Key Aspects and Challenges of Sustainable Production of Saccharina japonica -Yee Lung, Lai April 9th, 2021 NMIT,
-Yee Lung, Lai April 9th, 2021 NMIT, Nelson, New Zealand
Abstract
Saccharina japonica is the most important aquaculture species in term of production volume. The production
of S. japonica is well established and potential improvement are being explored especially for open ocean farming.
Seaweed farming can help achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set but the United Nation (Thomsen &
Zhang, 2020). The downward price trend on seaweeds seems to cast doubt on New Zealand as there is no significant
seaweed farming activity despite having established companies processing wild seaweeds. The farming of S. japoni-
ca is generally considered to have positive impact on the environment, but its processing has the potential to reverse
its positive impacts. Biorefinery appears to be the key to realize the full environment, economic, and social potential
of seaweeds.
Introduction
Commercial Significance of S. japonica
According to 2020 SOFIA Report by FAO, a total of 114.5
million tons of biomass (82.1 million tons of aquatic animals (sale
value of USD 250.1 billion) and 32.4 million tons of aquatic plants
(USD 13.3 billion)) was produced in 2018 through aquaculture, and
S. japonica contributed 10% (11.45 million tons) of that total bio-
mass (FAO, 2020). In other word, S. japonica is the most important
aquaculture species in term of volume. More than 95% of S. ja-
ponica, a primary producer was contributed by countries in Asia;
85% for human consumption, 15% for beauty and wellness prod- Saccharina japonica on ropes in north-west China (photograph © Dr D.L.
Duan Delian; courtesy Zi-Min Hu)
ucts, soil fertilizers, and animal feeds (O’Shea et al., 2019). Sea-
weed market is expected to grow 8.9% per year until 2050, and the market value is expected to reach 22.13 billion US
Dollars in 2024 (Leandro et al., 2020).
Environmental Significance of S. japonica and Seaweed Farming
Total volume of wild-harvested seaweeds has been stable for decades while output of farmed seaweed has been
steadily increase (FAO 2019). Seaweeds are primary producer. Unlike other land based primary producers, seaweeds
do not require fresh water, fertilizer, and arable land. (Visch et al., 2020). In addition, seaweed farming benefits the
environment in the following ways:
CO2 and Ocean Acidification - Global atmospheric CO2 level in January 2021 was 415.13ppm (US Department of
Commerce, 2021). Seaweeds’ photosynthesis efficiency is 4 times greater than terrestrial biomass (Thompson et al.,
2019). Seaweed farming can reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide and alleviate ocean acidification (Kraan, 2013)
Table 1. Photosynthesis Efficiency and Productivity per Unit Area of Land Crop and Seaweed.
Land Crop Seaweed
Photosynthesis efficiency (%) 1.8 ~ 2.2 6~8 (Choi et al., 2017)
Production (ton/ha) 180 565 (Xu et al., 2014)
CO2 uptake (ton/ha) 5–10 36.7 (Xu et al., 2014)
Biodiversity - Several studies have suggested seaweed farms increase local biodiversity as aquatic organisms can use
the farm as habitat or as shelter (Campbell et al., 2019; Walls et al., 2016; Wood et al.,2017, Visch et al., 2020).
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Key Aspects and Challenges of S. japonica Aquaculture Conclusion
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Cultivation of S. japonica
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S. japonica is the most important aquaculture species in 2018 in term
China is the biggest producer of S. japonica. Ropes are seeded and nursed in greenhouse during early summer and then moved to sea
of volume. Seaweed farming provides valuable environmental services, im-
for grow out in the sea in autumn using long line culture method (FAO, 2004). Harvest timing is critical in order to get the right balance on
yield and product quality (Scoggan et al., 1989).
proves socioeconomic status of low-income/rural groups in developing
countries, provide source of bioactive compounds that can improve human
health. Some current challenges include downward price trend, under-
developed market outside Asia, lack clinical trials to validate suggested
health benefits, lack of technology to fully realize the value cascade of sea-
Farmers handling farmed kelp weed, societal friction for coastal seaweed farm development, lack cost-
http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Laminaria_japonica/en
effectiveness to implement renewable energy, green technology, open ocean
farming, and IMTA.
In addition to already discussed current and future challenges under
‘Sustainability and Seaweed Farming’, global climate change will cast chal-
Sun-drying of S. japonica lenges to most aquaculture species that depend on predictable temperature,
http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Laminaria_japonica/en
Factors that affect yield include light, grazer species, fouling, strong current, salinity, temperature, and diseases (FAO, 2004). Diseases in S. dissolved carbon dioxide, salinity, and the lack of severe weather. Seaweed
japonica include green rot disease, white rot disease, blister disease, malformation disease, green rot disease, and frond twist disease; these farming, or including seaweed into any aquaculture system has the potential
diseases are caused by inadequate light intensity, temperature, nutrients, and/or infection (Wang et al., 2014). Heavy metals can accumulate to mitigate the impacts cause by global climate change.
in seaweeds and may cause harm to consumers (Giusti, 2001). These challenges can be easily overcame if the production could be intensi-
fied; an aseptic closed system with ambient and nutrient control could eliminate all causes of diseases. However, most farmers aren’t con-
vinced to intensify their production as the price of S. japonica is very low (average around 390 US Dollars per ton) (FishStatJ, 2020).
