Certificate ed Human Creecew inet Cy GOH CHENGTEONG | os‘ontents fetric Conversion Table y PART I PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ‘The Earth and the Universe i ploring the Universe, 1; The Solar System, 1; vshape of the Earth, 2, Evidence of the Earth’s wnericity, 2; The Earth’s Movements, 4; Day and feht, 4; The Earth’s Revolution, 5; Dawn and ‘ight, 6; Mathematical Location of Places on Globe, 7; Latitude, 7; Longitude, 8; Longitude and spread over 4 great area. There is thus litle heat, and tem- peratures remain low. In addition, days are longer than nights in summer and more heat is received over the longer daylight uration. Nights are shorter and less heat is lost. ‘There isa ct gui in total heat received and tem erature rises in summer. Shorter days and longer rights in winter account forthe reverse elects Dawn and Twilight ‘The bit period betwen sunrise and full daylight iscaed and that between sunset and cone Sung eral Thi ened ye act tha ding the peids of dans the cath eoees ifs oe cheese emt from the son wht iti tll below the horizon. Since the fun nies and sels in verial path atthe equator the period during which refracted light is received jp shor. But in temperate latitudes, the sun rises nd ses nan oblique pth and the period of refracted Tight is longer. It is much longer sil atthe poles fo that the winter darkest i rally only twilight fnost ofthe time (Fig. 9). py - Fig, 9 Dawn and Twitght (a) at the equator (©) in temperate attude Atha egos th un ses nd st oe vray ‘0 the time it takes to pas through tho "wlight zone” (A, 8) willbe shorter than for temperate lattsdes where the sun iss and sats obliquely Here the time taken to pass through the twilight zone (, 0) s longer Mathematical Location of Places on the Globe The earth’ surface is so vast that unless a mathe- Imatical method can be used, it is impossible to locate any place on it. For this reason, imaginary toes tre en won he ge One tng cas and es pall ote equate, ae oe ters re eh a sou posing through the ole and recalled nes o Pee ig 10) Tee sents of laude oe _* 10 9) Pra of ute iss (b} Meridians af longitude tod loagiude pinpoints nny ite on the earths Surface Wig, {le}, or example Del is 2557 Nand ‘7P1g London is S130 "Nand O°SW, and Sydney is 33°55 S. and 151°12 E. We shall examine more closely how latitude and longitude g i g i f a 3 5 a Berween these points lines of latitude are drawn at intervals of 1°. For precise location on a map, ‘each degree is sub-divided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. The most important lines of latitude are the equator, the Tropic of Cancer HEN), the Tropic of Capricorn (231°S), the Arctic Gimle (66H"N.) and the Antarctic Circle (661°S). ‘As the earth is slightly flatened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is ‘lite Jonger than that at the equator. For example ‘at the equator (0°) it is 68.704 miles, at 45° it i 69.054 miles and at the poles it is 69.407 miles The average is taken as 69 miles. This is @ useful figure and can be used for calculating distances to ‘any place. Bombay is 18:55* N; it is therefore 18:55 69 or 1280 miles from the equator. With the aid of ‘Your atlas find the approximate distance of the follow-ing places from the equator: Singupore, Calcutta, Paris, New York, Buenos Aires, and Auckland. Fig. 1s) The. itude of 20% te the angur ‘Stance of plot on the oars airtce north fe -centre of the earth - WY (by The longitude of 135°W. is the angular ‘tance wos ofthe Prime Meridian (ES c) The precise locaton of lace X's latitude 62° [ind longitude 27. where \ ‘hey intersect Longtitude Longitude is an snoilos vistance, megsured in degrees along the equator east or west of the Prine (or First) Meridian, as indicated in Fig. 11(0). On the globe longitude is shown asa series of semi-cirles that run from pole to pole passing through the equator. Such lines are also called meridians. Uae fike the equator which is centrally placed between the poles, any meridian could have been taken to begin the numbering of longitude. It was finaly decided in 1884, by intemational agreement, to Ghoose as the zero meridian the One which passes through the Royal Astronomical Observatory Greenvich near London. This isthe Mer dan (© from which all other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to 180° Since the earth is phe