reCollections

Caring for Collections Across Australia

CARING FOR
CULTURAL MATERIAL 1

Foreword page iii

A Note to Readers page iv

Introduction page v

Paper page 1

Books page 31

Photographs page 67

Paintings page 109

Electronic Information Media page 131

Acknowledgments page 143

© Commonwealth of Australia 1998 on behalf of the Heritage Collections Council
ISBN 0 642 37384 1 (boxed set)
ISBN 0 642 37385 X (this volume)
Information presented in this book may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or
training purposes, subject to the inclusion of acknowledgment of source and provided no
commercial usage or sale of material occurs. Reproduction for purposes other than those
given above requires the written permission of the Heritage Collections Council. Requests
for permission should be sent to the HCC Secretariat at the address given below.
One copy of this publication is available to Australian institutions on application. Multiple
copies to Australian institutions, copies to overseas institutions and copies to individuals
will be charged at A$100 plus postage and handling. Copies may be obtained by writing to:
Heritage Collections Council Secretariat
GPO Box 2154
Canberra ACT 2601
Australia
Phone (02) 6271 1094
Fax (02) 6271 1079
Email hcc@dcita.gov.au
This publication will be available online at the Australian Museums On Line website—
http://amol.org.au
Produced by the Commonwealth Department of Communications, Information Technology
and the Arts.
Cover images (from left):
Detail of photograph courtesy of Museum of Western Australia.
Detail of bark painting, Lightning Snake Story, Douglas (Nawurapu) Wununmurra.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum.
Detail of photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia.
Detail of hand-coloured 19th century children’s book. Photograph courtesy of
Vicki Humphrey.
There are an estimated 41 million objects held in Australian museums, art galleries and historical collections.
Collectively they tell the story of our history and our country and contribute to our sense of identity and
national pride. Increasing the conservation skills of people who care for these collections is an important
factor in protecting this heritage, and is a key goal of the Heritage Collections Council.

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia has been developed with this goal in mind. This set
of practical guidebooks is designed by the Council for use principally by non-conservators who are working
with Australia’s cultural heritage. The guidebooks are also a teacher-friendly resource which can be used in
professional development workshops.

Many of Australia’s most experienced conservators have been involved in researching, writing and editing
reCollections, through the Conservation Training Australia consortium, led by Artlab Australia, which
first developed the package, and through the Collections Management and Conservation Working Party of
the Council.

The Heritage Collections Council’s mission is to promote excellence in the management, care and provision of
access to Australia’s heritage collections so that together, they reflect Australia’s cultural and natural
diversity. The Council is a collaboration between the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments and
the museums sector, and comprises people working in a wide range of cultural heritage institutions across
the breadth of urban and regional Australia. reCollections is an important component of the Council’s
National Conservation and Preservation Strategy for Australia’s Heritage Collections.

Rob Palfreyman
Chair
Heritage Collections Council

Heritage Collections Council

GPO Box 2154, Canberra ACT 2601, AUSTRALIA
Phone: (02) 6271 1094 Fax: (02) 6271 1079 Email: hcc@dcita.gov.au

Foreword iii
 A note to readers

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia

has been written by practicing conservators and is intended to provide
a sound guide for the preventive care of cultural items. Active
conservation treatment of cultural material should only be undertaken
by, or on the advice of, a trained conservator. Before relying on any of
the material in this guide, users should check its accuracy, currency,
completeness and relevance for their purposes and should obtain
appropriate professional advice.

If in doubt,
consult a
conservator
To obtain the names of accredited practicing conservators who are in a
position to meet your particular conservation requirements contact the
Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material (Inc.)
a national organisation for conservators and people interested in the
preservation of cultural material.

AICCM
GPO Box 1638
Canberra ACT 2601
National Secretary Phone: (02) 6254 8695
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~conserv/aiccmhc.htm

iv A note to readers
 Introduction to

reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia
Our heritage is represented by a vast array of cultural material, from established national icons holding
pride of place in major museums and galleries, to everyday items such as household appliances or
newspapers which carry meaning for local communities or families. Yet so often the links to our heritage
are tenuous because the objects which represent our culture are in danger of decay. However, there is
a lot we can do to protect valued objects and collections and so prolong the life of our cultural heritage.
reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia provides practical advice and guidance designed
to help the reader care for their heritage.

reCollections explains how to apply preventive conservation techniques to cultural objects and collections.
Preventive conservation optimises the environmental conditions in which objects and collections are housed.
Controlling light and ultraviolet radiation, humidity and temperature, biological pests, and dust and pollutants
helps to prevent damage and decay to cultural material. Preventive conservation also means ensuring that
good handling, transportation, storage and display techniques are used at all times. Applying preventive
methods to the care of cultural artefacts and collections can prolong and protect their life for current and
future generations of Australians.

While reCollections provides conservation information about the care of cultural objects and collections,
it is important to recognise that all except the simplest conservation treatments should be undertaken
by trained conservators. Active conservation treatment is a response to the damage of cultural artefacts,
a highly skilled field which often involves the use of chemicals and complicated technical procedures.
Unless performed with a thorough knowledge of appropriate techniques and with the right equipment and
materials, conservation treatments can do more harm than good to the objects being worked upon, and
can be hazardous to the people performing the work. Conservation treatments should only be conducted by,
or on the explicit advice of, a trained conservator.

To complement the preventive conservation advice contained in the volumes Damage and Decay and Handling,
Transportation, Storage and Display, reCollections supplies detailed information concerning the care of some
of the most common cultural materials. These range from the paper and other materials on which so much
of Australia’s cultural history may be seen, to special considerations in caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultural artefacts. In addition, modern practices concerning the management of collections and
of the people who look after those collections are outlined.

Introduction v
Paper
Objectives page 3
Introduction page 3
Paper in collections page 3
What is paper? page 4
Ingredients and properties of paper page 4
What are the most common types of damage? page 4
Common causes of damage page 6
The do’s and don’ts of handling flat paper page 7
The do’s and don’ts of repair and labelling page 7
Guidelines for storing and displaying flat paper page 8
Materials suitable for the
storage and display of paper page 9
Preparing flat paper for storage page 10
Housing flat paper page 11
Mounting/hinging flat paper page 11
Protective enclosures for flat paper page 15
Storage boxes for flat paper page 18
Displaying flat paper page 20
Framing flat paper items page 21
Paper items with special needs page 22
Papyrus and Parchment page 23
Some miscellaneous information page 23
Summary of conditions for storage and display page 24
Paper in Australia’s climatic zones page 25
MORE ABOUT PAPER
Cellulose fibres and paper quality page 26
Acidity and alkalinity page 27
For further reading page 27
Self-evaluation quiz page 27
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 29
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• understand the main factors that contribute
to the deterioration of paper;
• be able to identify damage and deterioration
of paper;
• understand how paper should be stored to
minimise damage;
• understand how flat paper items should be
displayed;
• have the necessary knowledge and practical
skills to mount and frame paper items; and
• know how to make simple, protective
enclosures for flat paper items.
Paper is the basic material for a wide variety of items
in collections.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
Introduction
Paper is found in all collections. Its use is virtually
universal. While not all paper is of equal
importance, you will almost certainly have some
items that need to be looked after. For example:
• valuable and significant items, such as works
of art on paper and manuscripts;
• auxiliary material, such as the provenance
documentation for other items in your
collection; and
• material of particular importance to your
organisation, such as documents relating to
the setting up of your museum, gallery or
library.
Of all the materials in your collections, flat paper
items are perhaps the most vulnerable to damage
and deterioration. Some flat paper materials have
extremely fragile surfaces—such as pastel and
charcoal drawings—and others are inherently
unstable. And of course, all paper can be damaged
by poor handling and lack of proper care.
This section provides information on how to protect
your paper items. As the saying goes: prevention is
better than cure; and nowhere is this truer than in
the care of collections of flat paper items. Correct
handling, storage and display are the linchpins of
preventive care. The condition and lifespan of all
flat paper items can be substantially improved if
they are stored and displayed appropriately.
Paper in collections
Paper is used to make a wide range of objects,
including:
• prints; • books;
• maps; • photographs;
• letters; • architectural plans;
• documents; • magazines;
• watercolours; • stamps;
• drawings; • newspapers;
• technical drawings; • archives.; and
• posters;
This section deals with the care of flat paper
items—items made of single sheets of paper.
For more information
Books and photographs have specific needs.
For information on the care of books and
photographs, please see the chapters on
Books and Photographs in this volume.
Paper 3
 What is paper?
Paper is made from cellulose fibres. Cellulose
consists of long ribbon-like molecules held
together in tightly-packed layers to form
microfibrils. The microfibrils group themselves in
bundles and numerous of these bundles go to form
the paper fibre.
The fibres are suspended in water in the
proportions of approximately 5% cellulose fibres to
95% water. The fibres are picked up on a mould, in
the case of handmade paper, or on the web, in the
case of paper-making machines. The mould and
web are sieve-like in structure and allow the water
to drain away, leaving a felted sheet of paper.
This fundamental process of paper-making has not
changed since the first sheet of paper was
produced in China around 200 BC.
Early European papers were made from the cellulose
fibres from old rags. Later, fibres were extracted
specifically to be used in paper-making. Paper
fibres come from a range of plants, including:
• flax—also used to make linen;
• hemp—also used to make rope and military
uniforms;
• cotton—also used to make fabrics;
• paper mulberry, daphne—Japanese paper-
making fibres; and
• trees.
For more information
For more information on cellulose and paper,
please see the section More About Paper,
later in this chapter.
Ingredients and
properties of paper
The type of plant fibres and the method of
manufacture determine, to a large degree, the final
characteristics of the paper. The most permanent
papers are those made from plant fibres which are
high in cellulose, such as cotton. A large
percentage of the paper produced today is made
4 Paper
from ground wood. This paper is not intended to
last and is used for ephemera, such as newspapers.
Different quality wood-based paper products are
available; and high-quality, long-lasting papers can
be produced from wood pulp.
Besides fibres and water, paper usually contains
products that are added during manufacture to
give it certain properties. These include:
• fillers or loadings that produce a smoother
surface and a whiter, more opaque paper.
Kaolin or China clay, calcium carbonate and
titanium dioxide have been used as fillers
and loadings;
• coatings that are added to the surface of the
paper to alter its characteristics. Minerals and
other materials such as starch have been used
as coatings; and
• sizes to reduce the absorbency of paper.
Historically, gelatine was used as a size in
European paper-making.
Most papers also contain impurities and unwanted
chemicals—acids—that limit their lifespan. These
acids are a major cause of deterioration and
impermanence in paper. They can migrate from
one paper to another, plus paper will pick up acids
from other materials it touches. To overcome the
problem with acids, there are now papers and
paper-based products being produced that are free
of acids and other impurities. These archival-
quality products are made from various fibres,
including cotton and specially-treated wood pulp.
Many archival papers and boards also contain an
alkaline buffer to help protect them from acidity.
Whenever possible, use archival papers to store
and display other paper items.
For more information
For information about acids in paper and
alkaline buffers, please see the section
More About Paper, later in this chapter.
What are the most common
types of damage?
Paper is vulnerable to physical damage and to the
damage caused by chemical deterioration.
Physical damage includes problems such as:
• tears; and punctures. Paper with mechanical damage
should be handled carefully to avoid making the
• paper losses; damage worse.
• dog-eared corners;

• dents and punctures;

• creases and folds—paper can split along

creases and folds if the paper is brittle or
if it is folded and unfolded repeatedly;

• insect attack—paper, sizes and glues are

good food sources for some insects. Mice and
rats will also eat paper;

• abrasion and general wear and tear from

excessive or careless use; and

• distortions caused by fluctuations and

extremes of relative humidity and temperature The edges of this print are torn and damaged, with
in storage and display environments. losses at the corners.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Damage from chemical deterioration includes: Service, University of Melbourne

• faded colours and discoloured paper—from

exposure to UV radiation and high lighting
levels;
• faded colours and discoloured paper—from
age of the item itself or the items with which
it comes in contact;
• mould attack—mould digests the materials it
grows on;
• brittle paper—from the acids produced by the
paper or the items with which it comes in
contact; and
Creases and folds can disfigure and weaken paper.
Old or brittle material is especially vulnerable
because it can split and tear easily.
Foxing is the name given to the small, brown spots
that appear in a specific area of the paper or over
an entire surface. Foxing is usually caused by
mould attack, brought on by a combination of
high humidity, temperature and acidity. Other
brown spots in the paper can be caused by
inherent impurities such as tiny metal particles.

• damage from pollutants.

For more information

For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.

Recognising the problems

Some of the common forms of damage and

deterioration in flat paper items are listed below.
If the damage or deterioration is severe, isolate
the item and get advice from a conservator.
Heavy foxing disfigured this watercolour.
The watercolour was treated and the foxing was
Physical damage such as tears and losses can reduced, but not fully removed.
occur easily when items are handled roughly or
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
stored in crowded conditions. Physical damage with permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia
can also include abrasion, chipped corners, dents,

Paper 5
 Mould attack can take other forms, and nearly
always leaves stains and weakens the paper.
Soiling and staining can cause considerable
damage to paper through:
• dirt particles, which are often acidic. These
can be caught between the paper fibres,
weakening and discolouring the paper, and
creating a foothold for insects or mould; and
• self-adhesive sticky tapes, rusting clips and
staples, and poor-quality adhesives. They can
stain, cause severe damage and be extremely
difficult to remove.
The edge of this
print was stuck to a
backing board with
sticky tape, leaving
heavy stains. The
paper is also foxed.
Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey
Discolouration, usually brown or yellow distributed
evenly or unevenly throughout the paper, is a sign
of deterioration that is generally caused by acidity
and/or light damage to the paper. In artwork, the
discolouration often appears worse in the margins
This work has been stained where it was in contact
with poor-quality, acidic mount board.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
6 Paper
or on the reverse side, where the paper has been
in direct contact with an acidic mount or other
poor-quality materials. This discolouration is often
referred to as ‘mat burn’.
Brittle paper, which has become brown and is usually
made of poor-quality or impermanent materials such
as old newspaper, will deteriorate rapidly when
exposed to light for lengthy periods and/or left in
contact with other acidic material. Such paper can
be extremely fragile and may disintegrate with
unsupported movement or handling.
Brittleness has caused this plan to split along the folds.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
Common causes of damage
All the most common types of damage are caused by:
• poor handling;
• poor storage methods;
• inappropriate display methods;
• wear and tear from repeated use;
• chemical changes in the paper;
• chemical changes caused by chemicals that
are present in the materials in contact with
the paper or that are present as pollutants in
the atmosphere; and
• combinations of any or all of the above.
A great deal of damage to paper can be prevented
by care and pre-planning your handling, storage
and display of flat paper items. The following
sections will outline practical steps you can take
to minimise this type of damage.
 The do’s and don’ts of
handling flat paper
When handling paper, care and commonsense can
help to prevent damage.
As a result, you should handle paper items with
care, and as little as possible. It is also important
to examine each sheet of paper for damage before
handling.
Furthermore, all paper is fragile—even paper in
good condition—so support it throughout use and
handling.
The following techniques will help you to handle
paper sensitively:
Make sure your hands are clean. You should wear
gloves for added protection. Cotton gloves are
often recommended, but they are not always
appropriate because they can make it harder to
pick up individual pieces of paper. Clean, close-
fitting surgical gloves are a good alternative to
cotton gloves.
If you must pick up a piece of paper to examine it
closely, place it on a rigid support, such as a piece
of cardboard, and lift the board. Holding a sheet of
paper in your hand may cause it to curl and
increase the risk of damage.
If you must carry pieces of paper over a distance,
place them horizontally and supported on a rigid
support, such as cardboard. It is even better to
place the item between rigid supports, because
this prevents the paper lifting as you walk.
If paper is already mounted on cardboard, do not
simply tuck it under your arm to be carried. It
should be supported as described above. This is
because many old pieces of paper have been
mounted on boards which have become brittle
with time. If these boards break, the attached
pieces of paper will also break.
If you must lift a flat paper item without a
support, hold the sheet of paper with both hands,
at opposite edges or at diagonal corners. Lift the
sheet, allowing it to droop in the centre with an
even curve, but no buckles or kinks.
For extra protection, you can carry paper in
folders, Mylar pockets, Copysafe sleeves or
polyethylene bags.
Your storage and work areas should have adequate
space for laying out works. Before placing items on
a work table, it is best to line the surface with
sheets of clean paper.
Use pencil when working near paper items. Pencil
can be removed from paper, whereas ink can be quite
difficult and, in some cases, impossible to remove.
Make copies of paper items that are accessed
regularly or that are to be displayed in poor
conditions or for a long time. Originals should then
be safely stored and accessed only in special
circumstances. You can photocopy stable material
such as printed documents, but copy the original
only once—make any further copies from the
photocopy. You should also make photocopies of
faxes that are to be kept, then keep the copies on
file. Ideally, these photocopies should be made on
archival, acid-free paper.
CAUTION:
Fragile material, and items which are extremely
light-sensitive, for example early photographs,
should not be photocopied in this way.
Light-sensitive material or items that are damaged
or deteriorated, such as brittle wood-pulp paper
items or material with faded inks, can be
reproduced, but the work should be done by
professionals. Even newspapers and maps can
be copied onto better-quality paper using
large-format photocopiers. State galleries and
museums can suggest places that offer
archival reproducing services.
The do’s and don’ts
of repair and labelling
Inappropriate labelling and repair methods can
damage paper. The following guidelines can help to
prevent such damage.
Biros, other ink pens and markers should not be
used to label paper items. Many of these inks,
particularly felt-tip pen inks, can spread and cause
unsightly staining.
If you must label a paper item, write in soft
pencil—a B pencil is good—on the edge of the
back of the paper. Don’t press down when writing
because you might leave grooves in the paper.
Paper 7
 Paper clips, even plastic ones, can damage and
distort paper. They should not be used for
attaching labels, even temporary ones. If you need
to place a temporary label on a paper item, write
on a piece of paper that is large enough to fold
around the whole item.
Never mend pieces of paper with self-adhesive
sticky tapes; these cause problems as they
deteriorate. At first, the adhesive will become
sticky and be easily absorbed into the paper. As
the adhesive changes chemically, it begins to
yellow and eventually turns a dark orange. At this
stage, the adhesive is almost totally insoluble and
any stains cannot be removed.
If you have a damaged piece of paper, place it in a
protective sleeve or wrapper. This can prevent
further damage until you can get advice from a
conservator.
This photograph shows the damage that can be done
by leaving paper clips on paper.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
Severe staining usually results when you use sticky
tape to repair paper.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
8 Paper
Guidelines for storing
and displaying flat paper
Good storage and display environments can prevent
physical damage and help to slow chemical
deterioration. This increases the life of paper items.
Poor storage and display conditions affect all items
in a collection. The effects are not always
immediately or dramatically obvious. Paper changes
gradually over time; but once changes have occurred
they are irreversible or involve complex and costly
treatment. The following sections cover storage and
display conditions, options, materials and techniques.
In an ideal world, the areas used for the storage
and display of flat paper, and indeed the entire
building housing a collection, would be
environmentally controlled. Air-conditioning would
be maintained constantly and monitored, the
temperature and relative humidity would be
maintained at optimum levels, the air would be
filtered, light levels would be controlled and there
would be ample space and funding for every item
to be appropriately framed or housed.
Unfortunately, few of us are lucky enough to live
in such a world. But it is important to be aware of
the optimum storage and display conditions for
paper; and to work towards achieving them using
the resources available, a lot of ingenuity and a
little compromise.
Ideal conditions for
storing and displaying paper
The following conditions will help to protect your
collections of paper.
Keep the temperature constant and moderate. The
optimum temperature is 18–22°C. This range
accommodates people’s comfort, as well as the
need for a low storage and display temperature.
Keep the relative humidity as constant as
possible—in the range 45-55%. Do not hang or
store paper items on outer walls, on walls outside
bathrooms or in areas where there might be steam
from a kettle or urn.
Keep light to the minimum necessary for the
activity. Ideally, paper should be stored in the
dark. Light levels in display areas should be as low
as possible, and display periods should be limited.
• The recommended lighting level for display of
paper items is 50 lux or less.
• The UV content of the light should be no
greater than 75µW/lm and preferably below
30µW/lm.
• All light sources in working and display areas
should be filtered for UV radiation.
• Avoid using heat-producing lights and
spotlights.
Items need to be fully supported.
Areas should be kept clean and well-ventilated.
Dust and other pollutants should be kept to a
minimum.
Steps should be taken to protect collections
against insect and mould attack.
Good housekeeping procedures should be enforced
with regular monitoring of storage and display areas.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.
General storage guidelines
Wherever possible, the storage site should be in a
central area of the building where the effects of
climatic fluctuations and extremes will be minimal.
That is, away from external walls and not in the
basement or the attic.
The storage site should not have any water,
drainage or steam pipes, particularly at ceiling
level. Leaking pipes can cause a lot of damage.
The storage system used should be reasonably easy
to use and should allow easy access. Ease of use
and ease of access usually means things will get
less damaged during handling. Frustration with a
difficult system often leads to damage.
Wherever possible, flat paper items should be
stored horizontally in boxes.
Dividers should be placed within storage boxes or
filing cabinets. Dividers reduce the movement of
items with the storage system and provide
additional support to the stored items.
Layers of storage should be provided. This
approach gives maximum protection from:
• fluctuations in relative humidity and
temperature. This is especially important in
areas where the ideal levels of relative
humidity and temperature cannot be
achieved: the multiple layers of storage act as
a buffer zone between the paper items and
extreme or fluctuating conditions;
• dust, pollutants and insects; and
• the damaging effects of light.
Wherever possible, each paper item should have its
own protective wrapper or enclosure to protect it.
Further layers of protection should be provided.
Individually wrapped paper items should be boxed.
Storage and housing systems should be labelled on
the outside so items can be located easily without
having to search through and inspect every similar
item.
For more information
More information on making protective enclosures
and storage boxes is given later in this chapter.
CAUTION:
Cleaning materials containing chlorine
bleaches or ammonia should not be used near
collections of paper.
Naphthalene, insecticides and fungicides are
active chemicals which can damage paper,
especially in an enclosed storage environment.
Care should also be taken to not stack
too many storage boxes on top of each other.
This can make access difficult and can result in
damage to the collections and in injury.
Materials suitable for the
storage and display of paper
Materials which are to be in direct contact with
items for any length of time should be free of
acids and other impurities which might damage
paper. These products are usually marketed as
Paper 9
 archival, museum quality, acid-free or permanent These products should never be used directly on
materials. They will be referred to as ‘archival’ your paper item because they are difficult to
materials in this chapter. remove, especially PVA.

Paper, card and board Furniture

Archival paper, card and board should: The materials in storage and display furniture can
damage paper. Many materials give out active
• have a pH of 7 or above; chemicals which can contribute to the
deterioration of paper items. The following list of
• be made from fully bleached, alpha cellulose good and bad materials can help you in selecting
pulp and sized with an alkaline size;
storage and display furniture, or the materials to
• be free of lignin, ground wood, metal particles, use when making them yourself.
plasticisers, sulphur, oxidising chemicals and
other potentially harmful products; and
Good Bad
• meet stringent strength and permanency enamelled metal chipboard, Customwood,
specifications.
unsealed woods,
The highest quality paper products are 100% especially hardwoods
cotton. They are often referred to as 100% rag. glass PVA glue

CAUTION: ceramic uncured paint

Alkaline-buffered products should not be used inorganic pigments protein-based glues,
with some photographic material or with for example animal glues
silk-based material.
polystyrene wool
Plastics polyester film felt
cotton cellulose nitrate
Inert plastics should be free of plasticisers, surface
coatings and other harmful chemicals. Polyester linen polyurethanes
films, known as Mylar D or Melinex, polypropylene
acrylic paints PVC
and polyethylene, are all suitable. Polyester is the
and varnishes
superior archival plastic.

Adhesives Stainless steel, anodised aluminium or metal coated

Adhesives are used to hinge paper items to their
mounts/mats, as well as in the construction of
storage enclosures. Adhesives which are water-
based, chemically inert and fully reversible can be
used in direct contact with paper; for sticking
hinges to paper for example. Home-made wheat
starch paste and methylcellulose are recommended.
Some archival, acid-free gummed paper tapes can
also be used.
Adhesives to use if you are making enclosures,
photo corners, boxes etc. are:
• ‘acid-free’ double-sided tape—3M double-
sided tape #415; and
• PVA.
with baked enamel are preferred for storage furniture.
Preparing flat
paper for storage
Before you put flat paper items into storage, it is
important that you complete the following steps.
Examine them and document their condition. This
will help you determine which storage method is
most appropriate for the item and whether the
item should be displayed. For example, items with
a friable medium such as charcoal, or with a
fragile paint layer, might need deep window
mounts to protect the image surface.

10 Paper
Sort them according to their condition. It is
important to separate items which are very acidic,
to prevent the migration of acids and impurities
into sound paper items.
Check them for mould and/or insect infestation.
For more information
For more information on methods for
examining items and assessing their condition,
please refer to the chapter on
Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting
in Managing Collections.
Gently brush them with a soft brush to remove
surface dust where necessary, but only if the item
is stable.
CAUTION:
Do not brush the surface of items with friable or
fragile media. Pastel and charcoal drawings, for
example, could be badly smudged if brushed.
Unfold creased corners and open out folded items.
Check for material which may damage the item,
such as acidic paper or plastic wrappers, rusty
paper clips and timber backboards.
Document, label and retain and associated material
which may be of importance.
Interleave items with archival tissue or paper
where possible.
If you have damaged items, document them,
separate them from the collection and seek advice
from a conservator.
Housing flat paper
Proper housing is essential to preventive
conservation. As already noted, providing an
individual item with its own protective enclosure is
a very effective way of minimising damage. This
serves as a buffer against the environment, as well
as offering protection from physical damage and
direct handling.
How a collection or individual items from a
collection are housed will depend on:
• the type of items;
• the number of items;
• whether they will be heavily used;
• whether they will be displayed or used for
research;
• how much money you have to spend;
• how much storage and display space you
have; and
• what skills and time you have to do the work.
Flat paper items can be stored in a variety of
ways. They can be:
• mounted/matted and framed;
• mounted/matted and placed in Solander
boxes;
• encapsulated and placed in a box;
• placed in boxes, drawers and folders, with or
without interleaving;
• placed in albums;
• placed in envelopes; and
• slipped into transparent archival sleeves and
housed in a binder; or hinged into archival
scrapbooks.
Mounting/hinging flat paper
Mounts/mats serve to:
• protect your flat paper items from physical
damage;
• discourage direct handling;
• give structural support;
• allow the paper to respond naturally to
fluctuations in environmental conditions;
• enhance the appearance of your paper items,
and so are widely used to display paper items;
and
• buffer against acidity if you use acid-free,
alkaline buffered mount board.
Paper 11
 The structure of a mount Items can be:

• clamp-mounted: that is with the paper held

Standard mounts consist of:
• a window mount with a bevelled window. The
bevelled edge prevents shadows falling on the
paper item when mounted works are lit for
display; and
• a backboard to support the flat paper item.
To give adequate support, especially to heavier
papers, both the window and the backboard should
be cut from board that is at least four ply.
Acid-free archival boards give the best protection
to paper items. Acidic boards are much cheaper;
but they will cause damage and will need to be
replaced sooner, because they can deteriorate
quite rapidly.
The window mount is hinged to the backing board,
either down the left side or along the top edge
with a continuous strip of gummed, linen tape. The
window mount and the backboard should not be
stuck together in such a way that makes the item
inaccessible.
down where the window mount overlaps the
edges; or
• float-mounted: that is with the entire item
showing and with a small distance between
the edge of the paper and the window.
There are a number of stages involved in
mounting/matting a flat paper item. These stages
are outlined in the following sections.
Cutting and assembling
the window and the backboard
To begin, you cut two pieces of board of equal
size. The size of the mount is determined by:
• the size of the item;
• the size of the frame or box you are putting
the mounted item into; and
• the width of the margins you want around the
window in the window mount section.
Windows are usually cut with the width of the top
and side margins equal. The bottom margin is
usually slightly weighted visually; that is, it is
usually slightly larger than the others. This visually
centres the mounted item.

Once cut, the backing board can be put aside

while you cut the bevelled-edge window.

Windows are basically quite easy to cut; but you

usually won’t find mount-cutting easy at your first
attempt. Practice, a steady hand and the right
equipment are essential for a good result.

the bevelled Mount-cutting equipment ranges from simple hand-

edge of the held tools such as mount-cutting knives and the
window Dexter which are run along a straight edge, to
expensive table or wall-mounted machines. Wall-
the edge mounted machines should really be considered only
of the if you need to cut lots of mounts over a long
mounted
period of time.
item

Instructions for cutting the window are not given

here because they vary according to the equipment
The item is held or The item appears to float within you have. For more information, consult a
“clamped” in place where the window. Float mounting is
used where image or text come
conservator.
the window mount
overlaps its edges very close to the edge of the
paper and where the edges are Once the window and the backboard have been
decorative etc. cut, they can be hinged.

12 Paper
• Lay them down flat, side by side. The inside
face of each should be facing upwards. Their
longest edges, either the top or the left-hand
edge of the completed mount, should abut
each other.
• Cut a strip of gummed linen tape, just a little
shorter than the longest edge. Wet the gum
and put the linen tape in place as a hinge.
Don’t use too much water.
Close the mount and align the backboard and the
window, and lightly weight it while it is drying.
Once dry, the mount/mat is complete. It is now
ready for the paper item.
When large quantities or complicated mounts are
required, it may be more efficient to have mounts
cut by a framer; but make sure that you specify
archival-quality board if that is what you want.
Very few framers use archival-quality board unless
they are asked to.
Mounts can be modified in various ways to suit an
item. For instance, a sink mount with a deep
window would be suitable for an item lined on
thick board and a double-sided mount with
windows front and back for an item with images
on both surfaces.
Hinging and mounting, especially of fragile items,
is often better left to conservators or conservation
framers, who can be relied on to use archival
techniques.
Hinges
It is recommended you attach your flat paper
items to their mounts by hinging them to the
backboard. The item should not be attached to
the reverse side of the window mount, or stuck
A mounted
watercolour.
Photograph courtesy
of the Ian Potter Art
Conservation Service,
University of
Melbourne
with adhesives or self-adhesive tapes directly
to the backing board. These methods of
attachment can be very damaging and very
expensive to reverse.
This photograph
shows clearly that
the watercolour is
not attached to the
back of the window.
It is hinged to the
backing board.
Photograph courtesy
of the Ian Potter Art
Conservation Service,
University of
Melbourne
Hinges are made from high quality archival
papers—usually conservation-grade Japanese
papers, which are:
• durable, lightweight, long-fibred and
extremely strong; and
• available in a range of weights from art
supply stores.
The most common types of hinges are the T-hinge
or drop hinge for clamp-mounted items, and the V-
hinge or fold-under hinge for float-mounted items.
Making hinges
Japanese paper can be water-cut to produce hinges
with soft, feathered edges: so avoiding ridges
showing on the upper side of the paper item.
To water-cut Japanese paper, place a ruler on the
paper parallel with the grain and run a brush
dipped in water along the ruler edge. Keep the
ruler on the paper and tear the paper along the
wet lines to make hinges of the desired size.
The size of the hinges depends on the size of the
item; but for small items an oblong hinge of
approximately 30 x 15mm is appropriate.
When hinging an item which is to be clamp-
mounted, adhere small hinges along the top edge
of the paper.
Paper 13
 The number of hinges used depends on the size of
the item, but one hinge at either end is sufficient
for smaller items. More hinges are recommended
for larger items and for thick papers. Additional
hinges can be required at the bottom of the item,
if it is being float-mounted.
hinge piece 2
The T-hinge. The lower half of hinge piece
1 is stuck to the back of the item. The
upper part is attached to the backing
board. Hinge piece 2 is stuck down over
hinge piece 1 the top half of hinge piece 1.
The V-Hinge.
One side of the hinge is
stuck to the item and
one to the backboard.
Attaching hinges
• Place the item face-down on a clean surface.
• Brush adhesive onto half the lengthwise side
of each hinge. Allow it to almost dry. Place
the pasted part of the hinge on the reverse
side of the item. The unpasted part of the
hinge should extend beyond the edge of the
item.
• Cover the hinge with a piece of release paper
and rub a bone folder lightly over the area,
then press the hinged area under the release
paper and a blotter with a small weight until
it is dry.
• The item should then be positioned on the
backboard in relation to the window, and
weighted.
• The other half of the hinge is then brushed
with adhesive, allowed to almost dry and then
attached to the backing board.
• A second, slightly larger piece of Japanese
paper is often stuck over the upper half of
the hinge to provide strength, forming a T
shape. The hinge is then bone-folded and
pressed.
• The adhesive used for hinging and other work
on paper items should be water-based and
reversible; starch paste or methyl cellulose
paste are recommended.
14 Paper
• Flat paper items in study collections are often
hinged to sheets of heavy-weight archival
paper, which are in turn hinged into mounts
to facilitate handling.
One hinge is weighted
while it dries, the
other is being stuck
down to the backing
board.
Photograph courtesy
of the Ian Potter Art
Conservation Service,
University of
Melbourne
Making starch paste
Starch paste is the adhesive most widely used by
paper conservators. Starch paste from various
sources—for example, from wheat and rice—has
been used for centuries to stick paper to paper and
textiles to paper. It is recommended for use with
flat paper because of its strength, durability and
purity. Aged starch paste does not discolour and
remains reversible.
Many commercially available adhesives are starch-
based but may also contain preservatives,
plasticisers, fillers and other unwanted additives
which can damage the paper item. Starch paste
does not keep well in its wet state. It should be
made fresh and can be covered and stored for two
weeks in the refrigerator.
You will need:
• 10 grams or 3.5 level teaspoons of Silver Star
laundry starch, which is available from most
supermarkets;
• 100ml of water, preferably distilled or
deionised;
• a stainless steel double boiler, or Pyrex beaker
in a saucepan;
• a stove or hot plate; and
• a wooden spoon.
Method:
• Add about 10ml of the water to the starch
and mix to a smooth slurry.
• Add more water if required to produce a
smooth paste and leave to soak for about half
an hour.
• Heat the remainder of the water in the double
boiler.
• Add the starch slurry and cook for 20–30
minutes, stirring constantly.
• Leave to cool.
• If the paste is lumpy, press through a Nylon
sieve or some fine cloth for example, terylene.
• The paste can be thinned by adding water
and blending.
Alternatives to hinges
A fast but less desirable alternative to Japanese
paper hinges and starch paste or methylcellulose
are tabs of archival paper tape with a gum
adhesive. This is known as archival hinging tape.
Photocorners are an excellent method of attaching
paper items to mounts without using adhesives.
They can be used:
• if the item is appropriately rigid and stable;
• if there is an adequate margin to hide the
corners behind the window mount, and as
long as they do not damage the medium; for
example, abrade the paint; and
• for holding encapsulated material in mounts
or on board for display purposes.
Photocorners should be made from polyester film,
for example Mylar, and can be bought or made in a
variety of sizes. To make photocorners you will
need:
• strips of polyester, 100 or 125 micron Mylar D
or Melinex, cut to whatever size is required:
for example, for smaller items, a strip
measuring 15 x 45mm is appropriate;
• acid-free, double-sided tape 6 mm wide—
3M double-sided tape #415 is commonly used;
• scissors; and
• a bone folder.
To make up the photocorner:
Double-sided tape attached to
the back of the Mylar, ready to
be attached to the album page.
• fold in each end of the strip as shown on the
diagram to form a point in the top centre
edge of the strip. Make sure the ends butt up
to each other;
• use a bone folder to form sharp creases. To
avoid scratching the polyester, place a piece
of release paper; for example, Glad Bake paper
or Reemay, over the photo corner when bone-
folding; and
• apply a strip of double-sided tape across the
protruding ends of the photo corner.
backing paper
photocorner
paper item
In this way, the photocorner can be stuck down to
the backing paper and no adhesive touches the
items being mounted.
When using photocorners to attach items to
mounts, the item is weighted in place on the
backing board and its position checked by closing
the window mount. The photocorners are then
slipped onto the corners of the item, and the
corners attached to the backing board using acid-
free, double-sided tape.
Protective enclosures
for flat paper
Loose flat paper items benefit substantially from
being stored and handled in simple, protective
archival enclosures.
There is a large variety of archival enclosures
available commercially. They come in a range of
Paper 15
 standard sizes and include folders, envelopes and
sleeves made from archival card, paper and
plastics.
If you need only a small number of enclosures,
you can make them cheaply and quickly from
readily available materials. If you are doubtful
about the archival quality of a ready-made
product, you can make the enclosures yourself
from archival materials you buy for the purpose.
Making a protective enclosure/folder
To make a simple folder for a single-sheet flat
paper item, you will need:
• a large sheet of medium-weight archival
paper, such as 160gsm archive cartridge or
lightweight card;
• a cutting mat, preferably with a gridded
surface;
• a sharp cutting knife;
• a metal ruler;
• a bone folder; and
• a sharp pencil and an eraser.
To construct the folder:
• use the diagram provided to rule up and
cut out the folder plan onto the paper or
card. The dimensions of x—shown on the
diagram—should equal the dimensions of
the item to be housed plus about 3mm on
each side;
16 Paper
• run the bone folder down the fold lines
against the ruler edge, then fold the paper or
card. Use the bone folder to make smooth,
sharp folds;
• erase the pencil marks and construct the folder;
• determine the correct location of the slit for
the closing tab and make the incision; and
• label the folder in pencil.
Some useful hints:
• use a piece of release paper—Glad Bake paper
or Reemay—when bone-folding to avoid
leaving a shine on the card or scratching the
polyester; and
• for extra support, the base of the protective
enclosure could be fitted with a piece of acid-
free board.
Encapsulating flat paper
An encapsulation is a transparent envelope that is
sealed around an item on all sides, leaving a small
opening at each corner for ventilation.
Encapsulation is widely used as an easily reversible
method of protecting flat paper items for storage,
display and general handling. It is a way of
holding torn items together without repair.
Encapsulation is most often used for archive
material and maps.
An encapsulation.
Photograph courtesy
of the Ian Potter Art
Conservation Service,
University of Melbourne
The transparent material used for encapsulation is
Mylar or Melinex, an inert, durable polyester film.
Encapsulation involves sandwiching the paper item
between two sheets of the polyester film. The
paper item is held in place by the electrostatic
charges between the film sheets. The margins of
the film are then sealed either with acid-free
double-sided tape, or by using a special polyester
welding machine. The encapsulation can be sealed
on all four sides, or be left open on one or two
sides. Partial encapsulation is a good alternative
when regular and easy access is needed.
Materials that are unsuitable for encapsulation
include:
• items that crumble easily such as pastel,
chalk, charcoal, pencil and gouache. The
electrostatic charge on the polyester can pull
the material away from the paper; and
• mouldy or insect-infested items, and some
severely acidic or damaged material. The
encapsulation can seal in harmful substances
creating a poor microclimate.
If an item needs to be seen only from one side
and is weak or acidic, a sheet of acid-free,
alkaline-buffered paper or card can be enclosed
behind the item. For stronger support of single-
sided material, substitute the lower polyester sheet
with acid-free board.
Encapsulated material can be mounted, boxed or
placed in folders or drawers.
If you are planning to encapsulate a paper item,
it is important to ensure that the item is suitable
for encapsulation. Ask a conservator if you
are unsure of the suitability of an item for
encapsulation.
CAUTION:
Do not allow polyester to come into
direct contact with fragile materials or with
materials which crumble easily, such as
charcoal and pastel.
To encapsulate an item you will need:
• polyester film, Mylar or Melinex. The thickness
of the film will depend on the size of the
item to be encapsulated; 75 micron or 100
micron is generally used, and sometimes a
heavier gauge for large material;
• a cutting mat, preferably with a gridded
surface, or use some graph paper on top of
the cutting surface;
• double-sided tape, acid-free 6mm wide—3M
double-sided tape #415 is commonly used;
• a sharp cutting knife and small scissors;
• small weights;
• a metal ruler;
• an anti-static cloth or soft cloth;
• tweezers; and
• clean work surfaces and clean hands.
1 2 3
Weights
Polyester
Completed
Flat paper item Double sided tape encapsulation
To encapsulate paper:
• remove any surface dirt with a soft brush.
Remove pins or staples and unfold bent
corners;
• cut two pieces of polyester film at least 2cm
larger than the item on all sides. For example,
if the item is 300 x 210mm, cut the polyester
to measure 340 x 250mm;
• place one sheet of polyester on the cutting
mat and wipe away any dust. Centre the item
on the polyester, lining it up using the grid
on the mat. Secure the item with one or two
small weights;
• carefully stick the double-sided tape to the
polyester film down each side of the item,
leaving a 3–5mm space between the tape
and the item. Use tweezers to hold the tape
and align it by using the object and the
grid as a guide. Cut the tape with scissors,
leaving a small space at each corner;
• remove the weight and place the second
piece of polyester on top of the item,
checking for dust first. Re-weight the whole
package;
• lifting the top polyester sheet at one edge,
peel the cover paper from one strip of tape
at a time, smoothing down the polyester
with your hand or a soft cloth to get rid of
distortions and to ensure a good seal; and
Paper 17
 • using the ruler and the knife, trim the edges
of the encapsulation about 3mm outside the
tape lines. The sharp corners of the polyester
can be rounded using scissors.
Double-sided tape being applied to the edges of a
polyester sheet, during encapsulation of a paper item.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
Some useful hints for encapsulating paper
Keep the double-sided tape in a plastic bag when
you are not using it, to avoid dust collecting on
the edges of the tape. This happens very easily
and the dirt is visible in the encapsulation.
Bagged tape can be stored well in a domestic
refrigerator.
A soft cloth or lens tissue very slightly dampened
with water can be used as an anti-static cloth for
cleaning the polyester.
If the item needs to be seen only from one side
and is weak or acidic, a sheet of acid-free,
alkaline-buffered paper or card can be enclosed
behind the item. For stronger support of single-
sided material, substitute the lower polyester sheet
with acid-free board.
Don’t wear fluffy jumpers when you are
encapsulating!
To laminate or not?
Encapsulation should be differentiated from
lamination. Lamination adheres the paper item to
an adhesive film and a plastic layer on both sides.
Lamination is sometimes promoted as a way to
preserve your paper items. But once a paper item
is laminated, it is virtually impossible to remove
18 Paper
the lamination material without damage to the
item and without the use of quite strong chemicals.
Lamination serves as a protective device for cheap
posters and material which can be easily replaced;
but it is not reversible and definitely not
recommended for valued flat paper items.
A reversible alternative is to place it in a Mylar
sleeve.
Storage boxes for flat paper
Boxes allow paper items to be stored flat, while
also providing effective protection against
mechanical damage, light, dust, and extremes and
rapid changes in temperature and relative
humidity. For the best protection, the boxes should
be made from archival materials.
Boxes are important if you are providing layers of
storage for your collections. Layers of storage
mean layers of protection.
Loose paper items can be interleaved with archival
tissue or paper and stored directly in archival
boxes. Items that have been encapsulated or
placed in enclosures can also be boxed. Ideally,
when storing collections of items they should be
placed in uniform-sized mounts and enclosures
that fit neatly into boxes. This limits movement
within the box and minimises damage.
The Solander box is the highest quality box which
is commonly used for storing flat paper. It is very
Solander boxes are sturdy and very protective. Be careful
if you are lifting large Solander boxes, containing a
number of items as they can be quite heavy.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
 • PVA adhesive, preferably acid-free;

• boards for weights;

• a large metal ruler;

• a bone folder;

• a pencil and eraser; and

• a fastening device of some kind. Ty-tite file

The lid of the Solander box closes down over the base—
like a clam-shell.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
sturdy and has a shallow clam-shell design with a
hinged lid that opens out flat and closes firmly.
fasteners, consisting of a cord which wraps
around a piece of cardboard and which are
attached with rivets are especially effective.
Putting the box together
Use the diagram provided to rule up and cut out
the first piece. The measurements should allow for:

Cardboard and polypropylene boxes in various sizes 1

and designs are available commercially. Boxes can
be ordered to special sizes, but this may be costly
for a small order. Simple, medium-strength boxes
can be custom-made for storing flat paper items.

Making a storage box

To make a strong, inexpensive box with a double

thickness of board on the base and a triple
thickness on the top, you will need:

• a sheet of archival, single-wall, corrugated,

box-making board such as Archivart Multi-use
board;

• a cutting mat preferably with a gridded surface;

• a sharp cutting knife;

a–c indicates the order in which the flaps should be

folded around the item.

A home-made storage box.

Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne

Paper 19
 • the base, which is the same height and width
as the items to be boxed plus 3mm;
• the sides of the box, which should be equal to
the depth of the items to be stored, stacked
one on top of the other plus 3mm; and
• the top of the box—in two pieces, each half
the height of the base.
Run the bone folder down the fold lines against a
ruler edge to start the creases, then fold the board
up against the ruler edge. The two outer flaps
should meet over the centre of the item to make
an open-sided wrap.
Cut out the strip for the second part of the box,
allowing a little extra in the overall width, which
can be trimmed later. The height of the strip will
be the same as for the base; but the width of each
panel will differ, to allow for the thickness of the
walls.
Align the folded first piece on the far-left side of
the second strip, and mark the first fold line in
pencil on the second strip. Make the fold line as
above. Work across the second strip from left to
right, gradually wrapping the first piece inside the
second, marking and folding the board as you go,
to ensure a snug fit. Trim off any excess in the
width of the second piece when you have
completed the box.
Erase any pencil marks. Stick the centre panel of the
first piece inside the centre panel of the seconf
piece with acid-free PVA. Open out flat, weight
down and allow it to dry.
The completed box can be secured in a variety of
ways including Ty-tite file fasteners, cotton tape
or straps joined with Velcro tabs.
Rivets with washer on
the outside of the box.
20 Paper
A closed storage box, showing the fastener.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
Displaying flat paper
Framing is used to display works of art on paper
and many other types of flat paper items.
Unframed materials can be displayed in a number
of ways including:
• in display cases;
• in their mounts. If the mounted items are not
in display cases, their surface can be
protected by placing slip-sheets of polyester
under the window mount;
• in their encapsulations;
• on mount board. The items can be held firmly
in place on the board, with photocorners or
with strips of Mylar across each corner;
Mylar strips are placed across the corners of the
item to hold it in place on a rigid support.
The Mylar is folded
around the edges
of the rigid support
and is held in place
with double sided
tape that is stuck
to the back of the
Item held in place rigid support.
with Mylar strips.
The rigid support can be cut so that
you can see a border around the item
or it can be the same size as the item.
• on mount board and covered completely with
Mylar. The Mylar can be attached to the board
with double-side tape, either on the front or
on the back of the mount board; and
• mounted and/or enclosed material can be
held vertically onto display boards using
acrylic clips or strips of Mylar across each
corner. Never pin through an item or its
housing.
CAUTION:
Items that are particularly vulnerable to light
need to be protected. They can be covered by
black-out cloths when not being viewed.
The black-out cloth needs to be lifted only when the
work is being looked at.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
Framing flat paper items
Conservation framing provides excellent protection
for flat paper items against mechanical damage,
dust, acids and the atmosphere. The frame forms a
closed but not air-tight housing, allowing a slow
interchange of air to take place but at the same
time buffering the framed material against rapid
atmospheric changes.
Framing is a very effective way of both displaying
and storing flat paper items. But archival-quality
framing is not cheap, and framed material takes up
space; so paper items are often framed for exhibition,
then unframed and returned to storage boxes.
Apart from the more valuable or popular items in
the collection and works with their own frames,
the items which benefit most from permanent
framing are those which would suffer most from
being left unframed—fragile or deteriorated items,
works with friable media, and oversize works.
For more information
For more information on oversize works,
please see Paper Items with Special Needs
later in this chapter
Poor-quality framing can do immense damage to
paper items. It is therefore absolutely vital to
ensure that items are framed to conservation
standards.
Cross-section of a framed flat paper item
Frame moulding
Glazing
Window mount
Flat paper item
Backboard
Backing Board
Brad or framer’s diamond
Gummed paper tape
The major requirements for the correct framing of
flat paper items are:
• the frame should be sturdy and its rebate
should be deep enough to completely house
the glass or acrylic glazing, the mounted item
and a backing board. The rebate is the groove
at the back of the frame;
• the item should always be separated from
contact with the glazing by a window mount
or by spacers;
• as far as possible, all materials used in the
framing package should be archival. If you
have to retain original material which is not
archival, for example, mounts and backing
boards you should insert a barrier of polyester
or heavy-weight archival paper between the
non-archival material and the item;
• because of the electrostatic charges that build
up on acrylic sheet, glass should be used
when framing any items which crumble easily.
For example, pastel, charcoal, chalk or cracked
paint, which is common with gouache; and
• the hanging devices should be sturdy. The
frame should hang from two points on the
wall, rather than hanging by a wire from one
single point. D-rings hung from screws or
hooks on the wall are suitable.
Paper 21
 In special cases, the frame can be sealed to
further isolate the item. Air-tight framing, or
creating a sealed package within the frame, is
sometimes used for travelling exhibitions or special
items in a collection. This method reduces the flow
of air, thereby reducing the effect of rapid
environmental changes on the item. But it can
also cause problems by creating an undesirable
microclimate in the frame. Air-tight framing should
only be undertaken by, or in collaboration with, a
conservator.
If framed works are on extended display, they
should be spaced away from the wall using small
corks or plugs, to allow air circulation.
Glazing
When selecting glazing for a frame, it is important
to note that:
• Acrylic sheet, Perspex, Plexiglas and
polycarbonate sheet are light, unbreakable
and can include UV absorbers. However, they
cannot be used with fragile media susceptible
to electrostatic charges; they are also easily
scratched, and are more expensive than glass.
• Glass is more rigid. Glass treated to reduce
reflected glare is available. If items are
transported behind glass, the surface of the
glazing should be gridded with masking tape:
to reduce damage to the item should the
glass break. Old picture frame glass can be
more fragile than new glass, and it may be
worth replacing it with acrylic sheet if the
item is travelling.
The backing board
The backing board should be sturdy, reasonably
lightweight and preferably archival. Archival
corrugated boards made from paper or
polypropylene, for example, Multi-Use Board,
Corflute or Foam Cor Board are suitable.
If the backing board is not archival, for example,
oil-tempered hardboard, an archival isolating layer
should be used to separate it from the mount.
The backing board should be sealed with gummed
paper or linen tape, to keep out dust.
22 Paper
Paper items
with special needs
Oversize Flat Paper Material
Oversize flat paper items such as posters, maps,
plans, wallpaper and large works of art can be
difficult to store, handle and display. They are
often neglected and are especially prone to
mechanical damage when cared for inappropriately.
Wherever possible, oversize items should be kept
flat.
Items should not overhang shelves or protrude into
aisles.
Mounting and framing should utilise lightweight,
archival materials. For example, Perspex instead of
glass is ideal; but this is often impractical for
space and cost reasons. Extra hinges may be
needed to support the weight of the object and
keep it flatter.
Avoid lining with cloth and dry-mounting oversize
material.
Steel plan chests with large, shallow drawers are
used most often for the storage of unframed,
oversize items. Archival map-storage boxes can
also be used.
Encapsulation or partial encapsulation is often a
good alternative for oversize items with stable
media.
Simple enclosures for oversize items can be made
with a board support and a polyester upper. The
items can be displayed and studied in these
enclosures.
If possible, loose material in drawers or boxes
should at least be interleaved or provided with
support sheets of archival paper.
Oversize items should only be rolled as a last
resort. The item should be rolled face-out around a
large-diameter tube which is acid-free. For example,
polypropylene or archival board, or isolated with
polyester or heavy-weight archival paper. The whole
package should then be wrapped in archival paper,
labelled clearly and stored horizontally where it can
be supported over its full length.
 Newspapers
Newspapers create special problems in any
collection. Large collections of newspapers are
copied onto some other format, for example,
microfilm, and the originals are often vacuum-
wrapped and put away for long-term storage.
Photocopying may be an option if there is not a
large quantity of material. Store newspapers in a
sound, acid-free environment, laid flat in
polypropylene bags or archival boxes; restrict
access. Find out where microfilmed versions are
held and encourage people to use them rather
than the original.
Papyrus and Parchment
Papyrus and parchment are two non-paper supports
which may appear in your collection.
Papyrus
Papyrus is made from the crushed stems of the
papyrus plant. It is much closer in character to
paper than parchment.
Because of the presence of lignin and other
impurities, it is highly susceptible to deterioration.
Papyrus is often extremely brittle and, therefore,
vulnerable to mechanical damage.
Talk to a conservator about storing and displaying
papyrus items.
Parchment
Parchment is made from the untanned skins of
animals such as calves, sheep and goats. Vellum is
an especially high grade of parchment. It has been
used throughout the history of civilisation to
create documents, illuminated manuscripts and
works of art.
It is extremely sensitive to moisture and will
distort if subjected to high humidity levels. An
environment of 45-55% relative humidity is ideal.
Parchment naturally has some degree of distortion,
but severe distortions can cause damage.
Methods of keeping parchment flat, such as
sandwiching between glass or adhering to a
backboard, are inappropriate.
Parchment can be stored and exhibited in mounts
in the same way as paper items; but deeper
mounts are recommended: to allow for movement
and to offer extra protection. Polyester strips or
corners can be used to hold parchment to the
backboard.
More complicated mounting procedures and any
repair work should be left to a conservator.
An illuminated
manuscript on
vellum, mounted
for display.
Photograph courtesy
of the Ian Potter Art
Conservation Service,
University of
Melbourne
For more information
Vellum and parchment are also discussed in the
chapter on Books in this volume and in the
chapter on Leather in Caring for Cultural Material 2
Some miscellaneous
information
Copying flat paper material
Material which is accessed regularly, required for
long-term display or displayed inappropriately, for
example, in areas with high light levels, should be
copied.
The originals can then remain safely in storage and
need be accessed only in special circumstances.
Photocopying stable material such as printed
documents is an option. But only one copy of the
original should be taken; and any further copies
should be made from the photocopy.
Paper 23
 Photocopies should preferably be made on archival,
acid-free paper.
Thermal paper faxes which need to be kept should
be photocopied and the photocopies filed.
Fragile material and items which are extremely
light-sensitive, for example, early pieces of paper,
should not be copied in this way.
Material which is damaged or deteriorated, for
example, brittle wood-pulp paper items, material
with faded inks and light-sensitive material, can
be reproduced; but this should be done by
professionals.
Even newspapers and maps can be copied onto
better-quality paper on large-format photocopiers.
State libraries, galleries and museums can suggest
places which offer archival copying services.
Historic evidence
accompanying paper items
Many paper items may come into your collection in
their original folder, in a frame or mounted on a
card with inscriptions.
Often these materials accompanying the items are
dirty, deteriorating and not of particularly good
quality. However, they often provide you with
valuable information about the items and so
should not be discarded.
If these accompanying materials are in very poor
condition, they should be lightly brushed clean,
wrapped and clearly labelled, then stored
separately from the items.

Summary of conditions for storage and display

Storage Display

Temperature 18–22ºC 18–22ºC

Relative Humidity 45–55%RH 45–55%RH

Brightness of the Light
For all paper dark storage is preferred. Ideally should be no
If the items are being used by higher than 50 lux.
researchers, the light should be kept
as low as possible and the periods of
exposure to light should be kept to
the absolute minimum.

UV Content of Light Dark storage is preferred but if light No greater than

is present, UV content should be 75µW/lm, preferably
no greater than 75 µW/lm, below 30µW/lm.
and preferably below 30 µW/lm.

24 Paper
 Paper in Australia’s Climatic Zones
The climatic zones outlined below are broad categories—conditions may vary within these categories
depending on the state of repair of your building and whether the building is air conditioned or not.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very
cold at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity,
eg from 75%—20%RH in a day.

When caring for paper items in arid areas, it is important to note that:
• insects can still survive;
• paper items can become dry and brittle; and
• items can be put under stress by the movement that occurs as the paper dries out and contracts.

Remember that:
• the layer system of storage, for example items in folders in boxes in cupboards, will buffer items
against rapid changes. This multi-layered system also protects items against dust and grit problems
which often occur in arid environments;
• you must be aware of condensation forming inside plastic storage materials due to temperature
fluctuations. This could lead to irreversible damage; and
• regular inspections of storage and display areas are important to detect any problems which are
developing.

Note: If your paper collections have been stored in an arid environment for a considerable period and
are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions. This could
do more harm than good, the emphasis should be on long term stability.

Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.

Bear in mind that:

• it is probably easier to achieve an environment close to the recommended ideal in a temperate
climate. However, it is unlikely that you will be able to maintain an even environment without the
help of constant sophisticated air-conditioning equipment;
• the layer system of storage eg. items in folders in boxes in cupboards, will buffer items against any
rapid changes; and
• regular inspections of storage and display areas are important to detect any problems which are
developing.

Note: If your paper collections have been stored in a temperate environment for a considerable period
and are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions. This
could do more harm than good, the emphasis should be on long term stability.

Paper 25
 Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.

When caring for a paper items in high humidity, it is important to note that:
• high temperatures and light levels increase rates of deterioration;
• insects and moulds thrive and reproduce rapidly;
• glues and other adhesives used to attach items are likely to swell or soften;
• paper clips and other clasps made of metal are likely to corrode;
• cockling and distortions of the paper support are more likely to occur, creating stress to paint layers
and other media; and
• paper can be damaged if it cockles severely while it is stuck down unevenly or excessively to a board.

Remember that:
• ventilation is all important—it is vital to consider air flow when planning storage and display areas;
• when encapsulating paper items, it is necessary to ensure that the paper does not have a high
moisture content as this will cause moisture to be trapped in the encapsulation;
• the layer system of storage. For example items in folders in boxes in cupboards, will buffer items,
against rapid changes and extremes; and
• regular inspections of storage and display areas are important to detect any problems which are
developing.

Note: If your paper collections have been stored in a tropical environment for a considerable period and
are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions. This could
do more harm than good, the emphasis should be on long term stability.

MORE ABOUT PAPER
Cellulose fibres
and paper quality
Paper is made from cellulose fibres which are
derived from plant sources. Alpha cellulose is very
high-quality cellulose which contains no additives
or impurities of any kind. It consists of long,
ribbon-like molecules made up of smaller glucose
units. The glucose units are formed from atoms of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These molecules are
held together side-to-side by hydrogen bonding to
form ‘sheets’, which in turn are stacked together
in tightly packed layers to form ‘microfibrils’. The
microfibrils group themselves in bundles; and
groups of these bundles form the paper fibre.
All paper up until the 19th century was
hand-made, primarily from cotton and linen
rags and hemp, which produced papers of great
strength and permanence. As the need for paper
developed and the demand for raw materials
outstripped supply, ground wood was introduced
as a paper-making fibre. This resulted in the
mass-production of papers which were weaker
and less permanent.
Industry has developed ways of refining wood-
based paper to raise their quality and longevity
by isolating the cellulose in the wood from the
resinous substances which make the paper
acidic, that is the lignins. Today, acid-free
wood-based papers are available—these papers
contain a high percentage of alpha cellulose
and have a permanency which is equal to
cotton-based papers.

26 Paper
 Acidity and Alkalinity
Acids in paper contribute significantly to its
deterioration. They attack and break apart the
bonds which hold the cellulose chains, the
microfibrils, and the fibres together.
Where do the acids come from?
Acids are by-products of the breakdown of
impurities such as lignin, and of the cellulose
fibres themselves.
Alum-rosin sizing is a major cause of acid
deterioration in paper. Rosin, or pine resin, is
applied to paper to make it less absorbent, that is,
to size it. Because rosin does not attach readily to
paper, papermakers’ alum, also known as
aluminium sulphate, is used to form a link
between the paper and the rosin. Rosin breaks
down to produce acids, and papermakers’ alum
produces sulphuric acid.
Atmospheric gases and pollutants, such as sulphur
dioxide which forms sulphuric acid, can attack paper.
Acids can migrate from adjacent acidic materials.
Acidity, alkalinity and pH
The strength of acidity or alkalinity of any
substance is given as a measure of pH. The pH
value is a measure of the availability of free
hydrogen ions.
The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. pH 0 is very
acidic and pH 14 is very alkaline or basic.
pH 7 is a neutral value: neither acid nor alkaline.
Papers which are buffered with an alkaline
substance such as calcium carbonate usually have
a pH measurement of about 8.
Paper and paper-based products suitable for use in
storage and display of flat paper should be acid-
free; but in order to be meaningful, the pH value
of a paper must be used in conjunction with other
selected specifications for archival papers.
A pH testing pen can be useful for spot-testing
the acidity or alkalinity of storage materials but
this is not a foolproof method.
CAUTION:
Do not use a pH testing pen to test items
in your collection because it will leave a
strong stain in the paper.
If you have a problem relating to the care of
flat paper, contact a conservator. Conservators
can offer advice and practical solutions.
For further reading
CCI Notes, n.d. Canadian Conservation Institute,
Ottawa, Canada. These notes are updated
annually.
Clapp, A.F. 1987, Curatorial Care of Works of Art on
Paper, 4th edn, Nick Lyons Books, New York.
Dolloff, F.W. & Perkinson, R.L. 1971, How to Care
for Works of Art on Paper, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston.
Ellis, M.H. 1987, The Care of Prints and Drawings,
The American Association for State and Local
History (AASLH), Nashville.
Thompson, J.M.A. 1992, Manual of Curatorship:
A Guide to Museum Practice, 2nd edn,
Butterworth-Heinemann, London.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
What two major activities are central to the
preventive care of flat paper?
a) correct restoration treatments;
b) restoration of frames;
c) correct storage and display.
Paper 27
 Question 2. Question 7.

The highest quality archival papers are those which Before flat paper items are placed in storage they
are: should be:

a) acid-free; a) fumigated;

b) high in cellulose and free from acids and b) examined for damage and deterioration and
impurities; documented if necessary;

c) buffered to raise the pH. c) restored.

Question 3. Question 8.

Major factors which harm paper are: When a paper item is correctly mounted it should
be hinged to:
a) low light levels;
a) the backboard of the mount;
b) migration of impurities from poor-quality
storage and display materials; b) the reverse side of the window;

c) housing items in unframed mounts. c) the backing board of the frame.

Question 4. Question 9.

What is meant by foxing in paper? Encapsulations for flat paper are made using:

a) brown areas of discolouration caused by light; a) polyvinyl chloride;

b) invisible signs of weakness; b) polyester;

c) small brown spots usually caused by mould. c) acid-free paper.

Question 5. Question 10.

What is not a recommended environmental
condition for paper?
a) temperatures of between 18°C and 22°C;
b) relative humidity of over 65 % RH;
When framing flat paper items it is important to:
a) space them away from the glazing;
b) use acrylic sheet such as Perspex for pastel
and charcoal drawings;

c) illumination levels of 50 lux or less. c) use tinted glass.

Question 6.

What material is not suitable for use in storage

and display of paper?

a) inert plastics such as polyester and

polypropylene;

b) masking tape;

c) wheat starch paste.

28 Paper
 Answers to Question 9.

self-evaluation quiz b). Polyvinyl chloride is a low-grade plastic which

discolours and degrades. Encapsulations are
made of transparent material, so paper is not
Question 1. appropriate.

c). Restoration treatments are interventive rather Question 10.

than preventive.
a). Paper should be spaced away, to avoid
Question 2. condensation and media-transfer occurring.
Acrylic sheet should never be used to glaze
items with friable or fragile media such as
b). Paper and board can be acid-free or buffered
pastel and charcoal drawings. The term ‘tinted
and still contain impurities.
glass’ does not refer to UV-filtering glass.
Question 3.

b). Low light levels are recommended for paper.

Mounting is a suitable protective method,
with or without a frame.

Question 4.

c). Foxing is a type of mould which develops due

to a combination of high humidity and
temperature coupled with acids or impurities.

Question 5.

b). When relative humidity is over 65 % RH, the

conditions are more suitable for mould
growth.

Question 6.

b). Masking tape is not an archival product. It

can stain and weaken paper considerably and
is very difficult to remove.

Question 7.

b). Items only require fumigation if there is

evidence or a high possibility of mould or
insect infestation. A conservator should be
consulted. Restoration may not be required or
appropriate.

Question 8.

a). Paper items should never be hinged to the

window mount, nor should the backing board
double as a backboard.

Paper 29
Books
Objectives page 33
Introduction to the care and repair of books page 33
Parts of the books page 33
What are the most common types of damage page 34
Book structure, materials and damage to books page 36
Wear and tear of books page 39
Common causes of damage page 40
The do’s and don’ts of handling books page 40
The do’s and don’t of repair and labelling page 41
Storing and displaying books page 42
The best materials for storage and
display of books page 44
Storage enclosures for books page 44
Easy do-it-yourself storage enclosures for books page 45
How does light affect books on display? page 48
Supporting books when they are on display page 49
Summary of conditions for storage and display page 50
Books in Australians climatic zones page 51
Book maintenance page 52
Some miscellaneous advise page 54
MORE ABOUT BOOKS
A brief history of books page 55
Types of bindings page 56
Materials commonly found in books page 59
Paper repair page 61
For further reading page 63
Self-evaluation quiz page 64
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 65
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:

• have an understanding of the main factors

that contribute to the deterioration of books;

• have practical knowledge about how to store

and display books so that damage is
minimised;

• have a basic knowledge and some practical

skills so that you can make boxes, and do
basic repairs in the best and safest manner,
and use appropriate materials to preserve Hand-coloured 19th century children’s book.
books in your collections; Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey

• understand the need for ongoing maintenance

and management of books—to ensure access
to them—while at the same time minimising
the risk of damage; and
• have a basic knowledge of book structures
and the range of materials which go to make
up books.
Parts of the book
There are a number of unique terms used to
describe the parts of a book. It is useful to
identify the main parts of books by these terms,
because they are used throughout this section.

The following diagrams give a simple overview of

Introduction to the care the main parts of books.

and repair of books Textblock

Head of book
Front boards
Books have been with us for centuries. In early
years, they were rare and owned usually by wealthy
people or the Church. With the invention of Label and title
moveable type in 1440, text could be mass-
produced. This inevitably led to wider distribution French joint
and greater demand for books. But they were not
produced immediately on the massive scale with
Spine
which we are now familiar.
Tail of book
Over time, increased demand for books led to a
shift from books being hand-made by craftspeople
Head Band
to a greater mechanisation of production. Caps
Mechanisation and the availability of cheaper Paste down
Square
materials have meant that we can meet the massive
demand for books; but books are no longer what
they used to be, and we have to deal with the
consequences of these changes in book production. End paper

Books, old or new, cheap or valuable, are still

treasured. People love books—for the information
they hold, as objects, as gifts and as collectors’
items—and it is important that you are able to Gutter
take steps to care for the books in your collections.

Cloth turn-in Inner joint

Books 33
 The textblock is generally made up of:

• sections or gatherings. These are folded

sheets of paper grouped together. The Dog-eared corners
individual sections are joined to others by are at the head
sewing through the folds. This is the and tail of this
traditional, textblock form; and 18th century book.
There is other
damage to the
centre of the pages.
Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey

The back cover of

this 19th century
paper-covered book
• single sheets of paper glued, sewn or glued is damaged, stained
and sewn together. This is a modern binding and soiled.
and is more likely to fall apart. Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey

What are the most common

types of damage?
Books are vulnerable to physical damage and to This book has lost
the damage caused by chemical deterioration of its front cover and
their components. spine, the back
cover remains in
place but is poorly
Physical damage is very obvious and includes attached.
problems such as:
Photograph courtesy
• dog-eared pages; of Vicki Humphrey

• tears to pages;

• loss of pages—especially in modern books

made up of single sheets attached by sewing
or gluing;

• broken joints and detached covers;

• scuffing, wearing and losses to the bookcloth,

leather or paper covers;

• insect attack;

• wear and tear from excessive or careless

use; and
• distortions caused by fluctuations and
extremes of relative humidity and temperature
in storage and display environments.
This dictionary is only a few years old, but because
the text block is made up of single sheets glued at
the spine, the book has fallen apart.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey

34 Books

The leather covers
of this 17th century
book are badly worn
and scuffed.
Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey
Insects feasted on this book, eating through covers
and text blocks.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the State Library of South Australia
The covering material has dried out in low relative
humidity, pulling the board out of shape.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the State Library of South Australia
Damage caused by chemical deterioration includes:
• the textblock and binding materials fading,
becoming discoloured and becoming brittle.
This can be caused by exposure to UV
radiation and high lighting levels and the
ageing of the materials in the book and the
materials with which the book is in contact;
• mould growth—mould digests the materials
on which it grows; and
• damage from pollutants. This is a problem
particularly with leather bindings when they
came into contact with sulfur dioxide pollution.
This produces a condition called red-rot.
This 19th century book has been stored on a
bookshelf. Its spine has faded as it has been exposed
to light, while the front and backboards have been
protected by the other books on the shelf.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
This modern book is only 14 years old and already the
paper is beginning to discolour because of the lignin
in the paper.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
Books 35
 The book as a structure

All books are three-dimensional structures that are

This book has suffered required to move. For this reason they should be
severe mould damage,
not just to the surface strong, flexible and durable. Unfortunately this is
of the paper shown not always the case. For example, many modern
but also to many layers books, particularly text books and reference books,
beneath. don’t have adequate sewing and binding structures
Photograph courtesy of to support the weight of their textblocks. This is
the State Library of New made worse when the books are stored upright in
South Wales shelves. As a result, the textblocks sag and the
spines tend to collapse. The sewing also breaks
down and the sections within the book begin to
come loose.

Some older books bound in the flexible style are

This leather binding deteriorated after exposure to
sulphur dioxide pollutants in the atmosphere.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the History Trust of South Australia.
very difficult to open fully. The term flexible in
this case refers to the spine, which ideally remains
flexible and curves when the book is opened
allowing the pages to throw open fully. In this
style, the covering material, usually leather, is
glued tight to the spine of the textblock.
Unfortunately, excessive lining and over-
enthusiastic use of glue have often led to very
inflexible structures. This style of binding is also
not suited to textblocks with very stiff paper.

For more information

For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.

Book structure, materials

and damage to books
Books are designed to be moving structures, so
The life-span of books will be determined to a that they can be opened and read. The evolution
large degree by: of book design did not anticipate the development
of flat-bed photocopiers. Many books are being
• their structure and their ability to open well subjected to uses that their structures cannot
in use; and withstand repeatedly.

• the materials from which they are made. CAUTION:

It is important, therefore, to have some
information about structure and materials so that
you can provide appropriate care.
When photocopying a book on a flat-bed
photocopier, do not force it open and press it flat
to the glass. You may end up with a photocopy—
but you could destroy the book in the process.

36 Books
 Deterioration of materials in books

There are a large range of materials used in book

production. They are all in very close contact, and
will affect each other. If some of these materials
are poor quality and begin to deteriorate, they are
highly likely to adversely affect the other materials
in the book.

Paper is very vulnerable to damage and deterioration

if stored in poor conditions, or if made from poor
quality ingredients. Many papers, particularly
modern papers, become acidic over time. Often the Insect damage can be extreme as seen on this
acids develop in the paper from the breakdown of severely damaged book.
the materials in the paper. These acids attack the Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
cellulose fibres which make up paper, shortening with permission of the State Library of South Australia
the fibres and making the paper more brittle.
Boards on hardcover books, and the thin cardboard
covers on paperbacks, are made in a similar way to
paper and they often have many of the same
problems as paper. They can become acidic and
This paper is a these acids can migrate into the textblock.
poor-quality paper
that contains Strawboard is an exception. Lime is used in its
lignin. The paper manufacture, so the board is quite alkaline. It
has discoloured has a distinctive, brown-yellow colour which when
severely, is brittle
and breaks easily. wet readily stains anything it contacts. This stain
can often be mistaken for discolouration caused
Photograph courtesy
by acids.
of Artlab Australia

The interaction of adhesives, covering materials

and boards in conditions where relative humidity
fluctuates can cause severe distortion of the
boards. This leaves the textblock vulnerable to
damage.
Lignin, from untreated wood pulp, breaks down
and produces acids when it is exposed to UV
Some inks and pigments can damage paper. For
radiation. These acids discolour paper and make
example:
it brittle.
• iron gall inks—which were used extensively
Some sizing agents break down to produce acids. for manuscripts—contain acids and iron,
Sizes are applied to paper to stop inks soaking which both attack paper;
into it, as they would into blotting paper.
• verdigris—basic copper acetate—was used in
Chlorine bleaches used to whiten paper can remain many Islamic books, particularly in borders
chemically active in paper for a considerable time. around text. In many cases, this pigment has
Chlorine can combine with moisture from the air to eaten into the paper; and the text it
produce hydrochloric acid. surrounded can easily drop out.

Impurities in the water used during papermaking

can damage paper. Copper and iron are particularly
damaging.

Paper is a food source for insects, rodents and

moulds.

Books 37
 The animal glue
around the left
and lower edge
of this watercolour
is very discoloured,
and on the left
hand edge it has
become brittle and
broken up.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia

The acids from the iron gall ink on these pages have
attacked the paper, leaving it very brittle. The paper is
also very discoloured.
Photograph courtesy of State Library of New South Wales

The green border

around the text This vellum page
has been painted from a 13th century
with verdigris—a manuscript shows
copper pigment. extensive cockling.
The damage you see Photograph courtesy
in this photograph of the State Library
is very typical of of New South Wales
older Islamic books
where verdigris is
used extensively
as a border.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with Vellum and parchment are untanned animal skins.
permission of the They are both very moisture-sensitive. In high
State Library of relative humidity conditions the skins absorb
South Australia moisture and can distort and cockle. As the
relative humidity decreases, the skins dry and
become less flexible, and distortions and creases
Many inks and pigments are affected by UV can become set into the skin.
radiation, high lighting levels and extremes of
temperature and relative humidity; this results in Vellum and parchment can be attacked by insects
inks fading and discolouring, and sometimes and mould. Unlike paper—because lime is used in
becoming blurry. their manufacture—they are not susceptible to
attack by acids.
Animal glue is essentially a poor-quality, impure
gelatine. It is a rich food source for insects and The leathers traditionally used for bookbinding
moulds—cockroaches enjoy a good munch on are vegetable tanned leathers and are very
animal glue. Animal glue breaks down when it susceptible to:
ages. It often becomes discoloured and darkens,
which can cause staining. It can also become very • insect and mould attack;
brittle. When this happens, it crumbles and falls
away. • fading when exposed to light and UV radiation;

• drying out and losing their flexibility; and

38 Books
• red rot. Leathers with red rot have a rusty-red
colour, and leave fine deposits of red powder
on shelves, tables and hands. When the
chemicals in leather start to breakdown, the
leather becomes powdery. Sulphur dioxide—a
common atmospheric pollutant—combines
with moisture from the atmosphere to form
sulphuric acid, which breaks down the leather
fibres. The leather loses its flexibility, splits
and crumbles forming a fine red powder.
This leather binding has deteriorated under the action
of sulphur dioxide pollutants in the atmosphere.
This leather has a condition called ‘red-rot’.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia reproduced
with permission of the History Trust of South Australia
Many bookcloths are susceptible to damage from
mould and insect attack, and to fading caused by
excessive light levels and exposure to UV radiation.
Examine your collection. How many books have
faded spines, yet the front and back covers are
closer to their original colours because they have
been protected by the other books on the shelves?
Many bookcloths can also be discoloured and
damaged by water.
The lighter areas on this bookcloth are areas of water
damage.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
For more information
For more information about leather, vellum and
parchment, please see the chapter on Leather in
Caring for Cultural Material 2. For more
information about adverse environmental and
chemical factors, please see Damage and Decay.
Wear and tear of books
Apart from the deterioration of the materials which
make up books, one of the greatest enemies of
books is wear and tear. Wear and tear is an apt
name for the deterioration caused by excessive,
inappropriate or careless use, as well as for the
results of this deterioration.
The fact that there are so many books, and that
they are so freely and easily available, means that
we tend to take them for granted. We don’t handle
them correctly and we don’t care for them properly.
If we want them to last we have to change all this.
What contributes to wear and tear? Among other
things:
• leaving books open face-down to keep your
place. This weakens and can eventually break
the book structure;
• folding the corners of pages to mark your place;
• careless photocopying on a flat-bed
photocopier, particularly where the print is
very close to the spine and the book does not
open out well;
• careless shelving of books. Books which are
meant to be stored upright on shelves are
often seen leaning to one side;
Books are often allowed to lean to the side, which
can damage them.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Books 39
 • overcrowded shelves; When removing a book from the shelf don’t pull it
by the top of the spine because you can cause a
• removing books from shelves by pulling great deal of damage this way.
strongly at the top of the spine;

• handling books with dirty hands, or eating
and drinking while reading;
• pressing flowers in books;
• writing in books;
• dropping books; and
• using staples, pins, metal paper clips and
rubber bands on or in books.
The correct way to take a book from a shelf is to
push the books on either side of it further into the
shelf and hold the book firmly, with your hand
around the spine and your fingers on one cover
and your thumb on the other. For this reason, it is
wise to leave some space between your books and
the back of the shelf when you first set them up
on a shelf.

In most cases, the effects of wear and tear are not

seen immediately, and so little is done. It is
important to know how to store, handle and
display books correctly—to minimise the damage
which can result from wear and tear.

Common causes of damage

All the most common types of damage are caused by:

• poor handling; This is the wrong way to remove a book from a shelf.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
• poor storage methods;

• inappropriate display methods;

This book shows
• wear and tear from repeated use; clearly the damage
that can occur when
• chemical changes in the materials which make books are removed
up books; and from shelves by
pulling at the top of
• chemical changes caused by chemicals which the spine.
are present in materials in contact with Photograph courtesy
books, or which are present as pollutants in of Vicki Humphrey
the atmosphere.

Much of the common damage to books can be

prevented by care and pre-planning your handling,
storage and display of books.
The joint of this
The following sections will outline practical steps book has split from
you can take to minimise this type of damage. the top of the book,
indicating that it
was probably
removed from the
shelf in the wrong
The do’s and don’ts of way for many years.
handling books Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey

Care and commonsense in handling books will help

to prevent damage.

40 Books

The correct way to remove a book from a shelf.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Give your book adequate support when removing it
from a shelf.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Make sure your hands are clean when you handle
books. Otherwise you can leave dirty marks on the
bindings and the pages. Wearing gloves provides
added protection—cotton gloves are
recommended—but they are not always
appropriate because they can make it much harder
to turn the pages. Clean, close-fitting surgical
gloves are a good alternative to cotton gloves. But
cotton gloves should be worn when handling books
with gold leaf decorations on the covers or on the
foredge of the book.
Books should be opened gently: the spine and the
sewing can be broken if the book is forced open.
If you’re using a book which can’t open flat, give
it some support so that you don’t strain its
structure. Some book supports are shown in the
section on supporting books when they are on
display; but you can also improvise—by using
another smaller book or, perhaps, the jumper you
are carrying with you in case it gets cold.
When opening new or newly bound books, don’t
open them from the centre. Start from the front
and then the back, and open them gradually,
section by section, until you reach the middle.
This eases them open gradually and flexes the new
structure. Opening them at the middle and forcing
them to open flat can break the structure.
It is always best to turn pages slowly and with
care. It is very easy to tear paper if you are
flicking through the pages quickly. Don’t lick your
fingers to turn pages—the moisture can set dirt
into the paper. You can also transfer dirt and
germs from the paper to your mouth. If the book
has been fumigated against insects or mould, you
can put yourself at risk.
Don’t try to carry lots of books at once. You could
hurt yourself and if you drop the books you will
damage them. If you are carrying valuable books,
put them in a sturdy box.
The covers of books can be severely disfigured by
abrasion and scratching. This is especially noticeable
with very smooth, calf-leather bindings. Don’t
stack valuable or delicate books, or carry them in
such a way that they will rub against each other.
The do’s and don’ts of
repair and labelling
Inappropriate labelling and repair methods can
damage and devalue books. The following
guidelines may help to prevent such damage.
If books are damaged, be aware that some repairs
can cause further damage. For this reason it is
recommended that you do not use sticky tapes of
any kind.
These tapes go through a number of stages when
they deteriorate. Firstly, the adhesive becomes very
sticky and will be absorbed easily into paper,
bookcloths and leather. In the next stage the
adhesive changes chemically, and begins to yellow
and eventually turns a dark orange. At this stage,
the adhesive is almost totally insoluble and the
stains cannot be removed. Once the adhesive
becomes insoluble, the tape usually falls away, so
the repair has failed and you still have the
damage. In addition to the original damages, the
paper is now badly stained as well.
Books 41

This damaged dust
jacket was repaired
with sticky tape
which has
discoloured and
stained the paper.
Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey
Don’t attempt to mend torn pages or damaged
covers, unless you have good-quality materials
and are confident that the methods you use will
not cause damage in the future. Talk to a
conservator if you’re not certain that you’re doing
the right thing, or if you want information about
training courses.
If the boards have come off one of your books,
don’t try to reattach them with sticky tape. It is
better to place the book, with its cover, in a
wrapper or a phase box until it can be repaired
properly. The book can still be used, but it is
protected properly until it is treated.
Ball-point pens or other ink pens and markers
should not be used to label books. Many of these
inks, particularly felt tip pen inks, can spread and
cause unsightly staining. If you need to handwrite
a label, it is best to use a permanent ink—such as
Indian ink.
If you use rubber stamps or embossing stamps
regularly for labelling your books, be careful about
This photograph
shows the damage
that can be done
by leaving paper
clips on paper for
a length of time.
Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey
42 Books
where you place the stamp. Many books have
important images and printed plates, and these
can be ruined if a stamp is placed over the image
or over part of it.
Paper clips, even plastic ones, can damage and
distort paper. They should not be used for
attaching labels or marking your place. Metal paper
clips rust over time and stain paper.
Storing and displaying books
Adverse storage and display conditions affect all
items in a collection. The effects are not always
dramatically obvious. Changes tend to occur
gradually over a long period of time; but once the
changes have occurred they are often irreversible,
or involve complex and costly treatment.
Good storage and display environments prevent
physical damage and help slow down chemical
deterioration, greatly increasing the life of books.
The following sections outline:
• the ideal conditions for the storage and
display of books;
• general storage guidelines;
• the best materials to use for the storage and
display of books;
• enclosures for books—some easy do-it-yourself
storage enclosures;
• the effects that light can have on books on
display;
• lighting hints; and
• supporting books when they are on display.
Ideal conditions for
storing and displaying books
Books are made up of many different materials.
The sensitivity of particular materials and the
value of the books—be it monetary, sentimental or
other value—will determine your approach to
providing a controlled environment for your
collection.
Ideally, books should be stored in an environment
where:
Temperature is constant and moderate-in the range
18–22°C. Because books are often stored in areas
where people use them, 18°C may be considered
too low for comfort. In this case, 20–24°C would
be acceptable but higher temperatures than this
are not recommended.
Relative humidity is in the range 45–55%. This is
important for books. If the relative humidity is too
high, mould and insect activity are highly likely to
increase because the glues are very attractive to
them. If the relative humidity is too low, the glues
dry out and lose their flexibility. Because paper,
leathers, bookcloths and glues react at different
rates to changes in relative humidity—and
because fluctuations in relative humidity can cause
bindings to distort—it should be kept as stable as
possible.
Light is kept to the minimum necessary for the
activity. Ideally, books should be stored in the
dark. Light is really necessary only when they are
being selected from the shelves. This is not always
practical because books are often stored in the
same area in which they are used; and in libraries,
selection of books from shelves can continue over
many hours. It is necessary to have light for
display, but the lighting levels for display don’t
need to be as high as the lighting levels in a
reading room.
Books fall into different categories of light-
sensitivity, depending on the materials from which
they are made, their value and their condition.
Most collections of general-use books would be
considered to be non-sensitive to light. Despite
this, if you want them to last, you should try to
keep their exposure to bright light down to a
minimum.
All books should be protected from exposure to
daylight. The UV content of the light should be
less than 30µW/lm and no more than 75µW/lm.
If the books are particularly sensitive to light—for
example, books with watercolours, dyed leathers,
some older dyed bookcloths and rare or valuable
books with paper covers—the brightness of the
light should be 50 lux or less.
If the books are moderately sensitive to light, the
brightness of the light should be 250 lux or less.
Steps must also be taken to protect books from
dust and pollutants—especially if your collection
contains leather-bound books.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.
General storage guidelines
Careful consideration should be given to the
storage site and the storage system. In ideal
conditions, a good storage system in an
appropriate storage site provides added protection
for your collection. If the available facilities or the
local climate make it difficult for you to achieve
ideal conditions, then the selection of the storage
site and the maintenance of a good storage system
are even more critical in preventing damage to the
collections.
The following notes are guidelines for selecting
storage sites, and outline the principles to be
followed to protect your collections in storage.
Wherever possible, the storage site should be in a
central area of the building, where it is buffered
from the extremes of climatic fluctuations which
can occur near external walls or in basements and
attics. The storage site should not contain any
water, drain or steam pipes, particularly at ceiling
level. Leaking pipes can cause a lot of damage.
Basements should also be avoided because of the
risk of flooding.
Don’t store books in sheds. The storage site and
the shelving used for your books should allow
reasonable ventilation. Also remember to inspect
and clean book shelves regularly. These two simple
measures help reduce the risk of insect and mould
infestation and help greatly in controlling any
outbreaks.
Give books adequate support and try to reduce the
physical stresses which can damage them. Many
books are very badly shelved. This eventually distorts
the binding and can damage the sewing structure,
which causes books to fall apart. Don’t allow books
to flop to the side on their shelves. Bookends or
book shoes should be provided to keep books
upright. Book shoes also support the textblock.
Store large volumes flat rather than upright. Most
large volumes have heavy textblocks, and not all of
them have adequate binding structures to support
them. Flat storage prevents the weight of the
textblock from collapsing the spine. If several
heavy books are to be stored horizontally, they
Books 43
 GOOD BAD
acrylic paints and uncured paint
varnishes
cotton wool
linen felt
inorganic pigments PVA glue
polystyrene PVC
polyester film cellulose nitrate
ceramic polyurethanes
glass protein based glues, for
example, animal glue
How not to store your books. enamelled metal chipboard, unsealed
woods—especially
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
hardwoods—Customwood

Storage enclosures for books

People using books are less hasty and take better
care if they see that you are taking steps to
protect your books.

Boxes and wrappers provide excellent protection

for books. They protect against:

Make sure you support your books and keep them • light and UV radiation;
upright on the shelves.
• dirt and dust;
should not be stacked too high. This makes
handling awkward and can cause damage. Try to • disasters; and
place an empty table or shelf nearby—the books
• people.
on the top of the stack can be put there if you are
trying to remove those at the bottom.
Many rare and valuable books are stored in purpose
made Clamshell boxes. When these are well made,
Provide easy access to books—ease of access
using archival-quality materials, they are one of
contributes greatly to the care of books. Difficult
the best methods for storing individual books.
access often leads to awkward handling as people
try to lift too much weight at one time, risking
injury to themselves and damaging the books.

The best materials for

storage and display of books
Books can be affected by other materials in their
immediate environment. The following list of good
and bad materials—from a preservation
viewpoint—can help you select your storage and
Clamshell box containing a book. The book is sitting
display furniture, or the materials to use when in the base of the box on the right. The lid on the
making them yourself. left closes over the top of the base.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

44 Books
They are handmade and relatively expensive. If you
wish to buy this type of storage box, contact a
conservator about having boxes made up or about
learning to make them. Clamshell boxes are
complicated to make—in some cases even for
those who have made them before—so we have
not included instructions.
A number of ready-made archival-quality boxes are
suitable for storing books.
A selection of archival boxes for book storage—
available from suppliers of conservation materials.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
If you cannot get a box to fit your book exactly,
buy one that is a bit big and pad out the excess
space with acid-free tissue, to prevent the book
moving about too much. Don’t try and force a book
into a box that is too small for it. Alternatively,
you can make your own storage enclosures.
Instructions for some easy storage boxes and
wrappers follow.
Easy do-it-yourself storage
enclosures for books
Phase boxes
These boxes are called phase boxes because they
are used in libraries in phased conservation
programs. When damaged books are identified but
cannot be fully treated straight away, they are
placed in a phase box for protection—phase 1—
until they are programmed for treatment—phase 2.
Phase boxes are usually made from folding box board.
To make a phase box:
• Measure up two pieces of folding box board.
The measurements for these pieces have to
relate to the dimensions of the book indicated
in the diagram below. The measurements for
the first piece should allow for:
• the base, (1) on the diagram below, which is
the same as the height and width of the book,
with a couple of extra millimetres on each
dimension to ensure the fit is not too tight;
Height
Thickness
Width
• the sides of the box (2) which are the same
size as the thickness of the book, plus twice
the thickness of the board you are using—
this extra allowance is for folding;
• flaps (3) which should be the same size as
the base, minus 3mm from the height of the
book; and
• an additional flap (4) which is the height of
the book and no more than the thickness of
the book: this last flap is the place where the
rivets and washers for fastening the box are
placed.
The first piece
5
4
3
2
1
2
3
Books 45
 If the book is very thin—less than 3mm—you
need to add an additional flap (5). This flap 5
should be 2–5cm wide. 4

3
To cut out the first piece, cut along the solid lines
indicated in the diagram. 2

Fold the board along the dotted lines indicated in
the diagram. Because folding box board is quite
thick, you may need to score both sides of the
board with a bone folder, letter opener or the
blunt edge of a knife before folding. Folding box
board can have quite sharp corners-you may want
to round the corners with a corner rounder, knife
or scissors.
The measurements for the second section should
allow for:
• the base, (1a) on the diagram below. In this
case it is the height of the book plus 2–4mm
by the width of the book, plus 2–4mm;
• the sides of the box (2a). In this case the
sides of the box should measure the same as
the sides of the box given for the first piece
plus twice the thickness of the board being
used. Here you are adding an extra allowance,
so that these sides can be slightly larger than
the sides on the first piece so they can fold
over the flaps of the first piece; and
• the flaps (3a) should be the same size as the
base except that the width should be the
width of the book minus 3mm.
3a 2a 1 2a 3a
2
3
• stick the first piece to the second piece using
a strong adhesive such as polyvinyl acetate—
PVA. The base (1) of the first piece should be
stuck on top of the base of the second piece
(1a), making the second piece of folding box
board the outside board;
• allow the adhesive to dry under weights—this
prevents the boards warping;
• punch holes in flap 4 of the first piece; and
• cut two circles of folding box board to use as
washers. Punch holes in these and using
rivets or folding paper fasteners, attach the
washers to the outside of the flap.
Now your phase box is complete and you can fold
the box, place your book inside the box and fasten
it by winding the fishing line around the washers.

