In PS I (like PS II), transferred light

energy excites P700, which loses an
electron to an electron acceptor
 P700+ (P700 that is missing an electron)
accepts an electron passed down from PS
II via the electron transport chain
 Primary
Primary 4 acceptor
acceptor
2
Pq e–
H2O e– Cytochrome
2 H+
complex
+
1/ O 3
2 2
Pc
e–
e– P700
P680 5 Light

1 Light 6

ATP

Pigment
molecules
Photosystem I
(PS I)
Photosystem II
(PS II)
Light dependent reactions

 Each electron “falls” down an electron

transport chain from the primary electron
acceptor of PS I to the protein ferredoxin
(Fd)
 The electrons are then transferred to
NADP+ and reduce it to NADPH
 The electrons of NADPH are available for
the reactions of the Calvin cycle
Fig. 10-13-5

Primary
Primary 4 acceptor 7
acceptor Fd
2
Pq e–
e– – 8
H2O e– e NADP+
Cytochrome
2 H+ NADP+ + H+
complex
+ reductase
1/ O 3 NADPH
2 2
Pc
e–
e– P700
P680 5 Light

1 Light 6

ATP

Pigment
molecules
Photosystem I
(PS I)
Photosystem II
(PS II)
 e–
ATP

e– e–

NADPH
e–
e–
e–

Mill
makes
ATP

e–

Photosystem II Photosystem I
sunlight THYLAKOID COMPARTMENT

H2O
second electron
photolysis transfer chain
e–

e–
NADPH ATP SYNTHASE
first electron NADP+
transfer chain
ATP
PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I ADP
STROMA + Pi
 Primary
acceptor
Primary
acceptor Fd
H2O NADP+
Pq NADP+ + H+
reductase
O2 Cytochrome NADPH
complex

Pc

Photosystem I
ATP
Photosystem II

O2
Light independent reactions

 The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to

convert CO2 to sugar
 The Calvin cycle, like the citric acid cycle,
regenerates its starting material after
molecules enter and leave the cycle
 The cycle builds sugar from smaller
molecules by using ATP and the reducing
power of electrons carried by NADPH
Light independent reactions

 Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves

as a sugar named glyceraldehyde-3-
phospate (G3P)
 For net synthesis of 1 G3P, the cycle must
take place three times, fixing 3 molecules
of CO2
 The Calvin cycle has three phases:
 Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco)
 Reduction
 Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP -
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate)
 Input 3 (Entering one
at a time)
CO2

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco

3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP)
 Input 3 (Entering one
at a time)
CO2

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco

3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP

6 ADP

Calvin
Cycle
6 P P
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
6 NADPH

6 NADP+
6 Pi

6 P
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction

1 P Glucose and
Output G3P other organic
(a sugar) compounds
 Input 3 (Entering one
at a time)
CO2

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco

3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP

6 ADP

3 ADP Calvin
Cycle
6 P P
3 ATP
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
6 NADPH
Phase 3:
Regeneration of 6 NADP+
the CO2 acceptor 6 Pi
(RuBP)
5 P
G3P
6 P
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction

1 P Glucose and
Output G3P other organic
(a sugar) compounds
 3 CO2

Carbon fixation

3  5C 6  3C

Calvin
Cycle
Regeneration of
CO2 acceptor

5  3C

Reduction

1 G3P (3C)
Photorespiration

 In most plants (C3 plants), initial fixation

of CO2, via rubisco, forms a three-carbon
compound
 In photorespiration, rubisco adds O2
instead of CO2 in the Calvin cycle
 Photorespiration consumes O2 and organic
fuel and releases CO2 without producing
ATP or sugar
C4 Plants

 C4 plants minimize the cost of

photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into
four-carbon compounds in mesophyll cells
 This step requires the enzyme PEP
carboxylase
 PEP carboxylase has a higher affinity for
CO2 than rubisco does; it can fix CO2 even
when CO2 concentrations are low
 These four-carbon compounds are
exported to bundle-sheath cells, where
they release CO2 that is then used in the
Calvin cycle
 C4 leaf anatomy

Mesophyll cell
Photosynthetic
cells of C4 Bundle-
plant leaf sheath
cell

Vein
(vascular tissue)

Stoma
The C4 Mesophyll
pathway cell CO2
PEP carboxylase

Oxaloacetate (4C) PEP (3C)

ADP
Malate (4C) ATP

Pyruvate (3C)
Bundle-
sheath CO2
cell

Calvin
Cycle

Sugar

Vascular
tissue
CAM Plants

 Some plants, including succulents, use

crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to fix
carbon
 CAM plants open their stomata at night,
incorporating CO2 into organic acids
 Stomata close during the day, and CO2 is
released from organic acids and used in
the Calvin cycle
Sugarcane Pineapple
C4 CAM
CO2 CO2
Mesophyll 1 CO2 incorporated Night
cell Organic acid into four-carbon Organic acid
organic acids
(carbon fixation)

Bundle- CO2 CO2 Day

sheath
cell
2 Organic acids
Calvin release CO2 to Calvin
Cycle Calvin cycle Cycle

Sugar Sugar

(a) Spatial separation of steps (b) Temporal separation of steps