and has a crcunerene caleulated at 25,000 mils ig linear distance each of the 360 degress of longitude is 25,000-360 or 61 miles As the peralels of Inttude become shorer poleward 30 the meridians of longitude, which ie poles, enclose a narrower space The degre of longitude therefore decreases in fength. Te is longest at the equator where it measures 69.172 miles, At 25° it is 62.73 | mile, at 45" it is 49 males, at 75° 18 miles and at the poles O mile There is $0 much dierence in the length of degres of longitude ouside the topics, that they are not used for calculating distances in the case of latitude. But they have one very important function, they determine relation to GMT. or Greenvich Mean is sometimes refered to as World Time. Time, whic Longitude and Time Tal Time. Since the earth makes one complete revolution of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it pases though 15 in ne how of in mes The tanh ia fom wes oes eery 1" Bo cd by Thou, Coe sere if we go mesmand loc i by 1 hour We may thus conclude that places east 2 Grecavich ete son are aod gan ing Shee pass wet of Gres the sn lt Xe oe tne Ive bnew GMT, to fd local te nen toads’ te ie ib the mecha of boars foe the enon Beced bdo A dep meniey ad Oe ol Wal be Eas-Gom dd (EGA) and West Lose Sabet (WL) You cold xn Jour own aes for the abrtnns Hence nae noe, Lindon (Lonptse, OW), the hal tie for Maas (0°) wil te $ Hous 20 minutes ahead of" Condon or'20" pat But the lel ine fo Now Yor 4°H) wil be hous 36 ines bonne atin Nan pain ee Londoners re ving uch Indias il ‘have dinner and New Yorkers will have rectee Fig. 12). This is difficult to believe, but it is true. "Retin of heh tn es at Doi ate fle luc epee faite tine of day F aed There aty vay of tein tbe ons ef space The snpat way sto compa ie the with GMT by lnesing to BBC. ras x Fig. 12 Longitude and time — (hen ite noon in London, Weis520 pm. in Madras (00" E) and 7.06 am, in New York (74°). > For example: the caplain of a ship in the midst of the cocan wants 10 find out in which longitude his Shp lies If GM-T is 8.00 a.m. and it is noon in the local region, it means that he is four hours Mead of Greenwich, and must be east of Greenwich. His longitude is 4 « 15° or 60°E. ‘Standard Time and Time Zones Ifeach town were to keep the time ofits own meridian, there would be much difference in local time between fone town and the other. 10 a.m. in Georgetown, Penang would be 10.10n Kota Bharu (a difference of fin longitude). In larger countries such as Canada, USA. China, India and USSR. the confusion ing from the differences alone would drive the people mad. Travellers going from one end of the Peuntry to the other would have to keep changing their watches if they wanted to keep their appoint- iments Tiss impracticable and very inconvenient. “To avoid all these difficulties, a system of sand tue if observed by all countries, Most countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian oftheir countries, The Indian Government has accep- ted the meridian of 82:5* east for the standard time ‘which is Shrs 30 mins ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. ‘The whole world has in fact been divided into 24 Standard Time Zones, each of which differs from the next by 15° in longitude or one hour in time Most countries adhere to this division but due to the peculiar shapes and locations of some countries, reasonable deviations from the Standard Time Zones cannot be avoided (Fig. 13). Larger countries like USA, Canada and USSR. which have a great cast to adopt several time zones for practical purposes: ‘USI. the largest country, which extends through tlmost 165° of longitude is divided into cleven time zones. When it is 10.00 pm. on a Monday night in Leningrad, it wil be almost 7.00 a.m, th following ‘Tuesday morning in Viadivostock. Travellers along the Trans-Siberian Railway have to adjust their watches almost a dozen times before they reach their destination. Both Canada and USA. have five time zones—the Auantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific Time Zones. The difference between the local. time of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly five bours (Fig. 13). Fig. 18 The five time zones of North AmericaThe International Date Line ‘A traveller going eastwards gains time from Green~ ‘wich until he reaches the meridian 180°E. when