Rivets with washer on

The second piece the outside of the box.

3a 2a 1a 2a 3a

To cut and fold the second piece, follow the fishing

procedures outlined for the first section. fishing line
line
To construct the box:

• make two holes in the base of the first

section shown on the first diagram by *1*; The assembled phase box

• thread some fishing line through this. When

the box is folded, the fishing line should be
long enough to wrap around the washers that
are placed on flap 4 of the first piece;

46 Books
 A simple book wrapper
Slit cut to insert tab

Simple wrappers for books can be made from a

laminate of good-quality paper and bookcloth. This
is prepared by sticking the paper—dampened
slightly—to the bookcloth, using a mixture of
acid-free PVA and starch paste. The PVA provides
an instant stick, while the starch paste gives you a
little bit of slip, in case the paper is not
positioned correctly on the bookcloth and you
need to slide it into position. The laminate should
be lightly pressed while drying, and be fully dry
before you start to make the wrapper. Drying can
take a couple of days. You may need practice in
making this laminate, because the paper and
bookcloth can be difficult to handle when they are
wet with adhesive. Lightweight, archival-quality
tab cut out—rounded corners
board is the easier material to use.

For more information • once it is marked out, the wrapper can be

A recipe for starch paste is given in cut. The shaded areas on the diagram are cut
More About Books later in this chapter away and discarded;

• once cutting is complete, the wrapper can be

CAUTION:
PVA is not used in conservation treatments.
It should not be used directly on the book
leathers or the textblock, because it is not
reversible. As PVA dries, a chemical reaction
takes place and the adhesive film which is
formed is not soluble in water.
folded. It is easier to fold the board and
paper/bookcloth laminate if you run a bone
folder, letter opener or the blunt edge of a
knife along the fold line first. The dotted
lines indicate where the wrapper is folded;

The best tools to use to make the wrapper are a

Stanley knife or similar, a metal ruler and a bone
folder or letter opener.

To make the wrapper:

• mark out the required dimensions on the

material-using pencil;

• the base of the wrapper should be slightly

bigger than the book, to allow it to fold
without distorting or damaging the book;
To score the wrapper material for easier folding, run
• after the base is marked out, you have to a bone folder—shown in the picture—letter opener
or the blunt edge of a knife along a metal ruler which
mark out the thickness of the book. Again
has been placed on the line of the fold.
allow a few millimetres more than the actual
thickness. The thickness is shown on each Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
flap between the dotted lines;

• the side flaps are then marked out. They

should be slightly shorter than the base, and
tapered from the base to the outside edge;

Books 47

Folding the wrapper using a bone folder and steel ruler.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
A selection of wrappers for books.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
• if you want to make a tab that will fit into a
slot in the wrapper to keep the wrapper
closed around your book, cut out a tapered
tab—shown at the bottom centre of the
diagram;
• when the tab has been made, fold up your
wrapper and mark out the position and length
of the slot. Unfold the wrapper and cut the
slot slightly larger than the width of the tab;
and
• once cut and folded, the wrapper is ready for
use.
48 Books
How does light
affect books on display?
Light is essential in a display environment; but
when it is accompanied by UV radiation, it can
cause extreme and irreversible damage to many of
the materials found in books.
Paper can become brittle and yellow, especially if
it contains lignin.
Dyes in bookcloths and leather can fade. This can
be seen in books in storage as well. You often see
books with faded spines. The spines are exposed to
the light, while the covers are protected by being
between other books.
If the books are displayed open, then inks,
watercolours and photographs in the books can
fade or become discoloured.
Lighting hints
As light can be so damaging to books, it is
important to consider carefully the lighting of your
display. The following hints can minimise damage:
• tungsten incandescent bulbs are the best
form of lighting for displaying books, because
they give out very little UV radiation. If you
are using tungsten incandescent bulbs, make
sure they are not too close to the books,
because the bulbs get very hot and can
damage the books. Avoid placing tungsten
incandescent bulbs inside display cases
because they will raise the temperature inside
the cases to unacceptable levels, unless the
display cases have air-conditioning or
mechanical ventilation;
• fluorescent tubes give out UV radiation and
should not be used unless you are using low
UV-emitting fluorescent tubes; and
• it is important that books displayed open
have their pages turned regularly: to prevent
strain on the binding and excessive light
damage to any one page.
For more information
For more information, please see the
chapter on Light and Ultraviolet Radiation
in Damage and Decay.
 Supporting books when • scoring the board where it is to be folded and
folding it. The folds, once set at the angle
they are on display you require, can be set in place by attaching
gummed, linen tape to the mount board.
Many books need support while being read, and all
books should have support when they are on
display. Severe damage can result from books
being forced to open out flat; and the risks are
greater for old, fragile and tight bindings.

There are a number of versatile and effective book

supports which are easily and cheaply made.

Pillow support or cradle

The materials required for this support are Diagrams reproduced from the Canadian Conservation
polyester/cotton fabric, Dacron polyester wadding, Institute Note No. 11/8.
sewing thread and Velcro.

The support is made first as a flat pillow. The
dimensions will be determined by the size and the
weight of the book to be supported. For example, an
A4-volume can be well supported by a pillow of
1000mm x 350mm.
To turn the pillow into a cradle, the ends are rolled
towards the centre—leaving a padded area
A more rigid material, such as Perspex, an acrylic
sheet, can be used for larger, heavier books. The
acrylic can be bent to the required shape. Most
acrylic sheet suppliers can do this if you supply
them with the dimensions you require and, if
possible, a diagram of what you want.
Supports for open books

yy
;;
between the rolls to support the spine of the
book. The width of this central area depends on
the width of the book’s spine. When displaying books open at the title page, or
first or last sections of the text, support should be
Dacron
provided for the cover. This reduces the
Covers rest compression on the spine, and minimises the risk

;;
yy
wadding Velcro pieces
on rolls
Polyester/cotton Spine
of damage to the book.
fabric cover sits here
Rolled pillow
A suitable support can be constructed from acid-
free mount board, folded and reinforced as
described for the closed-book stand. Again the
dimensions are determined by the dimensions of
the book: care must be taken to make the spine
strip of the book support narrower than the spine
Velcro is stitched to the cradle to fix the two of the book.
rolled sections in place at the correct angle to
support the book for reading and/or display.

Stands for closed books

A simple stand for closed books can be made:

• using acid-free mount board for light- to

medium-weight books;

• by measuring and determining the required Diagrams reproduced from the Canadian Conservation
dimensions; and Institute Note No. 11/8.

Books 49

The Mylar strip is
very unobtrusive.
In this photograph
you can only see
the Mylar because
it is reflecting the
lighter patches
at the head and
tail of the book.
Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey
Display cases
Books are often displayed in cases. Remember,
while display cases are a useful method of
protecting objects from the harmful effects of the
environment and secure from theft and vandalism,
books will still need to be supported in a case.
If you are considering using a display case, think
about the materials from which it is made. Placing
valuable items in cases made from materials that
are potentially harmful locks them into a harmful
microclimate.

With some books, there will be a tendency for the
leaves of the book to open and stand up. This can
be prevented by placing a narrow strip of Mylar
around the textblock. The Mylar can be joined end-
to-end using a small piece of double-sided tape.
The tape must not touch the book. It should be
placed between the two ends of the Mylar.
A different type of support is needed if the book is
quite thick and is to be opened in the middle or if
the book is tightly bound and will not open well.
Again, this support can be made from acid-free
mount board or acrylic sheeting. It presents the
book in a V-shaped cavity in which the book rests
open at an angle of about 100°—rather than flat
at 180°.
Polishing the top of the display can cause
electricity to build up which can make book pages
fly open—or snap together. You can prevent this
happening by:
• securing the pages with Mylar strips as
described in the section Supports for open
books; and
• ensuring there is sufficient space between the
top of the book and the top of the display
case—250mm is a good distance.
Books should not be displayed vertically with their
covers open, because the weight of the paper in
the textblock will cause distortion. The binding
structure may even collapse.

Summary of conditions for storage and display

Storage Display

Temperature 18–22ºC 18–22ºC

Relative Humidity 45–55%RH 45–55%RH

Brightness of the Light Dark storage is preferred for books;
but if light is present it should be
less than 250 lux. If you think the books
are particularly light-sensitive,the
brightness should be less than 50 lux.
Should be less than 250 lux.
If you think the books are
particularly light-sensitive,
the brightness should be
less than 50 lux.

Higher lighting levels are necessary when books are being read.
The brightness should not exceed 500 lux with exposure to
these lighting levels kept to a minimum.

UV Content of Light Dark storage is preferred; but if light is Less than 30µW/lm
present, UV content should be less than and no greater
30µW/lm and no higher than 75µW/lm. than 75µW/lm.

50 Books
 Books in Australia’s climatic zones
The climatic zones outlined below are broad categories. Conditions may vary within these categories,
depending, among other things, on the state of repair of your building and whether the building is air
conditioned.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very
cold at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity,
for example from 75%–20%RH in a day.

When caring for books in arid areas it is important to note that:

• insects can still survive and can still damage your books;
• adhesives tend to dry out and lose flexibility, so care should be taken to open books gently;
• leather can also become very dry and lose flexibility; and
• in many arid areas there is a lot of dust and grit. For this reason book collections should be cleaned
regularly. Remember grit can scratch some binding materials, so clean with care.

Remember that even arid areas can experience large fluctuations in relative humidity and temperature.
You may wish to store your books in boxes or wrappers to provide them with a layer of protection from
grit and fluctuations in relative humidity and temperature.

Note: If your books have been stored in an arid environment for a considerable period and they are
stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions. This could do
more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
• It is probably easier to come close to the recommended ideal conditions for the storage of books in a
temperate climate, however, it is unlikely that you will be able to maintain an even environment
without the help of sophisticated air conditioning equipment.
• The system of layers of storage—wrappers, boxes, boxes within cupboards—will be very useful in
helping to buffer against the extreme conditions that can occur in a temperate environment.
• As for all climatic zones, regular inspection of storage and display areas is important so that
developing problems do not go unnoticed.

Note: If your books have been stored in a temperate environment for a considerable period and they are
stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions. This could do
more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Books 51
 Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.

When caring for collections in high humidity conditions it is important to note that:
• closed books take up moisture, but are not well ventilated, thus creating an ideal environment for
mould growth and for some insects;
• the rate of fading of book spines exposed to light is likely to be higher than in lower humidity
conditions;
• adhesives used in the book’s construction could take up moisture and become tacky and increasingly
attractive to insects and mould;
• leather can become mouldy quite easily;
• some bookcloths will stick to each other if they become moist. Damage can be caused when
separating them; and
• the different components of the books will take up moisture at different rates and this could lead to
warping of the binding.

Regular inspections and maintenance of your book collection is important. You may be able to stop an
insect or mould infestation before a great deal of damage is done. Open the books and allow air to get
to the pages.

Note: If your books have been stored in a tropical environment for a considerable period and they are
stable.—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions. This could do
more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Book maintenance Handy hints on cleaning books

Cleaning book shelves thoroughly and regularly
helps control insects and mould growth. It is
strongly recommended that you set up a system
for cleaning your bookshelves regularly. This
should involve removing books from shelves
and cleaning behind them—insects, such as
silverfish, prefer dark, undisturbed places. If
you don’t do this regularly, you may not notice
an insect or mould problem until there is
extensive damage.
Other maintenance procedures that are commonly
carried out on books include cleaning individual
books and dressing leather bindings. These
activities are very important to keep your books in
good condition; however, if they are not done
properly they can cause damage.
The following sections contain information to
assist you with cleaning books and dressing
leather bindings.
Books are not always easy to clean. In some cases
it is not wise to try to clean them thoroughly,
especially if they are in fragile condition. If this is
the case, you must approach cleaning with care. If
you are not sure whether you should clean a
damaged book, consult a conservator.
When cleaning a book, place it on a desk on a
clean sheet of paper. By moving the paper around,
you can reach all sides of the book easily. This
method is easier and safer then trying to hold the
book at the same time as you are holding the
cleaning tools.
If the book is not fragile and can be cleaned
without risk of damage, dust and remove loose dirt
from books using gentle brushing combined with
suction using a vacuum cleaner. It is vital that you
reduce the suction of the vacuum cleaner. You do
this by covering the end with one or more layers
of a gauze-like material such as fine, Nylon
stocking. By reducing the suction you reduce the

52 Books
risk of damage; and the filtering gauze will prevent
the loss—into the bowels of the vacuum cleaner—
of any loose material which may get picked up by
the suction. Sucking dirt away stops it being re-
deposited in the book.
You can use a duster on the binding, but extreme
care must be exercised. Rubbing with a dustcloth
can cause scratching; soft calf-leather is
particularly vulnerable. Dusting can also dislodge
pieces of degraded leather, cloth or paper. When
dusting, remember to keep turning to a clean area
of the dustcloth—so as not to re-deposit dirt on
the book. Remember also that if you dust without
using a vacuum cleaner some of the dust will
resettle onto your books.
Brushes can be used for cleaning the outside of
books, and for brushing away dirt and dust which
have collected inside the textblock. Soft brushes
should be used: shaving brushes, sable paint
brushes and jewellers and watchmakers’ brushes
are particularly suitable.
The text block of a book being cleaned with a soft brush.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
Dust on the outside of a book being brushed away
using a shaving brush.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
CAUTION:
Some manuals recommend cleaning the bindings
with damp cloths. If you attempt to do this, be
very careful because you can damage the binding.
Degraded leathers absorb water easily,
and can remain permanently discoloured where
they have been damp.
Some of the sizes and pigments in bookcloths move
easily in water, and wiping over with a damp cloth
can leave unsightly watermarks on the binding.
Experience and knowledge of the materials are
important, as is controlling the amount of water
applied and the evenness of the application.
Excess water applied to the outside of a
binding can distort the boards, so that they no
longer protect the textblock.
Paper can be cleaned using erasers. Be very careful
when doing this—and be aware that not all dirt
will be moved by an eraser.
The pressure applied must be kept to a minimum,
because the paper fibres on the surface of the
paper are always disturbed by such cleaning. You
can see this damage clearly under a microscope or
a thread counter.
CAUTION:
If it doesn’t clean up with slight pressure,
STOP—don’t rub harder and harder because you’ll
end up with a tear or a hole in the paper.
To clean paper with an eraser, make sure it is well
supported and then rub in one direction only.
Rubbing back and forth increases the risk of
buckling, creasing and/or tearing the paper.
You should pay particular attention to removing
the eraser particles from the paper, but some
particles will inevitably remain. The brush and
vacuum method of cleaning described above is
very good for removing eraser particles.
CAUTION:
Do not use strong suction or you could cause
extreme damage and distort the pages. Remember
to reduce the suction with layers of gauze.
Books 53
 The eraser’s quality is also important. Many modern
erasers are made from polyvinyl chloride—PVC.
This breaks down in the presence of moisture and
produces hydrochloric acid which can cause
considerable damage. The eraser should be soft and
not contain abrasive materials. Staedtler Rasoplast
526 erasers are used widely for cleaning paper.
Leather dressing—a word of caution
Because leather dries out and becomes inflexible,
dressing it is a widespread practice. Good-quality
leather dressings improve the function and
flexibility of leather, while brightening its
appearance. But there are problems associated
with using leather dressing.
Excessive leather dressing can stain paper, because
it is very greasy. So it is important that you don’t
use too much and that you don’t allow it to touch
the paper.
Leather dressing can darken degraded leather and
should not be applied to cracked or dry leather.
These areas should be consolidated first.
Leather dressing can make the surface of the
leather sticky, and cause dirt and dust to stick to
the leather. This can be avoided by applying the
dressing very sparingly and making sure you
remove excess dressing by polishing—in much the
same way as you do for shoes.
When applying leather dressing, put the dressing
onto a soft cloth—such as an old T-shirt—and
spread the dressing gently onto the book. Be
gentle when polishing away the excess; again use
an old T-shirt or similar. If there is any grit in the
way, you could easily scratch the leather.
If leather dressing is applied over dirt and dust,
they will set in place. Make sure your books are
clean before applying dressing.
Leather dressing can get caught in damaged and
cracked leather.
Leather dressing can discolour as it ages.
For more information
For more information on leather dressings,
please see the chapter on Leather in
Caring for Cultural Material 2.
54 Books
Some miscellaneous advice
Dust jackets
Dust jackets serve a dual purpose: they protect the
surface of the binding materials, but they are often
far more decorative than modern bindings. They
are often the first part of the book to become
damaged.
Some dust jackets are important to the value of
the book, and so should be protected.
If you have a valued dust jacket you want to
protect, you may decide to remove it and store it
safely when the book is being used. If you do this,
you may want to put a substitute jacket on your
book.
You may prefer to cover the dust jacket while it is
on the book. If you do this, choose stable
material. Polypropylene is soft enough to fold
around the cover and is transparent. Mylar would
be more difficult to use and has sharp corners
when folded. Secure the overlaps of the covering
material with double-sided tape; but don’t allow
sticky tapes to be in direct contact with your book
or dust jacket.
It is strongly recommended that you avoid using
any self-adhesive covering materials.
The adhesive used on these covering materials can
work its way into the printed surface of the dust
jacket, making the covering material almost
impossible to remove later.
Uncut pages
Sometimes you come across a book in which the
pages are still joined and the book cannot be read.
If the book is valuable or is a collector’s item, it
may be wise to consult a book valuer before going
ahead and cutting the pages; in some cases the
uncut paper can increase the value of the book.
Don’t cut the pages yourself unless you feel
confident that you can do the job without
damaging the paper. It is very easy to end up with
uneven cuts and jagged edges.
To cut the pages, it is necessary to place a very
sharp knife-blade between the pages and slice
carefully along the fold. You may need to use a
scalpel to get right into the spine, if you are
cutting at the head of the book.
If you are not confident about attempting this
yourself, ask a conservator for advice or assistance.
Book conservators and bookbinders
Book conservators and bookbinders have a
different approach to the treatment of damaged
books. Both approaches have their place, but you
may want to consider some of these differences
before deciding who to consult.
Book conservators following their code of ethics
should:
• aim for minimum intervention in treatments;
• use stable and reversible materials;
• retain all original materials. Even if they
cannot put all of them back in place they
should keep them and return them to you.
This way you have all the historic evidence
from the book;
MORE ABOUT BOOKS
A brief history of books
The basic form of the book with which we are
familiar today has changed very little over
centuries. The book remains a gathering of
leaves—most commonly of paper—collected
together in some way or another, in a three-
dimensional, moving structure, with boards front
and back to protect the leaves.
While the basic form has varied little, the materials
used, the structural elements and the decorations
have varied greatly over the centuries and from
country to country. The invention of printing and
the subsequent explosion in book production have
led to further changes and developments.
Place an early book next to a modern paperback. It
is obvious immediately that they are very different
in appearance and appeal. But the basic form is
the same.

• document the structure and materials in the

book, as well as the damage, before
commencing the treatment; and

• avoid changing the structure unless the

structure itself is causing damage.

Many bookbinders work in a similar way to

conservators, but you will also find that some This book was printed in 1571.
bookbinders:
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
• use unstable adhesives such as animal glue,
and irreversible adhesives such as PVA;

• proceed with the job without documentation;

• discard original materials and at times will

not attempt to re-use them;

• alter the structure; and

• trim the head, tail and foredge after resewing

a book. This gives a very even edge, but
inevitably makes the textblock smaller.

Think about what sort of job you want and why This book was printed in 1981.
you are having the work done—it should help you
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
to decide who to go to for your book repairs.

Books 55
 From very early times, multiple leaves of
documents were collected together in the form of
a roll, with the leaves sewn together end to end.
This method was used to attach pieces of papyrus
together. The roll form survives today, and can be
seen in synagogues: the Scrolls of the Law are
written on sheets of parchment sewn edge to edge
to form a long roll wound onto two wooden
battens called Trees of Life.
As vellum was used more widely, its greater
flexibility compared to papyrus gave rise to
different methods of collecting the individual
leaves together. Vellum could be folded—and so
the practice of gathering groups of folded sheets
and sewing them onto cords or thongs was
developed. They were often wrapped in leather for
protection.
Once this form of book gained wide usage,
bookbinding was invented. The need to protect the
leaves of the books and to keep the vellum sheets
flat led to the addition of boards. The cords or
thongs to which the groups of folded sheets were
sewn were then laced into wooden boards.
Gradually this developed into the system for
binding books which is still used today.
Over the centuries boards have been covered with
leather, parchment, vellum, alum tawed or
whittawed skin, papers, and more recently,
bookcloth. Boards have also been decorated with
blind tooling, gold tooling, jewels, various metals,
embroidery, beading, inlaid wood and leather,
paste papers and marbled papers.
Decorative elements have not been restricted to
the boards. The head, tail and foredge of the
textblock can be painted, decorated with Armenian
bole—a blood-red pigment—with gold leaf,
spatter-painted with colours or gauffered.
Headbands are decorative as well as functional.
At various times, different countries developed
very individual styles of binding and decoration.
Experts can identify the production dates and
country of origin for many historic books, based
solely on their physical attributes.
Over the centuries, the materials and methods of
book production changed. However this has not
always meant an improvement in quality. The
changes are a reflection of the shift from books as
rare items available only to certain sections of
society to books as mass-produced consumer goods.
56 Books
Boards made from compressed paper pulp have
replaced wooden boards. Case bindings—in which
the cover is made separately from the textblock
and attached later—have largely replaced the
other forms of binding in which the cover is
assembled on the book step-by-step.
In the past, all books were individually hand-sewn.
This type of work is generally used today for fine
bindings only or conservation work. In modern
book production, those books which are sewn are
machine-sewn. But huge numbers of books are not
sewn: they are made up of individual leaves
fastened to each other and to the cover by an
adhesive. This style of book—familiar to us as the
paperback—is a development of the so-called
perfect binding introduced in the 19th century.
They are far from perfect—with a tendency to fall
apart. There are other books, which have been
stapled or, as bookbinders say, wire stitched.
Paper quality has deteriorated also. Acidic paper is
an ongoing problem, particularly for libraries.
Increasing demand for paper products in the 19th
century led to many innovations in the papermaking
industry, including a shift away from the traditional
materials. The use of pulped wood, alum rosin sizing
and papermakers’ alum, to improve the flow of pulp
through the papermaking machines, all contributed
to the supply of reasonably cheap, mass-produced
papers. These materials are also sources of acids,
which attack the paper fibres—making the paper
brittle and easily damaged when handled.
There is a wealth of knowledge of the history of
bookbinding, and centuries of information about
the durability of particular materials. This is
important for historians, book collectors, museums,
galleries and libraries. But this information is also
valuable for book conservators, who can use it to
great advantage in the preservation of old and new
books alike.
Types of bindings
There are many different types of bindings. Brief
descriptions of some of the more common types
and some of their distinctive features follow.
Flexible style or tight-back. This was the most
common binding style until the end of the 18th
century, and is still used for fine binding. The term
flexible refers to the spine, which ideally remains
flexible and becomes concave when the book is
opened: allowing the pages to throw open fully. In
this style the covering material, usually leather, is
glued tightly to the spine of the textblock. So it is
sometimes also called a tight-back binding.

The French joint allows the book to open fully. The

linen reinforcement on the end papers makes the inside
The spine leather is glued to the spine of the text of the joint strong.
block. The thickness of the leather and the amount of Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
glue used often prevents the spine from being flexible.
Tight-back is often a more apt description.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia Paperback. The term paperback really refers to the
paper cover. Editions of books are either paperback
or hardback. However, many people associate
Library style. The library style was developed as a
paperbacks with a particular style—one in which the
sturdy and durable binding which could withstand
textblock is made of single sheets held together by
heavy use. From the middle of the 19th century in
adhesive applied to the spine. This structure is not
Britain, heavy demand for books to supply libraries
very durable. If you look at your book collection you
led to many compromises in production of materials
will see that some modern books with paper covers
and binding techniques. At the time the look of
are made up of folded sections sewn together. These
the binding was more important than its durability.
are more durable than the adhesive style of
The fact that many of these bindings deteriorated
paperback, but the covers don’t really offer a lot of
led to the development of the library style. Some
protection to the textblock.
features of this style include the following:
• the textblock is sewn on linen tapes, rather
than the less durable hemp cords;
• split boards. The boards are attached to the
textblock by inserting the tapes into a split
in the board; and
• the French joint. This has a space between
the spine of the book and the beginning of
the front and backboards, which makes it
easier to open the book. The endpapers are
reinforced with linen.

A modern paperback book.

Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

Case binding. Many binders don’t consider this a

The joint can be seen clearly between the spine and
the boards of this book.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
true binding. It was developed as a cheap and
relatively easy method of providing protection to
the textblock. The case—boards usually covered in
cloth—is prepared separately. The textblock and
case are attached by pasting the endpapers and

Books 57
 spine linings of the textblock to the inside of the
case. Many of the classic, decorated, cloth-covered
books, especially children’s books from the first
part of this century, are case bound. Case binding
can be done by machine.

Limp vellum bindings. These bindings have been

used for centuries. Their chief characteristic is that
they don’t have rigid boards. The textblock is sewn
and then covered with a protective covering. This
covering is often laced to the sewing cords or
thongs. The style is popular as a conservation
binding because it is not necessary to use adhesives.
It is used with vellum as well as with paper. This book shows clearly the principle of the
hollow back.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales

This book was made in 1992. It was made in the

limp, vellum style with paste paper covers instead
of vellum. The text block is sewn on strips of
alum-tawed goat skin. The covers are laced onto This book has a full leather binding and is decorated
the text block using these goat-skin strips. with gold tooling.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission from the History Trust of South
Australia
Hollow back. The hollow is a spine lining which
allows very free opening of books. The hollow
lining is a paper tube attached to the spine of the
textblock. The covering material is applied over
the hollow. When the book opens, the covering
material remains curved and supported by one half
of the tube, while the textblock becomes concave
and is supported by the other half of the tube.

Full binding. This name indicates that the book is

covered entirely with the same material, for
example, full leather, full cloth.

Half binding. Books that are half-bound have the

spine with an overlap onto the boards, and the
corners or foredge of the boards, covered in one This book has leather spine and corners and paper
material, while the remainder of the boards are covering the boards in half bound style.
covered in another. This was an economy measure Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
as the second material was usually a cheaper one.
However, it has been used to good decorative
effect in many cases.

58 Books
Quarter binding is another economy measure
which is used decoratively. Books which are
quarter bound have the spine with an overlap onto
the boards, covered in one material, while the
boards are covered in another.

This is an example of millboard.

Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

versatile and durable material: we have books

dating back centuries which are still in good
condition.

Board is a general term covering early wooden

This book has a leather spine, with bookcloth covering
the boards in the quarter bound style.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission from the History Trust of South
Australia
Materials commonly
found in books
Many materials have been used in book production
over the centuries.
boards through to modern, machine-made boards
such as pasteboard, millboard, strawboard and
others.
Parchment and vellum are untanned animal skins.
Their use continued in Europe even after paper was
introduced. These materials are rarely found in
contemporary books, but were used widely in early
manuscript books. Vellum and parchment are
manufactured by stretching the animal skins and
treating them with lime, while scraping them to
remove fats and hair.

Paper is essentially a felted sheet of cellulose

fibres. During manufacture, a range of other
substances are added to produce papers with
infinite differences in quality, use, strength,
texture, colour and surface. Paper is an enormously

This 13th century manuscript book was produced

with vellum text block and wooden boards.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission from the State Library of
New South Wales

Wooden boards. The other side of these boards is

covered with leather.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

Books 59

This book is bound in dyed goat skin. The boards and
spine have been tooled using gold leaf.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission from the History Trust of South
Australia
Leathers are tanned animal skins. The tanning
process gives a degree of chemical stability to the
skin. Traditionally, leathers used for binding books
were vegetable-tanned. This produced flexible
leather with properties excellently suited for
binding and decorating books.
Cloth is used in books in a number of ways:
• mull is an open-weave, cotton material
stiffened with size. It is most often used
as a first lining on the spines of textblocks;
• Jaconette or Holland cloth, a closely woven
cotton or linen, is also used for linings and
for strengthening folds of book sections; and
• bookcloths are made of closely woven fabrics
with pigment fillers and sizes, and sometimes
with paper linings to prevent the penetration
of glue. Bookcloths can be embossed to
create surface textures, and some are coated
to prevent scuffing and soiling.
Bookcloths are produced in a range of colours and
textures.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
60 Books
Thread, cords and tape are made from linen. Linen
tapes are made from woven, unbleached linen,
which is stiffened with size. Cords are made from
hemp fibres, spun and combined to make different
thicknesses.
This book was
photographed
during conservation
treatment. The
text block was
sewn onto hemp
cords. Note that
the spine has
been lined.
Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey
Various adhesives are used in bookbinding. They
include:
• animal glue, which has been used for
centuries. It is basically boiled-down animal
skins, hooves and bones. It is used hot, and
in most binderies the glue pot was kept
cooking all day. Prolonged heating causes it
to alter chemically and darken. Animal glue is
essentially a poor-quality, impure gelatine;
• polyvinyl acetate—PVA—is an emulsion
adhesive which has been used widely in
recent years. It is unsuitable for most
conservation applications because it is very
difficult to reverse;
• starch paste is the favoured adhesive for
paper repair; and
• glair, which is basically egg white, is used to
fix gold leaf to the foredge and to the covers,
for example, in the case of gold tooling.
Books can contain a range of inks and other
media—iron gall inks, carbon inks, printing inks
and watercolours.
These notes on materials are very brief, but serve
to illustrate the variety of materials used in books.
When used in books, these materials are in very
close contact and will inevitably affect each other.
 For more information
For more information on paper and
paper deterioration, please see the chapter
on Paper in this volume.
For more information about leather, vellum
and parchment, please see the chapter on Leather
in Caring for Cultural Material 2.
Paper repair
Don’t try to mend torn pages or damaged covers,
unless you have good-quality materials and are
confident that the methods you use will not cause
damage in the future. Talk to a conservator if
you’re not certain that you’re doing the right thing,
or if you want information about training courses.
If books are damaged, be aware that some repairs
can cause further damage. Sticky tapes will, in the
long term, cause permanent staining. In most
cases, the adhesive migrates into the paper and
changes chemically, becoming insoluble and
discolouring, while the tape falls off. In addition
to the original damage, the paper is now badly
stained as well.
Similarly, many other glues and pastes introduce acids
into the paper, and many also discolour with age.
If tears are extensive and large areas of the text
are missing, it is best to seek the advice or help of
a conservator. But smaller repairs on bound books
can be carried out in situ.
Conservators work to a code of ethics. It is
important to note some of these in relation to the
repair of books, so that you can think further
about the choice of materials and the methods you
will use. The notes which follow describe a
conservator’s approach.
The treatment must be reversible, so that further
treatments can be carried out in future if
necessary, or so that improved techniques which
may be developed can be applied.
The treatment should not disfigure or endanger the
book. For example, wet treatments should not be
used on material with inks that are soluble in
water; and sticky tape should not be used, it
stains paper badly.
The treatment and materials must match the
problem. For example, heavy repair papers should
not be used to repair small tears on material which
is hardly used. It is better to wait till you have an
appropriate repair paper.
All treatment steps should be documented with
information of what was used for the repair and, if
possible, with photographs of the damage before
treatment.
Repairing small tears in books
Repairing torn paper or reinforcing and lining
weak, degraded papers is generally a wet process—
involving sticking a strong, lightweight, acid-free
paper to the damaged area with starch paste.
Japanese paper
repairs can be seen
on the lower left
corner and at the
head of the book.
The book is being
held open by a
Mylar strip which
is reflecting light.
Photograph courtesy
of Vicki Humphrey
Japanese papers are excellent for paper repair
because:
• they are lightweight and strong, and their
colours blend well with most papers;
• Japanese papers have long fibres—in
comparison to most Western papers—this
gives them their strength;
• if you decide to purchase some of these
papers, ask for conservation-grade Japanese
papers. Small packs of a range of papers are
available from suppliers of conservation
materials. You won’t need very much paper to
repair small tears;
• they are usually handmade and suited for
conservation. Papers such as Sekishu, Tengujo
and Usumino are well-suited to book repairs
because they are very fine and do not obscure
the text; and
Books 61
 • these papers can also be water-cut, giving
very soft edges to the repair patch. Knife-cut
edges show as a hard ridge.
Paper can be water-cut like this:
• paper strips are water-cut using a fine brush,
letter opener or bone folder, spatula and ruler;
• a stainless steel ruler is placed along the
repair paper, with the required amount of
paper protruding beyond the ruler;
• the wet brush is drawn along the ruler edge,
wetting the paper: the paper should not
become too wet;
• the letter opener, bone folder or spatula is
then drawn along the ruler—to score the wet
paper; and
• the strip of paper can then be pulled away
from the rest of the sheet of paper.
The repair should not be much larger than the
damaged area, but needs to be big enough to
extend beyond the damage onto the sound paper
around it. This makes a stronger repair. The
feathered edges of the water-cut paper contribute
to the strength of the repair, because they are all
stuck down as well.
Paper strips are not always suitable for repair,
and you may have to produce your own shapes.
This can be done by needling out the shape using
a mattress needle or the sharp end of a bone
folder. Once you have made an impression in the
repair paper with the needle or bone folder, apply
water to the impression. Pull the shape away
from the rest of the paper.
CAUTION:
Do not needle out a shape while the
repair paper is resting on your book.
If you do this you will create a weak area in
the book paper. You can outline the shape
required on the repair paper with a soft pencil,
before you commence needling.
When repairing a page of text, remember:
• wherever possible, place the repair so that it
does not cover text; and
62 Books
• place the repair on the side of the page where
the repair will be least obtrusive.
The repairs are stuck in place using starch paste. It
is at this stage that difficulties can arise.
Always apply the paste to the repair paper, never
to the book pages. You should also allow the paste
to air-dry till it is almost dry before placing it on
the dry, book page. This will help to reduce the
risk of cockling and tidemarks.
Once pasted, the paper can become difficult to
handle, but with practice the operation becomes
easier.
Once the repair is in place, it wets the book paper,
which will expand where it is wet. Because only
small areas are wet, you will notice that it cockles.
Controlling the drying is important for these
cockles to settle back down.
While drying, the repair should be sandwiched
between:
• Reemay, which will prevent the blotter
sticking to the repair; and
• blotters, which should be changed regularly,
to ensure that the moisture absorbed by them
is removed from the repair area.
This sandwich should be weighted.
It is important that the paper is fully dried. Don’t
rush this, as paper can sometimes take a couple of
weeks to dry fully.
Blotter
Page being repaired
Reemay
Blotter
Make sure the book is
supported during repairs
 CAUTION:
Repairing tears in books is not as easy as it
might seem, and we strongly advise you to
practise this before attempting it on a book.
Wet paper will expand and distort, but with
practice you can control the drying, so that the
distortions flatten out without creasing.
It is also important to note that if you get the
paper too wet during repair, you can produce
permanent stains like ‘tidemarks’ in the paper.
IF IN DOUBT DON’T DO IT!
Starch paste
Starch paste is the adhesive used most widely by
paper conservators. Starch paste from various
sources—for example, wheat or rice—has been
used for centuries to stick paper to paper, and
textiles to paper. And because it has been used for
so long, we know a great deal about its behaviour.
Some of its greatest advantages are that it does
not discolour and it is nearly always possible to
remove it without difficulty.
Starch paste is not difficult to make. You will need:
• 10 grams or 3.5 level teaspoons of starch, for
example, Silver Star; and
• 100ml of water, preferably distilled or
deionised.
These proportions produce a nice working
consistency.
• Add about 10ml of the water to the starch,
and mix to a slurry.
• Add more water, if required, to produce a
smooth paste, and leave to soak for
approximately half-an-hour.
• Heat the remainder of the water in a double-
boiler saucepan, or in a beaker or jar in a
saucepan of boiling water. Use glass or
stainless steel containers.
• Add the starch slurry and cook for
approximately 40 minutes, stirring constantly.
• Leave to cool.
Lumpy paste is difficult to use and the lumps will
be obvious, so when the paste is cool press it
through a fine cloth—Terylene, for example—or
push it through a fine, Nylon tea strainer or sieve
a couple of times.
The paste is now ready to use. Or it can be diluted
if a thinner paste is required—this is best done by
mixing the paste and the required amount of water
in a blender. Remember, the thinner the paste the
stronger the adhesive bond.
When using an adhesive on a valued, paper-based
item, it is important to know just what you’re
applying to the paper and how it is likely to
behave over time. Many commercially available
adhesives are starch-based, but most of these
adhesives also have additives such as:
• preservatives;
• plasticisers, for example, glucose, to regulate
the drying speed;
• dispersing agents; and
• mineral fillers to control penetration of the
adhesive into porous surfaces.
These substances, which can affect the long-term
behaviour of the adhesive, are rarely listed on the
label.
If you have a problem relating to the storage or
display of books, contact a conservator.
Conservators can offer advice and practical
solutions.
For further reading
Baynes-Cope, A. D., 1989, Caring for Books and
Documents, 2nd ed, British Library, London.
Bromelle, Norman S., Thomson Garry (eds.), 1982,
Science and Technology in the Service of
Conservation, Preprints of Contributions to the
Washington Congress, 3–9 September 1982,
International Institute for Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works, London.
Burdett, Eric, 1975, The Craft of Bookbinding—A
Practical Handbook, David and Charles, Newton
Abbot, UK.
Books 63
 Diehl, Edith, 1980, Bookbinding: Its Background d)
and Technique, two volumes bound as one,
Dover Publications Inc., New York.
e)
Gettens, Rutherford J. & Stout, George L., 1966,
Painting Materials, A Short Encyclopaedia, Dover
Publications Inc., New York.
open the book as far as you can until it
makes a crackling noise and then stop;
if the book does not open fully, consider
taking notes rather than copying.
Question 3.

Johnson, Arthur W., 1978, The Thames and Hudson Indicate which of the following can damage books:
Manual of Bookbinding, Thames and Hudson Ltd,
London. a) opening new books gradually from the front
and then the back, section by section, until
Middleton, Bernard C., 1984, The Restoration of you reach the middle;
Leather Bindings, Adamantine Press Ltd, London.
b) removing books from shelves by pulling at the
National Preservation Office, 1991 Preservation top of the spine;
Guidelines, National Preservation Office, British c) pressing flowers in books;
Library, London.
d) wearing gloves when handling gold-tooled
Thomson, Garry, 1994, The Museum Environment, bindings;
3rd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
e) flicking quickly through pages;
Some of the methods described in the bookbinding
manuals are not ones that would be employed by f) licking your fingers for easier page turning;
paper and book conservators. However, these books
g) repairing books with sticky tape;
give very clear descriptions and illustrations of
bookbinding styles, methods and materials. Some h) folding the corner of the page to mark your
have excellent glossaries and notes outlining the place;
history of different binding styles.
i) leaving the book open over the arm of the
armchair while you go to get tea and cake to
have while reading.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 4.
Question 1.
What are the ideal temperature and relative
humidity ranges for storage and display of books?
The causes of damage to books can be broadly
divided into two categories—physical damage and a) 30°C and 60%RH
chemical damage. Name three examples of each.
b) 10–16°C and 45–55%RH
Question 2. c) 18–22°C and 10–20%RH

When photocopying a book, you should: d) 18–22°C and 45–55%RH

a) be aware that its structure may not have been Question 5.

designed to open out flat;

b) force the book to open as flat as possible and What happens to books that are badly shelved and
press the photocopier cover down over the are allowed to flop to the side?
book to get a better quality copy;
a) The bindings distort over time.
c) take note of what you are intending to copy
and consider that some materials may be b) Nothing happens.
sensitive to strong light;
c) The sewing structure can break down.

64 Books
d) They can fall apart. b) if using suction, precautions should be taken
to reduce the suction so that it does not
Question 6. cause damage;

c) erasers can be used with extreme care, to

Of the following materials, which are good to use clean paper;
for making storage and display furniture for books?
d) shaving brushes should be new, if they are to
be used for cleaning books;
glass, uncured paint, PVA glue, enamelled metal,
protein-based glues, for example, animal glue, e) all of the above.
inorganic pigments, chipboard, ceramic, cellulose
nitrate, wool, polyester film, polystyrene, felt,
polyurethanes, cotton, linen, PVC, unsealed woods Question 10.
especially hardwoods, acrylic polymers.
Which of the following statements are false?
Question 7.
a) All books should be treated with leather
dressing.
Which of the following statements are true?
b) There are no problems at all with using
a) All books should have support when they are leather dressing on books.
on display.
c) Leather dressing can stain paper because it is
b) Phase boxes are called this because they are very greasy.
boxes which are made in phases.
d) Leather dressing can make the surface of the
c) Wrappers can protect books and are leather sticky, causing dirt and dust to stick
straightforward to make. to the leather.

d) Books which are displayed open should have e) Leather dressing removes dirt and dust.
their pages turned regularly to prevent light-
damage to any one page.

e) Light and UV radiation have no effect on books. Answers to

f) Book pages can be prevented from moving self-evaluation quiz
during display, by placing a Mylar strip joined
end-to-end around the open book.
Question 1.
Question 8.
Physical Chemical
dog-eared pages fading of textblock
In a tropical climate books are likely to:
tears to pages fading of binding
a) dry out leaving the glues very brittle; materials
b) absorb moisture and develop mould; loss of pages discolouration of
textblock
c) get very dirty;
broken joints and discolouration of
d) lose pages. detached covers binding materials

scuffing, wearing and deterioration from

Question 9. losses to cover mould growth
materials damage from pollutants
When dusting books it is important to remember that:
insect attack red rot
a) sucking dirt away with a vacuum cleaner distortion
stops it being re-deposited on the book;

Books 65
 wear and tear Question 7.

Question 2. Answer: a), c), d) and f) are true. b) is false. These

boxes are called phase boxes because they are
Answer: a), c) and e). It is important to be aware used in libraries in phased conservation programs.
that you can cause damage if you photocopy e) is false. Light and UV radiation can cause
books, and you should proceed with caution. extensive damage to books.
Photocopiers which have a V-shaped copy-bed are
available, so ask at your State library. If they have Question 8.
one of these, they may be able to supply you with
the copy you need without you damaging your
Answer: b). In damp conditions books are likely to
book. If you open out the book and hear crackling
absorb moisture and grow mould if they are not
sounds, you are probably breaking up the adhesive
well-ventilated and inspected regularly. Books
film on the spine of the book.
could get very dirty and lose pages as well, but
this would not be the result of the climate alone.
Question 3.
Question 9.
Answer: All except a) and d) are damaging. a) and d)
could be damaging if you don’t take adequate care.
Answer: e).
Question 4.
Question 10.

Answer: d). These are the ideal conditions but they

Answer: a), b) and e) are all false. Only leather-
cannot always be achieved.
bound books should be treated with leather
dressing—and even some of these should not be
Question 5. treated unless the leather is consolidated first.
Leather dressing should be used with caution
Answer: a), c), and d) are all likely to occur. a) because there are a number of problems associated
will happen first, followed by c) then d). with its use. If leather dressing is applied over dirt
and dust, they set in place.
Question 6.

Answer:

GOOD BAD
acrylic paints and uncured paint
varnishes
cotton wool
linen felt
inorganic pigments PVA glue
polystyrene PVC
polyester film cellulose nitrate
ceramic polyurethanes
glass protein based glues, for
example, animal glue
enamelled metal chipboard, unsealed
woods—especially
hardwoods—Customwood

66 Books
Photog raphs
Objectives page 69
Introduction page 69
Types of photographs page 69
What are the most common types of damage? page 70
Common causes of damage page 72
The do’s and don’ts of handling photographs page 72
The do’s and don’ts of labelling and repair page 73
Storing photographs page 74
Practical steps you can take to
improve your photographic storage page 77
Easy do-it-yourself methods
for storing photographs page 80
Displaying photographs page 83
Summary of conditions for storage and display page 88
Photographs in Australia’s climactic zones page 88
Some miscellaneous advice page 90
MORE ABOUT PHOTOGRAPHS
A brief overview of the chemistry of photography page 91
A brief overview of photographic
deterioration mechanisms page 92
Layer structures for various photographs page 93
A brief history of the development of photography page 93
Identification of historic photographs page 98
For further reading page 103
Self-evaluation quiz page 105
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 106
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• have a basic knowledge of the main problems
facing collections of historic photographs;
collections. However, there is much that can be
done to preserve the photographs in your care,
through careful and thoughtful handling, storage
and display.