Sustainability and Seaweed Farming
Economic Social
Current seaweed farms are mostly extensive, downward price trend makes intensive seaweed Health benefits of seaweed have been discussed as a mean to increase economic value hierarchy, but fundamentally increase supply
farming unlikely (World Bank Group, 2016). Seaweed farming provides valuable ecological ser- of seaweed through aquaculture will benefit anyone in the society who takes advantage of seaweeds. With current global consumption
vices (Visch et al., 2020) especially in the form of IMTA (Chopin et al., 2012). It should be ex- trend it is expected that food demand will increase 70% (5.4 billion tons) by 2050 (Forster & Radulovich, 2015). It will be highly
plored that these services to be financially paid for through C and N credits in order to improve unlikely that the world can achieve that required output by land due to soil degradation (Adiku et al., 2021). Seaweeds grow 4 times
economical sustainability of seaweed farming (Chopin et al., 2012). faster than terrestrial plants, but it is not very common in Western diet.
Seaweed farming promotes gender equality; seaweed farming empowers women in Asia and Africa as is mostly practiced by women
Majority of the farmed kelp is used for human food. However, as (Torres et al. 2019) suggest-
while bringing in additional income to the family (Radulovich et al., 2015). Another study concluded that small scale seaweed farming
ed that is not the full economic potential of seaweeds (Figure 3). Seaweeds have been used in
in Indonesia benefited women’s well-being (Larson et al., 2021).
Traditional Chinese Medicine, science has recently, slowly catching up to the health benefits of
Extensive seaweed farming is good for developing countries as it requires smaller capital investment and provides additional income
seaweeds (Padam & Chye, 2020). Recent study showed that the sulphated polysaccharides from https://www.greenbiz.com/sites/default/files/2020-07/kelpforest_shutterstock_AndrewbStowe.jpg
to the family. However in developed countries, open ocean farming seaweed farming (without accounting for cost and technical chal-
Saccharina japonica bind strongly to SARS-CoV-2 SGPs, indicating that they might be good
lenges) is easier as the visual impact of extensive coastal seaweed farm. Open ocean seaweed farming using wind farm structures is be-
candidates to prevent and/or treat COVID-19 (Jin et al., 2020). However, the health benefits of
Citation ing actively discussed.
these bioactive compounds are not yet well-known by the consumers, limited clinical trials on
Going forward, in order to lessen the expansion of seaweed farming, several lessons can be learnt from wind farm; ways to reduce
fucoidan (Fitton et al., 2019), and only animal trials on fucoxanthin (Bae et al., 2020) and phlo-
visual impact, participation or even ownership from local communities, while advertising the environmental benefits should achieve
rotannis (Erpel et al., 2020).
smoother process for seaweed farm expansion (Leiren et al., 2020). Work should be put in to promote the consumption of seaweed as
food or as supplement. Likely cost for those investment could be immense; however, if this low-hanging food security fruit is not
picked, the worst scenario result would be unimaginable.
Environment
The environmental benefits of seaweed farming have been discussed in introduction, but the processing of seaweed could poten-
Going forward, in order for seaweed to move up the economic value hierarchy more clinical
tially be harmful to the environment. Seaweeds are high in moisture and to prevent degradation, producers dry the seaweed with sun
trials need to be done to validate the health benefits, and then a good marketing campaign needs
and salt, which the UV light can deactivate bioactive compounds in seaweeds. In order to maintain bioactive potency, seaweeds need
to be done to inform the consumer if the health benefits are validated. Biorefinery is required to
to be dried in dark area which usually requires electricity (Santiago & Moreira, 2020) . Also to extract bioactive compounds, organic
further extract the economic value of seaweeds; at each proximate components of seaweeds,
solvents are used. Some organic solvents maybe be harmful to consumer or environment.
there are different compounds that can contribute to its economic value (Torres et al., 2019) . In
term of food safety, it is logical to consume the components separately. For example, one can Extensive seaweed farming provides environmental services which should be encourage. IMTA Integrated Multitrophic Aquacul-
gain benefits from the prebiotics in seaweed but risk over-intake of iodine which may affect thy- ture, biofilter nutrient pollution while increase production and carrying capacity (Chopin et al., 2012).
roid (Forster & Radulovich, 2015). Clinical trials and biorefinery processing require huge invest- Going forward, in order to expand seaweed farming, one must carefully consider the impacts of establishing or extension of sea-
ment in time and money, investor could lose all the investment. However, many animal studies weed farm. In order to have authentically eco-friendly seaweed product, the farm must not destroy natural marine habitats like man-
showed promising signs of the health benefits, and with fast technology advancement, efficient groves, coral reefs, or sea grass. On the same note, renewable energy source and green biorefinery technologies need to be developed.
and cost effective biorefinery process should be soon achieved. With the scale of seaweed being Not doing so would risk marketing/branding issue as consumers are more and more aware of sustainability issues as these consumers
produced today, the scale of economic benefit will be immense when seaweed moves up to its probably support seaweed products for sustainability reasons.
economy hierarchy, which will solidify economy pillar of sustainability.