he will be 12 hours abead of GMT. Similarly in ‘going westwards, he loses 12 hours when he reaches T80°W. There is thus a total difference of 24 hours ff & whole day between the two sides of the 180" ‘meridian. This is the International Date Line where the date changes by exactly one day when itis crossed. ‘A traveller crossing the date line from east 10 west ‘a day (because of the loss in time he has made); tnd while crossing the dateline from west 10 east be '8 day (because of the gain in time be encoun- tered), Thus when it is midnight, Friday on the ‘Asiatic side, by crossing the line eastwards, he gains ‘day; it will be midnight Thursday on the Amencan ‘side, Le he experiences the same calendar date twice! ‘When Magellan’s ship eventually arrived home in Spain. in 1522 after circumnangating the world fom the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Osean and ‘westwards across the International Date Line, the trew knew nothing about adding a day for the one Fig, 14 The International Dat Line they had missed, They thought they bad arrived fon the Sth of September. They were shocked to te told that the date was 6th September. A modern ircraft leaving Wellington at 5.00 pm_ oo Friday aches Hawait 4100 miles away at 2.00 pm. the Same Friday The same aircraft on its return jour bey from Hawai lenves at 6.00 pm. on Friday but roves at Wellington at 11.00 am, on Sunday. Cam xpi this? ~ L Date Line in the mid-Pacific "ne fig. cov on esr it mean be ee Of them keep Asta or New Zealand standard fothers follow the Amencan date and time Internationa) Date Line s shown in Fig. 14 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1 With the aid of annotated hagrams attempt to prove that the earth w spherical. Give as ‘many reasons as you cat. 2. Explain with the aid of furly accurate dia- grams, bow the tlt of the earth axis on its ‘eb plane around the sun causes: (a) the seasons () the variauons io the length of day and sight (@) the altude ofthe midday sun to change at different tunes of the yar. 3. Explain the differences between any three of the following: ‘a) perehon and epbcon () parallels of latitude and meridians of (©) the earth's rotation and the earths re: (@) solstice and equinox (@). Standard Time and Greenwich Mean 4. Explain any three of the following terms connected with the earth and it planctary reatons iL galaxy it Pime Meridian fi, epoca orbit in. Internacional Date Line 5. Biher: Give a 5, er Gras ep un fe (2) Daylight increases 8 0 polevardsin ° ners me ym of twilight in Brit boos an 8 Akpoatiy etna ae Lay M moat oo ‘Wednesday aa Cotte Amen ih, Ty, (Or Work out the following. What 1s the approximate distance in a (b) Chicago, (ong. straight ine between Cairo (at 30°0 N., (©) Bombay (long. 73°E.) Tong. 31°S'E.)and Durban (at.29°57'S, iii, The captain of a ship observed that it Jong MSE)? was local noon, He t fand listened t0 the 7.00 am. BBC ti. When tis 200 pm. in Greenwich, what isthe local ume of ‘news What was his longitude? SELECTED QUESTIONS FROM CAMBRIDGE OVERSEAS SCHOOL CERTIFICATE! PAPERS 1 (a) Explain the meaning ofthe terms Equinox’ and ‘Solstice. (3) Witnthe aid of diagrams show bow they ae related to the movements of the earth (1967) 2. Answer the following: Aor Scstibe any ive experiments or obsrations which support the belief tha the earth i roughly & sphere. () Explain why mean temperatures for London are lowest in winter 1) Exfluin why the lca lock time in the Sama Islands (171°W) was noon on Ist November when 12 the Fij Islands (178°E.), i was 11.00 a.m. on 2nd November. (1966) 3. Explain the following: (a) Polar air routes follow great circles. {0) When its noon at Caito (30°E), the local time in New York (75°W,) is 5.00 1) On at March at noon, was observed thatthe shadow cast by a wall ft. B ins high pointed norh- vacd and was 7 in, long. The observer was abl to calculate his latitude to be about 7*N. (1965) 44. Select two of (a), (), (6) and draw diagrams to illustrate your answers: (a "Calculate the longitude of the postion ofa ship whose navigation officer observes that Greenwich Mean Time is 14.16 hours when the local time is noon. fi. Explain the geographical facts which enable you to make the calculation. (b) Explain fully why 25th December in New Zealand may be ove of the hottest days of the year. (Way musta trmeler, when crosing