• have an awareness of the different types of

photographs and their different deterioration
patterns;

• know about appropriate storage and display Silver gelatine

techniques to ensure the preservation of Photograph—c1910.
photographic collections; and
Photograph courtesy
of Fred Francisco
• be able to manage photographic collections in
your care, so that access to the collections is
assured while at the same time the
collections receive maximum protection.

Introduction
Since its invention in 1839, photography has
enjoyed enormous success. It has gone from being
Types of photographs
something quite rare and mysterious to something
quite everyday—commonplace. Unfortunately, There is a huge range of different types of
because photographs are everyday items we don’t photographs. These sections on keeping
always give them the care that they need. photographs apply, among others, to:

All photographs, both old and new, require special • daguerreotypes; • ambrotypes;
care. Many photographs, including modern colour • colour photographs; • opaltypes;
photographs, are unstable, and will fade rapidly if
they are not processed properly in the first place, • salted paper prints; • platinotypes;
if we display them for long periods and if we do
not store them appropriately. In some cases, this • cyanotypes; • albumen prints;
can result in the complete loss of the photograph.
• collodion prints; • carbon prints;
Compromise is nearly always necessary when trying • silver-gelatine prints; • slides;
to find a balance between using and preserving
• safety film negatives; • tintypes;

• glass plate negatives; • Cibachromes; and

• modern colour prints

on resin-coated papers.

Silver gelatine These types of photographs differ in their

Photograph—c1930. components and chemistry, and the base on which
Photograph courtesy the photograph is produced.
of Fred Francisco
For more information
For more information about the components,
chemistry, structure and history of these different
types of photographs, please see the section
More About Photographs later in this chapter

Photographs 69
 What are the most common
types of damage?
Probably the most obvious damage you will see is A photograph
physical damage. This includes problems such as: showing damage
caused by creasing.
• tears;
Photograph courtesy
of Fred Francisco
• creases. These almost always cause tiny splits
or fractures in the emulsion;

• dog-eared corners. These also cause tiny

splits or fractures in the emulsion layer;

• insect attack. The materials used to make

photographic emulsions are a good food
source for some insects. Insects, mice and
rats will also eat the paper base of
photographs;

• abrasion and scratching. Photographic

emulsions are made from materials such as
gelatine and albumen—egg white. These
materials form very smooth films, which are
very easily scratched when rubbing against
other photographs and rough paper surfaces
such as album pages;

• indentations in the photograph where labels

have been written or typed directly onto the
back of the photograph. If excessive pressure
has been applied, the emulsion can be Dog-eared corner, leaving heavy creases and tears in
fractured; and the photograph.
Photograph courtesy of Fred Francisco
• emulsion peeling away from the paper base.

This photograph is severely damaged with a large tear
and losses.
Photograph courtesy of Monique Godelle
Silverfish attack to emulsion and cardboard mount.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of Mortlock Library, the State Library
of South Australia

70 Photographs
 • photographs which have broken or fractured
emulsion are more susceptible to chemical
deterioration.

The whole image

has yellowed and
become warmer in
tone. The small
spots are fly specks.
Indentations caused by writing on the back of the Photograph courtesy
photograph. of Fred Francisco
Photograph courtesy of Fred Francisco

The emulsion is
badly cracked and
is beginning to
peel away from
the paper base.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with
permission of the
History Trust of
South Australia

The other most obvious damage is the result of

chemical deterioration:
Some areas of this photograph are beginning to fade,
• fading of the photographic image, with detail being lost.
accompanied by loss of detail; Photograph courtesy of Fred Francisco
• yellowing of the image. In many historic
black and white photographic processes, the
image becomes warmer in tone and changes
from blacks, whites and greys to browns and
yellows;

• colour change and fading of colour prints,

negatives and slides. Colour prints are most
susceptible to this type of damage;

• silver mirroring—silvering out—in shadow

areas. This is such a common symptom that
nearly all 19th century gelatine developing-
out prints are affected;

• staining. Stains can develop on photographs.

Some come from within the photographs and The colours in these photographic prints have altered
others from the materials that are in contact over time and are no longer very realistic.
with the photographs, such as album pages
and sticky tape; and Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey

Photographs 71
 Old photographs can be very brittle, particularly if
they already have tears and creases. So it is
important to give them proper support when
Silver mirroring—
silvering out—can
handling them. New photographs also need
be seen around support so that they are not damaged.
the edges of the
photograph. If you must pick up a photograph to examine it
Photograph courtesy closely, it is better to place it on a rigid support,
of Artlab Australia, like a piece of cardboard, and lift the board.
reproduced with
permission of Ann
V. Nicholas

Common causes of damage

All the most common types of damage are caused by:

• poor handling;

• poor storage methods;

This fragile and damaged print is being supported on
a rigid support during handling.
• inappropriate display methods;
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
• chemical changes in the photograph;

• chemical changes caused by chemicals that
are present in materials in contact with the
photographs; and
• a combination of any or all of the above.
The following sections will outline practical steps
you can take to minimise damage.
Holding a photograph in your hand can make it
curl and involves greater risks of damage. If you
must carry photographs over any distance, they
should be carried horizontally and supported on a
rigid support, like a piece of cardboard. Even if
photographs are mounted on cardboard, don’t tuck
them under your arm to carry them. They should
be supported as described above. Many old
photographs were mounted on board which

The do’s and don’ts of

handling photographs
Handling photographs with care and commonsense
helps prevent damage. Because photographs are
highly susceptible to physical damage from
improper and frequent handling, you should handle
them as little as possible.

When you must handle them, make sure your

hands are clean. You can wear gloves for added
protection—cotton gloves are often
recommended—but they are not always The backing board for this photograph became brittle
and snapped in two, breaking the photograph at the
appropriate because they can make it much harder same time.
to pick up individual photographs. Clean, close-
fitting, surgical gloves are a good alternative to Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the History Trust of South Australia
cotton gloves.

72 Photographs
becomes very brittle over time. If these boards
break, the photographs attached will break as well.
Placing them in folders, Mylar pockets, Copysafe
sleeves or polyethylene bags provides added
protection.
Photographic emulsions are easily scratched and
need to be protected when you are handling more
than one photograph at a time. You can protect
them by separating them or interleaving them,
ideally with archival materials such as
photographic storage paper, Mylar and acid-free
glassine. For short-term interleaving, silicon
release paper or other papers with a very smooth
surface can be used.
CAUTION:
Papers which are very opaque, white and have a
very smooth almost shiny surface are not suitable
for interleaving. These papers are called coated
papers and have a finely ground, mineral coating.
When they are wet they become very sticky.
Make prints of frequently-used photographs. The
copy prints can be used as the working records,
instead of the originals; and the negative can be
used to produce new copies when the first ones
wear out. The original photographs can be stored
safely.
The do’s and don’ts of
labelling and repair
Inappropriate labelling and repair methods can
damage photographs. The following guidelines can
help prevent damage.
Biros, other ink pens and markers should not be
used to label photographic prints. Many of these
inks, particularly felt tip pen inks, can spread and
cause unsightly staining.
When it is necessary to label a photographic print,
write in soft pencil—a B pencil is good—on the
edge of the back of the print. Don’t apply pressure
because this can leave indents in the photograph
and can fracture the emulsion.
Sometimes it is necessary to label negatives. This
must be done with extreme care. It is best to use a
permanent ink, such as Indian ink. The information
should be recorded on the very edge of the
negative, outside the image area. It is very
difficult to write on the shiny side of the negative,
so write on the duller side: this is the emulsion
side of the film.
Paper clips, even plastic ones, can damage and
distort photographs. They should not be used for
attaching labels, even temporary ones, to
photographs. If you need to place a temporary
label with a photograph, write it on a piece of
paper large enough to fold around the whole
photograph.
Do not mend photographs using self-adhesive
sticky tapes of any kind.
These tapes go through a number of stages when
they deteriorate. Firstly, the adhesive becomes very
sticky and will be absorbed easily into paper,
fabrics and emulsions. In the next stage, the
adhesive changes chemically and begins to yellow
and eventually turns a dark orange. At this stage
the adhesive is almost totally insoluble and the
stains cannot be removed.
These photographs were attached to a scrapbook
page using masking tape. The adhesive became sticky
and stained the photographs.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of C. Braham
If you have a damaged photograph, place it in a
protective sleeve or wrapper, to prevent further
damage until you can get advice from a conservator.
Never use adhesives such as rubber cement with
photographs. It ages in the same way as sticky
tape adhesives and contains sulphur. Sulphur
reacts chemically with photographs, which are
made up of silver particles.
Photographs 73
 Storing photographs
Adverse storage conditions affect all items in a
collection. The effects are not always dramatically
obvious. Changes occur gradually over a long
period of time. However, once the changes have
occurred they are often irreversible, or involve
complex and costly treatment.
A good storage environment can prevent physical
damage, help slow down chemical deterioration,
and greatly increase the life of photographs. The
following sections outline:
• the ideal conditions for storing photographs;
• general storage guidelines;
• the best materials to use for storing
photographs;
• practical steps you can take to improve your
photographic storage, even when conditions
are not ideal; and
• some easy, do-it-yourself methods for storing
photographs.
Ideal conditions for storing photographs
Ideally, photographs should be stored in an
environment where:
Temperature is kept low. The level recommended
by Kodak for storing 19th century photographs
is 15°C. As this is difficult to achieve at home
and in most working environments, a more
realistic level has been set at 18°C. Daily
fluctuations in temperature should be no more
than 4°C. In some areas, this is extremely difficult
to achieve.
Relative humidity is in the moderate range of
30–50%RH. The control of relative humidity is very
important when storing photographs. Within the
30–50%RH range, conditions are dry enough to
inhibit chemical reactions and the growth of
mould; but it is also moist enough for paper and
photographic emulsions to remain flexible.
Fluctuations in relative humidity should be kept to
a minimum. This is important because the paper
and emulsion components of photographs react at
different rates to changes in relative humidity.
74 Photographs
With extremes or rapid fluctuations in relative
humidity, the paper and gelatine layers can pull
away from one another.
This print has curled because the paper and the
emulsion lose moisture at different rates. The
gelatine has shrunk faster than the paper and pulled
it into a curled position.
Photograph courtesy of Fred Francisco
For more information
For more information about temperature and
relative humidity, please see Damage and Decay.
Light is kept to a minimum. Light is required only
when the photographs must be viewed: for
example, when they are on display, being
accessioned or being used for research.
Information about appropriate lighting levels are
given in the section Ideal Conditions for the
Display of Photographs.
Photographs are protected from pollutants, dust
and insects.
For more information
For more information about the damaging
effects of light, dust, pollutants and insects
please see Damage and Decay.
General storage guidelines
Careful consideration should be given to the
storage site and the storage systems. In situations
where you are can achieve the ideal conditions, a
good storage system in an appropriate storage site
gives added protection to your collection. If the
available facilities or the local climate make it
difficult for you to achieve the ideal conditions,
the selection of the storage site and the storage
system you use become even more critical in
preventing damage to the collections.
The following notes are guidelines for selecting
storage sites, and outline the principles to be
followed for protecting your collections in storage.
The storage site should be in a central area of the
building where it is buffered from the extremes of
climatic fluctuations which can occur near external
walls, in basements and in attics. Don’t store
photographs in sheds.
The storage site should not have any water, drain
or steam pipes, particularly at ceiling level.
Leaking pipes can cause a lot of damage. Storage
systems should be easy to use and accessible. Ease
of use and accessibility usually mean that things
will get less damaged during handling. Frustration
with a difficult system can lead to damage.
Standard-size photographs, glass negatives and
magic lantern slides should be stored vertically.
This makes sorting through the collection to find
things much easier than if they are stacked one on
top of the other. It also avoids the situation where
one photograph has to carry the weight of those
stacked on top of it.
Flat storage is preferred for larger photographs
because they don’t have the rigidity to support
their own weight in vertical storage. If they are
stored vertically they will tend to bow.
CAUTION:
It is undesirable to stack a large number
of photographs one on top of the other.
The items on the bottom of the stack would
have to take the weight of those above. If they
were stored in high humidity conditions, the
emulsion could become sticky, and the
photographs on the bottom of the stack would
stick to their wrappers or interleaving sheets.
Dividers or secondary boxes should be placed
within storage boxes or filing cabinets. Dividers
reduce the movement of items within the storage
system, and provide additional support to the
stored items.
Layers of storage should be provided. This gives
maximum protection from:
• fluctuations in relative humidity and
temperature. This is especially important in
areas where the ideal levels of relative
humidity and temperature cannot be
achieved—the multiple layers of storage act
as a buffer zone between the photographs
and the extreme or fluctuating conditions;
• dust, pollutants and insects; and
• the damaging effects of light.
Each photograph should have its own protective
wrapper or enclosure to protect it. Further layers
of protection should be provided. Individually
wrapped photographs should be boxed.
Labels should be provided on the outside of
storage and housing systems, so that items can be
located easily without having to search through
and inspect every similar item.
A protective four-flap wrapper for photographs.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
For more information
Instructions for making a four-flap wrapper for
photographic storage are given in the section
Easy do-it-yourself Methods for Storing
Photographs, later in this chapter.
The best materials to use for storing and
displaying photographs
There are many materials which provide a very safe
and protective storage environment for
photographs. There are also materials which should
not be used because they can accelerate the
deterioration of photographs. The list below
summarises the good and bad materials.
Photographs 75
 CAUTION:
GOOD BAD Plastics can severely limit air flow around
photographic-quality poor-quality papers photographs and this can lead to mould
rag and wood pulp such as newsprint or growth and sticky emulsion.
papers butchers’ paper
Abrasion is a major problem for photographic
plastics such as black papers and emulsions, especially for gelatine. Therefore, the
archival-quality boards—these often material which is in direct contact with the
polyester and contain sulphur emulsion must be very smooth and slick, like the
polypropylene surface of the photograph. An already abraded
photographic emulsion will abrade Mylar and
photographic storage coloured papers and photographic storage paper.
paper coated papers
Boxes should be made from good-quality materials.
photographic, museum PVC (polyvinylchloride) If non-archival boxes are to be used they should
or conservation-quality a common plastic be lined with a good-quality paper or board.
mount board
Ideally, storage furniture should be metal, with a
baked enamel finish. Wood gives out active
metal furniture with furniture made from
chemicals, sometimes for many years. Wood
baked enamel finish uncured wood or
polishes and varnishes also contain substances
recently painted
which can damage photographs.
furniture
Materials to avoid are:
Wrappers, enclosures and mounts—anything which
is in direct contact with the photographs—should • poor-quality papers. Many poor-quality papers
be made from materials which are chemically inert, become acidic over time. Acids attack the
that is, they will not cause chemical damage to paper fibres, causing the paper to become
brittle and crumbly. Acids from these papers
the photograph. Nor should the wrappers,
can migrate to the photographs and cause
enclosures and mounts cause physical damage. damage to the emulsion, the photographic
image and the paper base. Ordinary cardboard
Preferred papers and boards for photographic boxes and film boxes are not recommended
storage are those made from cotton or linen, or for storing photographs for the same reasons;
wood-pulp papers which have been treated to
remove harmful chemicals. These papers are • sulphur-containing materials. Remember that
considered to be photographic-quality storage sulphur tarnishes silver, and photographs are
papers, and are available from conservation material silver-based. Avoid any papers and boards
suppliers. Research shows that papers containing which may contain sulphur. Even good-quality
alkaline buffering, which are used widely for storing wood-pulp papers contain sulphur. Black dyes
used to colour black paper often contain
archives and works of art on paper, should not be in
sulphur. Rubber cements and rubber bands also
direct contact with photographs, but can be used contain sulphur and should be avoided; and
for outer storage layers.
• plastics. Never store photographs in plastics
Plastics used widely for photographic storage are such as polyvinyl chloride—PVC. The PVC in
archival-quality polyester films such as Mylar D and folders and storage sleeves breaks down in
polypropylene. Mylar is clearer and offers more the presence of atmospheric moisture, to
support to the photographs than polypropylene. produce hydrochloric acid. This is a strong
Polypropylene is cheaper and readily available. acid which will cause irreversible damage to
Copysafe sleeves are suitable polypropylene your collections.
enclosures. Tyvek, a spun, bonded polyethylene is
also suitable for wrappers for photographs.

76 Photographs
 Practical steps you can
take to improve your
photographic storage
Housekeeping is important; storage areas should
be kept clean and inspected regularly for mould
and insect activity.
Cleaning materials containing chlorine bleaches or
ammonia should not be used near photographic
collections. Neither should naphthalene,
insecticides and fungicides. These are active
chemicals which could adversely affect
photographs, especially in an enclosed storage
environment.
Layers of storage should be provided, with each
photograph having its own individual wrapper
wherever possible. If you are storing photographs
flat, take care not to stack too many individual
items on top of others; heavier and larger items
should be placed on the bottom of the stack.
Don’t store photographs in boxes on the floor. And
also take care not to stack too many storage boxes
on top of each other. This can make access
difficult, damage the collections and increases the
risk of injury.
Individually wrapped photographs should be boxed.
If you are purchasing storage boxes for your
collections, consider buying clamshell or drop-back
boxes. These are the same style as Solander boxes
and are the preferred design because they allow
easy access to all items.
Clamshell or drop-back box with loose-leaf binder
incorporated into the box.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of South Australian Museum
There are a number of other photographic storage
systems, which are available from suppliers of
conservation materials.
If you are not able to buy new boxes, you can
modify your existing boxes, or use ordinary
cardboard boxes and film boxes. These are not
ideal, but can be upgraded by lining them with
polypropylene, polyester or a good-quality rag
paper. You can also seal them with acrylic varnish
or acid-free polyvinyl acetate—PVA—but remember
that the sealant must be allowed to cure for at
least two weeks. Alternatively, you could make
your own boxes.
For more information
For instructions on making acid-free storage boxes,
please see the chapter on Books in this volume.
Instructions for making a four-flap wrapper for
photographic storage are given in the section
Easy do-it-yourself Methods for Storing
Photographs, later in this chapter.
Framed photographs
The glass, frame and mat should be clean. Inspect
each item for insects and mould before storing it.
Remove the screw-eyes and wire from the frames,
because they can scratch and damage other items
they come into contact with.
Wrap each framed work in acid-free paper or Tyvek,
to protect it from dust and reduce the risk of
insect attack, and place it upright in a sturdy box.
Group items according to size; when the sizes vary
greatly, place a cardboard spacer between the
dissimilar frames. If different sizes are mixed,
frames can become distorted and can damage each
other.
Mounted or matted photographs
Window mounts provide some protection. However,
the surface of each photograph should be
protected by covering it with an acid-free, non-
buffered, interleaving paper, or by wrapping the
mounted photograph in a four-flap wrapper.
Mounted photographs can be stacked flat, but
numbers should be limited to five items per stack.
The larger the photographs the fewer should be
Photographs 77
 stacked: the weight of stacked items can damage
the image layer of the items at the bottom.
Don’t stack photographs if you have problems with
high or fluctuating humidity. The emulsion could
become damp and the weight of other photographs
could cause the wrapper to stick to the emulsion.
Loosely packed, vertical storage is preferred.
Group the photographs according to size.
within the boxes should be minimised. If a box is
not full, the photographs can bend and crease,
corners can break and they can tear.
Albums are another alternative for storing loose
photographs. Loose photographs can be kept in
archival-quality photograph albums. It is important
to note that most commercially available albums
are not of archival quality.

Don’t overfill storage boxes. The boxes should be of

an appropriate size to allow easy access, but also
to minimise movement of items within the box.

If a box is not full, the photographs may bend.

The empty space can be filled by placing a
sandwich of two museum-quality mount boards
with acid-free tissue filler in the box.

When moving the photographs, and if storing

upright, maintain the correct orientation of the
photographs. If mounted correctly, the
photographs will be hinged at the top. Maintaining
the correct orientation ensures that the hinges are
not placed under unnecessary strain.
Collection of loose photographs before storage.
Photograph courtesy of the History Trust of
South Australia

Cased photographs

Mounted Each daguerreotype and ambrotype usually has its

photograph. The
window mount own protective case; and these cases are largely
frames the image responsible for their preservation. The cases are an
and protects the important part of the object and should be
photograph from protected and kept clean.
direct handling.
Photograph courtesy Each case should be wrapped, or have a dust cover
of Fred Francisco made to fit. Cased photographs can be stored in
an appropriately sized box or four-flap wrapper
made from good-quality materials.

Loose photographs

As far as possible loose photographs should be

stored according to the storage principles outlined
above.

Wherever possible wrap each photograph in a four-

flap wrapper made from good-quality materials
such as photographic storage paper.
A cased daguerreotype.
If individual wrappers or enclosures are not possible, Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
the photographs should be interleaved with acid-free with permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia
non-buffered paper and stored in boxes. Movement

78 Photographs
 Line the bottom and sides of storage boxes with
Plastazote, a polyethylene foam. This material
absorbs impact and helps protect the fragile glass
negatives and slides.

The negatives and slides, in their wrappers, should

fit snugly into the box—to minimise movement.

Store the slides or negatives vertically in the

storage box. Place a piece of Plastazote about
every ten slides-to absorb any impact and to
minimise movement.
A cased ambrotype.
Group the slides and negatives according to their
Photograph courtesy of Fred Francisco. size.

Photographic negatives and slides

Store negatives in acid-free paper negative holders

or in polypropylene negative sleeves in ring
binders.

Slides can be stored in metal slide files, carousels

or trays, covered to keep out dust. Sleeves are
available for storing slides in filing cabinets. If the
sleeves are of good-quality materials and hold the
slides securely, this method is effective. It is
important not to overfill the filing cabinet
drawers. Easy access leads to better handling.
Glass negative or magic lantern slide storage box.
Plastic sleeves are not recommended in situations Note that each individual item is wrapped.
where there are problems with high or fluctuating Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
humidity. Plastic sleeves restrict air flow and they
can stick to moist emulsion.
Opaltypes
Glass negatives and magic lantern slides
Opaltypes are photographs on opaque glass and are
Each negative or magic lantern slide should be in 100 years old. Remember that this old glass is very
its own four-flap wrapper made from good-quality brittle and the slightest bend will cause a break.
materials such as photographic storage paper.
Opaltypes need a rigid support system.
Storage boxes need to be strong and rigid—to give
maximum protection to the glass. The support system is made up of a rigid backing,
with rigid side strips at the top, bottom and sides.
A collection of glass negatives or slides is quite
heavy and the storage box must maintain its Gator foam, thick plywood—sealed—or thick
rigidity when lifted. As the glass is heavy, consider Masonite are all suitable. Acids are not a problem
splitting your collection into a number of boxes, with opaltypes; but they are photographs, so take
rather than putting them all into one. This will care to avoid sulphur-containing materials.
protect your collection and be much easier on the
people who have to retrieve or carry the boxes.

Photographs 79
 • methods for attaching photographs to album
pages so that they can be easily removed
without damage; and

A damaged
• methods for constructing simple albums.
opaltype.
Photographs should be wrapped individually or
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia, interleaved if possible. This protects the individual
reproduced with photographs from abrasion, dust and light, and
permission of provides the basic layer in a layered storage system.
Lyn Kilsby
Making a four-flap wrapper

Mark out with pencil the four-flap wrapper on the

material you are using to store individual items.

The rigid backing can be seen in the foreground.

The bottom side strip is not yet in place.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

The base of the four-flap wrapper should be

slightly bigger than the item, so that the flaps can
fold over without bending the edges of the
photograph, but not so big that the photograph
can move freely within the wrapper.

The flaps are marked out slightly shorter than the

base, and tapered from the base to the outside
edge—this is not shown in the diagram.
The side strip should be the same depth as the When making a wrapper for thicker items, for
opaltype. A window mount can then be placed over
the opaltype. example, glass negatives or slides, allow for the
thickness or the wrapper will not fit.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Once it is marked out, the wrapper can be cut and
the flaps folded over. The dotted line indicates
Easy do-it-yourself methods where the wrapper is folded.
for storing photographs
The photographic emulsion should be placed face-
down on the base, and the flaps folded around the
This section describes: back of the item.
• methods for protecting individual
photographs;

80 Photographs
 Mylar is difficult to fold and you may need to use
Four-flap wrapper containing a cased ambrotype. a letter opener, a bone folder or the blunt edge of
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia a knife to crease it fully.

Once this is done, place 6mm wide acid-free

Simple wrapper/interleaving method double-sided tape on the unfolded ends of the
photocorner.
There are occasions when a simpler wrapper may
be more practical. In this case, you can place the
Double-sided tape attached to the back of the
individual photographs inside a fold of the material
Mylar, ready to be attached to the album page
you are using for storage. This method is better
than simple interleaving.

This way, the photocorner can be stuck down to

the backing paper and no adhesive touches the
items being mounted.

Backing paper

Photocorner

Photograph or print

Preferred methods of
attaching photographs to album pages Corner strip secured
in place with
double sided tape
Photocorners: Photocorners are an excellent
method of attaching paper items to mounts Mylar strip
without using adhesives. They should be made
from archival materials—Mylar is particularly
suitable.

Cut a strip of Mylar to an appropriate size—15 x

45mm is a good size for small items. Then fold the Photograph
strip to produce a triangular section in the centre,
as illustrated:

Photographs 81
 Slits in the album pages: This technique can also
be used for attaching photographs to album pages.
Using a double slit, as illustrated, involves much
less risk to the photographs than a single slit.
Support paper
Paper is cut along two parallel
lines to produce two slits
Photograph
CAUTION:
This method should be used only with paper
and should be considered as a last resort, because
the corners of the photographs can be creased
and eventually break along the line of the slit in
the paper backing. This method should never
be used with heavy paper or cardboard.
Simple albums
If archival-quality albums are unavailable or
unsuitable, or if you would prefer to make your
own, you can make an album using a ring binder.
The photographs should be attached to thin acid-
free card or medium-weight, acid-free paper by one
of the methods outlined above. If you are using
the slits in the album pages method of
attachment, use paper not card. If you don’t have
acid-free paper, you can use fresh photocopy
paper, but consider this an interim measure only.
Archival-quality photograph albums.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, albums
supplied by Anthony Zammit
82 Photographs
Place the photographs on their supporting papers
or card in Mylar or Copysafe polypropylene sleeves,
which are positioned in the ring binder.
If the albums are to be kept in storage, they
should be placed in boxes or wrapped, to prevent
dust entering the sleeves.
A word of caution about buying albums
Many commercially available photographic albums
are not suitable for the long-term storage of
photographic collections. Damage to collections
can result from the use of some albums. This
section describes some of the factors you need to
be wary of.
So-called magnetic albums. Photographs are held
in position by placing them on top of parallel lines
of pressure-sensitive adhesive on the surface of the
album pages. A plastic sheet is then placed over
the top of the page containing the photograph.
Pressure-sensitive adhesives are the same as those
used on sticky tapes. As these adhesives age, they
first become very sticky and are absorbed easily
into paper, fabrics and emulsions. In the next
stage the adhesive changes chemically and begins
to yellow and eventually turns a dark orange.
At this stage the adhesive is almost totally insoluble;
and the stains, and sometimes the photographs,
cannot be removed. Photographs and papers attached
to these album pages develop stripes.
The rigid, cardboard pages of these albums are
made from poor-quality paper, which becomes
acidic as it ages.
The plastic sheets which cover the pages and
photographs are often made from PVC or another
plastic which contains chlorine. Remember that
PVC can break down in the presence of
atmospheric moisture and produce hydrochloric
acid. This is a strong acid which will cause
irreversible damage to your collections.
The plastic covers on these albums are not
archival-quality, and in some cases may be PVC.
Any album with plastic sleeves or plastic covers.
There are tests which can be carried out to identify
PVC; but they are destructive and will make you
unpopular with shop owners. Instead, try smelling the
album; if you detect a strong smell it could be PVC
and should be avoided for use in long-term storage.

Black paper album pages. Many photograph

albums have black pages; but remember that black
dyes can contain sulphur which reacts irreversibly
with silver and can change images. If you are
looking for something for long-term storage, try to
find out if the albums are archival-quality.

Pink dye can still be seen at the lower edge of the

image. The dye has faded in all other areas of the
Displaying photographs photograph.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
Photographs on display can be affected by adverse with permission of Mortlock Library, State Library of
conditions, just as they are when they are in South Australia
storage. During display, however, there are added
factors which can contribute to the deterioration
of collections. These differences will be discussed
in the following sections which deal with:

• how light affects photographs; Faded photograph.

Light can have an
• the ideal conditions for displaying adverse effect on
photographs; photographs,
contributing to
• lighting hints; fading and
yellowing.
• mounting and framing photographs; Photograph courtesy
of Fred Francisco
• some easy do-it-yourself methods for
displaying photographs; and

• the best materials to use for displaying

photographs.

How does light affect photographs?

Light is essential in a display environment. But

light, especially when it is accompanied by UV
radiation, can cause extreme and irreversible
damage to many types of photographs. Many
components of photographs are adversely affected
by light and UV radiation.

Paper can become brittle and yellow, especially if
it contains lignin.
Proteins, such as albumen and gelatine emulsions
are affected: albumen yellows and gelatine breaks
down.
The dyes used in colour photographs fade when
exposed to light. Dyes used for tinting many 19th
century photographic prints fade very quickly
because early synthetic dyes had very poor light-
fastness.
Damaged photograph. The paper has become brittle
and split.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of Mortlock Library, State Library of
South Australia
The worst reaction for historic black-and-white
photographic prints on paper is the photochemical
breakdown of lignin, contained in some papers.
This reaction produces peroxides, which are strong
oxidising agents and chemically attack the silver
image.

Photographs 83
 Exposure to light can multiply the adverse effects
of poor environmental conditions. Remember that
damage caused by light is often accelerated by
high relative humidity and temperature.
For more information
For more information about the damage
caused by light and UV radiation,
please see Damage and Decay.
For more information about the chemical
deterioration of photographs, please see the
section More About Photographs
later in this chapter.
Ideal conditions
for the display of photographs
Photographs should be displayed in similar
conditions to those outlined for their storage;
however, there are some differences.
Light is essential in a display environment, but
must be set at levels which will not adversely
affect the collection. Original historic photographs
and colour prints should be considered sensitive to
light. Therefore:
• the brightness of the light should be less
than 50 lux; and
• the UV content of light should be less than
30µW/lm and no greater than 75µW/lm.
Copy photographs and Cibachromes can be
illuminated at higher levels.
CAUTION:
All damage caused by photochemical reactions
is cumulative and irreversible.
For more information
For more information about measuring the
brightness of light and UV content of light,
please see Damage and Decay.
The ideal storage temperature for photographs is
quite low and is often thought to be too cold for
the comfort of people visiting or working in the
museum, gallery or library. Therefore the
compromise temperature for the display of
photographs has been set at 21°C.
84 Photographs
Relative humidity is in the moderate range of
30–50%RH, with fluctuations kept to a minimum,
as for storage.
The control of relative humidity in a display area
may be more difficult than in a storage area.
Fluctuations in relative humidity are more likely,
because of the varying numbers of people visiting
the display followed by no people at times when
the display is closed.
The emphasis should be on providing a buffer zone
between the photographs and the extreme or
fluctuating conditions. Display cases and frames
provide layers of protection from extreme or
fluctuating conditions.
Protect photographs on display from pollutants,
dust and insects.
It is important to use appropriate materials and
methods when displaying photographs: to ensure
the long-term preservation of the collections.
Lighting hints
Photographs are made up of a number of different
materials, and lighting levels for display must take
into account all those materials. This is why most
photographs are considered to be sensitive to
light.
As light can be so damaging to photographs it is
important to consider carefully the lighting of
displays. This section provides some hints of how
to minimise damage to items lit for display.
Tungsten incandescent bulbs are the best form of
lighting for the display of photographs because
they give out very little UV radiation.
Keep the brightness or intensity of the light low,
and regulate exposure periods. Less exposure to
visible light and the elimination of UV radiation
helps prolong the life of photographs.
When displaying photographs, remember that light
also affects the paper on which the photographs
are printed—except for particular types of
photographs such as opaltypes, which are on glass.
Single-layer and two-layer photographs should be
displayed in lower lighting levels than those with
a three-layer structure. The baryta layer in the
three-layer structure protects the paper support
and there is less likelihood of photochemical
damage to the paper.
Never display original salted paper prints. They are
extremely light-sensitive and can fade badly.
It is recommended that copies be displayed, rather
than the originals.
For more information
Information about the layer structure
of photographs is given in More About
Photographs later in this chapter
Framing and mounting
photographs for display
Mounting and framing photographs supports and
protects them from extreme or fluctuating
environmental conditions, as well as enhancing
their appearance.
Mounts/mats
Window mounts/mats prevent direct contact
between the surface of the photograph and the
glazing. They are also used for aesthetic reasons,
providing a border for the image.
It is important to separate the glazing from the
photograph because:
• sudden temperature changes can cause
condensation on the inner surface of glass;
• if the photograph does not have a window
mount, the emulsion can become sticky and
stick to the glass; and
• if photographs stick to glass and then dry off,
they are extremely difficult and sometimes
impossible to separate without damaging the
image.
Photographs should be hinged and mounted in the
same way as works on flat paper.
If there is enough margin at the edge of the
photograph, you can use photocorners to attach
the photograph to the mount. This will be easier
with modern, colour photographs because many
water-based adhesives will not stick easily to
resin-coated paper.
If you don’t have the equipment to cut window
mounts, contact your local framer, who should be
able to cut the window for you.
If you are having items mounted and framed by a
framer, specify conservation mounting and framing
and conservation-grade materials. Not all framers
have conservation-grade materials in stock, so give
them enough time to order the materials in.
If you would prefer not to have a window
mount/mat framing the image, some provision
should be made to separate the photograph from
the glazing once it is framed. This is usually done
with spacers. These can be made with strips of
mount board stuck to the inside of the rebate of
the frame. They should be cut thin so that they are
not visible.
Frames
Frames add to the aesthetic appeal of photographs
and provide a solid, protective outer layer for the
photographs they contain. This is particularly
important if you are dealing with a travelling
exhibition; in this case the frames are not only
protective but are also much easier to handle than
unframed photographs.
Conservation framing is more complex and more
expensive than standard framing techniques, but it
is the best protection for your collection while it
is on display, especially if the photographs are to
stay framed for a long time and are part of a
travelling exhibition.
There are a number of components in the
conservation framing system.
Cross-section of a conservation framing system
Frame moulding
Glazing
Window mount
Flat paper item
Backboard
Backing Board
Brad or framer’s diamond
Gummed paper tape
Photographs 85
 The moulding is usually referred to as the frame.
Different types of framing materials will be
discussed further in the section The best materials
to use for the display of photographs.
Glazing should provide physical protection to the
photograph with a minimum of distraction to
viewing. Glass or acrylic sheeting can be used for
glazing. Each has advantages and disadvantages:
• glass can break and damage the photograph.
It has a slight colour, either a blue or green,
which may interfere with the colour-balance
in the photograph. This colour becomes more
noticeable as the glass ages; and
• acrylic sheeting, such as Perspex or Plexiglas,
is prone to scratching, which can be visually
disturbing. It can also develop a strong static
charge. But acrylic sheeting gives better
protection against UV radiation than glass,
particularly if a UV-absorbing acrylic is used.
The glazing seal—shown as a rightangle in the
diagram—is applied around the edges of the
glazing to the rebate of the frame. It stops insects
and airborne pollutants from entering through the
front of the frame. It also protects the photograph
from any chips of glass which may come away from
the cut edge of the glass.
Glazing seals are not used universally in
conservation framing systems—some argue that
they reduce the rate of air interchange between
the frame and the outside world.
The moisture barrier—an inert material—for
example, Mylar or aluminium foil attached at the
back of the frame, reduces moisture migration into
the frame. Creating this barrier is important when
framing items which are particularly sensitive to
moisture: Cibachromes, for example. The moisture
barrier is shown between the brad and the
gummed paper tape.
The outer tape seal, from the edge of the moisture
barrier to the edge of the frame, completely seals
the package and stops insects and air pollutants
entering the framing system.
Easy do-it-yourself methods
for displaying photographs
It is not always appropriate to go to the expense
and effort to frame your photographs for display,
especially if they are to be displayed only for a
86 Photographs
short time. But it is still important to provide
protection and support for the photographs. Some
alternatives to mounting/matting and framing are:
• displaying your photographs in their polyester
or polypropylene storage sleeves; and
• placing the photographs in their storage
sleeves in a mount.
With these two methods, you can place the
photographs in a display case or attach them to a
display board. When attaching them to a display
board, make sure:
• the method of fixing the items to the board is
secure and will not allow the photographs to
fall; and
• it must not damage the photographs or their
permanent storage enclosure. For example,
pushing pins through the storage sleeves is
not recommended, while using double-sided
tape on the outside of the storage sleeves
would not cause any lasting damage and
would be easy to remove if the exhibition was
a short one.
When attaching the photographs to a solid
support, such as a sheet of conservation mount
board cut to an appropriate size, the methods
described in the section on storage can be used.
Once the photograph is supported adequately, it
can be placed in a display case. The solid support
performs a number of functions:
• it supports the photograph during handling,
that is, when it is being placed in or removed
from the display case; and
• it acts as a barrier between the materials of
the display case and the photograph.
The best materials to use
for displaying photographs
As already discussed in the section on storage,
some materials can have an adverse effect on
photographs. It is important to select carefully the
materials which you are going to use in your
display system.
Wrappers, enclosures, mounts and anything which
is in direct contact with the photographs should
be made from materials that are chemically inert
and which will not cause physical damage to the
photographs.
Mount/matboard should be conservation-grade:
either a 100% rag board or purified wood-pulp—
alpha cellulose. These boards have had the lignin
and other contaminants removed.
Black-and-white gelatine emulsion photographs
can be mounted/matted with board which has a
2% alkaline buffering. Whether a board is buffered
or not will be noted in the manufacturer’s
specification.
Colour prints and cyanotypes should not be
mounted on boards which contain alkaline buffers;
a photographic-quality mount/mat board would be
suitable for these photographs.
Basswood and Jelutone are low-resin woods and
are considered suitable for preservation-grade
frames.
If you are using wooden frames, the rebate should
be sealed with polyurethane or acrylic resin
varnish to prevent acid vapours from the resins
reaching the prints. And remember that even
hardwoods contain some resins.
Frames which have been sealed as outlined above,
stained or painted should never be used until the
paint has cured thoroughly. Dry, but uncured, paint
emits vapours known to be particularly harmful to
photographic emulsions.

CAUTION: Tapes suitable for use as glazing seals are

Colour prints may be affected by the
presence of alkalis, and should be mounted on
non-buffered, acid-free board. The cyanotype
is another photographic medium definitely
known to discolour in the presence of alkaline
buffering materials.
The two most common framing materials are metal
and wood.
Filmoplast P90, Tyvek tape, 3M Scotch 810 magic
transparent tape and polyester tape 8411.
Tapes suitable for use as outer seal tapes are
gummed paper tape, Tyvek tape, 3M Scotch 810
magic transparent tape and polyester tape 8411.
Mylar is suitable for use as a moisture barrier in a
conservation framing system and as a storage and
display sleeve.

Metal frames—aluminium section—are ideal for Polypropylene can be used as a display sleeve; but
framing photographs because they are: it is not as clear as Mylar and does not look as
attractive.
• physically strong;

• chemically inert, giving off no destructive GOOD BAD

vapours;
photographic-quality poor-quality papers
• unaffected by decay, insect or fungal attack; rag and wood pulp such as newsprint or
papers butchers paper
• the assembly hardware allows them to be
opened easily for inspection; and
plastics such as black papers and
• the clean, simple mouldings present most archival-quality boards—these often
photographs to their best advantage. polyester and contain sulphur
polypropylene
Wooden frames often look very impressive,
especially on historic photographs. But they have photographic storage coloured papers and
characteristics which could make them unsuitable paper coated papers
on preservation grounds:
photographic, museum PVC—polyvinyl—
• raw wood gives off peroxides, which are or conservation-quality a common plastic
strong oxidising agents and harmful to prints;
mount board
and

• softwoods, like pine and cedar, contain resins metal furniture with furniture made from
which remain volatile for years and will affect baked enamel finish uncured wood or
prints adversely. recently painted
furniture

Photographs 87
 Summary of conditions for storage and display
Storage Display

Temperature 18ºC ± 4°C 21ºC ± 4ºC

Relative Humidity 30–50% RH 30–50%RH

Brightness of the Light Dark storage preferred Less than 250 lux.

UV Content of Light Nil Less than 30 µW/lm and no

greater than 75 µW/lm.

Photographs in Australia’s climatic zones

The climatic zones outlined below are broad categories. Conditions may vary within these categories,
depending on the state of repair of your building and whether or not the building is air conditioned.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas it is often very hot during the day and very cold
at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity, for
example from 75%–20%RH in a day.

When caring for photographs in arid areas it is important to note that:

• insects can still survive;
• paper and photographic emulsions tend to give out the water they contain - this can lead to the
photographs becoming dry and brittle; and
• as they release moisture at different rates, the paper and emulsion can begin to separate.

Remember that even arid areas can have periods of higher relative humidity, even though the periods
may only be very short.

The system of layers of storage—wrappers, boxes, boxes within cupboards—is particularly suited to arid
areas because of the tendency to get quite marked fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity. Many
arid areas are also very dusty and so the layers of storage protect the photographs from dust and grit.

Because of the large temperature fluctuations in arid areas, there is a risk that condensation could form
inside plastic wrappers, leading to sticky emulsion and possible mould growth.

Note: If your photographic collections have been stored in an arid environment for a considerable period
and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions.
This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

88 Photographs
 Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
• It is probably easier to come close to the recommended ideal conditions for the storage of
photographs in a temperate climate, however, it is unlikely that you will be able to maintain an even
environment without the help of sophisticated air conditioning equipment.
• The system of layers of storage - wrappers, boxes, boxes within cupboards will be very useful in
helping to buffer against the extreme conditions that can occur in a temperate environment.
• As for all climatic areas, regular inspection of storage and display areas is important so that
developing problems do not go unnoticed.

Note: If your photographic collections have been stored in a temperate environment for a considerable
period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal
conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.

When caring for photographs in high humidity conditions it is important to note that:
• insects and moulds thrive and reproduce readily.
• the rate of deterioration due to light and UV radiation increases.
• different components of single objects will take up moisture at different rates and swell by different
amounts—this can lead to problems such as emulsions separating from the photographic base paper.
• gelatine emulsions on photographs swell and can readily stick to anything they are in direct contact
with.

Remember that in tropical areas, air flow is important and this should be taken into account when
designing storage and display systems.

The use of plastic sleeves for storage and display is not recommended in tropical areas, as the sleeves
restrict air flow and will prevent damp photographs from drying out.

Note: If your photographic collections have been stored in a tropical environment for a considerable
period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal
conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Photographs 89
 Some miscellaneous advice
Mechanised processing versus
hand processing
Modern photographic processing systems cannot
guarantee the same long-term stability as hand
processing. However, mechanised processing is
much cheaper and more convenient.
If the long-term stability of your colour prints is
very important to you, it is wise to have them
hand processed by a photographer, or to have
them processed with a new batch of processing
chemicals.
Cibachromes
Cibachromes are very stable, although they are
very sensitive to moisture. If you want a very
stable colour print, have a glossy Cibachrome print
produced from a slide. Pearl Cibachromes are not
as stable.
To laminate or not?
Lamination is sometimes promoted as a way to
preserve your photographs, but there are problems
associated with laminating photographs.
Once a photograph is laminated, it is virtually
impossible to remove the lamination material
without damaging the photograph and without
using strong chemicals.
The process of lamination can damage the
emulsion layer of the photograph; and over time
the lamination material, with emulsion attached,
will pull away from the paper base of the
photograph. This damage is permanent.
Lamination may be suitable:
• if you have the negative and can print more
copies of the photograph; and
• you want to protect the photograph in
situations where it may get damaged or very
dirty.
A reversible alternative is to place it in a Mylar
sleeve.
90 Photographs
Historic evidence accompanying
photographs
Many photographs—particularly older
photographs—may come into your collection in
their original folder, in a frame or mounted on a
card on which the photographer’s name and
address are printed.
Often these materials are dirty, deteriorating and
not good quality. But they should not be discarded
because they often provide valuable information
about the photographs.
If the accompanying materials are in very poor
condition, lightly brush them clean, then wrap,
label and store them separately from the
photographs.
From the mid-1850s to the early 1900s, cartes-de-
visite and cabinet cards were very popular.
Cartes-de-visite are quite small; cabinet cards,
which come in a range of sizes, are larger. Both
are made up of photographs stuck down to card.
These cards are often poor quality and brittle.
Despite their poor quality, these cards should not
be removed as they are an integral part of these
items. A number of books on the history of
photography give further details of these popular
photographic formats.
Treatment of damaged photographs is not always
simple. It is important when treating a photograph
to be able to identify the process before
determining the treatment to be applied. It is also
important to know:
• what materials are likely to have been used.
These can vary because many photographers
experimented with materials and processes;
and
• the particular sensitivities of these materials.
A note of warning about nitrate film stock
A number of collections contain examples of
nitrate film, which was used for still film and
movie film before the introduction of safety film.
Nitrate films are extremely dangerous. They consist
of cellulose nitrate, a very unstable material.
As nitrate film degrades, it produces nitrogen
oxide. Further degradation results in spontaneous
combustion of the film; and because nitrogen
oxide reactions produce oxidising agents, this
reaction can occur without the presence of oxygen
in the air. This means that degraded cellulose
nitrate can burn under water or when smothered
with fire-retarding foam or sand. Degraded
cellulose nitrate is sticky and smelly.
The National Film and Sound Archive conducted a
search for nitrate film in Australian collections in
the mid-1990s. If you suspect you have cellulose
nitrate in your collection, contact the National
Film and Sound Archive, or a relevant State
institution for information and advice.
MORE ABOUT PHOTOGRAPHS
A brief overview of the
chemistry of photography
Photography—drawing with light—includes any
process in which pictures are produced by the
action of light on light-sensitive materials.
Light-sensitive materials
Many materials are light-sensitive, but not all are
suitable for the production of images:
• some materials fade in light;
• some materials darken in light;
• light causes molecules to decompose in some
materials; and
• in other materials, light causes molecules to
combine and to create larger molecules.
The most commonly used light-sensitive materials
in photography are silver salts.
Light-sensitive silver salts
Silver salts decompose in light to produce metallic
silver, which makes up the image. The silver salts
which were found to be best for this process were
the silver halides—silver chloride, silver bromide
and silver iodide.
Initially, prolonged exposures were used to develop
images. Negatives were placed in a printing-out
frame in contact with sensitised positive papers
and then exposed to light. Once the images had
developed sufficiently, they were fixed chemically.
This was the principle of the printing-out papers.
Developers
There are many advantages to be gained from the
use of chemical developers. These include:
• reduced exposure times;
• allowing the photographer much more
flexibility in manipulating his/her images;
and
• making enlargements, reproductions and mass
production of images possible.
With the introduction of developers, the sensitised
paper was exposed to light for a shorter period.
During this exposure time, an invisible latent
image formed. This image was then intensified 109
times using the developer.
Developers are reducing agents, that is, they
supply electrons to a system.
A number of reducing agents were tried, but not all
were successful. If they are too strong they reduce
all the silver halide to metallic silver—even the
silver halide which has not been exposed to light. If
too weak, they will not develop the image enough.
Much of the work done before a suitable process
was found was experimentation—to find
developers which had enough power to reduce the
exposed silver halides, but not enough to reduce
those that had not been exposed to light.
Fixers
If photographic images are not fixed, the chemical
reactions will continue—leading to loss of image.
Once the image has developed, the silver halides
which have not been exposed to light must be
removed from the system. Fixers are chemicals
which dissolve silver halides and remove them
from the system.
The fixer and dissolved silver halides must be
washed away. Retention of these within the system
will lead to discolouration.
Photographs 91
 Emulsions
Emulsions were produced from:
• albumen—egg white;
• cellulose nitrate—called collodion in this
application; and
• gelatine.
Emulsions coated onto the photograph base-paper,
glass or metal:
• allowed an even spread of the light-sensitive
salts over the base material;
• provided a smoother surface than the surface
of uncoated paper, giving more sharply
focused images; and
• could be applied in liquid form and then dried
in a thin film.
Gelatine
Gelatine survived as the most popular and
widespread emulsion material. This is because
gelatine has properties which make it particularly
suitable for use in photography:
• gelatine is soluble in warm water, but remains
as a gel in cold water. This allows water-
based processing of the image without loss of
emulsion. It is important to note that old
degraded gelatine may be soluble in cold
water;
• gelatine can be treated with formaldehyde to
harden it, so that it is no longer soluble in
hot water;
• gelatine contains minute amounts of
materials which increase the sensitivity of the
silver halides to light. This is due to the
eating habits of cows, which are the source of
the gelatine. Cows like hot-tasting food,
which contains sulphur. Rabbits, on the other
hand, do not like hot food and their gelatine
is less suitable.
CAUTION:
While minute traces of sulphur in a properly
formulated emulsion can be beneficial, sulphur
is not good for photographs because it reacts
irreversibly with silver.
92 Photographs
A brief overview of
photographic deterioration
mechanisms
There are two main mechanisms of deterioration:
sulphiding and oxidation-reduction deterioration.
Sulphiding
Silver has a strong tendency to react irreversibly
with sulphur. The product of this reaction is silver
sulphide—a black material that appears yellow
when it is in very small particles. The main sources
of damaging sulphur are:
• hydrogen sulphide from atmospheric pollution.
• inadequate washing after fixing. It is virtually
impossible to remove all the fixer as it is
retained tenaciously by paper fibres and
baryta coatings. Fixer—sodium
thiosulphate—breaks down in the presence of
moisture and releases reactive sulphur.
Both of the above cause yellowing, fading and
loss of detail in the highlight areas. Eventually
the whole image is affected and will fade and
change colour.
The highlight
areas of this print
show fading and loss
of detail due
to sulphiding.
Photograph courtesy
of Fred Francisco
• use of exhausted fixer baths. Thiosulphates
combine with silver ions; many of the
resulting molecules are soluble and so the
fixer and excess silver can be washed away.
If the bath is exhausted, insoluble molecules
can form; these are retained by the gelatine.
So there are sulphur and silver ions still in
the system. The silver reacts to become
metallic silver, causing yellowing. Non-image
 areas change in colour: from white, to yellow
then brown.
High relative humidity accelerates sulphiding.
Oxidative-reductive deterioration
This is the most important deterioration
mechanism for silver-based images. The main
mechanisms and their effects are:
• metallic silver particles are oxidised to
produce silver ions;
• while metallic silver is coloured and therefore
makes up the image, silver ions are colourless
and do not absorb light;
• as ions have an electric charge, they can
move around the system. They can migrate to
the surface where they are reduced back to
metallic silver, creating the characteristic
mirroring or silvering out; and
• they may also migrate within the system and
then be sulphided.
Silvering out
around edges
of a photograph.
Photograph
courtesy Artlab
Australia,
reproduced with
permission of
Ann V. Nicholas
Oxidative-reductive deterioration can also cause
loss of highlight detail, overall fading and colour
shifts to warmer hues.
Images developed using chemical developers are
less vulnerable to this deterioration than those on
printing-out papers, because the silver particles in
developed images are bigger.
Only minute quantities of oxidising agents are
required to cause deterioration and there are many
oxidising agents in atmospheric gases and
pollutants.
Controlling temperature and relative humidity
helps slow down the process.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.
Layer structures
for various photographs
Single-layer structure, as for salted paper
prints, cyanotype, platinotypes. The light-
sensitive material is within the paper.
Two-layer structure, as for albumen prints,
carbon prints. The light-sensitive material is in
the upper emulsion layer. The lower layer is the
paper.
Three-layer structure, as for gelatine and
collodion printing-out papers and gelatine
developing out papers. The light-sensitive
material is in the upper emulsion layer. The middle
layer is the baryta layer, which gives a very
smooth, white surface on which the emulsion layer
rests. It is opaque and hides the irregular surface
of the paper fibres. The lower layer is the paper.
The structure of modern, resin-coated paper.
The centre layer is the paper core. Either side of
this is a layer of polyethylene. The light-sensitive
gelatine emulsion is on the top. There is also a
gelatine backing layer at the base.
A brief history of the
development of photography
In a relatively short period photography has grown
from a process still in its experimental stages to
one that is well established and widely used.
The evolution of photography is not simple and
straightforward; it is the result of the efforts of
many people working in a great range of
disciplines. The following notes give a brief
summary of the main contributors and the
milestone discoveries.
Photographs 93
 Beginnings
Well before the beginning of the 19th century,
much of the equipment and knowledge necessary
for the eventual appearance of photography were
available.
The camera obscura had been known since at least
1038, when it was described by Ibn Al-Haitham. It
was not until the 17th and 18th centuries that its
use became widespread.
The study of photochemistry was a by-product of
research into other areas and it was known that:
• the action of light alone caused silver salts to
darken (Schulze, 1727);
• further work, using silver chloride, established
that violet light caused silver salts to darken
far more rapidly than longer wavelengths of
visible light (Scheele). Where it took fifteen
seconds for silver chloride to darken when
exposed to violet light, it took up to twenty
minutes to darken to the same degree when
exposed to red light (Senebier, 1782).
• silver chloride, which had darkened under the
action of light, was insoluble in ammonia.
The darkened substance was, in fact, metallic
silver (Scheele); and
• some resins became insoluble in turpentine
after exposure to light (Senebier).
At the beginning of the 19th century, a number of
people began to see that it might be possible to
obtain a permanent image using the camera
obscura and light-sensitive materials.
Thomas Wedgewood and Sir Humphry Davy did
some early work on this. They produced images by
placing items on sensitised paper and leather and
then exposing them to light, but were unable to
fix the images.
For more information
For more information about the different
wavelengths of light, please see the chapter
on Light and Ultraviolet Radiation in
Damage and Decay.
94 Photographs
The first photograph
In 1816 in France, Nicéphore Niépce produced a
negative image using paper sensitised with silver
chloride and placed in a camera obscura. But he
failed to fix the image.
He produced a permanent image in 1822, using
bitumen of Judea, which hardened when exposed
to light. An engraving, made transparent with oil,
was placed over a glass plate coated in the
bitumen. After several hours’ exposure to light, the
unexposed areas of bitumen could be dissolved in
lavender oil—a light petroleum oil—leaving an
image formed by the hardened bitumen of Judea.
In 1827 Nicéphore Niépce became the first person
to produce a direct positive photograph from
nature. He called the image a heliograph. He had
used a bitumen-coated pewter plate which he had
placed in a small camera obscura and exposed for
about eight hours.
The daguerreotype and the calotype
Photography was announced to the world in 1839.
There were two processes employing slightly
different manipulations of light-sensitive silver salts.
Daguerre announced his discovery in January 1839
and presented the details of the process to the
world in August 1839.
Daguerreotype
image.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with
permission of Art
Gallery of South
Australia
A silver-plated copper sheet was exposed, first to
iodine vapour to sensitise it, then to light, and
finally to mercury vapour which developed the
latent photographic image. The image was then
fixed with sodium thiosulphate solution, washed
and gently dried over a flame.
The image, a fine amalgam of silver and mercury,
had to be protected from abrasion and oxidising
agents, and was framed and enclosed in a case.
The daguerreotype was an immediate success, but
it had two disadvantages:
• it was difficult to see: and,
• each daguerreotype was a one-off and could
not be used to produce copies.
In 1839 William Henry Fox Talbot prepared his
Account of the Art of Photogenic Drawing, or the
process by which natural objects may be made to
delineate themselves without the aid of the artist’s
pencil. This described how he sensitised paper by
brushing it with silver nitrate and then sodium
chloride. After exposing the paper to light for
about two hours in the camera obscura, the image
which formed in the paper was fixed using a
concentrated sodium chloride solution. By late
1840, Fox Talbot had made significant
improvements to his process.
He produced an iodised paper by coating writing
paper with silver nitrate solution and then—before
it dried—immersing it in potassium iodide
solution, thus forming silver iodide in the paper.
This paper could be stored for an indefinite period
in the dark.
For use, the paper was washed with Fox Talbot’s
exciting liquid, then exposed for less than a
minute, after which it was brushed again with the
exciting liquid. The second application of exciting
liquid developed the latent image. The photograph
was then washed and fixed. This produced a
negative image, which was then waxed to make it
transparent.
By exposing sensitised paper in contact with the
negative, positive images could be produced. This
was the calotype process.
The calotype process formed the base from which
modern photography evolved.
Its greatest advantage was that it was a two-stage
process. Where previously a negative image had
been a disappointment to the experimenter, it was
now seen as the means with which to produce
multiple positive copies.
Albumen paper and
the wet collodion process
By the early 1850s most of the teething troubles
of photography had been eliminated; and it was
from this time that photography really flourished.
In 1850 and 1851 two important improvements to
photography were published: the albumen printing-
out paper and the wet collodion process.
Albumen printing-out paper was introduced in
1850 and it became the most important print
material of the 19th century.
Albumen print.
Photograph courtesy of Fred Francisco
Albumen was prepared by beating egg-white until
it was very frothy, and then leaving it to settle to
a liquid. Most manufacturers allowed the albumen
to ferment, because this improved the final print
quality. Very thin rag paper was coated by floating
it on top of an albumen and sodium chloride
mixture. Before use, the paper had to be
sensitised. This was done by floating the paper on
a solution of silver nitrate.
For printing, the sensitised paper was placed in a
frame in contact with the negative and exposed for
periods ranging from a few minutes to a number of
hours. Once the image had appeared, it was fixed.
Various improvements were made to albumen paper
between 1850 and 1900. These include:
• the introduction of gold toning for use with
albumen paper. This changed the image’s
colour from a red-brown to a warm purple-
brown or blue-black, and improved the
stability of the image;
Photographs 95
 • from the late 1880s platinum toning was also
used, usually in combination with gold
toning: it gave the image a nearly neutral
tone. Platinum toning on its own turned the
image brown;
• from 1863 dyes were added to the paper base
to counteract the yellowing of the albumen
layer. Pink was the most common dye; but
green, blue and violet were also used; and
• ready sensitised albumen paper became
available in the 1870s. The use of citric acid
in the preparation of the paper gave it a
shelf-life of several months.
The wet collodion process was announced by
Frederick Scott Archer in 1851. This used glass as
the carrier for the negative image.
Collodion, containing potassium iodide, was
poured over the glass to form a thin, even film.
This was immediately sensitised with a silver
nitrate solution. The plate had to be exposed while
still wet, and then developed with pyrogallic acid.
Sodium thiosulphate or potassium cyanide were
used to fix the image, which was then washed and
dried. Then the plates were often warmed to
receive a protective varnish before any positive
prints were made.
It was not an easy process. All the processes
described above were done by hand. And if
photographs were to be taken outside, a portable
darkroom, complete with all chemicals, water and
equipment, had to be carried.
Some of the chemicals were toxic, for example,
potassium cyanide was used for fixing and for
cleaning excess developer off the equipment.
The wet collodion process was extremely popular.
The advantages of fine detail, improved tonal
ranges and reduced exposure times, plus the fact
that the process was not protected by patent,
outweighed the disadvantages.
Collodion on glass negatives and albumen-coated
paper positive prints were such a successful
combination that they dominated photography for
over 30 years.
96 Photographs
Gelatine dry plates and film negatives
From the 1870s the use of dry gelatine plates
became common; and then in the late 1880s film
negatives were introduced.
The gelatine dry plate was put forward by Dr R.L.
Maddox in 1871. Two years later, ready-coated
plates were available.
Glass plates were machine-coated with gelatine
containing light-sensitive silver bromide.
Glass plate
negative.
Photograph courtesy
of Fred Francisco
The plates did not need any processing to sensitise
them before use; they could be stored for many
months and required much shorter exposure times
than previous methods.
The first film negatives, introduced in the United
States in 1888, were made from cellulose nitrate.
This was extremely flammable and was gradually
phased out in favour of safer film materials.
Collodion and gelatine emulsion papers
Not long after the introduction of collodion and
gelatine as emulsions in negative processes, they
were applied to paper for the production of
positive photographic prints. In these processes
the gelatine or collodion emulsions contained the
light-sensitive silver salts when they were coated
onto the paper. These photographic papers are
called emulsion papers.
Collodion printing-out papers became available in
1867. The papers had a barium sulphate layer—the
pigment baryta—between the paper and the
emulsion, to overcome the problem of the
collodion not sticking to the paper. The collodion
contained silver chloride and citric acid.
Gelatine printing-out papers became available in
the late 1880s.
The only difference between the two types of
paper was in the nature of the binder, i.e.
collodian or gelatine:
• they were both exposed to daylight in
printing-out frames and processed in the
same way;
• they both produced reddish-brown to purple-
brown image colours; and
• photographs which were double-toned with
gold and platinum tended to be neutral. Some
papers were self-toning, that is, the necessary
salts were contained in the emulsion and
were released during fixing.
Most photographic papers after this time had a
three-layer structure. The baryta layer produced a
very smooth, opaque, white surface on which to
coat the emulsion. The image quality was improved
as the underlying paper fibres were masked and
final image contrast was heightened. The emulsion
layer was protected from chemically active
substances which might have been present in the
paper.
Developing-out papers
Chemical development of positive images was used
as early as 1851 by Blanquart Evart in his
commercial photographic printing firm. But
development was not commonly used until the
1880s, when the materials of the gelatine dry plate
method were applied to production of positive
prints.
From about 1885, papers coated with gelatine
containing silver bromide became available. At
first the emulsion was coated directly onto the
paper; after 1895 bromide developing-out papers
were also coated with a layer of barium sulphate.
Silver bromide and gelatine emulsions were
sensitive enough to allow enlargement of
negatives.
Bromide developing-out papers produced neutral,
black images with improved image stability. This
was largely due to the structure and shape of the
silver formed by the development process.
Developed images have much larger silver particles
than printed-out images. Chemical development of
positive prints produces filamentary silver, which is
deposited as long, twisted strands. It is these
larger, irregularly shaped silver particles that give
neutral-toned images greater chemical stability
In printed-out papers the images are made up of
small spherical particles of silver called photolytic
silver. The particle size is directly proportional to
the amount of light received during exposure.
Photolytic silver produced warm-toned images,
tending toward reds, browns and yellows. These
small particles are very vulnerable to the chemical
activity which results in image deterioration.
Chemical development of positive photographic
images was the way forward for modern
photography. In the first decade of the 20th
century developing-out papers began to take over
from printing-out papers.
Colour photography
From the early beginnings of photography, there
was a desire to produce colour images. But it was
some time before any practical systems of colour
photography were available and it was many years
before colour photography became the norm.
A number of different systems for producing colour
images were tried. Many fell by the wayside, while
others were altered in minor ways over many years
to produce better colour and better quality images.
A full description of the developments is not
necessary in such a brief history of photography,
so only a few of the developments are listed
below. These give some idea of when these
developments took place in relation to the
development of black and white photography.
In 1903 the Lumière brothers invented and
patented the Autochrome process, the first
practical system of colour photography. It was a
coloured transparent image on glass.
A silver-gelatine emulsion was exposed through a
screen of potato starch grains dyed orange, green
and violet. After reversal processing, a positive silver
image was produced which, when viewed through
the colour screen, reproduced the original colours.
Photographs 97
 Autochrome plates were produced in large Daguerreotype: 1839–c1860
quantities between 1907 and 1940.
Structure. The daguerreotype consists of a positive
The Tricolor Carbro—invented in 1905—was used
image formed by mercury vapour on a highly
commercially for the first time in 1919. Carbro
polished coating of silver on a copper plate. It is
prints were made by placing three carbon images,
usually in its own decorative and protective case.
coloured with pigment, onto paper. The risk of
fading was reduced by the use of pigments instead
of dyes.

In 1935 Kodak Kodachrome was introduced. It was

first a movie film, then introduced as a 35mm slide
film the following year. Other film companies
followed with their own colour films.

In 1939 the Diffusion Transfer process was

invented. Initially it was intended as a method of
rapid document copying. Now it is used in instant-
picture cameras.

In 1941 Minicolor prints, made from Kodachrome

slides, were made available for the first time.
Kodacolor, a method for producing colour prints
from negatives was introduced in 1942.
In 1944, Kodak introduced the Dye Transfer
technique. It largely supplanted Tricolor Carbro. It
was used primarily by studio photographers or
serious artists.
By this time the major hurdles in the development
of colour photography had been overcome; from
then on, many minor developments were made,
resulting in the processes with which we are
familiar today.
Identification of
The Daguerreotype is in the centre of the bottom row.
On either side of it and above it are the components
of the case.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia
Appearance of image. The daguerreotype has a
silver, mirrored surface. The image changes from
positive to negative depending on the viewing
angle. This is the main key to identification.
Deterioration. Tarnishing is the most common
problem and can cover the entire surface of the
plate.
Copper corrosion can occur, where the fractured
silver layer exposes the underlying copper layer,
leaving behind green and blue copper salts.

historic photographs Black spots and accretions are sometimes found

The wide range of materials used in producing
photographic images has led to a wide range of
deterioration patterns. This means that some
historic photographs need to be treated differently
to others. For example, it is recommended that
original albumen prints are not exhibited at all—
copies should be made for exhibition. Carbon
prints, however, can be exhibited safely if standard
exhibition precautions are taken.
Correctly identifying the process is important. In
many cases the deterioration pattern can help
identify the process used.
over the plate. Evenly distributed spots may be the
result of residues from the original processing.
Another potential problem is the large needle-
shaped silver sulphide crystals which are formed
within deeply tarnished films.
Flaking, usually around the edges, is often the
result of excessive gold toning.
Ambrotypes: 1851–c1880s
The ambrotype is a variant of the wet collodion
process.

98 Photographs

A cased ambrotype.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia
Structure. The ambrotype is an under-exposed
collodion emulsion on glass. It appears as a
negative until a black backing turns the image into
a positive.
Ambrotypes usually have their own decorative and
protective cases.
Appearance of image. The ambrotype has quite
low contrast—the whites appear as dull grey and
detail is less visible in the shadow areas. It can be
viewed from all angles.
Deterioration. The collodion emulsion may
weaken, crack or flake. It may also separate from
the glass.
Decomposing collodion releases gases, such as
nitric oxide and nitrogen oxide, which combine
with atmospheric moisture to form nitric acid—
this attacks the cellulose in the collodion.
Atmospheric pollutants and residual processing
chemicals can cause the collodion image to
deteriorate.
Silver sulphiding will appear as red and green
discolouration.
The glass support can break and glass splinters can
scratch the emulsion.
If the ambrotype is varnished, UV radiation may
cause discolouration and yellowing of the varnish.
The painted black backing often flakes off, leaving
what appear to be holes in the image.
This ambrotype had a flaking black backing.
This photograph was taken during conservation
treatment. The photograph is intact—the area on
the right has had the black backing removed. After
the flaking backing has been fully removed, it will
be replaced with black cardboard and the image
will be clearly visible.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia
Tintype, ferrotype, melainotype:
1854–c1930s
A mounted tintype.
Photograph courtesy
of Fred Francisco
Structure. The tintype was a variation on the
ambrotype and was a method for making direct,
positive images in the camera on a black or
chocolate-brown, enamelled iron plate.
The plates were originally coated by the wet
collodion process; but dry plates were later
manufactured.
Unmounted tintypes are easily identified by their
iron base.
Appearance of image. Tintypes have little
contrast. Whites appear as dull grey and shadow
areas have little detail.
Photographs 99
 Deterioration. The collodion emulsion may become
weak, crack or flake. It may also separate from the
plate.
Decomposing collodion releases gases, such as
nitric oxide and nitrogen oxide, which combine
with atmospheric moisture forming nitric acid—
this attacks the cellulose in the collodion.
Atmospheric pollutants and residual processing
chemicals can cause the collodion image to
deteriorate.
The iron support may bend or be deformed,
cracking the collodion emulsion. This often
occurred because many tintypes were sent through
the mail.
Thin lines of rust can be seen under raking light
on some tintypes.
Opaltypes: c1890s
The opaltype is a photographic image on opaque
white glass.
Opaltype with
overpainting.
Photograph courtesy
of Fred Francisco
Structure. The photographic image is on an
opaque white glass.
The base image is usually black and white, but
often heavily overpainted.
Overpaint is smudged when attempts are made to
dust or clean the image.
Deterioration. The glass support often breaks, and
there can be subsequent loss of image from
chipping along the break.
100 Photographs
Overpaint is smudged when attempts are made to
dust or clean the image.
The overpaint can become quite dirty and/or
stained.
IMPORTANT: The overpaint is usually very soluble
in water—don’t attempt to clean the surface.
Salted paper prints: developed 1839,
widely used 1860–c1890
Structure. One-layer structure—the visible image
is formed directly in the paper. The light-sensitive
material is embedded in the paper.
Appearance of image. The image is reddish-
brown, purple or yellow-brown when processed
properly; it can be lilac, pale-blue or a lemon
yellow if improperly processed.
The paper fibres are clearly visible under
magnification.
Deterioration. The paper used in salted paper
prints is susceptible to the same sorts of
deterioration as other papers—it becomes brittle,
stained and acid burnt.
The prints fade quickly because of improper
processing, atmospheric pollution, poor-quality
adhesives and mounting materials, resulting in:
• variations in colour;
• edge fading; and
• small yellow dots and lack of highlight detail.
Exposure to UV radiation for prolonged periods
causes severe fading.
Platinotypes: 1880–c1930
Structure. Platinotypes have a one-layer structure.
Appearance of image. Platinotypes have a very
stable image: there is no fading or silvering out.
They are silvery-grey in colour, with a matt
surface.
The paper fibres are clearly visible under
magnification, and give a rich, velvety texture.
Deterioration. The image, itself, is stable with no
fading or silvering out. The processing includes
acidic cleaning baths, which contribute to the
deterioration of the paper.
Platinum prints are brittle, often with cracked or
broken corners.
Residual iron salts plus the acids which are
present, contribute to the eventual discolouration
of the paper.
Cyanotypes: used c1885–c1910,
very rare 1842–1880
Structure. Cyanotypes have a one-layer structure.
Appearance of image. Cyanotypes have a uniform,
bright blue image. The surface is matt, with the
paper fibres clearly visible under magnification.
Deterioration. The paper used in cyanotypes is
susceptible to the same sorts of deterioration as
other papers—it becomes brittle, stained and acid
burnt.
A cyanotype showing the characteristic, blue image
colour.
Photograph courtesy of Fred Francisco
The blue image fades but can be partially restored
by storing it in the dark.
IMPORTANT: Alkaline conditions will fade the blue
image; therefore alkaline-buffered enclosures
should not be used with cyanotypes.
Albumen printing-out papers—POP:
1850–c1890
Structure. An albumen print is a two-layer system,
with an albumen layer holding the sensitised silver
on top of a paper support.
Appearance of image. Albumen prints generally
produce detailed images.
An albumen print with characteristic fading of
the image.
Photograph courtesy of Fred Francisco
It is possible to see the paper fibres through the
binder layer in highlight areas, when examined
under magnification.
Albumen prints can be warm red-brown, a yellow-
brown, purplish-brown or purplish-black. Most
albumen prints are yellow in the highlight areas.
Deterioration. Typical damage includes fading,
yellowing of highlight areas, brittle paper and
cracking of the albumen.
Oxidative-reductive deterioration of gold-toned,
photolytic silver images results in loss of detail in
highlight areas, overall fading of the image and a
change in image colour from purplish-brown to
warmer, yellower hues.
Sulphiding deterioration, resulting from thiosulphate
retained after insufficient washing or from
contamination by sulphur in atmospheric pollutants,
causes the image to fade to a yellow-brown or to a
greenish colour. In some cases, the retention of
silver thiosulphate due to the use of exhausted fixer
baths, results in the image fading to a greenish-
black colour. There is much more staining, usually
greenish-yellow, in non-image areas.
Photographs 101
 Tinting dyes, added to albumen to counteract the
warm tones of the image, are extremely unstable
and fade readily. High temperatures and relative
humidity will also adversely affect these dyes.
Structural problems lead to severe cracking of the
albumen layer.
Yellowing of the albumen layer is caused by a
protein-sugar reaction. Storage and display
conditions are critical in controlling the rate of
this reaction, and therefore the extent of
yellowing. The key environmental factors are
relative humidity, and exposure to UV radiation
and to visible light.
Gilt inks were often used in association with
albumen prints on cartes-de-visite. These inks,
made with bronze powder and zinc, flake quite
readily. When the flakes come into contact with
the image, they cause local discolouration and
spotting of the photographic image.
Albumen prints have a strong tendency to curl
when they are not stuck down to a backing.
Collodion printing-out papers—POP:
1880–c1910
Structure. Collodion papers are a three-layer
system with the paper support, a baryta layer over
the paper—completely hiding the paper fibres—
and the collodion emulsion layer on top of the
baryta layer.
Appearance of image. The colour of a collodion
print varies, depending on the halide salts and
toners used during processing.
Glossy collodion prints were usually gold-toned
and had a warm tone.
Matt collodion prints were usually gold and
platinum-toned and had an olive-black tone. Matt
prints were also more stable and resisted fading.
Pigments or dyes were sometimes added to the
baryta layer of collodion papers, to make them
appear reddish or bluish in colour.
Deterioration. The collodion layer is not flexible.
Movement in the paper support due to changes in
relative humidity causes hairline cracks to appear
in the surface. But, unlike albumen prints, these
hairline cracks do not become larger.
102 Photographs
Poor storage and handling are serious problems,
because the emulsion layer is extremely thin and
has very poor resistance to abrasion.
For glossy, gold-toned prints, oxidative-reductive
deterioration includes loss of highlight detail, a
shift in image colour from purple to warm,
reddish-brown and overall fading. Image
deterioration is often accompanied by silver
mirroring—silvering out—and abrasive damage.
Matt prints are much more stable and show less
fading, mirroring and colour change.
Sulphiding deterioration includes fading of the
highlights and an intermediate stage of blackening
of the image in the middle tones and shadows,
followed by fading of the image to a yellowish or
greenish-brown.
Matt collodion prints are less affected by
sulphiding than glossy collodion prints.
CAUTION:
Never use alcohol on collodion—
collodion is soluble in alcohol.
Gelatine developing-out papers—DOP:
1880–present
Structure. Gelatine prints have a three-layer system,
with the paper support, a baryta layer over the
paper—completely hiding the paper fibres—and the
gelatine emulsion layer on top of the baryta layer.
Appearance of image. The paper fibres are not
visible through the binder layer.
Gelatine developing-out papers have a near-neutral
image colour: a soft slate-grey which sometimes
has a greenish-grey caste.
Silver gelatine
print—a chemically
developed image.
Photograph courtesy
Artlab Australia,
reproduced with
permission of
G.M. Thompson
Print surface may be glossy or matt.
Deterioration. The most common types of image
deterioration are caused by oxidative-reductive
reactions, resulting in:
• overall fading;
• loss of highlight detail;
• yellowing in the lighter areas of the image,
fading of lighter tones and overall fading; and
• silver mirroring—silvering out—in shadow
areas. Nearly all 19th century gelatine
developing-out prints are affected.
In advanced cases of oxidative-reductive
deterioration, the original black image colour fades
to yellow-brown with yellow highlights. These
colour changes are caused by physical changes in
the filamentary silver on a sub-microscopic level.
Sulphiding: the symptoms of sulphiding resemble
those of oxidative-reductive deterioration.
A silver gelatine print showing overall fading of image.
Photograph courtesy Artlab Australia, reproduced with
permission of B. Pring
Silver gelatine
print with silver
mirroring—silvering
out—around the
edges of the
photograph.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab, reproduced
with the permission
of Ann V. Nicholas
If you have a problem related to the
identification, treatment, storage or display of
photographs contact a conservator. Conservators
can offer advice and practical solutions.
For further reading
Baldwin, Gordon 1991, Looking at Photographs: A
Guide to Technical Terms, The J. Paul Getty
Museum, Malibu, California.
Buckland, Gail 1980, Fox Talbot and the Invention
of Photography, University of Queensland Press,
St Lucia.
Cato, Jack 1985, Conservation of Photographs,
Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York.
Colligan, Mimi 1991, In Focus—150 Years of
Australian Photography, Griffen Press, generated
by Australia Post Philatelic Group, Adelaide.
Coote, Jack H. 1993, The Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Fountain Press, Surrey, England.
Crawford, William 1979, The Keepers of Light,
Morgan & Morgan, Dobbs Ferry, USA.
Daniels, Patrick 1978, Early Photography, Academy
Editions, London.
Davies, Alan & Stanbury, Peter 1985, The
Mechanical Eye in Australia—Photography
1841–1900, Oxford University Press, London.
Eastman Kodak Company 1985, Storage &
Preservation of Microfilms, Eastman Kodak
Company, Rochester, USA.
Eaton, George 1957, Photographic Chemistry,
Morgan & Morgan, Dobbs Ferry, New York.
Eder, Joseph Maria 1978, History of Photography,
Dover Publications, New York.
Ehrlich, Richard 1984, Dictionary of Photography,
Longman Group Ltd, Harlow, Essex.
Focal Press, 1974, Colour Prints: The Photographic
Technique of the Colour Positive, Focal Press,
London.
Photographs 103
 Focal Press 1993, Making Kallitypes—A Definitive Reilly, James M. 1986, Care and Identification of
Guide, Focal Press, Butterworth-Heinemann, 19th Century Photographic Prints, Eastman
Boston. Kodak Company, Rochester, New York.

Focal Press 1983, Storing, Handling and Preserving
Polaroid Photographs: A Guide, Focal Press,
Publication Department of Polaroid Corporation,
Boston.
Freeman, Michael 1985, Instant Film Photography—
A Creative Handbook, MacDonald & Co., London.
Frost, Lenore 1992, Dating Family Photographs
1850–1920, Lenore Frost, 8 Cliff Street,
Essendon, Victoria.
Gernsheim, Helmut 1982, The Origins of
Photography, Thames & Hudson Ltd, London.
Gilbert, George 1980, Photography: The Early
Years—A Historic Guide for Collectors
, Harper &
Row, New York.
Hawkins, G.L., 1933, Pigment Printing—The Bromoil
Process from the Negative to the Transfer
, Henry
Greenwood & Co. Ltd, London.
Institute of Australian Photographers 1979, The
Story of the Camera in Australia, Institute of
Australian Photographers, Melbourne.
Jeffrey, Ian 1981, Photography—A Concise History,
Thames and Hudson, London.
Keefe, Laurence E. & Inch, Dennis 1990, The Life
of a Photograph, Butterworth Publishers,
Stoneham, M.A.
Kraszna-Krausz, A., ed. 1965, The Focal Encyclopedia
of Photography, Focal Press Ltd, London.
Rempel, Siegfried 1987, The Care of Photographs,
Lyons and Burford Publishers Inc, New York.
Richter, Stefan 1989, The Art of the Daguerreotype,
Penguin, London.
Ruby, Jay 1995, Secure the Shadow—Death and
Photography in America, the MIT Press, London,
Massachusetts, USA.
Stroebel, Leslie D. & Zakia, Richard D., eds. 1993,
The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography , 3rd ed.,
Butterworth-Heineman, Boston.
The Editors of Time-Life Books 1973, Caring for
Photographs, the editors of Time-Life Books Inc,
U.S.A.
Victoria and Albert Museum 1983, A Guide to Early
Photographic Processes, Victoria and Albert
Museum, London.
Wall, E.J. 1902, Carbon Printing, Hazel, Watson &
Viney Ltd., London.
Wilhelm, Henry 1993, The Permanence and Care of
Colour Photographs: Traditional And Digital
Colour Prints, Colour Negatives, Slides and
Motion Pictures, Preservation Publishing
Company, Grinnell, Iowa.
Willis, Anne-Marie. 1988, Picturing Australia—A
History of Photography, Angus & Robertson,
London.

Martin, Elizabeth & Ride, Peter, 1988, Collecting

and Preserving Old Photographs, William Collins
Sons & Co. Ltd, London.

McDonald, John & Cole, Melba Smith 1981, How to

Make Old Time Photos, Tab Books Inc., U.S.A.

Miller, Russell 1974, Click, Marshall Cavendish,

London.

Permutt, Cyril 1986, Collecting Photographic

Antiques, Patrick Stephens Ltd, Wellingborough.

104 Photographs
 Self-evaluation quiz Question 5.

What are the ideal temperature ranges and relative

Question 1. humidity for storage of photographs?

a) 25°C±2°C and 60%RH

The causes of damage to photographs can be
broadly divided into two categories—physical b) 18°C±2°C and 30–50%RH
damage and chemical damage. Name three
examples of each. c) 15°C±4°C and 10–20%RH

Question 2. d) 20°C±2°C and 50%RH

Question 6.
If you must handle photographs, you should:

a) handle them as little as possible; If you have a photographic collection which has
been kept in an extreme environment and is in
b) wear cotton gloves or surgical gloves; good condition, you should:
c) always have clean hands; a) take every possible step to change the
storage environment so that it meets the
d) place the photographs on rigid supports; recommended ideal conditions;
e) all of the above. b) take steps to improve storage methods and
materials but do not alter the environment to
Question 3. meet the recommended ideal conditions;

c) install air conditioning.

When labelling photographs you should:

a) use biro or felt tip pen; Question 7.

b) label each photograph on the edge of the Of the following materials, which are good for
back of the print, using a soft pencil and storing photographs and which are bad for
minimum pressure;
photographs?
c) attach a paper label to the photograph using
a paper clip; butchers’ paper, metal furniture with baker enamel
finish, PVC, coated paper, polyester, photographic
d) press hard to make sure the label can be storage paper, museum mount board, furniture
seen. made from uncured wood, black papers containing
sulphur, coloured papers, polypropylene, newsprint,
Question 4. photographic-quality wood pulp papers?

If you have a damaged photograph you should:

Question 8.

a) place it in a protective sleeve or wrapper; Providing layers of storage with individually

wrapped photographs placed inside boxes, and in
b) mend it with sticky tape; some cases these boxes placed in other boxes:
c) seek the advice of a conservator; a) gives maximum protection from fluctuations
and extremes of relative humidity;
d) use rubber cement to stick it to an album
page. b) is wasteful of materials;

c) is a good way to fill in time but doesn’t do

much for the collection;

Photographs 105
 d) protects photographs from dust, pollutants,
insects and the damaging effects of light.
Question 9.
What function does an acid-free window
mount/mat have in a conservation framing system
for photographs?
Chemical
• fading of the image
• yellowing of B&W images
• colour change of colour prints
• staining
• fading of colour prints
• stains from repair tapes
• silver mirroring (silvering out)

a) The mount/mat provides a space between the Question 2.

glazing and the image.

b) The border around the photograph can Answer: e): all of the above. Photographs are very
enhance the appearance of the photograph. susceptible to damage; but if you must handle
them they should be supported and you should not
c) The mount helps to buffer the photograph handle them directly—wear gloves. Hands should
from changes in relative humidity. be clean to minimise the risk of oils and dirt being
transferred to the photographs.
d) All of the above.
Question 3.
Question 10.
Answer: b). This is the best way to label
The best kind of light for the display of photographs. a), c) and d) are wrong. Inks can
photographs is: spread and cause staining; pressure can crack the
emulsion and paper clips can damage photographs.
a) tungsten incandescent bulbs;

b) daylight;
Question 4.

c) low wattage fluorescent tubes; Answer: a) and c). Some aspects of conservation of
photographs are complex and you should protect
d) spotlights for individual images. your damaged photograph and seek the advice of a
conservator. Never use sticky tapes and rubber
cement on photographs.
Answers to Question 5.
self-evaluation quiz
Answer: b). These are the ideal conditions but they
Question 1. cannot always be achieved.

Question 6.
Answer: Answers could include:

Physical Answer: b). a) and c) are wrong. If the collection

• dog-eared corners is stable, don’t try to alter the storage
• insect attack environment so that it meets the recommended
• abrasion and scratching ideal conditions. This could cause more harm than
• tears and cuts good. The emphasis should be on long-term
• creases stability.
• peeling emulsion
• indentations from labelling

106 Photographs
 Question 7.

Answer:

GOOD BAD
photographic-quality poor-quality papers
rag and wood pulp such as newsprint or
papers butchers paper

plastics such as black papers and

archival-quality boards — these often
polyester and contain sulphur
polypropylene

photographic storage coloured papers and

paper coated papers

photographic, polyvinyl chloride —

conservation or museum PVC — a common
quality mount board plastic

metal furniture with furniture made from

baked enamel finish uncured wood or
recently painted
furniture

Question 8.

Answer: a) and d). Providing layers of storage is

very protective and wastes neither time nor
materials.

Question 9.

Answer: d).

Question 10.

Answer: a). Tungsten incandescent bulbs give out

very little UV radiation and are not as hot or as
intense as spotlights.

Photographs 107
Paintings
Objectives page 111
Introduction page 111
Structure of paintings page 111
What are the most common types
and causes of damage? page 114
The do’s and don’ts of handling paintings page 115
Framing paintings page 118
Hanging paintings securely page 120
Ideal conditions for the storage and
display of paintings page 121
General storage and display guidelines page 122
Summary of conditions for the storage
and display page 124
Paintings in Australia’s climatic zones page 124
MORE ABOUT PAINTINGS
Keying out page 126
What can go wrong with a stretcher
and what you can do page 126
Handling straps page 126
Labels and inscriptions page 126
For further reading page 126
Self-evaluation quiz page 127
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 129
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• be familiar with the structure and components
of various types of paintings;
• understand possible sources of damage for
paintings; and
• know how to frame and hang a painting to
ensure proper protection from damage.
Introduction
Early frames were simple affairs. They were usually
made from single pieces of wood which were
generally either gilded or left plain. They were
originally used to protect the fragile edges of
panel altarpieces. Then, as paintings became more
secular, frames became more decorative and were
designed to complement the architecture
surrounding them.
So we can see that the frame on a painting serves
two purposes:
• it has an aesthetic function—it enhances
elements of the painting and unifies the
painting with its environment; and
• it also serves as a protective device, providing
a physical barrier between the environment
and the artwork.
Additional protective components can be added to
the frame to:
• protect the back and front of the artwork
from knocks and abrasions;
• minimise the effects of vibration and
movement;
• enable the work to be hung securely;
• facilitate handling; and
• protect the work from dust and pollution.
Many paintings, however, do not have frames, or
they have flimsy and inadequate original frames.
Such works are more difficult to protect; but if you
keep the basic principles in mind, you can provide
protection for all paintings.
It is important to note that not all frames are
protective. While a good-quality, well-constructed
frame will provide protection for a painting, a
poorly made frame, or one which is not properly
fitted to the work, can cause damage.
This section discusses good protective framing
practice; it looks at the types of framing systems
which are relevant for each type of painting
structure and gives general information to help
you prolong the lives of the paintings in your care.
Structure of paintings
In order to discuss the possible damage to
paintings and to take steps to reduce that damage,
it is important to know something of the structure
of paintings and the range of materials which can
be used to produce them.
Paintings consist at the very least of two layers:
• the support layer on which the image layer
rests—this can be canvas, wooden panelling,
or Masonite; and
• the image layer—oil paint, acrylic paint or
paint in combination with other materials.
If the support and the image layer are not securely
bonded, then any movement in the support will
damage the paint layer.
Most paintings are more complex than this and
have many more parts in their structure. A
traditional painting on canvas will usually have:
• a sized support—in many cases canvas sized
with skin glue;
• a priming or ground layer;
• the paint or image layer;
• a varnish layer; and
• an auxiliary support which provides physical
support for the support layer.
Paintings 111
 Supports
The term ‘support’ refers to the layer which carries
or supports the paint or image layer.
Paintings can be produced on any type of support.
Traditionally, most supports have been made from
linen canvas or wooden panels.
This painting of the Destitute
Asylum in Adelaide has been
removed from its stretcher for
treatment. The canvas support
can be clearly seen around the
edges of the image.
Photograph courtesy Artlab
Australia, reproduced with
permission of the Historic Trust
of South Australia
This icon is painted on a
wooden panel.
Photograph courtesy
Artlab Australia,
reproduced with
permission of
Mr Kostya Prosylis
In the 20th century, linen canvas has often been
replaced by cotton duck, and wooden panels with
compressed particle board such as Masonite.
Artists are creative beings and there are a wide
range of materials which have been used in the
name of art! They include:
• rigid wooden supports such as particle board
products like chipboard or Masonite or the
traditional wooden panels;
• rigid supports made from a range of other
materials such as glass or metal;
• lightweight cottons or Nylon loosely
stretched, which some artists use to give a
feeling of fluidity;
112 Paintings
• paper glued onto canvas;
• canvas.
The priming and ground layers
Priming and ground layers are used to:
• provide a good physical support for the paint
layer; and
• provide a surface to mask the texture of the
support. If there are no priming and ground
layers, it may be possible to see the texture
of the support through the paint.
A good ground layer physically keys in the paint
layer as it is slightly porous.
The ground layer, however, should not be very
absorbent. It must be slightly resistant to the
paint, otherwise brushstrokes will not be clear and
will sink into the ground.
The support is sized, usually with rabbit-skin glue;
and then the ground layers are applied.
Works on canvas usually have two ground layers,
although having one or three is not uncommon.
If the ground layers are not well bonded to the
support, then movement of the support may lead
to a delamination or cracking of the ground.
In addition, if the ground layers are not properly
prepared or do not provide a secure base for the
paint layer—they may not be porous enough to
hold the paint for example—then problems with
the paint layer will occur.
A traditional ground was usually made from lead
white or a chalk gesso. Acrylic grounds are now
common. While grounds are generally white, some
artists, John Constable for instance, favoured
coloured grounds.
The layers of size and ground can be very reactive;
and if they are wet they will cause severe damage
to the paint layers.
The paint layer
The paint layer or image layer can be made up of
paint and a number of other materials, including
paper or found objects in collage.
Oil paint is the traditional paint medium, however,
in more recent times synthetic materials such as
acrylics and alkaloid resins are common.
Oil paint dries by evaporation, and then by a
chemical crosslinking process. This means that it
becomes less flexible as it ages.
The corners of the stretcher are adjustable,
enabling the dimensions of the stretcher to be
enlarged to tighten the canvas. This is done by
pushing the keys further into the keyholes, and
expanding the corners.