North America from New York to the west coast, alter his watch at special places (1964) 5. With the aid of annotated diagrams, explain the following: (a) The apparent daly movement of the sun and its changes during the year as observed i. atthe Equator. ia, ataplace S0°N. (b) The relationship between latitude and the ange of elevation of the noonday sun. (1963) 6. Explain the effet of: (@) Latitude on temperature. () Latitude on the length of day and night. (©) Ether Altitude on temperature. Or Longitude on time. (1961)Chapter 2 The Earth's Crust The Structure of the Earth In order to understand the geography of the external landforms of the earth, it is essential that we have some idea of what lies within the earth’ crust. It is rot possible to know exactly how the earth was formed about 4,500 million years ago, but from the ‘evidence of volcanic eruptions, earthquake waves, ‘deep-mine operations and crustal borings the follow- ing facts are quite cleat. he rust temas) "> oceonsthyrompere) 1m showing the structure an Fig, 18 A soci ee ‘composition of the earth “The earth is made up of several concentric layers (Fig. 15). The outer layer is the earth's crust—the tiespiere—which comprises two distinct, parts ‘The upper part consists of granitic rocks and forms silica and alumina so itis the sial Tt bas an average density of 2.7. The lower part i a continuous zone of denser bas) ee Forming the ocean floors, comprising main ran magnesium. I is therfore called sma and has an average density of 3.0. The sial and the sim Together form the earth's crust which varies from only 3-4 miles beneath the oceans (© ae a Sonar nine, a ar ie Fs mantle o mesosphere) about 1.00 se ta orem end emer ao be ieee cae mgm oe ‘Miah some mick and is called m/e ‘The temperat are said 10 be Acid igneous rocks, such as ante, are less dense and are lighter in colour than (> rocks These contain a greater proportion of basic oxides, eg of iron, aluminium or magnesium, and are thus denser and darker in colour. in terms of origin there are two main classes of igneous rocks. 1. Platonle rocks. These are igneous rocks, formed oe ec eopied ind solidites slowly 50 that lare,easly-recognized rystals have been able to form, These intrusive ocks, such a3 granite, diorte and gabbro, are Exposed at the surface by the processes of denudation anderosion. A? 2 Voeanic rocks. These are molten rocks poured Cut of voleanoes as Iva They solidify rapidly on the cath’ surface and the cst ae small fo eirusve rock ‘and forms lava flows, lava sheets and lava plateaux, 6 those of Antrim in Northern Ireland, the Deccan Platesu in India and the Columbia-Snake Plateau in USA. Some kinds of basalt solidify in a very peculiar manner to form long polygonal colurms ‘A well-known example is the columnar basalt of the Giant's Causeway in Antrim. Some of the molten lava may push its way to the surface through clefts and passages, solidifying as vertical dvkcs or hori- onial ill Theit origin and occurrence will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3. Most igneous rocks are and resistant, For this reason, they are quarried for -road-making and polished asmonumentsand grave- Fig. 16 A section showing how the continent (SIAL) {oats on the denser SIMA core is probably a erytalline or solid mass. Parts of the earths erust are immersed by 0 ‘and seas. These form the hy irosphere, Exten Skywards for over fifteen miles, the earth is envelo by amass of gases which make up the atmos ‘The Classification of Rocks ‘Thecarths erst is made up of various types of rod (fering from ope another in texture, stn Solour permeability, mode of occurence and St resistance to denudation. A knowledge of th fucks is of paramount importance to gcologis ‘iio study the composition and plysial history ‘the earth, but the geographer, too, needs a Imowledge of the most common rocks and ‘Ristionship with landforms. Rocks alo form t buss for soil and determine to some extent the 1 OF natural vegetation and land ws, 30 we ust b {fae acquaintance with the rocks around us. Generally speaking, all rocks may be cl into tree major groups—igneous, sedimentary metamorphic. scoring 10 thet origin and pearance. Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and fkation of mele eck om) fm beneath ‘earths crust. They are normally crystalline structure. They do not occur in strata (lye ‘nor do they contain fosis. Igneous rocks may subdivided on the basis of mineral composi ‘When they contain & high proportion of silica th Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks are formed from » cumulated over long periods, usually under water. ‘They are distinguished from the other rock types in their characteristic layer formation and are termed stratified rocks The strata may vary in thickness from a few inches to many feet. The rocks may be coarse or finerained, soft or hard. The ‘materials that form sedimentary rocks may be brought by streams, glaciers, winds or even animals ‘They are noncrysalline and often contain sis of animals, plants and other micro-organisms. Sedi- ‘mentary rocks are thus the most varied in their formation of all rocks. Sedimentary rocks are classified according to their sg and different kinds of rocks formed during the same period are grouped together. Itis more useful o know the characteristic of the various kinds of rocks. Sedimentary rocks may be clasifed under three major categorie in accordance with their origin and composition. 1. Mechaaically formed sedimentary rocks. These rocks have been formed from the accumulation of which have ‘Deen cemented: togethers"Sandstones are probably the most familiar sedimentary rocks. They are made from sand grains, often quartz fragments derived from granites. Their texture, composition ‘and colour vary tremendously. Many types of sandstones have been quarried for building purposes for for making grindstones. A coarser type of sand- stone is known as grit, When larger pebbles are firmly cemented to form a rock it is called conglome- sate when the pebbles are rounded, or breovis when the fragments are angular. The finer sedimentary materials form ls, widely used for brick-making, Shale or mudstone. Sand and gravel may oocur in ‘uncemented form. 2 Organically formed sedimentary rocks. These rocks are formed from the remains of living organisms such as corals or shellfish, whose fleshy parts have been decomposed, leaving behind the hard shells ‘The most common rocks formed in this way are of the calcareous type. They include ‘chat? ‘The carbonaccows rocks are also organically formed but from vegetative matter—swamps and forests, The pressure of overlying sediments has compressed the plant remains into compaét masses of carbon which eventually become peat, ligne or ‘oul, all of which bear great economic valve. fone kind or another strata which once formed the beds of seas or lakes Gypsum or calcium sulphate is obtained from the evaporation of salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea, ‘which have a very high salinity. In similar ways ‘potash and nitrates may be formed. Metamorphic Rocks [AIL rocks whether igneous or sedimentary may ‘become metamorphic or changed rocks under great heat and pressure. Their original character and appearance may be greatly altered by suck forces particularly during intense earth movements. In this Ianner, clay may be metamorphosed into sla limestone into marble, sandstone into Guartite. granite into iss, shale into schist and coal into eraphite Bear Kuala Lumpur. Compare this hill with the limestone features shown in Chapter 7 Jabatan Penerangan The Influence of Rock Types on Landscape The appearance and characteristic features of land- forms are greatly influenced by the underlying rock type. Softer rocks like clay and shale are worn down much faster than harder rocks like granite. Within \yosi Malaysia the resistant granites form the high ground of the Main Range and the Eastern Range, where several peaks rise to over 2,000 feet. ‘The landscape is one of smooth slopes and rounded hill-tops. The highest peak in West Malaysia, Gunong Tahan (7,186 feet) is composed of even more resistant quartzite. Shales, schists and sandstones, being less resistant, form the much lower, rounded hills, Recent river sediments form flat plains. The limestones, resistant because of their permeability, form prominent steep-sided hills such as those near Ipoh and in Perlis. arth Movements fad the Major Landforms The face of the earth is constantly being reshaped y—funning water, rain, ts of by the agen 14 a. frost,’ sun, wind, glaciers and waves, so that g present landforms are very varied and diverse 5 these agents only modify the pattern of mo plateaux and plains which