The varnish layer

Varnishes are applied on top of the paint layer.

They are applied as liquids and dried to produce
clear, tough films.

They protect the paint layer—to a degree

depending on their composition—from physical
damage and chemical attack.

Varnishes also have an aesthetic function: they
smooth out the unevenness of the paint surface so
preventing light being scattered when it is
reflected. This gives the colours in the work a
more saturated appearance—the colours appear
darker and have greater depth.
It is important to note that further paint layers
and transparent coloured layers known as glazes
may be applied over the varnish layer. This
technique produces an illusion of depth.
A range of materials have been used as varnishes.
Among the most stable are:
• Dammar dissolved in turpentine—this is an
example of a traditional varnish made from
natural resins dissolved in solvents; and
A stretcher—note the keys in the corners.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
CAUTION:
Because inappropriate tightening of the canvas
can cause damage, you need to know what you
are doing, or be shown by a conservator, before
you commence keying out a work.
A strainer is a wooden frame which does not have
adjustable corners. Therefore if the canvas
becomes loose over time, it cannot be made taut
again without being re-stretched—this is a job for
a conservator.

• acrylic resins dissolved in petroleum spirit.

Auxiliary supports
A strainer.
Traditionally, paintings on canvas have been Photograph courtesy of
attached to auxiliary supports—usually a stretcher Artlab Australia
or a strainer—using staples or tacks.

The purpose of the auxiliary support is to secure

the canvas and keep it taut. It is important to
keep the support as taut as possible—loose
supports will undergo far greater dimensional
change in response to fluctuations and so are Examples of other auxiliary supports include:
much more vulnerable to damage.
• cradles placed on the backs of panel paintings;
A stretcher differs from a strainer in that the and
corners of a stretcher can be keyed out, thereby • wooden frames used to secure Masonite
tightening the canvas. supports.

Paintings 113
 What are the most common
types and causes of damage?
As with most cultural material, the deterioration of
paintings is caused by physical damage and
chemical activity—usually in combination.
Physical damage is very obvious and includes:
Tears and breaks. For example, many canvas
paintings are damaged when people are working
near the paintings and accidentally put the handle
of a broom, a ladder etc. through the canvas. This
is not uncommon.
This pre-treatment photograph shows severe tears in
the canvas support of a painting.
Photograph courtesy Artlab Australia
Cracking of varnish and paint layers because of
movement of the support, due to:
• vibration during handling and travel;
• impact when a painting is dropped, knocked
or falls off a wall; and
• fluctuations in relative humidity. Both canvas
and wood take up and release moisture as the
relative humidity fluctuates. This produces
dimensional changes which can lead to
cracking of the paint and varnish.
Separation of the different layers of the painting
structure. This can because by fluctuations in
relative humidity and/or to impact.
Softening of the varnish layer in high
temperatures. The varnish can become sticky and
any dust or dirt on the surface may become
permanently attached to the painting.
114 Paintings
Warping of the stretcher due to extremes and
fluctuations in relative humidity, and lack of
proper support in storage or display.
Insect attack, for example, wooden stretchers can
be attacked by borers and canvas and cardboard
supports can be attacked by silverfish.
This stretcher had been exposed to quite extreme
fluctuations in relative humidity causing it to warp
severely. In time, this resulted in the structural
breakdown of the stretcher with obvious damage to
the canvas support.
Photograph courtesy Artlab Australia
Dust and dirt can distort paintings if allowed to
collect between the lower stretcher bar and the
canvas. This can lead to distortion of the paint
layer. Dust will also take up and hold moisture,
thus creating a localised area of high humidity—
this can lead to localised dimensional change and
overall distortion.
Chemical deterioration can be very damaging and
will often mar the appearance of paintings.
Chemical damage to paintings includes:
Colour change and fading of pigments when
exposed to light and UV radiation. Oil paintings
are often considered to be quite stable in light,
but some pigments and glazes are particularly
susceptible to light damage.
Discolouration of the varnish. This may be due to
exposure to light and UV radiation and/or because
of the natural ageing of the particular varnish.

This photograph taken during treatment shows clearly
the degree to which varnish can discolour and alter
the appearance of a painting.
Photograph courtesy Artlab Australia, reproduced with
permission of Mr Paul Fitzgerald
Deterioration of some components of the painting
where poor-quality materials have been used or
where the painting has not been properly
structured.
Reactions between incompatible components of
the painting. This is more likely to occur when the
painting is a complex collage made up of a
combination of paint and a number of other
materials.
Cracking or movement of paint layers due to the
unstable nature of one or more of the components
of the painting. Bituminous additives in paint are
an example of one of these unstable materials.
Mould attack. All components of paintings are
susceptible to mould in high-humidity conditions.
The appearance of this painting was marred by patches
of mould growth.
Photograph courtesy Artlab Australia, reproduced with
permission of B. W. Johns
Changes due to the action of atmospheric
pollutants, for example:
• colour change in pigments;
• breaking down of structural components
leading to loss of strength; and
• alterations in solubility characteristics of
paint films and varnishes.
The do’s and don’ts
of handling paintings
Because paintings are such complex structures, it
is important to understand correct handling
procedures. Remember, a paint surface may receive
a knock and appear to be unharmed. But over time
movement in the canvas will cause this weakened
area to crack. It can take a decade or longer for a
crack to appear after a knock.
Handling stretched paintings
and framed works
It is very difficult to properly support and protect
paintings if you carry more than one at a time. It
is important that you always carry only one
painting at a time.
Before moving any painting:
Check that there is no flaking paint and that the
work is secure in its frame.
Check that there are no loose pieces on the frame.
If there are, consult a conservator.
Make sure you know where you are going with the
work, and you have checked your path to make
sure it is clear and all doors are open, or that
there are people available to assist.
If there is flaking paint on the painting, leave it
face-up and consult a conservator. If you have to
move it, carry it flat and face-up, so that you
don’t lose any paint while you are moving.
Do not touch the canvas or the paint surface
directly.
Wearing white, cotton gloves while handling
paintings and frames is advisable, particularly
Paintings 115
 when handling gilded frames. Gilt surfaces can be
permanently marked by perspiration and oils from
your skin.
If your canvas painting does not have a backboard,
check that the stretcher wedges are secured. They
can do a lot of damage if they fall between the
canvas and the stretcher.
Always hold paintings at points where the frame is
strong. Ornate frames are especially vulnerable to
damage. Never grip them by any of the ornate
areas of the frame, because they may not be very
strong and could break.
Never carry a painting by the top of its frame or
stretcher. Carry it with one hand beneath and one
hand at the side; or if it is small, one hand on
each side. Carrying frames from the top member is
dangerous and can cause the mitres to become
loose and decorative elements to dislodge.
If the work is unframed, it is better to move it
using handling straps or a travelling frame. Both of
these allow you to carry paintings without the
need for you to touch the paint surface. If neither
of these are available, then carry unframed,
stretched paintings on the outer edges without
touching either the front or back of the canvas.
Don’t allow your fingers to touch the paint surface.
Handling straps
attached to the back
of a backing board.
Photograph courtesy
Artlab Australia
Don’t put your fingers around the stretcher bars, or
between the stretcher and the canvas, because you
could cause the canvas to bulge and the paint to
crack and flake in that area.
Remember to carry wrapped paintings with extra
care, because you cannot see what you are
touching.
116 Paintings
Before putting a painting down on the floor,
ensure that there are padded, wooden blocks or
foam blocks in place where you wish to place it.
These blocks provide a softer surface than the floor
and keep paintings up off ground-level.
When you put the painting down, do not set it
down on one corner: always set it down along one
complete edge.
A large painting must be moved by two people
regardless of the weight involved. Never attempt
to move a large painting alone. When two people
are working together, make sure you both agree on
the way the painting is to be moved.
If you are moving paintings on a trolley, it is wise
to have two people to accompany the loaded
trolley. With two people, you have one to hold the
paintings in place while the other can open doors,
etc. If one person tries to do everything at once,
accidents are likely to happen.
Trolleys should be padded to prevent damage to
frames.
If any damage should occur during the move,
carefully collect and save any pieces, no matter
how small—even tiny paint flakes—and document
the damage.
If you are hanging a painting, check that the
hanging devices and the wall on which the
painting is to be hung are secure. Paintings can be
very badly damaged if they fall off the wall.
When you are framing or deframing a painting,
make sure that you have a clean, padded surface
on which to place both the frame and the
painting.
Moving framed paintings with glazing
‘Glazing’ usually refers to the glass or Perspex
sometimes used in framing systems for paintings.
Glazed artworks should be carried with care:
• acrylic glazing such as Perspex is easily
scratched; and
• glass can break if dropped or knocked.
If you are transporting paintings glazed with glass,
tape the front of the glass with masking tape. This
will hold the pieces of the glass together, should it
break, and lessen the risk of damage to the work.
The tape should be on the glass only, and should
not extend onto the frame because it can remove
paint or other finishes when it is removed.
For small frames, one strip of tape vertically in the
centre of the glass, one horizontally and one strip
of tape on each diagonal will be sufficient. Larger
frames will need more.
Fold the tape back on itself at one end of each
strip, to provide yourself with a grip for easier
removal of the tape.
Remove the tape as soon as possible after the
move. Pull the tape off at a very low angle, so that
you don’t make the glass flex too much. This could
cause it to break. Remember, pull gently.
It is better not to tape Perspex or Plexiglas as:
• the tape can be very difficult to remove;
• it can leave adhesive residues which cannot
be cleaned away; and
• there is, after all, really no need to tape
Perspex or Plexiglas because they won’t break
and shatter like glass.
Handling
unstretched paintings
Not all paintings are stretched and framed. Many
paintings are now sold and kept, unstretched.
Because the canvas is not kept taut, these
paintings are particularly vulnerable to damage
caused by movement of the support.
Unstretched paintings can be quite difficult to
handle. If they are allowed to flop or move too
much, the paint can begin to come away from the
surface of the canvas; so it is very important that
unstretched paintings are well supported.
If the paintings are small enough to be moved
flat, put a rigid support under them so that they
can be handled easily without flopping and
distorting. A sheet of Foam Cor or a strong mount
board is suitable.
Larger unstretched paintings may need to be rolled
to be carried, and transported.
If you are going to roll a painting it is very
important that paintings are rolled the right
way—painted side out—and that they are properly
interleaved and the roller properly padded. If the
paint layer is on the inside when the painting is
rolled, the paint will become compressed and will
develop creases, which will remain in the painting
after it has been unrolled.
The roller should be as large as possible in
diameter—at least 200mm. For example, a very
large acrylic painting which travelled to the USA in
the South Australian Museum’s Dreamings
exhibition was rolled on a roller more than one
metre in diameter. The larger the painting, the
larger the diameter of the roller should be.
Rollers should be covered with a layer of
padding—either a polyethylene foam such as
Plastazote, or Dacron wadding covered with clean
white cotton fabric—to compensate for any
irregularities in the painting’s thickness.
It is best to roll the painting with an interleaving
layer of Tyvek to prevent any transfer of pigment.
The Tyvek should be larger in length and width
than the painting.
The rolled and wrapped painting should be tied
firmly, but not tightly, with cotton tape in several
places along the roll.
Rollers can be specially made of lightweight
materials, such as:
• Ribloc. Ask the manufacturer to make the roller
with the ribs on the inside, if possible; and
• PVC pipe. A 300mm diameter pipe is a good
size for most works.
If you have to roll more than one painting on a
roller, the paintings should be laid out flat and
interleaved with Protecta Foam. Once this is done,
the paintings should be rolled onto the roller all at
the same time. Remember, all the paintings should
be paint-side out.
Paintings 117
 Framing paintings
Framing for protection
As already noted, frames are important protective
devices. Good framing is as much common sense as
anything else but certain principles should be kept
in mind.
The painting needs to be protected at the front
and back if possible, from damage caused by:
• knocks and abrasions;
• dust and pollution;
• environmental fluctuations; and
• biological pests.
For this reason you should provide a backing board
for your paintings, and consider glazing works.
The painting needs to be protected from vibration
as much as possible. For this reason the frame
needs to hold the work firmly but allow some
cushioning, so that if the painting is knocked the
frame will take the force of the impact. The
painting will need to be keyed out if the canvas
becomes loose. Make sure that the painting does
not fit too tightly in the frame.
Other considerations—aesthetics
and history
When making any decisions about whether to
retain, replace or repair an original frame, it is
important to understand the history of the
painting and its frame.
Many artists consider the frame to be an important
part of the presentation of their work. For some it
is even an intrinsic element. Keep in mind that
frame styles reflect the period of the artwork
and/or the design of the individual artist.
It is important to note that in some instances the
frame will have been conceived as part of the
original aesthetic of the work. For example:
• the 1889 9’ x 5’ exhibition is perhaps the
most well known Australian example of artists
making very specific decisions about their
frames;
118 Paintings
• many contemporary artists have very definite
ideas on the framing of their work; and
• Fiona MacDonald is an example of a
contemporary Australian artist who uses the
frame as part of the aesthetic of her work. To
replace the frame would be akin to replacing
part of the work.
Many frames are important aesthetic statements in
their own right and may be valuable historic items.
For example, framemakers Robin Hood and Isaac
Whitehead were important Australian framemakers.
An original frame by these framemakers is likely to
be worth a substantial amount of money, certainly
in the tens of thousands for a large, ornate frame
in good original condition.
In other instances the artist may have no interest
in the frame at all. Works may be sold unframed or
the artist may simply have a trade order with a
framer.
Decisions about framing and reframing, therefore,
need to be made carefully and with a proper
understanding of all the issues.
Backing boards
Backing boards protect the painting by providing a
physical barrier between the back of the painting
and the external environment.
It is obvious that one of the most important
things you can do to protect a painting is to
provide it with a snugly fitting backing board.
A backing board will help to protect against:
• knocks;
• changes in temperature and humidity;
• the effects of atmospheric pollution;
• lodgement and build-up of dust;
• insect and mould attack.
Various types of material can be used for backing
boards. It is important to choose a material which
is lightweight, but still strong enough to take
knocks and to provide a physical barrier. Two
materials which have been used widely in recent
times are:
• Foam Cor—a composite consisting of outer
layers of paper and an inner layer of
polystyrene; and
• Corflute—a synthetic corrugate.
pH-buffered, corrugated archival cardboard and
other stable materials can also be used. The
abovementioned materials are considered to be
more chemically stable than timber or Masonite.
If you retain a timber or Masonite backing,
introduce a barrier between it and the painting.
The barrier could be acid-free paper or board.
Sometimes a work will have an original backing
board with inscriptions and labels. If this is the
case you will probably want to retain this
information. If the labels are in poor condition,
you should consult a conservator regarding their
preservation. All labels and inscriptions provide
potentially valuable information about the work. It
is important to transcribe this information into
any records you keep about the painting, including
condition reports.
Sometimes a backing board may hide information
on the canvas.
In some instances a conservator will transcribe
this information onto the backing board, noting
that the original exists on the canvas.
If the back of the work has a large amount of
information or you want the information to be
visible, a sheet of Perspex can be used as the
backing board. In this way, the work is protected
while still allowing the back of the work to be
viewed.
Back of framed painting showing Corflute backing
board screwed to the frame.
Photograph courtesy Artlab Australia
Backing boards are screwed into the back of the
frame and should fit well enough to make a dust
seal. They provide more protection from impact if
they are attached to the frame—because the
frame, rather than the painting, will absorb most
of the shock.
It is important to note that backing boards should
not be attached to the stretcher or strainer,
because this weakens the structure and may
necessitate putting holes in the canvas, which
could lead to tearing.
Glazing
Glazing is a generic term and usually refers to
glass or Perspex.
When glazing, you should be ensure that:
• there is sufficient space between the glass or
Perspex and the surface of the work, so that
the paint surface will not touch the glazing.
Slips and spacers should be used to provide
this space. Slips are visible and can be a
decorative element in the frame. Spacers are
not seen;
• Perspex is not used where there is any danger
of the paint or image layers being affected by
static electricity, for example, where there is
flaking paint or where there is mixed medium
such as in collage; and
• you do not use glazing when framing works
which have been recently varnished, because
the varnish will not be able to dry properly
and may develop a white bloom.
There are a number of different types of glass on
the market, including very expensive, water-clear
bullet-proof glass. If you want to use this glass,
you should check with your State art gallery to see
if they have a local supplier, as this glass is not
readily available.
Paintings 119
 Putting the painting in the frame
Frame section (member)
Rebate
The following diagram shows how a stretched
canvas painting should be fitted in a frame to
provide a protected environment for the painting.
Frame
Felted rebate
Paint and canvas
Stepped profile
Felted mirror plate
Hanging system screwed to profile
screwed to profile
Backing board
screwed to profile
The back of the frame is built up with a profile
section screwed to the frame. This increases the
depth of the rebate, and provides the recessed
space for the mirror clips and backing board.
The slip is necessary to ensure that the paint
surface does not contact the glass.
The slip, rebate and mirror plates—that is all
surfaces contacting the painting—need to be
felted with either a polyester felt or an inert
cushioning material such as Cellair.
If the painting fits loosely in the frame, spacers
should be used to bulk out the rebate. Rag board,
pH-buffered cardboard, balsa wood, cork and Foam
Cor are suitable materials. These spacers should be
glued to the rebate to prevent them slipping out
of place and so to reduce the risk of damage to
the painting.
Felted mirror plates are used to hold the painting
in the frame. These can be bent slightly to hold
the painting and are screwed into the profile.
120 Paintings
Panel paintings should be held in place by two
mirror plates placed at either side of the painting
in line with the grain of the wood. This means
that, if necessary, there is some freedom of
movement of the wood. Remember that if a panel
is unable to move it will crack.
Grain direction
Mirror Mirror
plate plate
Frame
Glazing
Slip
CAUTION:
You will find that many works are held in the
frame with nails. Hammering nails into place
Stretcher
causes severe vibration which can lead to damage.
Nails can also be difficult to remove without
damaging the tacking edge and the stretcher. If
the nails pass through the stretcher, then the
painting cannot be keyed out. When reframing
these paintings, remove the nails and do not
replace them. Instead, use metal plates or mirror
plates which can be screwed into place.
Hanging paintings securely
For safe hanging, paintings need to be secure in
their frames and each frame needs to be securely
hung from two points in the wall, with a hanging
device attached to two points on the frame.
Paintings of different size and weight may require
different hanging systems, but if you think
sensibly about the problems that may arise when
you are hanging a particular work, most problems
can be averted.
There are two main principles to keep in mind
when hanging a painting:
• the work should be properly supported for its
weight; and
• there should be no stresses on any part of the
hanging system or the painting.
Some basic principles to keep in mind are:

Use materials which will not rust. For

example, you should use nickel-plated screws,
brass or nickel-plated screw eyes or D-rings,
and non-rusting multi-strand wire if you are
using wire. If you use materials which rust,
they will lose strength when they rust and
your paintings will be at risk.

Ensure that the wall into which the hanging

system is secured is stable and structurally
sound. If possible hang works from a well
secured picture rail. If this is not available,
make sure that you attach the plugs or secure D-rings.
hooks with toggle bolts into the studs in the Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
wall structure.
Mirror plates are another secure method of
Ensure that stresses are evenly distributed hanging paintings.
across the work. If the work is large, use a
shelf to take the weight. OZ Clips are useful for large works with thin
frames, particularly those which are kept in
Do not hang the painting from one point,
travelling frames.
because this will create stress across the back
of the frame, weakening corners and opening
mitres. On an ornate frame this may result in
loss of decoration.

For a light- to medium-sized framed painting:

• the work should be hung from two separate Oz clips.

points on the wall, with the hanging device
attached to two points on the back of the Photograph courtesy of
Artlab Australia
frame;

• the hanging devices should be strong enough

to take the weight of the work without
becoming stressed or warped; and

• if you are using hanging wire, ensure that it

is not crimped as this will be a weak point.
There is also a range of security screws which can
For hanging a heavy work: be used when a painting requires protection
against theft.
• use a shelf to evenly distribute the weight
along the bottom of the work, and use the
hanging devices to secure the work against
the wall; and Ideal conditions for the
• if necessary provide four or more hanging storage and display of
devices, such as mirror plates screwed to the
frame and then into secure sections of the paintings
wall.
As we have seen, paintings are made up of a
Hanging devices number of different materials. Each of these
materials has its own particular sensitivity to the
surrounding environmental conditions. However,
Hanging devices need to be strong and rust-proof.
unless you are able to identify the exact materials
D-rings are preferable to screw eyes because they
you will not know their exact sensitivity. To assist
are less likely to snap and are not weakened by the
museums, galleries and libraries in looking after
screwing process.

Paintings 121
 their collections, guidelines for the ideal storage General storage and
and display environments have been developed.
display guidelines
Ideally, paintings should be stored in an
environment where:
Careful consideration should be given to the
storage site and the storage system. In situations
Temperature is constant and moderate—in the
where you are able to achieve the ideal conditions,
range 18–20ºC.
a good storage system in an appropriate storage
site will give added protection to your collection.
If temperatures are generally outside this range in
If the available facilities or the local climate make
your area, try to ensure that fluctuations are not
it difficult for you to achieve the ideal conditions,
rapid and are kept to a minimum.
the selection of the storage site and the
maintenance of a good storage system will become
Relative humidity is in the range 45-55%.
even more critical in preventing damage to the
collections.
This is important for paintings, because most of their
components are moisture-sensitive and extremes of
Wherever possible the storage and display sites
relative humidity can lead to physical damage.
should be in a central area of the building, where
they are buffered from the extremes of climatic
Fluctuations in relative humidity should be kept to
fluctuations which can be experienced near
a minimum and should not be rapid. Fluctuations
external walls or in basements and attics.
in relative humidity can lead to severe distortion
Basements should also be avoided because of the
and to separation of the paint from underlying
risk of flooding.
layers of the painting structure.
The storage site should not contain any water,
Light is kept to the minimum necessary for the
drain or steam pipes, particularly at ceiling level.
activity.
If these pipes were to leak, extensive damage
could result.
If possible, store paintings in the dark. If light is
not required for viewing while the works are being
The storage and display sites should be reasonably
stored, then there is no need for them to be
well ventilated. This will help reduce the risk of
illuminated. This will reduce the risk of fading and
insect and mould infestation.
discolouration of particularly sensitive components
of the painting.
Inspect and clean storage and display areas
regularly. Thorough and regular cleaning and
For display it is necessary to have light; but the
vigilance will also greatly assist in the control of
brightness of the light should be less than 250 lux.
insects and mould.
The UV content of the light should be no greater
Do not store paintings in sheds or directly on the
than 75µw/lm and preferably below 30µw/lm.
floor.
Steps are taken to protect paintings from dust and
Cover stored paintings with a Tyvek cover. These
pollutants.
are easy to make for individual works, using a
domestic sewing machine. They will protect the
For more information
paintings and their frames from dust and insects.
For more information about temperature, These covers will also help to protect the works
relative humidity, light and UV, from fluctuations in environmental conditions.
please see Damage and Decay.
Always give paintings adequate support and try to
reduce the physical stresses which can cause damage.

If you have a number of paintings which are to be

stored for considerable periods, consider designing
a specific storage area so the paintings can be

122 Paintings
hung securely for storage. A heavy-gauge wire grid
can be used for this purpose. If considering
building such a system, consult a conservator for
further details.
If paintings are to be stored against walls, ensure
that they are placed on padded blocks to take
them off the floor level; and ensure that they are
not near heavy traffic areas, because they could be
damaged as people walk past them or if people
drop things on them.
Design your display lighting so that the heat
produced by the lights does not affect the
paintings.
Heat associated with light can cause localised and
differential environmental changes, and
subsequent dimensional changes across the
painting.
Always avoid direct sunlight on your paintings.
Storing unstretched paintings
Ideally, unstretched paintings should be stored
flat. But many larger paintings are too large for
flat storage in standard storage furniture. For the
full protection of these larger paintings, rolled
storage is recommended.
It is important to note that for the flat storage of
unstretched paintings, the paintings should be
kept on wide, flat shelves or in large flat drawers
such as plan chest drawers.
The shelves or drawers should be larger than the
paintings. This prevents distortion of the edges of
the canvas.
Paintings can be stacked one on top of another,
but paintings can be quite heavy and the ones on
the bottom have to carry the weight of those on
top. So be sure to limit the number of paintings
per stack.
Stacked paintings should be interleaved with thin
Protecta Foam sandwiched between acid-free
tissue.
If possible place the paintings in a large storage
box, 100–150mm deep.
When rolling paintings for storage, it is important
to note that:
• paintings must be rolled painted side out,
otherwise permanent damage which mars the
appearance of the work can result;
• paintings should be properly interleaved and
the roller properly padded;
• the roller should be as large as possible in
diameter—at least 200mm.
Rollers can be specially made of lightweight
materials, such as:
• Ribloc, with the ribs on the inside;
• PVC pipe. A 300mm diameter pipe is a good
size for most works;
• if you are using a cardboard tube to roll a
painting, pad it out to as large a diameter as
possible.
Rollers should be covered with a layer of padding-
either polyethylene foam such as Plastazote or
Dacron wadding covered with clean, white cotton
fabric-to compensate for any irregularities in the
painting’s thickness.
It is best to roll the painting with an interleaving
layer of Tyvek, to prevent any transfer of pigment.
The Tyvek should be larger in length and width
than the painting. When rolled, the painting
should be tied firmly, but not tightly, with cotton
tape in several places along the roll.
If more than one painting is to be rolled on a
roller, the paintings should be laid out flat and
interleaved with Protecta Foam, as for flat storage.
Once this is done, the paintings should be rolled
onto the roller, all at the same time. Remember, all
the paintings should be paint side out.
Paintings 123
 Summary of conditions for storage and display
Storage Display

Temperature 18ºC–22ºC 18ºC–22ºC

Relative Humidity 45–55%RH 45–55%RH

Brightness of the Light Dark storage preferred, but Should not be higher
if light is present it should than 250 lux.
not be higher than 250 lux.

UV Content of Light Dark storage is preferred but if No greater than 75 µW/lm,

light is present, UV content should preferably below 30µW/lm.
be and no greater than 75 µW/lm
and preferably below 30 µW/lm.

Paintings in Australia’s climatic zones

The climatic zones outlined below are broad categories. Conditions may vary within these categories,
depending on the state of repair of your building and whether the building is air conditioned or not.
Remember that the variations in environmental condition across Australia are extreme. Therefore, you should
be careful if you are transporting paintings from one climatic zone to another—for example, transporting
works from a warm moist tropical environment to an air-conditioned gallery. If works are travelling, ensure
there is enough time to acclimatise them on their arrival and return.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however in arid areas it is often very hot during the day and very cold
at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity, for
example from 75%–20% in a day.
When caring for paintings in an arid climate it is important to note:
• Many of the materials that make up paintings will tend to give out the water they contain—this can
lead to components of the paintings becoming dry and brittle;
• The composite nature of paintings means that they are particularly susceptible to damage from
fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity. As the different materials release moisture at different
rates, warping, dimensional change and delamination of layers of the painting structure can result;
• Remember that even arid areas can have periods of higher relative humidity—even though the
periods may only be very short. High humidities will cause swelling of some materials, and will
increase the likelihood of insect and mould attack;
• Dust can be a major problem for paintings in an arid climate. It is important that paintings are
glazed if dust is a problem; and
• For particularly sensitive, reactive works you may consider placing RH buffered fabric or silica gel
cells into the framing structure. You will need to discuss this with a conservator.

Note: If your collections of paintings have been kept in an arid environment for a considerable period
and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions.
This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

124 Paintings
 Temperature
A temperature climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
• If you redecorating or designing storage and display areas, consider using materials that will help to
buffer these areas against rapid fluctuations and extremes or relative humidity and temperature. This
will help to reduce the risk of damage due to the fluctuations and extremes that occur in temperate
environments.
• Remember that many of Australia’s main cities and major regional centre are in temperate regions.
These areas tend to be heavily polluted and this should be taken into account.
• Salt laden winds and dust can be problems in many urban and rural areas in temperate zones.

Note: If your collections of paintings have been kept in a temperate environment for a considerable
period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal
conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.
When caring for paintings in tropical climates it is important to note that:
• insects and moulds thrive and reproduce readily;
• chemical deterioration reactions generally proceed faster at higher temperatures;
• materials that have been in a tropical environment for some time will have a high moisture content
If they are suddenly moved into a drier environment they are likely to suffer shrinkage and warping
of the support and stretcher;
• many of the materials which make up paintings are very reactive to changes in relative humidity. For
example the animal skin glue used as the size will soften; a wooden stretcher may warp, etc.; and
• composite works such as collage will be particularly vulnerable.

Controlling moisture is important in a tropical environment.

Condensation may be a problem for glazed works and you may need to consider providing air holes in
the backing board to allow adequate air flow. Cover these air holes with gauze to prevent insect entry.

Ensure that your storage and display spaces have good air flow.

For particularly moisture sensitive works you may consider placing RH buffered fabric or silica gel cells
within the frame. You will need to discuss this with a conservator.

Note: If your collections of paintings have been kept in a tropical environment for a considerable period
and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions.
This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Paintings 125
 MORE ABOUT PAINTINGS
Keying out
There are a number of problems which can arise
when a work is keyed out. For this reason you
should never attempt to key out a work unless you
have been trained to do this properly by a
conservator and you are aware of potential
problems.
Older canvases can be extremely brittle and may
tear at the corners, or elsewhere along the rollover
or tacking edge.
Some paintings which have been distorted over a
period of time may have a very strong plastic
memory in their canvas or paint layers and keying
them out may cause severe stress with cracking
and even cleavage and flaking in the stressed
areas.
You should carefully consider the strength of the
adhesion on mixed-media works such as collage,
which may delaminate with movement of the canvas.
What can go wrong
with a stretcher and what
you can do
As the purpose of the stretcher is to ensure that
the canvas is kept taut, it is obvious that a
stretcher which can no longer be keyed out is not
performing its function properly.
One of the most common reasons for a stretcher to
fail is that the keys become damaged-with the
protruding end breaking off and the remainder of
the key becoming lodged in the keyhole. The
removal of the remnants of the key is usually a job
for a conservator, because it involves separating
the two stretcher members.
In some cases, a stretcher will not remain keyed
out and keeps pulling back. If the reason for this
is not clear—such as material caught in the key
holes—you should consult a conservator.
126 Paintings
Sometimes stretchers warp and the temptation is
to replace them. If, however, the canvas has taken
on the plastic memory of the warped stretcher
shape, then replacing the warped member with a
straight one may cause more problems than it
solves. If in doubt, consult a conservator.
Handling straps
When the work has no frame, handling straps made
of synthetic webbing can be screwed onto the
backs of frames or stretchers. These materials are
available at marine or mountaineering suppliers.
Handling straps provide added support for carrying
when the frame is too weak or insubstantial to be
used for carrying, or when there is no frame, or the
work is particularly large and additional support is
required.
Labels and inscriptions
The types of labels and inscriptions commonly found
on backing boards include framemakers’ labels, chalk
marks from auctioneers’ rooms, names and addresses,
and other ancillary material. All this material should
be noted on the accessioning documentation and
the condition report as it can be critical when trying
to determine provenance, examine authenticity or
simply undertake historical studies.
If you have a problem related to the care,
framing or hanging of paintings contact a
conservator. Conservators can offer advice and
practical solutions.
For further reading
Clifford, T. 1983, The Historical Approach to the
Display of Paintings, Journal of Museum
Management and Curatorship, Vol. 1 (2),
Butterworth Scientific Ltd, Guildford, UK, pp
93–106.
Editorial 1987, Journal of Museum Management and
Curatorship, Frames and Framing in Museums,
vol. 4, 1985, pp 115–117; Vol 6, Butterworth
Scientific Ltd, Guildford, UK, pp. 227-228.
Hackney, Stephen 1990, ‘Framing for Conservation
at the Tate Gallery’, The Conservator, Number 14,
The United Kingdom Institute for Conservation,
London, pp44–52.
Hasluck, Paul N. 1912, Mounting and Framing
Pictures, Cassell and Company Ltd, London.
Keck, Caroline K. 1965 reprinted 1980, A Handbook
on the Care of Paintings, American Association
for State and Local History, Nashville.
McTaggart, Peter and Ann 1984, Practical Gilding,
Mac & Me Ltd, Welwyn, UK.
Payne, John and Chaloupka, Peter, 1986, ‘Framing
the 9 x 5s’, Bulletin of the Society of the
National Gallery of Victoria, The Society of The
National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, pp
11–12.
Seager, Christopher; Hillary, Sarah L.; Weik, Sabine
1986, Art Care. The Care of Art and Museum
Collections in New Zealand, Northern Regional
Conservation Service, Auckland City Art Gallery,
Auckland, N.Z.
National Gallery of Art 1991, Art in Transit: Studies
in the Transport of Paintings, National Gallery of
Art, Washington, DC.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
The support layer of a painting is:
a) the layer put on the back of the frame to
support it;
b) the framework that supports the canvas;
c) the rigid board used to support unstretched
paintings when they are being carried; or
d) the layer which carries or supports the image
or paint layer.
Question 2.
Which of the following statements are true?
a) Traditionally paintings were produced on
stretched canvasses or wooden panels.
b) There is no difference between a stretcher
and a strainer.
c) The varnish layer serves only to make the
painting look glossy.
d) A stretcher differs from a strainer in that the
corners of a stretcher can be keyed out to
tighten the canvas.
e) Paintings can be produced on a range of
supports.
Question 3.
Fluctuations in relative humidity can damage
paintings by:
a) producing dimensional changes in the
support, which can lead to separation of the
image layer from the support;
b) producing dimensional changes in the
support, which can lead to cracking of the
paint and varnish layers;
c) warping the stretcher, which in turn produces
distortion of the canvas support;
d) increasing the risk of mould attack when the
relative humidity is high; or
e) All of the above.
Question 4.
Which of the following statements are false?
When handling paintings you should:
a) Be sure the painting and frame are secure and
safe to move.
b) Put your hand around the stretcher bar with
your fingers between the stretcher and the
canvas. This allows you to get a good grip.
Paintings 127
 c) Check your route and make sure it is clear.
Also make sure all doors are open and that
there are people available to assist if you
need them.
d) Carry more than one painting at a time.
e) Carry wrapped paintings with extra care,
because you cannot see what you are touching.
Question 5.
A good protective framing system will:
a) Protect a painting from knocks, because the
frame will take the force of the impact.
b) Include a backing board, to protect the back
of the painting from impact damage and to
significantly reduce the risk of insect attack
and dust build-up.
c) Be designed with protection, the history of
the painting and aesthetics all taken into
account.
d) Have a slip or a spacer to keep the glazing
away from he paint surface.
e) All of the above.
Question 6.
When putting a painting into its frame, you should:
a) Use hammer and nails to fix the painting in
place as this is difficult for people to undo
and will ensure that it won’t come loose.
b) Ensure that all surfaces contacting the
painting eg. the slip, the rebate, the fixings
etc are cushioned with an inert cushioning
material.
c) Use spacers between the painting and the
frame, if the painting fits loosely in the
frame.
d) Build up the back of the frame with a
stepped profile section to accommodate the
backing board, the painting and the glazing
and slip, if the frame includes glazing.
128 Paintings
Question 7.
Which of the following statements are true?
a) Paintings should be hung securely because
they can be badly damaged if they fall off the
wall.
b) Paintings should be hung from two points on
the wall.
c) The hanging devices should be strong enough
to take the weight of the work without
becoming stressed or warped.
d) The hanging device should be attached to
two points on the frame.
e) If the work is exceptionally heavy, additional
support can be given by resting the base of
the frame on a shelf.
Question 8.
What are the ideal conditions for storing and
displaying paintings?
a) 18-22°C, 55–70% RH, brightness of the light
at 550 lux and the UV content of the light no
greater than 75µW/lm and preferably below
30µW/lm.
b) 20-30°C, 45–55% RH, brightness of the light
at no more than 250 lux and the UV content
of the light no greater than 200µW/lm and
preferably below 100µW/lm.
c) 18-22°C, 45–55% RH, brightness of the light
at no more than 250 lux and the UV content
of the light no greater than 75µW/lm and
preferably below 30µW/lm.
d) None of the above.
Question 9.
When storing paintings, you should:
a) Ensure that they have adequate support.
b) Place them on padded blocks on the floor, in
an area where people are likely to walk past
them often so that they can check their
condition regularly.
c) Protect them from dust and fluctuations in Question 8.
relative humidity.
Answer: c).
d) Roll large, unstretched paintings if you do
not have storage furniture which can
accommodate them flat. Question 9.

Answer: a), c) and d). b) is not correct. If

Answers to paintings are to be stored against walls, you
should ensure that they are placed on padded
self-evaluation quiz blocks to take them off the floor level, and ensure
that they are not near heavy traffic areas, because
they could be damaged as people walk past them
Question 1. or if people drop things on them.

Answer: d).

Question 2.

Answer: a), d) and e) are true. b) is false. There is

a difference between a stretcher and a strainer. A
stretcher can be keyed out to tighten the canvas,
whereas a strainer cannot. c) is false. The varnish
layer protects the paint layer and gives the paint
colours a richer appearance.

Question 3.

Answer: e).

Question 4.

Answer: b) and d) are false.

Question 5.

Answer: e).

Question 6.

Answer: b), c) and d) are correct. a) is incorrect.

Nails should not be used to fix paintings into a
frame, because hammering them in causes
vibration which could lead to considerable damage.

Question 7.

Answer: a), b), c), d) and e) are all true.

Paintings 129
 Electronic
Information
and Media

Objectives page 133

Introduction page 133
Considerations for preserving
information in electronic format page 133
Magnetic recording—a brief history page 134
Magnetic recording technology page 134
How long will audio and video recordings last? page 135
Preserving audio and video recordings on tape page 136
Copying page 138
For further reading page 138
Self-evaluation quiz page 140
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 141
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• describe why electronic information and
media don’t last;
• describe what can be done to make electronic
information and media last longer;
• choose from the available options; and
• set up a preservation program for electronic
information and media.
Introduction
Increasingly, museums, galleries and libraries are
using electronic media to improve access to their
collections, to enhance their documentary
collections, as publishing options and as exhibits.
As the interest in, and use of, electronic media
increases, people are becoming more concerned
about preserving these formats.
The main carriers, or media, for electronic
information are hard disks, floppy disks, audio tapes,
video tapes and CD-ROMs. Preserving electronic
information and media is about being able to use
them for as long as you want to. However,
preserving electronic media is not straightforward.
There are two main issues to consider:
• the preservation of the actual item, that is,
the CD-ROM or the audio tape; and
• preserving the information.
When it comes to preserving electronic information
and media, conservators tend to believe that
preserving the information is more important than
preserving the media. There are many reasons for
this. One of the main ones is the recognition that
technology is advancing at such a rate that many of
the media used today may be obsolete in the near
future. Think about how quickly compact discs—
CDs—replaced the once familiar vinyl LP record.
Obviously, if you have invested in a certain
technology you will want to protect your
investment and be able to use your electronic
media for as long as possible. This will require that
the carrier and the machine needed to access the
information are in good condition. This section
gives basic information on caring for electronic
media—with an emphasis on video and audio
recordings.
Electronic information is inherently short-lived and
at some stage the information will need to be
transferred from its present carrier to a new carrier,
before the present medium deteriorates or your
equipment stops working. This may be in a few
years or a decade, but you must plan for this
transfer to take place.
In the meantime, this section will help you to care
for your electronic media. If you are particularly
interested in preserving electronic media, it is
strongly recommended that you keep in touch
with the latest developments—the library network
can help you with this.
Considerations for
preserving information in
electronic format
Some of the information in archives, libraries and
museums is already in electronic format. Most of
this information is in analogue format, including
audio recordings and video recordings on magnetic
tape. Digital magnetic media such as floppy disks,
hard disks and magnetic data tape are also being
used. This will change as digital recording becomes
more widely used.
Preserving electronic information and media is
about:
• recognising that electronic preservation raises
challenges that are fundamentally different
than those encountered in preserving
traditional-format materials such as paper and
books;
• understanding why access to all magnetic
information is going to be short-term;
• setting priorities by choosing what
information to keep, and discarding the rest;
• using commonsense techniques to try and
make electronic information and media last
longer; and
• applying this knowledge systematically.
Electronic Information and Media 133
 Magnetic recording—
a brief history
The basic principles of magnetic recording were
first discovered in the 1890s. Not much was done
with the discovery because the necessary
electronics hadn’t been invented.
Audio recordings on tape were invented in the
early 1930s and introduced to the domestic market
in the late 1940s.
Several companies tried to develop a videotape
recorder in the early 1950s, but Ampex was the
first to succeed in April 1956.
The first on-air broadcast of videotaped material
occurred on 30 November 1956, with the CBS
Douglas Edwards evening news broadcast.
In 1968, Sony introduced the first videotape
recorder that was small enough and cheap enough
for use in education. It was replaced by the Sony
U-Matic cassette recorder in 1971 which was still
in use 25 years later.
The videotape recorder was not cheap enough for
the consumer until Sony introduced the BetaMax in
1975. In 1976, JVC introduced the VHS VCR, and
the battle of the formats began. In 1989, Sony
introduced the Hi8 camcorder.
Digital videotape recording started in 1987 when
the Society of Motion Picture and Television
Engineers established the D1 standard. Digital has
a major advantage over the previous analogue-
based recorders, because there is no degradation
when tapes are copied.
Since the introduction of the D1 format, at least
four others have been launched. None of them
dominates the market and D1 itself is now virtually
obsolete.
Magnetic recording technology
All magnetic tape media consist of three
components:
• ferromagnetic recording material, capable of
being magnetised when placed in a magnetic
field;
134 Electronic Information and Media
• substrate or base material, on which the
recording material is coated; and
• a binder which functions as a carrier for the
recording material, and bonds it to the substrate.
The magnetic materials used in audio recordings
and video recordings are properly described as
ferromagnetic. They are characterised by strong,
easily detectable, spontaneous and permanent
magnetisation—even without an external
magnetic field.
Audio information, for example, speech or music, is
recorded in the magnetic layer as a continuously
varying analogue sound signal. The magnetic
signal is made by an electromagnet, which conveys
variations in electrical strength from the output of
a microphone to the recording medium. On
playback, the original sound is reproduced by
reversing the process and replacing the microphone
with a loudspeaker.
Video information, for example, the moving images
filmed at weddings or on holidays, is recorded in
the magnetic layer as a continuously varying
analogue signal. Sound information on videos is
recorded in the same way, but only in narrow
tracks along the edges of videos.
The magnetic signal is made by a magnetic field. It
can be erased deliberately when a new recording is
made. But it can also be altered accidentally by a
magnetic field that gets close enough to the
recorded signal to alter it.
If magnetised material gets hot enough, the
magnetism disappears. The point at which this
occurs varies with the recording material. For
example, with iron alloys it is 770ºC.
Recording materials
The International Electrotechnical Commission—
IEM—classify audio tapes into three types: Types
I, II and III. A tape’s classification is determined
by the recording material used.
The gamma form of ferric oxide, iron rust, is the
most widely used recording material. It is the
recording material for audio cassettes designated
as Type I. They are typically described as normal
bias tapes.
Chromium dioxide was introduced in the late 1960s
as a magnetic material suitable for high-density
recording. These are known as IEC Type II—high
bias—audio cassettes.
Pure iron particles, the recording material used by
so-called metal media, are used in IEC Type III
audio cassettes and digital audio tape—DAT—
cassettes. They support recording densities
approximately three times stronger than gamma
ferric oxide particles.
Substrates
With magnetic tapes, the substrate is typically
plastic film.
The base materials of early magnetic tapes, some
of which may be stored in libraries and archives,
were composed of cellulose triacetate or polyvinyl
chloride—PVC.
Substrates of newer magnetic tape invariably
consist of polyethylene teraphthalate—PET—which
is often identified by one of its trade names, such
as Du Pont’s Mylar or Eastman Kodak’s Estar and is
known in the film industry as polyester. Compared
with earlier substrate materials, PET films are
stronger and more resistant to high temperatures
and humidity.
Binders
Early magnetic tapes featured polyvinyl chloride—
PVC—binders. Today, polyethylene binders are
commonly used. These binders don’t stand up well
to high humidity which softens the binder. If the
binder has softened to the extent that the
particles either move or come right off the base,
permanent damage will have been done to the
recording. In a dry environment, it is possible that
the binder may be re-hardened by reverse
hydrolysis to get the sound back.
How long will audio and
video recordings last?
The life of a recording is difficult to predict, and
opinions vary.
The oldest audio recordings stored in archives are
still playable after 40-50 years; and the oldest
video recordings stored in archives are still
playable after 30 years.
This potential lifespan is reduced considerably if
recordings are not made, stored or used with
preservation in mind.
In extreme humidity, deterioration can occur in a
few years.
Remember that, even when tapes remain playable,
the equipment to play them on may no longer
exist.
For more information
For more information on the adverse effects of
fluctuations in and extremes of relative humidity
and temperature, please see Damage and Decay.
Keeping tapes playable
One way to keep tapes playable is gentle use on
well-maintained equipment.
Gentle use:
• helps avoid changes in the magnetic signal
known as print-through;
• re-tensions—but does not over-tension—
tapes;
• gives early warning of physical and chemical
deterioration; and
• checks whether recordings and equipment are
still working together.
Why don’t audio and video
recordings last forever?
Recordings are short-lived because of:
• damage from inherent media instabilities;
• damage from various external conditions and
events;
• inadvertent erasure;
• print-through effects, that is, changes in the
magnetic signal, and wear that can render
recorded signals unusable;
• physical damage from careless handling or
improperly adjusted equipment;
Electronic Information and Media 135
 • contaminants which can cause signal drop-
outs;
• inappropriate storage environments, which
cause significant chemical damage through
hydrolytic degradation of binder materials; and
• equipment obsolescence because the usability
of recordings on tape is dependent on
complex technology.
Preserving audio and video
recordings on tape
Preserving audio recordings and video recordings
on tape in archival conditions is not yet fully
understood—not as well understood as the
archival preservation of paper.
Preserving recordings depends on:
• making a long-lasting recording at the
beginning;
• looking after the magnetic signal;
• looking after the binder layer and the carrier
layer;
• looking after the equipment used in recording
and playing recordings during storage and
use; and
• careful and systematic management.
Making recordings with
preservation in mind
A good place to start preserving audio recordings
and video recordings on tape is with the selection
of long-lasting media before a recording is made.
When making recordings, use new tape, and use
the highest quality recording media that you can
afford. Major brand-name tapes from audio and VCR
equipment manufacturers or magnetic products
manufacturers are generally of a consistently good
quality.
For important recordings, make two copies on
tapes drawn from different manufacturing batches.
Comply fully with specifications established by the
manufacturer on which the media will be recorded
or played.
136 Electronic Information and Media
If you are in the north of Australia in summer or
the south of Australia in winter, allow time—about
one hour—for your video camera and video tapes
to warm up or cool down before use. A rapid
change from an air-conditioned room to tropical
heat and humidity in the northern summer, or from
a heated room to the cold and damp of a southern
winter environment, can clog video heads and jam
video cassettes.
Looking after the magnetic signal
Magnetic recordings on tape are made and
destroyed by strong magnetic fields—such as the
permanent magnets in headphones and
loudspeakers. The situations and equipment to
watch out for are:
• high-voltage power lines;
• lightning arresters in large buildings;
• magnetic flashlights;
• fridge magnets;
• small headphones; and
• speaker cabinets.
You will usually not have to worry about damage
from normal household wiring and security
scanners and X-ray equipment.
Follow the guidelines below and copy old, fragile
or extremely valuable recordings if you listen to
them frequently. Copying is known as dubbing.
Before copying, carefully rewind two or three times
any tape which has not been used for several
years. Careful rewinding relieves any tension in the
tape, and reduces the effect of print-through.
Consider using electronic filtering when older
recordings are being dubbed onto a new copy.
Filtering can sometimes be effective in removing
unwanted noise and the effects of wear or damage.
Clearly label the original recordings and the copies.
Throw out all damaged tapes after copying them.
A damaged tape can damage your equipment and
this can damage the rest of your tapes.
 Storing and maintaining
tapes so they will last
Heat and high humidity are the two greatest
enemies of audio and video tapes in storage.
Ideally, store video tapes in an environment where
temperature is constant and in the range 18-24°C
and where relative humidity is constant and in the
range 35-45%.
For more information
For more information about the steps you can take
to control relative humidity and temperature,
please see Damage and Decay.
Achieving these conditions can be difficult, but
the following steps will protect your tapes, even
when the conditions are not ideal.
Store tapes in an environment that is slightly
cooler and drier than is comfortable for humans, in
a clean atmosphere and in polythene bags.
Fast-forward and rewind the tapes before storage—
make sure that the tapes are correctly wound
inside the cassette.
Protect tapes from rapid fluctuations in relative
humidity and temperature.
Keep tapes out of direct sunlight and away from
local heat sources.
Shelve tapes upright in sturdy shelves with
dividing supports every 100mm-150mm. Vertical
storage is preferred to horizontal storage, because
storing the containers this way helps prevent
damage to the edge of the tape.
If several containers are stacked horizontally on
top of each other, the plastic cassettes can warp
and the player may not accept the tape.
Play tapes to the end, leaving the tape wound
smoothly, with only leader or unrecorded tape
exposed.
Play tapes through every few years to check their
condition and to minimise any tendency for layers
to stick together or to print through magnetically.
For reel-to-reel tapes, the hubs used for storing
tapes should be smooth and rigid; and tapes
should have their ends fastened.
Label cassettes correctly.
Make sure the tape recorder or VCR works before
you insert a tape.
CAUTION:
Avoid storing your tapes:
• directly on concrete floors because they are
susceptible to spills and water damage, and
high humidity;
• in attics or cellars where it is often very hot
and the relative humidity is high;
• near bathrooms and laundries or other
steamy, damp areas; and
• next to the VCR in an enclosed cabinet
because it can get very hot.
Handling tapes to avoid damage
Audio recordings and video recordings need to be
handled carefully, to avoid physical damage and
contamination. Even when your hands appear
clean, traces of sweat and oil are present, which
can attract dust or promote mould growth when
deposited on a recording.
Handle magnetic media carefully, avoiding skin
contact with magnetic surfaces—handle the
cassette only.
Prohibit eating, drinking and smoking in all areas
where magnetic media are used or stored.
Carry reel-to-reel tapes by the hub or centre.
Don’t carry your video camera or video tapes in a
bag with liquids or food that could damage the
video materials.
If the materials are being used outside of the
archive, library or museum, provide staff and users
with specific instructions.
For more information
For more information on the adverse effects of
dust and mould, please see Damage and Decay.
Looking after equipment
Clean and adjust all recording and playback
equipment regularly according to the
manufacturer’s instructions, making sure that the
recordings themselves are clean.
Electronic Information and Media 137
 Clean heads and guides, rollers and other
components in the tape path with a swab of
isopropanol—rubbing alcohol.
CAUTION:
Use cleaning tapes only as a last resort.
Some types can cause premature head-wear
or damage. Two types of cleaning tape are
available. It is preferable to use the wet type
rather than the dry, abrasive type.
Copying
Copying audio and video recordings on tape is an
essential routine aimed at:
• preventing damage to originals through
handling and playing;
• providing security copies, in case the
originals are damaged or stolen; and
• ensuring the permanent preservation of
recordings as the original carriers deteriorate.
Transfer important recordings to the latest
available mainstream technology every five years
or so—one source states every two or three
years—to check the playability of the recording
and to make sure it can be played on easily
available equipment.
Make one recording per tape. Choose good-quality,
polyester-based, ferric oxide-coated, standard-play,
magnetic tape. Record in analogue mode.
Develop a standard procedure and make a written
record of each tape copied—so that all copies will
have uniform and predictable characteristics.
Do not use spliced tapes.
Leave the first two metres of each copy tape
blank.
Precede each audio recording on a copy tape with
a spoken announcement, giving the reference of
the original, the numerical reference of the copy
and a brief description of the item.
138 Electronic Information and Media
If you have a problem related to the care of
electronic media, contact a conservator.
Conservators can offer advice and practical
solutions.
For further reading
Preserving audio recordings
Brandis, Leanne 9 December 1993, Magnetic tape
deterioration, Conservation DistList, URL
http://www.palimpsest.stanford.edu/.
National Film & Sound Archive c 1990, How to care
for your audio collection, National Film & Sound
Archive, Canberra, Australia.
Nishimura, Douglas 13 December 1993, Magnetic
tape deterioration, Conservation DistList, URL
http://www.palimpsest.stanford.edu/
Stielow, Frederick J. 1986, The management of oral
history sound archives, Greenwood Press,
Westport, Connecticut.
Ward, Alan 1990, A manual of sound archive
administration, Gower Press, Aldershot, UK and
Brookfield, Vermont, U.S.A.
Smith, Leslie E. 1991, Factors governing the long-
term stability of polyester-based recording
media, Restaurator, Vol. 12 (4), Munkgaard
International Publishers Ltd, Copenhagen, pp
201–18.
Preserving video recordings
Association for Moving Image Archivists—AMIA-L
List server. To subscribe send an email message to
listserv@ukcc.uky.edu with the following text as
your message:
“subscribe AMIA-L first-name family-name”.
For example: ‘subscribe AIMA-L Alan Howell’
Important: Do not put any other text in the
subject or cc message boxes.
Bogart, John W. C. 1995, Magnetic tape storage
and handling: a guide for archives and libraries,
Washington, D.C.: Commission on Preservation and
Access and St. Paul, MI: National Media Laboratory.
All Commission on Preservation and Access
publications are available from the Commission at Preserving digital information
1400 16th Street, NW, Suite 740, Washington, D.C.
20036-2217. Phone +1 202 939 3400,
The Commission on Preservation and Access WWW
Fax +1 202 939 3407.
home-page contains several reports on preserving
digital information. Their URL is http://www-
Botte, David 1992, A basic guide to colour TV and
cpa.stanford.edu/cpa.html
VCRs: An Electronics Australia publication
, Federal
Publishing Company, Alexandria, NSW.
Conservation Online WWW home-page
http://www.palimpsest.stanford.edu/
Boyle, Deirdre 1993, Video preservation: securing
the future of the past, Media Alliance, New York.
Dollar, Charles 1994, Issues for archivists, records
managers and IT managers: provenance,
Boyle, Deirdre 1996, Forgetting tomorrow:
obsolescence, standards and preservation, A
preserving the present and the past for the future
,
window to the future, School of Library, Archive
The Helix, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Vic, pp
and Information Studies, University College
11–12.
London, London: International Study Centre for
Records Management; Sydney, NSW: Educational
National Film & Sound Archive c1990, How to care
Film Services Australia, pp 25–38.
for your videos, National Film & Sound Archive,
Canberra, Australia.
Elkington, Nancy E., ed. 1994, Digital Imaging
Technology for Preservation, Proceedings from an
Saffady, William 1991, Stability, care and handling
R.L.G. Symposium held March 1994, RLG, Cornell
of microforms, magnetic media and optical disks,
University, Ithica, New York.
part two, magnetic media, Library Technology
Reports, Vol 20 (1), American Library Association,
Freedman, Alan 1994, The computer glossary: the
Chicago.
complete illustrated dictionary, 7th ed., American
Management Association, New York, N.Y.
Smith, Leslie E. 1991, Factors governing the long-
term stability of polyester-based recording media
,
Howell, Alan A workshop on the use of digital
Restaurator, Vol 12, Munkgaard International
imaging technology for preservation and access,
Publishers, Copenhagen, pp 201–218.
LASIE, vol. 27, no. 1, State Library of New South
Wales, Sydney, pp 26–41.
Swartzburg, Susan G. 1995, Image and sound: the
care and preservation of motion pictures, sound
Kenney, Anne & Chapman, Stephen 1995, Digital
recordings and videotape, Preserving library
resolution requirements for replacing text-based
materials: a manual, The Scarecrow Press,
material: Methods for benchmarking image quality ,
Metuchen, New Jersey & London.
tutorial, The Commission on Preservation and
Access, Washington D.C.
Vidipax, the magnetic media restoration company
World Wide Web home page and resources, URL
Mohlhenrich, Janice, ed. 1993, Preservation of
http://www.panix.com/~vidipax/.
electronic formats and electronic formats for
preservation, Highsmith Press, Fort Atkinson,
Waters, Edgar 1995, Guidelines for audio and
Wisconsin.
audiovisual recording in the South Pacific
, National
Library of Australia, Canberra, ACT.
Nader, Jonar C. 1995, Prentice Hall’s illustrated
dictionary of computing,2nd ed., Prentice Hall,
Wheeler, Jim, 6 March 1996, The Current State of
Sydney, NSW.
American Television and Video Preservation
,
Statement by Jim Wheeler before the Library of
Pilgrim, Aubrey 1995, Upgrade or repair your PC,
Congress Panel, Listserv AMIA-L@UKCC.uky.edu,
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.
Thu, 7 Mar 1996.
Robinson, Peter 1993, The digitization of primary
textural sources, Office for Humanities
Communication Publications Number 4, Office for
Humanities Communication, Oxford.

Electronic Information and Media 139

 Rothenberg, Jeff, 1995, Ensuring the longevity of
digital documents, Scientific American, vol. 272,
(1), Scientific American Inc., New York, pp 24–29.
Schuller Dietrich, Chairman 1995,
Recommendations of the Memory of the World
Programme International Advisory Committee, Sub-
committee on Technology, UNESCO, Paris.
The Commission on Preservation and Access & the
Research Libraries Group 1995, Preserving digital
information, Draft report of the task force on
archiving of digital information, Version 1.0. URL
http://www.rlg.stanford.edu.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Which of the following issues must be taken into
account when considering the preservation of
electronic media?
a) The preservation of the actual item, that is,
the CD-ROM or the audio tape versus the
preservation of the information.
b) Recognising that electronic preservation
raises fundamentally different challenges than
the problems encountered in preserving
traditional-format materials such as paper
and books.
c) The fact that technological advances will
make the media obsolete.
d) Binders and substrates are adversely affected
by high humidity conditions.
e) All of the above.
Question 2.
Which of the following statements are true?
a) The life span of a recording is difficult to
predict.
b) The potential lifespan is reduced considerably
if recordings are not made, stored or used
with preservation in mind.
140 Electronic Information and Media
c) Video and audio recordings are best kept in
conditions of high humidity.
d) Gentle use re-tensions, but does not over-
tension, tapes.
Question 3.
When making recordings with preservation in mind:
a) use whatever tapes you can, to ensure that
costs are kept low;
b) make two copies on tapes drawn from
different manufacturing batches for important
recordings;
c) comply fully with specifications established
by the manufacturer on which the media will
be recorded or played;
d) use new tape.
Question 4.
Which of the following statements are false?
a) Heat and high humidity are the two greatest
enemies of audio tapes and video tapes.
b) The recommended storage conditions for
video tapes are: temperature in the range 24-
28°C and relative humidity in the range 35-
45%RH.
c) It is recommended that you fast-forward and
rewind the tapes before storage, ensuring
that the tape is correctly wound inside the
cassette.
d) Vertical storage is preferred to horizontal
storage, because storing the containers this
way helps prevent damage to the edge of the
tape.
 Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: e).

Question 2.

Answer: a), b) and d) are true. c) is not true. In

extreme humidity the lifespan of recordings is
reduced significantly—deterioration can occur in a
few years.

Question 3.

Answer: b), c) and d) are correct. a) is wrong. You

should use the highest—quality recording media
that you can afford.

Question 4.

Answer: b) is false The recommended storage

conditions for video tapes are temperature in the
range 18–24°C and relative humidity constant and
in the range 35–45%RH.

Electronic Information and Media 141

 Acknowledgments

Collection Management and Other

Conservation Working Party of the
Heritage Collections Council Stuart Anderson Simone Cordeauz
Sandra Flischer Michelle Koford
Margaret Anderson (Chair) Jacki Kossatz Linda Marlin
Ian Cook (Deputy Chair) Simon Prince Carly Romiero
Karen Coote Slade Smith Robyn Thomas
Tamara Lavrencic Di Virgil Guthrie Watson
Jan Lyall
Chris Tassell Prototype Development Consortium
Ian MacLeod Conservation Training Australia
Phil Gordon
Robyn Sloggett
Artlab Australia
John Stanton
History Trust of South Australia
Viv Szekeres
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
Ian Stephenson
State Library of New South Wales
University of Melbourne Conservation Service
Major Contributors Western Australian Museum

Karen Coote James Dexter Project Manager: Keith Fernandez

Keith Fernandez David Gilroy Technical Editor: Vicki Humphrey
Rosie Freemantle Ian Godfrey
Alan Howell Vicki Humphrey Field Trial Participants
Georgia Koronis Tamara Lavrencic
Ian MacLeod Joy Noble
Sarah-Jane Rennie Marion Roubos-Bennet Bob Alford Elizabeth Anya-Petrivna
Robyn Sloggett Michell Smith Denise Davis Luan Dunaan
Geoff Speirs Greg Wallace Christine Ewings Jude Fraser
Helen Weidenhofer Margie West Ann Gibson Ken Hodge
Jean Johnson Narayan Khadekar
Lindsay Knowles Heather Kriesl
Contributors
Nicole Livermore Zoe McKenzie-Smith
John Reid Pauline Ross
Phil Alderslade Marie Boland Glen Smith
Peter Cahalan Glenn Cole
Sarah Feijen Fred Francisco Sunshine and District Historical Society
Helen Halley Charlotte Jenkin
Gillian Leahy Sophie Lussier Marketing Research
Holly McGowan-Jackson Elizabeth Murphy
Kristin Phillips Alex Roach
Jennifer Ross Sue Valis Environmetrics
Sandra Yee
Editing and Publishing
Kimba and Gawler Ranges Historical Society
Migration Museum Communication Partners
National Motor Museum Cyranet
South Australian Telstra Historical Collection

Acknowledgments 143
reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia

CARING FOR
CULTURAL MATERIAL 2

Foreword page iii

A Note to Readers page iv

Introduction page v

Textiles page 1

Leather page 29

Wood page 47

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander

Cultural Material page 59

Metals page 81

Outdoor Collections page 113

Acknowledgments page 137

© Commonwealth of Australia 1998 on behalf of the Heritage Collections Council
ISBN 0 642 37384 1 (boxed set)
ISBN 0 642 37385 X (this volume)
Information presented in this book may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or
training purposes, subject to the inclusion of acknowledgment of source and provided no
commercial usage or sale of material occurs. Reproduction for purposes other than those
given above requires the written permission of the Heritage Collections Council. Requests
for permission should be sent to the HCC Secretariat at the address given below.
One copy of this publication is available to Australian institutions on application. Multiple
copies to Australian institutions, copies to overseas institutions and copies to individuals
will be charged at A$100 plus postage and handling. Copies may be obtained by writing to:
Heritage Collections Council Secretariat
GPO Box 2154
Canberra ACT 2601
Australia
Phone (02) 6271 1094
Fax (02) 6271 1079
Email hcc@dcita.gov.au
This publication will be available online at the Australian Museums On Line website—
http://amol.org.au
Produced by the Commonwealth Department of Communications, Information Technology
and the Arts.
Cover images (from left):
Detail of photograph courtesy of Museum of Western Australia.
Detail of bark painting, Lightning Snake Story, Douglas (Nawurapu) Wununmurra.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum.
Detail of photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia.
Detail of hand-coloured 19th century children’s book. Photograph courtesy of
Vicki Humphrey.
There are an estimated 41 million objects held in Australian museums, art galleries and historical collections.
Collectively they tell the story of our history and our country and contribute to our sense of identity and
national pride. Increasing the conservation skills of people who care for these collections is an important
factor in protecting this heritage, and is a key goal of the Heritage Collections Council.

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia has been developed with this goal in mind. This set
of practical guidebooks is designed by the Council for use principally by non-conservators who are working
with Australia’s cultural heritage. The guidebooks are also a teacher-friendly resource which can be used in
professional development workshops.

Many of Australia’s most experienced conservators have been involved in researching, writing and editing
reCollections, through the Conservation Training Australia consortium, led by Artlab Australia, which
first developed the package, and through the Collections Management and Conservation Working Party of
the Council.

The Heritage Collections Council’s mission is to promote excellence in the management, care and provision of
access to Australia’s heritage collections so that together, they reflect Australia’s cultural and natural
diversity. The Council is a collaboration between the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments and
the museums sector, and comprises people working in a wide range of cultural heritage institutions across
the breadth of urban and regional Australia. reCollections is an important component of the Council’s
National Conservation and Preservation Strategy for Australia’s Heritage Collections.

Rob Palfreyman
Chair
Heritage Collections Council

Heritage Collections Council

GPO Box 2154, Canberra ACT 2601, AUSTRALIA
Phone: (02) 6271 1094 Fax: (02) 6271 1079 Email: hcc@dcita.gov.au

Foreword iii
 A note to readers

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia

has been written by practicing conservators and is intended to provide
a sound guide for the preventive care of cultural items. Active
conservation treatment of cultural material should only be undertaken
by, or on the advice of, a trained conservator. Before relying on any of
the material in this guide, users should check its accuracy, currency,
completeness and relevance for their purposes and should obtain
appropriate professional advice.

If in doubt,
consult a
conservator
To obtain the names of accredited practicing conservators who are in a
position to meet your particular conservation requirements contact the
Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material (Inc.)
a national organisation for conservators and people interested in the
preservation of cultural material.

AICCM
GPO Box 1638
Canberra ACT 2601
National Secretary Phone: (02) 6254 8695
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~conserv/aiccmhc.htm

iv A note to readers
 Introduction to

reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia
Our heritage is represented by a vast array of cultural material, from established national icons holding
pride of place in major museums and galleries, to everyday items such as household appliances or
newspapers which carry meaning for local communities or families. Yet so often the links to our heritage
are tenuous because the objects which represent our culture are in danger of decay. However, there is
a lot we can do to protect valued objects and collections and so prolong the life of our cultural heritage.
reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia provides practical advice and guidance designed
to help the reader care for their heritage.

reCollections explains how to apply preventive conservation techniques to cultural objects and collections.
Preventive conservation optimises the environmental conditions in which objects and collections are housed.
Controlling light and ultraviolet radiation, humidity and temperature, biological pests, and dust and pollutants
helps to prevent damage and decay to cultural material. Preventive conservation also means ensuring that
good handling, transportation, storage and display techniques are used at all times. Applying preventive
methods to the care of cultural artefacts and collections can prolong and protect their life for current and
future generations of Australians.

While reCollections provides conservation information about the care of cultural objects and collections, it
is important to recognise that all except the simplest conservation treatments should be undertaken by
trained conservators. Active conservation treatment is a response to the damage of cultural artefacts, a highly
skilled field which often involves the use of chemicals and complicated technical procedures. Unless
performed with a thorough knowledge of appropriate techniques and with the right equipment and materials,
conservation treatments can do more harm than good to the objects being worked upon, and can be
hazardous to the people performing the work. Conservation treatments should only be conducted by, or on
the explicit advice of, a trained conservator.

To complement the preventive conservation advice contained in the volumes Damage and Decay and Handling,
Transportation, Storage and Display, reCollections supplies detailed information concerning the care of some
of the most common cultural materials. These range from the paper and other materials on which so much
of Australia’s cultural history may be seen, to special considerations in caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultural artefacts. In addition, modern practices concerning the management of collections and
of the people who look after those collections are outlined.

Introduction v
Textiles
Objectives page 3
Introduction page 3
What do we mean by textiles? page 3
What are the most common types of damage? page 4
Common causes of damage page 4
The do’s and don’ts of handling textiles page 4
The do’s and don’ts of labelling textiles page 5
Historical costumes—why they should not be worn page 6
Storing textiles page 7
Storing accessories page 12
The best materials for storing and
displaying textiles page 13
Displaying textiles page 13
Open hanging methods for flat textiles page 16
Displaying historic costume page 18
Cleaning textiles page 20
Summary of conditions for storage and display page 21
Textiles in Australia’s climatic zones page 22
MORE ABOUT TEXTILES
A note on the use of Tyvek page 23
Selecting fabrics, threads and stitches
for textile conservation page 24
For further reading page 25
Self-evaluation quiz page 26
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 27
 Objectives What do we mean
by textiles?
At the end of this chapter you should:

• have a basic knowledge of the main problems
encountered in collections of historic textiles;
• have an understanding of correct handling
techniques for historic textiles;
• have an awareness of the range of different
types of textiles and have practical knowledge
of how to store them, so that damage can be
minimised;
• be able to display historic textiles in such a
way as to ensure their preservation; and
• have a basic knowledge of, and some practical
skills in, labelling and cleaning textiles in the
best and safest manner, in order to preserve
them.
Generally the term textile refers to woven fabrics.
In heritage collections, however, the term has a
broader meaning and covers materials which are
produced by other means, including:
• the interlacing of yarns, such as knitting, lace
making and netting;
• other needlework techniques worked through
a woven base, such as embroidery and canvas
work.
Some examples of textiles that you may find in
your collections are:
• costume, uniforms;
• millinery;

• tapestries;
Introduction • ecclesiastical textiles;

Textiles are found in many collections in museums, • carpets and rugs;

galleries and libraries. They are valued for their
historic interest, their aesthetic appeal and their • dolls, parasols and fans;
cultural significance.

Because of their wide appeal, textiles—particularly

historic costume—are often on permanent display
in regional museums. They make striking exhibits The back view of an
and are very evocative of times gone by. But our 1860s English
great interest in them can be their greatest enemy. cotton dress.
Photograph courtesy
Many textiles are very familiar, everyday items. For of Artlab Australia,
this reason, we don’t always realise just how reproduced with the
fragile they are and so don’t always give them the permission of the
care that they need. We display them, wash them, History Trust of
South Australia.
wear them, and feel them to enjoy the texture of
the fabric; and in doing all of these things we
expose the textiles to the risk of damage.

With a greater understanding of how to handle,

display and store textiles safely, it is possible to • patchwork and applique;
take steps to improve the care of the textiles and
to ensure ongoing access to the historic and • flags and banners;
cultural information and the aesthetic pleasure
that they provide. • quilts;

• teddy bears;

• needlework;

Textiles 3
 Damage due to chemical deterioration includes:

• fading and discolouration because of exposure

This sampler was to UV radiation and high lighting levels;
produced by a
12-year-old girl • weakening of fibres because of chemical
in 1841. reactions initiated by light and UV radiation;
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
• deterioration because of mould growth—
reproduced with mould digests the materials it grows on;
the permission of
the History Trust • damage from pollutants in the storage and
of South Australia display environment; and

• damage caused by perspiration, blood and

other stains.

• curtains, upholstery; Common causes of damage

• ethnographic textiles;
All the most common types of damage to textiles
• samplers; are caused by:

• non-woven materials such as felt; and • poor handling;

sometimes, fur.
• wearing historic costume;
• poor storage methods;
What are the most common • inappropriate display methods;
types of damage? • chemical changes in the textiles themselves;

Textiles are vulnerable to physical damage, and to
the damage caused by chemical deterioration of
their components.
Physical damage is very obvious and includes
problems such as:
• inappropriate repair of damage;
• chemical changes caused by contact with
other materials, such as perspiration and
atmospheric pollutants; and
• various combinations of any and all of these.
The following sections will outline practical steps
you can take to minimise this type of damage.

• insect attack; The do’s and don’ts of

• damage caused by washing historic textiles in handling textiles
modern washing machines;

• shrinkage; Think about how you handle textiles. Handling

them with care and commonsense goes a long way
• tears; to preventing damage.

• splits in textiles where they have been folded The most important rule for handling textiles is to
or creased; keep handling to a minimum.
• worn areas; and Whenever possible, wear white cotton gloves when
handling textiles. They prevent the transfer of
• damage resulting from lack of proper support
while on display. body oil and dirt to the textiles. This is not always
practical, so as a compromise make sure your
hands are clean: always wash them before handling
a textile. This is particularly important with

4 Textiles
textiles incorporating metal thread, because acids
from the skin tarnish metal.
Remove all jewellery such as rings, bracelets and
necklaces, which could catch on the textiles and
cause damage.
When you do handle textiles they should always be
supported properly. Textiles which appear strong
may, in fact, have areas of weakness which are not
immediately visible. Regard all historic textiles as
fragile.
When handling flat textiles:
• never pick them up by one corner. Always
support the weight of the textile evenly;
• carry small textiles on a tray, in a box, or on
a board;
• larger textiles should be rolled and carried on
the roller, using the part of the roller
extending beyond the textile to grip; and
• never try to move a textile by yourself if the
size and weight of the textile indicates that
you need two people. Carrying large textiles
incorrectly can not only damage the textile, but
can also put strain on the person carrying it.
When handling a costume, remember that it should
never be picked up by the shoulders—always slide
your arms under the costume and then lift.
Ideally, costume should be moved in boxes or on a
board.
Don’t carry items on a hanger without using your
arms for additional support.
The correct way to
pick up a costume on
a hanger.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia
Remember, accessories should always be supported
evenly. For example, do not pick up a bag by its
handle: use two hands to support it. Accessories
should be transported on boards or in boxes. But
there are exceptions to this rule. Use your
commonsense to decide the most appropriate way
to handle them.
The do’s and don’ts of
labelling textiles
It is often necessary to label individual textiles
with an identification number, such as an
accession number.
Wherever possible, the number should be written
on cotton tape either in pencil or in permanent
ink. A reliable brand of permanent ink pen to use
is the Nikko Finepoint System Permanent Ink pen.
These are available in a number of point sizes. The
finer pens are best, such as 0.2mm.
Stitch the cotton tape to the textile with only one
or two stitches at each end, using fine, white,
cotton thread.
It is helpful to always stitch the number in the
same place for each type of textile. This way, you
will know exactly where to look for the label and
you will avoid excessive handling while searching
for the number. For example:
• for flat textiles, always stitch the label on the
bottom left-hand corner at the back of the
textile; and
• for costume, always stitch the label at the
back of the collar on the inside of the
garment.
It may not be possible to stitch a label to all
items, for example, fans, shoes or hats. Label these
items with acid-free cardboard tags with string
attached.
Never place adhesive labels directly on textiles—
the adhesive will stain the fibres and make them
brittle.
Once the items are labelled, store them
appropriately. It is very useful to label clearly the
outside of all storage boxes and rollers. This allows
you to see what item is in each package without
having to handle the textile. A small photograph
Textiles 5
 The shape of this
1870s dress clearly
shows that fashions
in body shapes have
changed.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with the
permission of Burra
National Trust

Accession number label on flat textile.

Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

of the textile attached to the outside of the Sitting down or raising your arms in a fragile
storage system makes identification easy. costume could result in irreparable damage.

A good way to keep your storage area tidy and the
collection accessible is to have a shelf list or plan.
This shows exactly where each item is stored. If it
is kept in the storage areas, it can be used to
ensure that items are always returned to the
correct place in the store after use.
Historical costumes—why
they should not be worn
It is often very tempting to wear an historic
costume for festive occasions, especially when
celebrating historic events. Some people feel that
garments can’t be fully appreciated unless they are
worn. This is understandable; but the preservation
of historic costume demands that the temptation
to wear the costume be resisted.
Body oils can transfer from the skin to the
garment. This can cause disfiguring stains, and the
soiling can attract insects.
Food and drink could be spilt on the garment,
resulting in unsightly staining. The chemicals in
food and drink could also react adversely with the
textile itself, or with the dyes in the textile.
The way women move has changed. For example,
some dresses were designed so that women could
not raise their arms without damaging the dress.
The stress and strain caused by wearing a garment
can be immediate and dramatic, or it can
contribute to the gradual weakening of the item.
Even seemingly minor damage can ruin an historic
costume. So it is best to avoid wearing historic
costumes from your collection.

A fabric may appear strong; but when it is

strained, even slightly, it can tear or the seam
stitching can break. This damage is increased when
the garment isn’t a good fit on the person wearing
it—or if the person does not have the correct
undergarments to support the costume. Remember,
body shapes have changed and modern
undergarments do not necessarily give the right
body shape for historical costumes.

The actions of dressing and undressing can cause a

lot of damage to fragile items. Stains can severely mar the appearance of garments.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with the permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia

6 Textiles
 Storing textiles
Adverse storage conditions affect all items in a
collection. The effects are not always dramatically
obvious. Changes occur gradually over a long
period of time. However, once the changes have
occurred they are often irreversible, or require
complex and costly treatment to deal with them.
A good storage environment prevents physical
damage and helps to slow down chemical
deterioration, greatly increasing the life of your
textile items.
Ideal storage conditions for textiles
Textiles are considered to be sensitive materials;
that is, they are extremely vulnerable to damage
when stored or displayed in inappropriate
environmental conditions.
Ideally, textiles should be stored in an
environment where the temperature is constant
and moderate: in the range 18–22ºC.
Relative humidity should be constant and in the
range of 45–55%. This can be very difficult in
extreme climates. If it is not possible to keep the
relative humidity within these limits, it is important
to avoid rapid fluctuations in relative humidity.
Light should be kept to a minimum. Light is
required only when the textiles have to be viewed,
for example, when they are being accessioned,
treated, or used for research. Information about
appropriate lighting levels is given in the section
Ideal Conditions for Displaying Textiles.
Protect textiles from pollutants, dust and insects.
Airborne chemicals that most commonly affect
textiles include smoke, oil and acids. Smoke causes
staining and discolouration, which are extremely
difficult to remove. Textiles displayed in a room
with a fireplace or where smoking is permitted
should be housed in smoke-proof containers such
as sealed frames or sealable boxes.
Acids are also given off in small quantities by pest
strips and some types of plastic. Consequently,
pest strips normally should not be used inside
enclosed storage areas.
Practical hints for storing flat textiles
Small flat textiles can be stored flat, either in a
box or on covered shelves. Dust covers should be
provided for textiles on open shelves.
Always interleave textiles with acid-free tissue, if a
number of them are stored one on top of the
other.
Take care to not stack too many items on top of
each other and place heavier items on the bottom
of the stack.
If a textile needs to be folded, the fold needs to
be padded—either with crumpled tissue or with a
covered Dacron sausage. This is made from a tube
of white or unbleached cotton filled with Dacron.
Padding is an important precaution because
textiles will eventually split along the line of sharp
folds or creases.
Textiles stored flat in a metal plan chest. The textiles
are padded and protected with acid-free tissue.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Ideally, larger flat textiles should be rolled. When
choosing a roller on which to store a flat textile,
there are several things to consider.
The diameter of the roller should be as large as
possible—to minimise the curvature of the textile
when it is on the roll.
The roller should be longer than the textile’s
width, so that when rolled, the ends of the roll are
exposed and the edges of the textile are protected
by the projecting ends of the roller.
Textiles 7
 The roller should be covered with an acid-free
material such as acid-free tissue, acid-free paper or
Tyvek. This protects the textile from impurities and
other damaging chemicals which might be
contained in the roller. The tissue also provides a
soft surface on which to roll the textile.
Acid-free tissue covering
the back of the textile and
extending beyond the ends
and sides
Back of textile
Roller is wider
than the textile
and is covered in
acid-free tissue
Acid-free tissue Front face of textile
interleaving the textile
Padding and covering a roller.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
It is important that the textile is clean and dry.
A dirty or damp textile is likely to deteriorate in
storage; and this may go unnoticed for a long time.
When a textile is rolled, the front side of the
textile should face away from the roller.
If the textile has a pile—like velvet—it should be
rolled in the direction of the pile, with the pile
facing out.
Fringes or tassels should be kept straight in the
rolling process. You can do this by sandwiching the
fringe or tassels between acid-free tissue before
you start rolling.
8 Textiles
To prepare the textile for rolling:
• lay the textile out, face-down onto a clean,
flat surface. Make sure that the weave of the
textile is straight, and check that the weave
of the fabric is not warped;
• cover the textile with a layer of acid-free
tissue paper. Check that there are no creases
in the tissue: these can cause corresponding
creases in the textile, and damage it;
• if the textile has areas of padded decoration or
the weave is distorted in any way, it will
interfere with the rolling process. A piece of
Dacron polyester wadding wrapped in acid-free
tissue should be placed over the acid-free tissue
in the location of the decoration or distortion.
The Dacron must be covered, to prevent any of
its fibres transferring to the textile or catching
on any surface decoration; and
• if you leave approximately 100mm of tissue
protruding beyond your textile, you can use
this to start the rolling procedure.
When you have finished preparing the textile:
• place the covered roller on the protruding end
of the tissue and start rolling. Use a firm
pressure so that, as the textile is rolled onto
the roller, it remains straight and firm.
• the weave should be kept straight while the
textile is being rolled;
Rolling a large textile onto a roller.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
• once the textile is fully rolled, cover it with
another layer of acid-free tissue and/or Tyvek.
Secure the cover by tying the ends with
cotton tape. It is important to not tie the
tape too tightly, because it can distort the
edges of the rolled textile;
• very large textiles should also be tied with
cotton tape in the centre, to prevent sagging.
Again, do not tie the tape too tightly, it
might damage the textile; and
• label the textile clearly to identify it in storage.
Preparing historic garments for storage
It is important to ensure that garments are as
clean and dry as possible before they are packed
away. If the costume is not cleaned, colourless
stains may darken with age, and insects such as the
clothes moth and carpet beetles will be attracted
to organic stains from perspiration and food.
If the garment is strong, it is advisable to have it
dry-cleaned.
There are some steps you can take to minimise the
risks associated with dry-cleaning historic costume:
Always use a drycleaner who is a member of a
professional drycleaner's association.
Be sure to ask for special care if the item is fragile
or complex.
Prepare your garments carefully for dry-cleaning,
by either covering buttons and hooks with Dacron
or by removing them from the garment.
Request that the garment be cleaned on its own.
Ask the drycleaner to place the costume in a bag
in the dry-cleaning machine. This gives it support
and prevents it rubbing against other items if it is
not on its own.
It is better to clean historic costume in fresh
solvent—so ask the drycleaners when they are
next changing their solvents and schedule your
work for that time.
Remember, it is better to leave a garment stained
than to damage it greatly during cleaning; so leave
fragile items until you have had a chance to seek
advice.
CAUTION:
Remember that dry-cleaning machines have a
vigorous, mechanical action similar to a tumble
drier, and so can damage fragile textiles and
costumes. Check with a textiles conservator if you
are unsure whether the items you are dry-cleaning
are strong enough.
An easy, do-it-yourself
padded hanger for costumes
Apart from very heavy or fragile items, many
garments can be stored on padded hangers. Padded
hangers are used for hanging costume such as
shirts, bodices and dresses. Other items such as
trousers or skirts need additional support. It is
important to remember that by ensuring an even
distribution of weight on the hanger, you will be
giving the item maximum support while it is
hanging in storage.
A 19th century velvet and lace bodice hanging on a
padded coat-hanger.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Padded coat-hangers are quite simple to make—
just follow these steps. You will need:
• a coat-hanger—it should be strong and made
of either wood or plastic. Wire hangers are
not suitable. Make sure that the size of the
coat-hanger is appropriate for the garment to
be hung. For example, don’t use a large coat-
hanger for a child's garment. The hanger can
be cut down to the appropriate size if
necessary;
• fabric—all fabrics used to cover the hanger
must be washed before use. White or
unbleached fabrics are preferred. Unbleached
calico or white/cream, stretch-cotton fabrics
are ideal;
• Dacron; • thread;
• a needle; and • scissors.
Textiles 9
 Place layers of Dacron polyester wadding over the CAUTION:
hanger, padding it to the same width as the
Sew tapes only to strong areas of the costume.
shoulders of the garment. The hanger should be
padded to suit the shape of the garment; for Make sure weight is distributed evenly.
example, if the garment has sloping shoulders Tapes stitched in inappropriate positions
make the padding to match. The Dacron may need can damage the garment.
to be hand-stitched to hold it in place.
Finally, make covers for each garment to protect
them from dust. The best materials for making
covers for hanging garments are clean, washed
cotton, for example, old cotton sheets or calico,
and Tyvek.

CAUTION:
Do not use plastics and synthetic fabrics as
covers. A garment stored in this type of cover
Once the padding is in place, cover the Dacron can’t breathe and may rot. The exception to
with fabric to provide a smooth surface on which this rule is Tyvek, which is a specially made
to rest the garment. A stretch fabric is generally polyethylene fabric which can be used
easier to fit and sew into place.
because it allows textiles to breathe.

Storing garments in costume boxes

Sometimes hanging storage is not appropriate—

either because the garments are too heavy or too
fragile to safely carry their own weight, or because
you don’t have an appropriate storage space.

If hanging storage is not appropriate, the items

For additional support, for example, for a dress should be well padded and packed in boxes.
with a heavy skirt, sew white, cotton tapes to the
inside of the waistband, then tie these over the
coat-hanger to take the weight of the skirt. Sew at
least four tapes onto strong areas of the
waistband. If four tapes are not enough to fully
support the weight of the skirt, use more. Use a
fine needle for sewing and sew through all layers
of the waistband.

Polypropylene costume boxes from a supplier of

conservation materials.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

Acid-free costume boxes can be bought from

conservation suppliers; or you can make your own
following the directions below.

10 Textiles
If acid-free boxes are not available, normal boxes The next step is to draw in additional construction
or drawers can be lined with Tyvek and used for lines, shown in the next diagram.
storage. The Tyvek will act as a barrier between
the box material and your textiles.

When packing garments in boxes, it is advisable to

pad the garments. Crushed, acid-free tissue can be 10cm
used along all of the folds in the garment and on
the side seams, shoulders and sleeves so you will
also need enough acid-free tissue paper to pad
one average-size garment.

Remember, creases and folds should be well

padded, to minimise stress on the fabric. With
time, creases develop into splits if not padded
adequately.
With a utility knife or Stanley knife, cut
Take care to not put too many textiles in one box, completely through the Foam Cor board on the
because the weight may crease the lower textiles. dotted lines indicated in the diagram below.
Always put the heaviest costume on the bottom.
Discard the four corner pieces.
Wherever possible, keep all of the parts of one
costume together.

An easy, do-it-yourself costume box

This box is made from 6mm-thick acid-free Foam

Cardboard.

Cut the board into a square or rectangle. Once you

have decided on the dimensions of the base, the
dimensions of the box can be worked out as shown
on the diagram below.

The base of the box should be a little bit larger

The cut Foam Cor is now ready to be assembled
than the costume, while the height should be
into a box.
sufficient to accommodate the costume and
padding.
Along the dotted lines shown in the diagram
below, cut through the upper two layers of the
On the interior surface, draw lines in pencil: 1, 2,
Foam Cor board, being very careful not to cut the
3 and 4 as shown on the diagram.
bottom layer.

Width
Length
Interior height of
wall plus 6mm

Interior
dimensions
of the base

Textiles 11
 In the stippled areas indicated in the box diagram
above, peel off the upper two layers, being careful
not to damage the bottom layer. The cross-section
of the board will look like this when you have
finished:
It is worth practising this with the discarded
corner pieces of Foam Cor.
Score the four edges of the base of the box with a
Stanley knife between the double lines drawn in
pencil on the board; cut half the thickness of the
board out between these lines. The board should
look like this:
This will allow for a smooth edge when the sides
are folded up.
To assemble the box:
• fold the four walls along the scored lines;
• the wall corners should overlap as show in
the diagram below;
• fold the flaps, which were left after you
peeled away the top two layers of board, over
the adjacent wall and stick them down with
acrylic or polyvinyl acetate—PVA—adhesive.
The flaps should be stuck securely; make sure
that you completely cover the inside of the
flap with adhesive and press it onto the wall;
12 Textiles
It is wise to stick each flap individually, and
weight it while it dries.
The corners and edges of the box can be
strengthened by covering them with cotton
adhesive tape.
The lid is made in exactly the same way as the
box. The lid sits over the top of the box walls,
extending down 50mm. The interior dimensions of
the lid should be slightly larger than the exterior
dimensions of the top of the box. The lid should
fit snugly, but not tightly; it should lift off easily
without jerking the box.
Storing accessories
It is best to store umbrellas and parasols slightly
opened, and gently padded inside with rolled acid-
free tissue or Dacron covered in calico or acid-free
tissue. Where possible, they should be hung and
wrapped in individual calico or cotton covers. If
padded umbrellas and parasols are packed in
boxes, they should be padded and wrapped
individually before storage.
Accessories should
be supported
properly in storage
and for display.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with the
permission of the
History Trust of
South Australia
Store flat accessories, such as scarves and ties
either flat or rolled around cardboard tubes. Cover
the cardboard tube with a layer of acid-free
material before using it to store accessories. Place
acid-free material over the textile before rolling it.
Once the accessory has been rolled onto the tube
for storage, wrap it in another layer of acid-free
material, and fasten each end with a length of
cotton tape.
Where possible, roll items with fringes or thick Displaying textiles
edges with the fringe or edge on the outside.