have been modelled movements of the earth’s crust. Since the dawn of geological time, no less nine orogenic or mountain building m i have taken place, folding and fracturing the ean, crust. Some of them occurred in Pre-Cambria times between 600-3,500 million years ago. The three more recent orogenies are the Caledoni Hercynian and Alpine. The Caledonian about 3 million years ago raised the mountains of Scandinay and Scotland, and is represented in North Ameria ‘These ancient mountains have been worn down ani no longer exhibit the striking forms that they mu once have had. In a later period, during the lis von earth movements about 240 million years a, were formed such ranges as the Ural Mountas the Pennines and Welsh Highlands in Britain, t Harz Mountains in Germany, the Appalachians i America as well as the high plateaux of Siberia ax China. These mountains have also been reduced i size by the various sculpturing forces. We are now living in an era very close to the li of the major orogenic movements of the cat the \ipinc, about 30 million years ago, Young ft ‘mountain ranges were buckled up and overthrust on gigantic scale. Being the most recently form these ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, Ant and Rockies (shown in Fig. 17) are the loftiest a the most imposing. Their peaks are sometia several miles high. But the time will come wtt these lofty ranges will be lowered like those th existed before them. From the eroded materil new rocks will be formed, later to be uplifted to fo the next generation of mountains. Types of Mountains Mountains make up a large proportion of # earth’s surface. Based on their mode of formal four main types of mountains can be distinguis!* 1. Fold mountains. These mountains are by far! most widespread and also the most import! ‘They are caused by large-scale earl) move!" when stresses are set up in the earth’s crust. SY Stresses may be due to the increased load of ! overlying rocks, flow movements in the msl! magmatic intrusions into the crust, or the ¢xp#" ‘oF contraction of some part of the carth. Such stresses are initiated, the rocks are svbié to compressive forces that produce wrinklité17 Structural divisions of the earth ing along the lines of weakness. Ag illustrated ig. 18(a) and (b) folding effectively shortens the "5 crust, creating from the original level surface ies of ‘waves’. The upfolded waves are called ticlines and the troughs or downfolds are formation of up- and downfolds closely resembles of the wrinkles of a table-cloth when it is pushed either one or both sides of the table. Tn the great fold mountains of the world such as ste nelines. —— rove = pete ernest ® }. 18 (a) The horizontal strata of the earth’s crust before folding (b) Compression shortens the crust forming fold mountains the Himalayas, Rockies, Andes and Alps, due to the complexity of the compressional forces, the folds developed much more complicated forms. When the crest of a fold is pushed too far, an overfold is formed (Fig. 19). If it is pushed still further, it becomes a recumbent fold (Fig. 19). In extreme cases, fractures may occur in the crust, so that the upper part of the recumbent fold slides forward cover the lower part along a thrust plane, forming an overthrust fold. The over-riding portion of the thrust fold is termed a nappe (Fig. 19). Since the rock strata have been elevated to great heights, sometimes measurable in miles, fold mountains may anticline simple fols synetine symmetric fold recumbent fold ‘rate (aul tine) Fig. 19 Types of folding be called mountains of elevation. The fold moun- tains are also closely associated with volcanic activity. They contain many active volcanoes, especially in the Circum-Pacific fold mountain system. They also contain rich mineral resources such as tin, copper, gold and petroleum. 15Fig. 20 Normal, reverse and transcurrent faults 2, Block mountains. When the earth’s crust bends folding occurs, but when it cracks, takes place (Fig. 20). Faulting may be caused by tension or compression, forces which lengthen or shorten the earth’s crust, causing a section of it to subside or to rise above the surrounding level. Figs. 21(a) and (b) explain how faulting causes and their counterparts t i imentary rocks of the Kenny Hill Minor feu faults have storied the strate GC. Morgan 16 In Fig. 21(@) earth movements generate that tend to pull the crust apart, and faults, developed. If the block enclosed by the fay remains as it is or rises, and the land on either s subsides, the upstanding block becomes the ho or block mountain. The faulted edges are ¥ steep, with scarp slopes and the summit is alms level, e.g. the Hunsruck Mountains, the Vosges a Black Forest of the Rhineland. Tension may al ft i ao Fig. 21 (a) Block mountain (horst) formed by tens! when faults develop ae er ag a {b) Rift valley formed by ion whe ar uby formed by compression {c) Later stage when overhanging sides # worn back‘cause the central portion to be let down between two adjacent fault blocks forming a graben or rift valley, which will have steep walls. The East ‘African Rift Valley system is 3,000 miles Jong, ‘stretching from East Africa through the Red Sea ia. re — forces set up by earth movements ‘may produce a thrust or reverse fault and shorten the crust. A block may be raised or lowered in relation to surrounding areas. Fig. 21(b) illustrates, fa rift valley formed in this way. In general large- scale block mountains and rift valleys are due to tension rather than compression. The faults may ‘occur in series and be further complicated by tilting ‘and other irregularities. Denudation through the ‘ages modifies faulted landforms. 3. Volcanic mountains. These are, in fact, volcanoes which are built up from material ejected ftom fissures in the earth’s crust. The materials include ‘molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and liquid mud. They fall around the vent in suc- cessive layers, building up a characteristic volcanic cone (Fig. 22). Volcanic mountains are often called mountains of accumulation, They are common in the Circum-Pacific belt and include such volcanic ks as Mt. Fuji Japan) Mt. Mayon (Philippines), ‘Mt. Merapi (Sumatra), Mt. Agung (Bali) and Mt. Catopaxi (Ecuador). Further details are given in Chapter 3. Fig 22 A volcano or ‘mountain of accumulation’ with successive layers of lava 4. Residual mountains. These are mountains evolv- ed by denudation, Where the general level of the Jand has been lowered by the agents of denudation Some very resistant areas may remain and these form residual mountains, eg. Mt. Manodnock in U.S.A. Residual Mountains may also evolve from plateaux which have been dissected by rivers into hills and valleys like the ones illustrated in Fig, 23. Here the ridges and peaks are all very similar in height. Examples of dissected plateaux, where the erie Serdtion Fig. 23 Residual mountains or mountains of denudation. faito down-cutting streams have eroded the uplands int mountains of denudation, are the Highlands of Scotland, Scandinavia and the Deccan Plateau. Types of Plateaux . Plateaux are elevated uplands with extensive level surfaces, and usually descend steeply to the surround- ing lowland. They are sometimes referred to as tablelands. Like all highlands, plateaux are subjected to erosional processes. As a result, their original characteristics may be greatly altered. According to their mode of formation and their physical appear- ance, plateaux may be grouped into the following types. 1. Tectonic plateaux, These are formed by carth movements which cause uplifi, and are normally of a considerable size, and fairly uniform altitude. ‘They include continental blocks like the Deccan Plateau in India. Some of the tectonic plateaux may be tilted like the Meseta of central Iberia, or faulted like the Harz of Germany. When plateaux are enclosed by fold mountains, they are known as intermont plateaux. Examples are the Tibetan Plateau between the Himalayas and the Kunlun, and the Bolivian Plateau between two ranges of the Andes. Intermont plateaux are some of the highest and the most extensive plateaux in the world, 2, Volcanic plateaux. Molten lava may issue from the carth’s crust and spread over its surface to form successive sheets of basaltic lava. These soldify to form a lava plateau. Some of the better known volcanic plateaux are the Antrim Plateau of Northern Ireland and the north-westem part of the Deccan Plateau. The most remarkable plateau built by lava is the Columbia-Snake Plateau which covers an area almost twice as big as Malaysia. Each layer of the lava flow is over 100 feet thick and the entire dept} Of successive lava layers is estimated to be ty i o a , al