Remember that textiles should be rolled firmly but When textiles are on display they are perhaps more
gently around tubes—to avoid creasing. vulnerable to damage than when they are in
storage, particularly from light and UV radiation.

The best materials for storing How does light affect textiles?

and displaying textiles Light and UV radiation are the greatest enemies of
textiles. They cause photochemical deterioration:
Textiles can be adversely affected by other the colours fade and fabrics become fragile and
materials in their immediate environment. For split readily.
example, acids can be a problem for textiles stored
in some wooden cabinets. Unsealed wood gives
out acidic vapours that build to sufficient
concentrations in an enclosed space to cause
damage. Sealed wood or metal cabinets are better,
because they are less likely to contribute to
damage.

Only plastics which are safe and stable, such as

polyester and polypropylene, should be used as
storage materials. Polyvinyl chloride—PVC—is a
commonly available plastic, but avoid using it.

The following list of good and bad materials—from

a preservation viewpoint—can help you in
By folding this textile back onto itself you can see the
selecting your storage and display furniture, or the extreme fading caused by exposure to light.
materials to use when making them yourself.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with the permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia
GOOD BAD
Exposure to light can multiply the adverse affects
enamelled metal chipboard, Custom wood
of poor environmental conditions, and damage
acid-free board uncured PVA glue caused by light is often accelerated by high
relative humidity and temperature.
acid-free paper and uncured paint
tissue
Textiles produced in the late 19th century need
polypropylene protein based glues,for particular care. The aniline dyes which were first
example, animal glue manufactured and became popular around this time
polyester film and felt cellulose nitrate were very susceptible to fading—especially
purples, blues and greens. This is particularly
Cotton polyurethanes important for many regional museums, because it
linen unsealed wood, is often textiles from this period that are on
especially hardwoods display.
acrylic paints and PVC
Ideal conditions for displaying textiles
varnishes
sealed wood wool, if metal is also
Display textiles in similar conditions to those
present
outlined for storage; however, as light is essential
in a display environment there are some
differences that must be taken into account.

Textiles 13
 Textiles are considered sensitive to light, so
lighting levels must be set so that they do not
damage the collection. The brightness of the light
should be less than 50 lux; and the UV content of
light should be preferably below 30 µW/lm and no
greater than 75 µW/lm.
CAUTION:
It is important to remember that all damage
caused by photochemical reactions is cumulative
and irreversible.
The temperature should be constant and kept in
the range of 18–22ºC.
Relative humidity should be in the moderate range
of 45–55%.
polyester fabric should be used. Wool and silk
are chemically compatible and can be used
together;
• acid-free board, such as acid-free Foam Cor,
for the base of the mount;
• a Stanley knife or utility knife and metal rule
for cutting out the board;
• PVA glue—acid-free PVA is available and
should be used if possible;
• a fine needle—a slightly bent needle or a
curved needle will be easier to use;
• thread;
• pins; and

• scissors.
Controlling relative humidity in a display area may
be more difficult than in a storage area.
Cut the acid-free board to the required size—
Fluctuations are much more likely, because of the
usually the size of the textile to be mounted plus
varying numbers of people visiting when the
a border. Borders generally have the same
display is open followed by no people at times
dimensions at the top and sides, with a slightly
when the display is closed.
larger allowance at the bottom edge. The extra
allowance at the bottom edge makes the item
Protect textiles from pollutants, dust and insects.
being mounted look centred on the mount. If this
allowance is not made, the item will look as
It is also necessary to provide adequate support
though it is too low on the mount. This is called
for costume and textiles while they are on display.
optical centring.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.

Mounting flat textiles

The following method of mounting a flat textile

involves a number of steps, but it is quite simple if
the instructions are followed closely. You will need:

• white cotton flannelette. This layer acts as an

environmental buffer and as padding for the
textile. It is advisable to wash the flannelette
in hot water before you use it, so that it
shrinks. Shrinkage after you use it on the
mount board causes distortion of the board;
The backing board is cut to size to provide a
border around the textile. Note the border is wider
at the bottom.

• a background, support fabric which has a

suitable colour, weave and fibre to harmonise Cover the board with white, cotton flannelette.
with the textile to be mounted. A general rule
The fabric should be cut larger than the board, so
for selecting backing fabrics is that they
should be made of the same fibre as that that it can be folded to the back of the board to
being mounted. For example, a silk textile be attached firmly.
should be mounted on a silk fabric. If you
can’t use the same fabric, a chemically inert

14 Textiles
Pull the flannelette tightly over the board and pin
it to the sides of the board. Cut the corners away
to allow a flat fold-over.
Check that the grain of the fabric is straight in
both directions before fixing it in place.
To fix it in place, glue the fold-overs of fabric to
the back of the board using a polyvinyl acetate—
PVA—adhesive. Pin the fold-overs in place, to hold
them while the glue dries. PVA can be used as long
as it dries fully and cures before the mounted
textile is framed.
Back of board
Folded flannelette
Cut the background support fabric and attach it to
the board in the same way as you did with the
flannelette. Remember to cut the fabric larger than
the board, because it has to overlap on the back
of the board.
Once the glue attaching the background fabric has
dried, glue another piece of this fabric in place
onto the back of the board over the fold-overs.
This gives the back of the board a finished
appearance and hides the cut edges of the fold-
overs.
Once the prepared board is completely dry, lay the
textile on the front fabric and stitch it into place.
Don’t apply tension to the textile when you are
stitching it.
Before stitching, ensure that the grain of the
textile is aligned with the grain of the backing
fabric, otherwise it can look lopsided.
Use herringbone stitches on frayed edges—this
will help prevent further fraying. A running stitch
can be used on hemmed edges or selvages.
Herringbone
or Running Stitches
All edges of the textile should be sewn. It ensures
that the weight of the textile is distributed evenly.
For larger pieces, grid lines of stitching may be
required through the middle of the textiles, to
provide extra support. Generally a line of stitching
is needed every 200mm.
For more information
For information about the selection of support
fabrics and for information about stitches,
please see the section More About Textiles
later in this chapter.
Conservation framing
Having mounted your textile in such a way as to
protect it and reduce the stresses placed on it, it
is important to frame it correctly. Conservation
framing is designed to protect against harmful
environmental effects such as light, dust and
insect attack.
Framing your textile using the wrong techniques
and materials can cause irreparable damage.
Conservation materials and techniques may be
more expensive than general framing, but it is
really worth the investment. The following notes
outline the main points to be considered when
framing textiles.
It is strongly recommended that frames containing
textiles be glazed to provide added protection.
Glazing provides a barrier at the front of the frame.
The barrier buffers the textile against fluctuations
in relative humidity and temperature. It keeps
insects, dust and pollutant gases away from the
textile, and provides some protection against the
harmful effects of light and UV radiation.
Textiles 15
 The selection of glazing materials is important.
Glass can be used, but it does have disadvantages:
• if the glass breaks, it can very easily cut your
textile; and
• glass provides only a little protection against
the harmful effects of UV radiation.
Plexiglas 231, an acrylic UV-filtering glazing, is
much better than glass. It does not break and it
gives added protection against UV radiation.
The glazing material should not be in direct
contact with the textile because:
• this can flatten the texture of the textile
through pressure; and
• mould can grow on the item, if environmental
changes result in condensation forming on
the inside of the glazing.
A slip, spacer or window mount should be used to
separate the glazing from the mounted item.
The covered, acid-free board on which the textile
is mounted should fit into the frame with a couple
of millimetres gap in each direction: so that if the
board expands, it will not distort.
An acid-free board should be placed on the back of
the frame, to seal the frame from dust and insects.
It should be attached firmly to the frame and
sealed with tape.
The correct mounting and framing of textiles not
only protects and prolongs their lives, but can also
greatly enhance their appearance.
Components of a conservation framing system.
On the right, the frame moulding and glazing; on
the left, the mounted textile with a window mount.
In this case the window mount is cut away to show
the mounting technique.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
16 Textiles
Open hanging methods
for flat textiles
It is best for textiles to be fully supported and
protected with mounts and frames. But there are
types of textiles that are better suited to open
display, for example, large flat textiles.
The following open display methods are quite easy
and give your textiles adequate support while on
display.
Hanging textiles using Velcro
Velcro hook and loop tape can be used very
successfully to hang textiles for display. But Velcro
can be used to display only some types of textiles.
The textiles need to be strong and in good
condition.
This method is best suited to fairly thick types of
textiles such as tapestries and quilts. It is not
suited to fine fabrics like sheer silks or lace.
First, machine sew the soft side of the Velcro to
herringbone cotton tape; this makes the Velcro
easier to hand-sew to the textile and avoids the
Velcro being attached directly to items.
Position the Velcro and herringbone tape straight
across the top of the textile and hand-sew it to
the textile. It is important that the stitching goes
through all layers of the textile. If the stitching
does not go right through all layers, some layers
will bear all the weight and others will eventually
sag. The top edge will be damaged and distorted.
Velcro and herringbone tape attached to the back
of a textile.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

Velcro
Herringbone Tape
Back of Textile
CAUTION:
Do not machine sew Velcro to your valued textiles
because machine-sewing creates perforations,
which can be a line of weakness.
Tack or staple the hard side of the Velcro to a
wooden bar of sufficient size and strength to bear
the weight of the textile. Make sure there are
enough tacks or staples to bear the weight of the
item which is to be hung for display. Once this is
done, the bar can be hung in position.
Then attach the textile to the bar by aligning the
two halves of the Velcro system.
If the textile does not hang straight or flat at
first, the Velcro enables you to adjust the top edge
and alter the hang of the textile.
Heading cloth
Another method for hanging textiles is to use a
heading cloth. This method is suitable only for
textiles in very good condition, and is more suited
to lightweight fabrics.
This sari is rolled for storage, but in the foreground is
a heading cloth which has been attached so it can be
hung for display.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia reproduced with
the permission of the History Trust of South Australia
Using running stitch, attach a strip of fabric to the
underside of the textile you wish to display. The
strip of fabric should extend well under the textile
to ensure adequate support, and extend beyond
the top of the fabric by at least 500mm.
Use herringbone stitch to attach the heading cloth
to the top and sides of the textile if it has frayed
edges.
To hang the textile for display, attach it to a
round, wooden batten, which must first be sealed
with acrylic paint to prevent damaging acids
transferring to the textile.
Once the paint is fully dry and cured, the heading
cloth is rolled around the batten until the top of
the textile is level with the batten. The heading
cloth is stapled to the batten using stainless steel
staples. See diagram.
The batten can then be attached to the wall with
fittings such as threaded eyelets screwed into the
ends of the batten.
Stainless steel staples
Wooden dowel
Headercloth
Headercloth
stitched to back
of textile using
running stitch
Running stitch
Back of textile
The back of a textile can be protected using a loose
lining. This is particularly important if the wall the
textile hangs against is very rough or dusty. A
lining is made slightly smaller than the textile, and
hangs between it and the wall. It can be attached
to the dowel or bar used for hanging the textile.
For more information
For information about stitches, please see the
section More About Textiles later in this chapter.
Textiles 17
 Displaying historic costume
Many people feel that garments cannot be fully
appreciated unless they are worn. It is difficult to
get a complete picture of the cut of a garment if it
is hanging on a coat-hanger. For this reason, The unmodified
garments are regularly placed on mannequins for mannequin.
display, however, the mannequins used are not Photograph courtesy
always appropriate. of Artlab Australia

A costume needs to be displayed in the correct

way: so that it is supported and not vulnerable to
physical stress, and so that it communicates
accurate information about the fashions and
customs of its period.

The most important consideration when displaying
a costume on a mannequin is to make sure that
the mannequin is the right size and shape for the
costume. Each costume has a particular silhouette
which provides an accurate representation of
fashions of a particular period; and this cannot be
seen if the mannequin used is the wrong size or
shape.
Then attach Dacron to the mannequin, to create the
correct shape for the garment. The easiest way to
do this is to cover the mannequin with a layer of
tubular cotton stockinet fabric. The Dacron is placed
underneath the Stockinet and held in place by the
stretch of the fabric. Tacking stitches in white
thread can be used if additional support is required.

If you do not have a mannequin of the correct size

and shape, it is relatively easy to:

• modify a mannequin to suit a particular

garment; and
Mannequin padded
• provide the correct undergarments for the out and wearing
period. undergarments.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia
Modifying an existing mannequin

A mannequin can be modified to suit the garment

which you are going to display. If you have a
choice, it is best to select a mannequin which is
smaller than the garment, and then pad it to fit
the garment exactly.
If you have a mannequin which is smaller than the
garment, begin by measuring the garment in a
number of areas, such as the hips, waist, chest,
shoulders, shoulders to waist and inside trouser
leg. Careful measuring will ensure that you will not
need to keep trying the costume on the mannequin
while modifying it. This minimises handling of the
garment, which is very important, especially if it is
fragile.
If you have a mannequin which is larger than the
costume, the mannequin will need to be reduced in
size. Electric sanders and saws are useful for this job.
Once the mannequin has been cut down it should
be covered as described above. You may have to
wrap the mannequin in cotton bandages to smooth
over any rough surfaces before padding the
mannequin.
Contemporary mannequins are generally not suitable
for displaying historic costume because they have
the wrong silhouette and inappropriate faces.

18 Textiles
Undergarments should be made from white or
unbleached fabric. They are particularly important
in order to provide the correct support for the
garment while on display. If a garment is not
supported as intended, stresses will arise along the
seams of the fabric and irreparable damage will
occur.
The basic stand is made of hardwood 25mm in
diameter and approximately one metre long. The
hardwood is sunk into a round base approximately
300mm in diameter and 40mm deep. The base may
be heavier if necessary.
All wood surfaces must be sealed with a clear
Estapol or the like. This slows the migration of
acids from the wood.

The completed
mannequin, with
costume.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with
the permission of
the History Trust
of South Australia

Drill 5mm holes through the stand at 10mm

Making a mannequin
The easiest way to make a mannequin for
displaying costume is with chicken wire and a
wooden stand. These are cheap and readily
available materials that can be used to good effect.
intervals. This allows for the waistline of the
mannequin to be altered to suit a particular
costume.
Place a steel pin through the holes to support the
upper structure of the mannequin. The stand
should be set into the base.
To form the hips and shoulders of the mannequin,
cut two oval pieces of plywood to form the hips
and shoulders of the mannequin.

An 1860s dress Shoulder piece Hip piece

displayed on a
mannequin of the 250mm 300mm
correct shape and
style.
Photograph courtesy
100mm 180mm
of Artlab Australia
reproduced with the
permission of the
History Trust of
South Australia
Glue the shoulder piece to the top end of a 270mm
diameter PVC pipe. This pipe should slide easily
over the timber forming the stand of the
mannequin.
The following instructions explain how to make a
basic mannequin for a dress. The measurements Pass the tube to the bottom of the hip section. Glue
used in these diagrams are a guide only; you will in place using Araldite epoxy resin. Paint the stand
have to modify them to fit individual garments. with acrylic paint to seal the wood and the PVC.

Textiles 19
 To pad the mannequin and protect your garments
from the wire:

• cover the body of the mannequin with knitted

cotton stockinet. Pull the tube of stockinet
over the mannequin and attach it to the hip
550 mm section. Then put Dacron in place to soften
the surface of the wire and pad the
mannequin to the appropriate shape; and

• stitch the top of the stockinet in place.

If you wish, you can cover the mannequin with a

Create the body of the mannequin by wrapping
galvanised chicken wire around the frame. This can
be attached to the top of the shoulder piece and
the bottom of the hip piece.
Arms can be made separately from Dacron covered
with fabric. They can be inserted into the sleeves
or armholes of the costume first and then attached
to the body using Velcro dots. If you do not want
an arm shape to protrude from the costume, acid-
free tissue can be used to pad out the sleeves.
fabric which will enhance the appearance of the
costume.
A collar can be made from a piece of fabric-
covered cardboard. This will have to be made to fit
each individual garment.
You can use a simply constructed mannequin like
this for a variety of costumes. The basic framework
is there and the size and shape can be modified
easily to suit several costumes of approximately
the same size.

The waist is made by pulling a piece of string

tightly around the cylinder of chicken wire. If you
need to change the body shape of the mannequin,
you can do so easily by bending the chicken wire.
Cleaning textiles
Textiles can hold a lot of dirt and dust, which can
mar the appearance of the items and be damaging
as well. You can clean your textiles if they are
reasonably robust, but if the textiles appear to be
fragile it is advisable to consult a conservator
before starting to clean.

The best way to remove dirt and dust from textiles

is to use a vacuum brushing technique. This
involves lifting dust and grit off the surface with a
brush, and vacuuming them away so that they
cannot resettle on the surface.

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It is important to make sure that the vacuum
cleaner has low suction, so that you minimise the
risk of damage to the item being cleaned.

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There are a number of methods you can use to
modify your vacuum cleaner to make it suitable for
conservation use.

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;;; A product which will attach to any vacuum cleaner
is now available commercially. The Micro Vacuum
Attachment Kit, made by Schneider Industries Inc.,
Honolulu, Hawaii 96814, is ideal for conservation
use. Another product is a Vacuum Accessory Kit
made by Marbig. A variety of micro and mini

20 Textiles
vacuum attachments suitable for cleaning some
fabrics are on the market. They are designed for
cleaning computers.
When vacuuming very fragile objects, it is useful to
put a piece of Nylon net over the end of the hose.
First attach a rigid pipe to the end of the hose. A
piece of net 200mm square can be folded into
quarters and attached over the pipe using a rubber
band. This prevents fragile materials being sucked
into the vacuum cleaner. The rigid pipe makes it
easier to control where the hose is placed. The
suction of the cleaner can be modified by using
extra layers of more closely woven fabric.
Hold the vacuum cleaner hose at least 20mm from
the surface of the textile, and use a soft brush to
lift the dirt from the surface of the textile. The
suction will then pick up the dirt.
Place a piece of net in a round embroidery frame
and lay this on the textile. It can then be
vacuumed through the net while preventing the
suction lifting fibres from the surface.
While surface cleaning, always look out for insect
frass—it is often an indication of insect attack—
and fragments which have come away from the
textile. These fragments should be retrieved and
placed in specimen bags, and labelled with the
title and accession number of the object, then
given to whoever is responsible for the item.

If there is any soiling that cannot be removed

Vacuum brushing
with netting around
the end of the pipe
to catch any loose
fragments of the
textile.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia
There are two methods of surface cleaning with
vacuum suction.
from the object with light brushing, do not
attempt to remove it because this will damage the
surface of the object. Only a trained conservator
should attempt removal.
CAUTION:
Washing a textile is an irreversible process.
If the dyes bleed, the fabric shrinks or
disintegrates this cannot be reversed.
It is essential that an appropriate washing
solution and an appropriate cleaning method
are used to prevent damage to the textile.
If you plan to wash or dry-clean textiles,
particularly dyed textiles, you should first
consult a textiles conservator.

Summary of conditions for storage and display

Storage Display

Temperature 18ºC–22ºC 18ºC–22ºC

Relative Humidity 45–55% 45–55%

Brightness of the Light Dark storage preferred. Less than 50 lux.

UV Content of Light nil Less than 30µW/lm,

no more than 75µW/lm

Textiles 21
 Textiles in Australia’s climatic zones
The climatic zones outlined below are broad categories—conditions may vary within these categories,
depending on the state of repair of your building and whether the building is air conditioned or not.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas it is often very hot during the day and very cold
at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity, for
example from 75%–20% in a day.
When caring for textiles in arid areas it its important to note that:
• insects can still survive;
• in very dry conditions, textiles will give out the moisture they contain and will tend to become more
brittle; and
• non-fabric components of the textiles may be adversely affected by very dry conditions and
consideration should be given to this, even if the textiles themselves are stable.
Remember that even arid areas have periods of higher relative humidity, even though the periods may
only be very short.
The system of layers of storage—acid-free material sandwiching the textiles, boxes and rollers in
cupboards—is particularly suited to arid areas because of the tendency to get quite marked fluctuations
in temperature and relative humidity. Many arid areas are also very dusty and so the layers of storage
protect the textiles from dust and grit.
Because of the large temperature fluctuations in arid areas, there is a risk that condensation could form
inside frames. It is important to have a spacer in your frames to keep framed textiles out of direct
contact with the glazing material, otherwise mould could grow inside the frame.
Note: If your textiles collections have been stored in an arid environment for a considerable period and
they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions. This
could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
It is probably easier to achieve the recommended ideal conditions for the storage of textiles in a
temperate climate, however, it is unlikely that you will be able to maintain an even environment
without the help of sophisticated air conditioning equipment.
The system of layers of storage—acid-free material sandwiching the textiles, boxes, boxes and rollers
within cupboards—will be very useful in helping to buffer against the extreme conditions that can occur
in a temperate environment.
As for all climatic areas, regular inspections of storage and display areas are important so that
developing problems do not go unnoticed.
Note: If your textiles collections have been stored in a temperate environment for a considerable period
and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions.
This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

22 Textiles
 Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.

When caring for textiles in high humidity conditions it is important to note that:

• insects and moulds thrive and reproduce readily;

• the rate of deterioration due to light and UV radiation increases;

• different components of single objects will take up moisture at different rates and swell by
different amounts. For example, a cotton core in a metallic thread will expand and contract in
response to fluctuations in relative humidity, but the metal does not change as readily. This
causes abrasion to the cotton core thread; and

• gelatine sequins on 19th century costume can swell and become sticky in high relative
humidity conditions, and can stick to the underlying fabric.

Remember that in tropical areas, air flow is important and this should be taken into account when
designing storage and display systems.

Note: If your textiles collections have been stored in a tropical environment for a considerable period
and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions.
This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

MORE ABOUT TEXTILES Tyvek can be machine-sewn into storage bags or

covers. It can also be machine-washed.

A note on the use of Tyvek

Tyvek is a very useful storage material for
textiles. It will protect your textile from dust and
water while allowing air circulation. However, it
must be used the right way up. Tyvek is water- Tyvek used to cover
resistant from one direction but is penetrable stored garments.
from the other side. This is how it allows the
Photograph courtesy
textile to breathe. The smooth side of the Tyvek of Artlab Australia
should be placed in contact with the textile at all
times. Tyvek is available in white or with one
coloured side. It may be easier to use coloured
Tyvek to ensure that you always use it the right
way up. Tyvek is available in a range of weights.
The weight commonly used in conservation is
Type 1443R.

Textiles 23
 Selecting fabrics,
threads and stitches for
textile conservation
When preparing to mount or hang a textile for
display, there are some important principles to
remember:
The work you do should be reversible.
You should use only the minimum amount of
stitching required to stabilise the textile.
Use the correct techniques and materials to ensure
the long-term preservation of your textiles.
As a general rule, always use like with like. For
example, a silk textile should be mounted on a silk
fabric and stitched with silk thread. If you cannot
use the same fibre, always use an inert synthetic
fibre such as polyester. Using incompatible
materials, such as using silk with cotton,
accelerates the degradation of your textile.
Silk and wool are both protein fibres and are
therefore compatible. Cotton, linen and other plant
fibres are cellulose fibres and are compatible with
each other.
Support fabrics
As a general rule, the finer the thread the better;
but you will have to judge by the appearance of
the fabric what denier of thread will be the most
appropriate. For example, fine silk will require a
fine silk or polyester thread. A woollen tapestry
will require a coarser woollen thread.
Stitches
Before stitching your historic textiles, remember:
• to make sure that the needle passes in
between the threads in the weave, not
through them. If the needle passes through
weakened fibres it can cause considerable
damage;
• to keep the tension of the stitches fairly
loose, so as not to damage the fabric; and
• do not use knots. Start your thread by leaving
a tail at the back of your textile and stitch
three small stitches in one position to anchor
your thread.
The next section describes the main stitches used
in textile conservation.
Laid and couched stitching
This is one of the main stitches used in
conservation. It is used because it provides
maximum support for the fabric with a minimal
amount of stitching passing through the textile.

A support fabric is the fabric on which a textile is

mounted before framing. As a general rule, always
use like with like; that is, a wool fabric should be
mounted on wool.

This fabric is often exposed, either forming a

border around the textile or showing through areas
of damage in the textile. Therefore, it is important
that the support fabric is similar in colour and
weave to the original textile.
Couching is used to stitch worn areas of the textile
to a support fabric underneath it. The textile
If you cannot buy a fabric of the correct colour,
should never be under tension when being
weave and fibre type, you can have fabric dyed by
stitched.
textile conservators experienced in colour
matching or by commercial dyers. Running stitch

Threads

When selecting threads remember to always use

like with like, for example, silk with silk or
polyester, or cotton with cotton.

24 Textiles
Running stitch is used to join two pieces of fabric
together. It is used around the edge of a textile,
and is also used when stitching a lining onto a
textile in a grid pattern.
It is a good idea to do a back stitch approximately
every 50mm: to lock the stitching in place so the
textile does not slip along the stitching and so
strain.
Stab stitch
Stab stitch is worked in the same way as running
stitch, except the stitch on the surface of the
textile is smaller than those underneath.
Herringbone stitch
Herringbone stitch is generally used to stitch
textiles with frayed edges. This stitch prevents
further fraying of the textile. It is a useful stitch
because it spreads the load of the stitching over a
greater area of the textile.
The size and spacing of the stitch depends on the
type of textile and the extent of the damage.
If you have a problem relating to the storage or
display of textiles, contact a conservator.
Conservators can offer advice and practical
solutions.
For further reading
Arnold, Janet, 1977, Patterns of Fashion 1.
Englishwomen's Dresses and Their Construction—
c. 1660–1860, Macmillan London Ltd, London.
Arnold, Janet, 1978, Patterns of Fashion 2.
Englishwomen's Dresses and Their Construction
c.1860–1940, Macmillan London Ltd, London.
Arnold, Janet, 1973, A Handbook of Costume.
Macmillan London Ltd, London.
Bradfield, Nancy, 1981, Costume in Detail
1730–1930, Harrap Ltd, London.
Burnham, Dorothy K., 1980, Warp and Weft:
A Textile Terminology, Royal Ontario Museum,
Toronto, Canada.
Canadian Conservation Institute, 1983, ‘Rolled
Storage for Textiles’, CCI Notes 13/3, Canada.
de Dillmont, T., 1912, Encyclopedia of Needlework,
DMC Library, Mulhouse, France.
Earnshaw, P. 1986, The Identification of Lace,
Shire Publications Ltd, Aylesbury, U.K.
Earnshaw, P. 1982, Dictionary of Lace, Shire
Publications Ltd, Aylesbury, U.K.
Fletcher, Marion1984, Costume in Australia
1788–1901, Oxford University Press, Oxford
and Melbourne
Landi, Sheila 1985, The Textile Conservator's
Manual, Zndedn, Butterworth-Heinernann Ltd,
Oxford, U.K.
Leene, J. 1972, Textile Conservation, Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington D.C. U.S.A.
Maynard, Margaret 1994, Fashioned from Penury:
Dress as Cultural Practice in Colonial Australia,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Norton, R. 1984, Storage and Display of Textiles—
for Museums in South East Asia, UNESCO.
Sandwith, H. & Stainton, S., 1991 Rev. edn., The
National Trust Manual of Housekeeping, Viking
in Association with The National Trust, London.
Textiles 25
 Tebbs, L. 1978, The Art of Bobbin Lace, Question 4.
Paul P.B. Minet, London.
Which of the following statements are true?
Waugh, Norah 1968, The Cut of Women's Clothes
1600–1930, Faber and Faber, London. a) Historic costume should not be worn if you
wish to preserve it.
b) Body oils and perspiration will not damage
Self-evaluation quiz textiles.
c) The stress and strain of wearing a garment
Question 1. can cause a great deal of damage.
d) Historic costume should be worn on festive
Textiles can be damaged by: occasions especially those involving food and
drink.
a) being creased—this can lead to splitting of
the textiles; Question 5.
b) light and UV radiation, causing fading and
setting off chemical reactions which weaken Small flat textiles:
the textiles; a) should be stored in Dacron sausages;
c) mould, insects and pollutants; b) should be stacked one on top of the other;
d) perspiration; c) should always be rolled;
e) all of the above. d) can simply be stored flat, with interleaving if
items are to be stacked.
Question 2.
Question 6.
When handling textiles:
When rolling a large textile for storage:
a) try to touch as little of them as you can—
always pick them up by one part only; a) choose a roller that is longer than the item is
wide;
b) fold them as neatly and as small as possible
to make handling easier; b) cover the roller with acid-free material to
protect the textile;
c) never pick them up by one corner and always c) select a roller with a small diameter so that it
support the weight of the textile evenly; does not take up too much space;
d) have clean hands. d) fringes and tassels should be kept straight.

Question 3. Question 7.

To label a textile: When displaying textiles:

a) write in permanent ink on the corner of the a) be aware that light and UV radiation are the
textile, or on the collar of the costume; greatest enemies of textiles;

b) write in permanent ink on a sticky label and b) use acid-free materials in the display systems;
stick this to the textile;
c) ensure that your textiles are well supported;
c) machine-sew a label to the textile;
d) protect your textiles from fluctuations in
d) write the label onto cotton tape and attach relative humidity and temperature, dust,
this to the textile with one or two hand- insects and pollutants;
stiches. e) all of the above.

26 Textiles
 Question 8. Question 6.

Historic costume can be: Answer: a), b) and d). c) is not correct: the roller
should be as large as possible to maximise the
a) stored on wire coat-hangers; curvature of the textile.
b) displayed safely on mannequins if measures
are taken to modify the mannequin to the Question 7.
appropriate shape;
Answer: e).
c) worn regularly with the right undergarments;

d) protected in storage by hanging them on Question 8.

padded hangers and covering them to keep
off dust.
Answer: b) and d). Wire coat-hangers are not
suitable for hanging historic costume. Historic
Question 9. costume should not be worn.

To clean textiles: Question 9.

a) proceed with caution and use a vacuum
brushing technique; Answer: a).

b) wash them in washing machines;

c) use the full suction of your vacuum cleaner to

ensure you remove all the dirt;

d) use a carpet beater.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: e).

Question 2.

Answer: c) and d).

Question 3.

Answer: d).

Question 4.

Answer: a) and c) are true. b) and d) are false.

Question 5.

Answer: d).

Textiles 27
Leather
Objectives page 31
Introduction page 31
What is leather? page 31
What are the most common types of damage? page 32
Common causes of damage page 33
Storing and displaying leather page 33
Treatments page 34
Cleaning leather page 34
Lubrication of leather page 36
Treatments of attached metal fittings page 38
Summary of conditions for storage and display page 39
Leather in Australia’s climatic zones page 39
MORE ABOUT LEATHER
Skin page 41
Collagen page 41
Untanned skin products page 41
Leather page 42
Spews page 42
Additional cleaning methods page 43
Humidity chamber page 43
Lubricant formulations page 44
For further reading page 44
Self-evaluation quiz page 45
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 46
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• know the difference between leather and
other skin products such as rawhide,
parchment and semi-tanned leather;
• understand the adverse effects that moulds,
insects, inappropriate environmental
conditions and excessive lubrication can have
on leather;
• know the storage and display conditions
which are required to minimise the
deterioration of leather objects;
• understand the need for careful assessment of
leather before attempting any treatment
including cleaning;
• know some cleaning processes that can be
used on leather and be aware of the
limitations of each method;
• know when to lubricate leather objects; and
• be able to prepare and apply lubricants to
objects which must remain flexible.
Introduction
Animal skin products have been used since ancient
times, and continue to be used. Leather’s
durability and workability have made it a very
important domestic and commercial product.
Leather has been used in the manufacture of an
enormous range of objects, including clothing,
saddles, boats, thongs, shields, aprons, shoes,
upholstery straps and belts, and covers for books.
It has been decorated with gold, dyed, moulded
and polished.
While most museums, galleries and libraries in
Australia do not have examples of ancient leather,
many have leather objects of some kind. It is
important that you have the information you need
to properly care for the leather objects in your
collections.
What is leather?
Leather is one of a range of manufactured materials
which can be made from the skin of any animal.
Long before genuine tanning methods were
used to prepare leather, hides and skins were
processed in a variety of ways. The different
processes were all designed to preserve the skins;
and each process produced skin products with
different properties. Working oil, grease and even
brain matter into raw skins, softening hides by
chewing them and smoking skins were some of
the processes used. These methods affected both
the look and feel of skins and their resistance
to deterioration.
Technically, the term ‘leather' refers to skin
products which have been fully tanned. Tanning is
a process which chemically alters skins, making
them more durable and more resistant to rotting.
It does this by chemically linking relatively small
molecules and fibres in the original skins into
groups of larger molecules and fibres. Large
molecules take longer to break down than smaller
ones.
represents the fibres from
the original skin
represents the links that are
made during tanning
Some of the other skin-processing methods also
link fibres and result in larger molecules; but none
of them do it as fully as the various tanning
techniques, and none of them produce a material
as durable as leather. Other skin products include
rawhide, parchment and vellum, and semi-tanned
leather.
Leather is made up of tanned collagen—the
protein which makes up skin and bones—moisture,
oils and fat.
Leather in good condition is naturally acidic:
in the range of pH 3–6, with a water content
of between 12–20% and a fat content in the
range 2–10%.
Leather 31
 What are the most
common types of damage?
Leather can be damaged in a number of ways.
It can be scuffed, worn, torn, scratched and
abraded—for example, during cleaning—and over-
lubricated—this reduces the moisture content of
the leather and it will become hard, brittle and
inflexible.

Leather is also adversely affected by inappropriate Mould-damaged shoes.

environmental conditions and by biological pests. Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum

Light and UV radiation affect leather in a number

of ways, including:

• providing energy to the chemical breakdown

of the collagen that makes up the leather;

• interaction with atmospheric pollutants,

producing chemicals that damage leather and
other materials associated with it;

• fading of dyes; and

• skin products with hair still attached often

suffer hair loss through light-induced damage.
Extremes of relative humidity are damaging to
leather. In low relative humidity conditions,
leather dries out and can become hard, brittle and
cracked. When the relative humidity is over 65%,
leather is susceptible to mould attack. Leather is
even more attractive to mould if it has been
lubricated too much, because mould uses the
ingredients of the lubricants as a food source.
Vegetable-tanned leathers, including items of
harness, military equipment and bookbindings and
upholstery, are susceptible to deterioration known
as red rot, caused by pollutants in the atmosphere.
Dust is a major problem for leather objects
because it can cause both chemical and
mechanical damage. The sharp edges of minute
particles are abrasive, and can cause fibre damage
if removed by methods other than suction. Dust
also attracts fungal spores, and acts as a centre for
condensation and subsequent chemical attack.
The shoes have been treated to kill the mould and
then cleaned.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Leather is often combined with other materials:
metal buckles, for example. The interaction of
these materials can be damaging.
Many fatty materials incorporated in leather
dressings, react with metal components of leather
objects, causing them to corrode. Evidence of this
corrosion is often seen, for example, the presence
of a turquoise, waxy substance on copper
fastenings. Metals may have been incorporated
into the leather from materials used during the
manufacturing process. Deterioration caused by the
presence of metals in the leather is hastened when
relative humidity is high.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effect, please see Damage and Decay.

Moulds, bacteria, rats, termites and many other

insects attack leather and the materials
incorporated in it.

32 Leather
 Common causes of damage
The most common types of damage are caused by:
• poor handling;
• poor storage methods;
• inappropriate display methods;
• wear and tear from repeated use;
• chemical changes in the materials which make
up the leather objects;
• chemical changes caused by atmospheric
pollutants and by chemicals which are in
contact with the leather objects; and
• a combination of any or all of these.
Much of the common damage to leather objects
can be prevented by care and pre-planning your
handling, storage and display.
Storing and
displaying leather
Ideal conditions for storing leather
Ideally, objects made from leather, hide and skin
should be displayed and stored in a clean, well
ventilated environment where temperature is
constant and moderate—in the range 18–22°C.
If this cannot be maintained, the maximum
temperature should be 25°C.
Relative humidity should be kept in the range of
45–55%. In very dry conditions with the relative
humidity below 30%, leather dries out and
becomes brittle. High humidity, that is, above
65%, encourages mould growth.
Parchment and vellum are very sensitive to
changes in relative humidity, and experience
considerable dimensional change as they absorb
and release moisture.
Leather must be protected from environmental
fluctuations and dust and insect attack. Display
cases and layers of storage provide this type of
protection.
Lighting levels should be kept to a minimum,
particularly for dyed leather. The brightness of
light on undyed leather should be 150 lux or less;
and on dyed leather it should be 50 lux or less.
A UV content below 30 µW/lm and no higher than
75 µW/lm is preferred for undyed and dyed leather.
Avoid exposing any leather to bright spotlights or
direct sunlight, because these can cause leather to
fade, discoloured and dry out.
General storage guidelines
Good housekeeping is essential in the care of
leather. Vacuum and dust regularly. This helps to
minimise mould, insect and rodent attack.
Protect leather objects from dust using Tyvek dust
covers, unbuffered acid-free boxes or acid-free
tissue.
Check objects regularly to detect mould and insect
infestations early.
Leather objects should be fully supported in
storage and on display. They should be supported
in their desired shape, so that if they harden later
there will be no need for reshaping.
Store long leather pieces horizontally to make sure
they are supported fully and evenly.
If three-dimensional objects are unable to support
their own weight, then they should be supported
internally. The form of the support depends on the
shape of the object and the weight of leather to
be supported. You can support and fill rounded
items with unbuffered, acid-free tissue paper, or
chemically stable polyethylene or polypropylene
foams. You can make supports for other shapes
using these foams.
Leather clothing and large objects such as saddles
should be fitted on a dummy or a mount made-to-
measure. Stable materials, such as the above-
mentioned foams, linen, Dacron and most metals
can be used in the manufacture of these supports.
Avoid sharp folds or creases in the leather. This
helps reduce cracking.
Because leather products are naturally acidic, they
should not come into contact with buffered, acid-
free materials: these materials are alkaline and
potentially damaging to leather.
Leather 33
 Storage cupboards and furniture should be made of
painted metal—these provide a stable and neutral
storage environment for leather objects.
If you have wooden storage and display furniture,
it should be sealed and lined with impermeable
coatings, for example, clear polyurethane or
laminates. This reduces the risk of reactive
chemicals from the wood affecting the leather
objects or the metal components associated with
the objects. Remember, sealants and glues should
be fully dry and cured before putting objects into
the storage environment.
Standard conservation-quality mounting and
framing are usually adequate for the protection of
art or documents on parchment.
Treatments
Storing and displaying leather in a well-maintained
environment minimises deterioration and the need
to treat leather objects. All treatments involve
some risk to the object being treated.
Always assess carefully the need for treatment and
the type of treatment. If you are in doubt about
whether to treat or what treatment to use, ask a
conservator for advice.
Use detergents, stain removers and similar
chemicals only after talking with a qualified
conservator.
Cleaning leather
Even cleaning has the potential to damage leather.
For this reason, cleaning should not be considered
as an automatic option for leather objects.
Cleaning is recommended for:
• objects which need cleaning to prevent
deterioration of the leather, which can be
caused by surface deposits and/or mould
growth; and
• recently-acquired objects. Before their
addition to the collection, they should be
inspected and cleaned if necessary. This is
essential to reduce the risk of contaminating
the rest of the collection.
34 Leather
Before cleaning leather objects, consider:
• the type and condition of the surface to be
cleaned;
• the nature of any contaminants or dirt;
• the type of leather; and
• exactly what is to be cleaned.
Dirt or other accretions which have accumulated
during an object’s useful life may be seen as
historic evidence of the object’s use. You may not
want to clean this evidence away.
What to clean
Surface deposits which may need to be removed by
cleaning include:
• dirt, dust and salts;
• fatty spews and gummy spews—materials
which migrate to the surface from the
lubricants used on leather; and
• mould.
For more information
For more information about fatty spews and
gummy spews, please see the section,
More About Leather later in this chapter.
To identify crystalline salts, spews and mould you
may need to examine the leather surface under
magnification:
• the crystalline nature of salts would be clearly
evident;
• mould can be identified by the presence of
fine, fibrous strands; and
• fatty spews appear greasy, and can be
difficult to remove; gummy spews look like
resin deposits on the surface of the leather.
Cleaning guidelines
Before cleaning any leather objects, remember to
assess the condition of the surface being cleaned.
If the object is fragile, cleaning can cause further
damage; and it might be better to protect the
object from further soiling rather than cleaning it.
It is important to remember that cleaning can
stain leather, shift dyes as well as dirt within
leather, and remove lubricants from leather. Always
make sure that cleaning is necessary before
starting.
If cleaning is necessary and the object is able to
withstand it, there are a number of techniques you
can use.
Vacuum cleaning, with the nozzle just above the
leather surface and the power on the lowest
setting, is probably the safest cleaning method. It
is particularly suited to dusty leather which is in
good condition. Place a gauze screen on the end
of the nozzle when cleaning. This prevents
fragments of leather being lost in the vacuum
cleaner. If fragments are being lifted, reduce the
suction of the vacuum cleaner.
Brushing with a soft, squirrel hair or camel hair
brush is another way of removing surface dirt.
Note that even using a soft-bristled brush can
damage fragile objects—because dust is abrasive
and can scratch a fragile surface. Also, small
pieces of damaged leather may be dislodged.
Blowing dirt away with compressed air is
appropriate for some objects. Take care that the air
stream is not too strong, because it could damage
fragile surfaces and dislodge leather fragments. Do
this either outside or in a fume cupboard: to
prevent dust being redeposited on the object.
Granular erasers can be used to remove more
stubborn dirt. Use this method only on surfaces
which are in good condition. Remember also that
some erasers contain chemicals which can
contribute to the deterioration of leather; so it is
important that you select your eraser carefully.
This is particularly important—it can be difficult
to remove all traces of the eraser after cleaning.
For more information
For more information about cleaning with a
granular eraser, please see the section
More About Leather, later in this chapter.
To remove thick surface deposits such as those
occasionally formed by fatty spews, scrape the
surface using a soft, wooden spatula. This method
should be used only to remove the bulk of the
deposit; and care must be taken not to damage the
leather surface. Solvents can be used to remove
the remainder of the deposit left after scraping.
This method is described below.
Residues or thin films of fatty or gummy spews can
be removed using petroleum-based solvents such
as white spirit or hexane.
CAUTION:
Before using hexane and white spirit to clean the
surface of the leather, test them on an
inconspicuous area of the object to check that any
surface finish on the leather is not affected by the
solvent.
It is necessary to control the application of these
solvents, because they can easily spread into the
leather and dissolve fats in the body of the skin.
The solvents can be applied with a small brush or
cotton bud, or a sponge for larger areas. The
solvents will soften the fats which you can then
remove with a clean, cotton bud or your wooden
spatula.
CAUTION:
White spirit and hexane should be used in a well
ventilated area. Remember to protect your hands
when using these solvents because they will
dissolve the oils in your skin, as well as in the
leather.
Use a slightly moistened sponge to remove water-
soluble dirt from leather objects which are in good
condition.
CAUTION:
Use this treatment only where the surface of the
object is protected by a water-resistant coating,
for example, wax, resin or similar. Water can cause
permanent darkening of leather and leave
tidemarks in dyed leathers.
Alcohol or alcohol/water mixtures can be used to
remove surface salts. Water can stain and damage
leather, so keep the water content low. Test the
mixture to make sure that it has no effect on the
leather surface.
An emulsion cleaner is very effective for removing
stubborn dirt. Because this formulation contains
some water, test it in an inconspicuous area before
applying it on a large scale.
Leather 35

Straitjacket before cleaning.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Straitjacket after cleaning with emulsion cleaner.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
For more information
A recipe for the emulsion cleaner and
instructions for its use in the section
More About Lather later in this chapter.
CAUTION:
Do not wet the surface of the leather itself during
cleaning. This increases the likelihood of the
leather hardening when it dries, and can cause
darkening of the leather surface. Use water-based
cleaning methods only if the leather surface is
water-resistant.
Saddle soap—a note of caution
Anecdotal evidence suggests that, although saddle
soap appears to have little detrimental effect on
leather objects which are still in use, museum
objects which have been cleaned with this soap
often seem to be in a worse condition than
untreated objects.
36 Leather
Of major concern is the alkaline nature of saddle
soaps and the effect that the alkalines can have
on leather, which is naturally acidic. If saddle soap
is the only available cleaning option, it is
important to minimise the amount of moisture
used. This reduces the penetration of the soap into
the leather and minimises the potentially
damaging effects of the soap.
Lubrication of leather
Is it necessary?
The usual answer for museum objects is NO!
The main purpose of applying dressings to leather
in museums, galleries and libraries is to prevent
the leather hardening if the relative humidity
fluctuates widely.
If too much lubricant is applied, the leather repels
moisture and eventually becomes hard and
brittle—the very effects that the application of
the dressing was meant to prevent.
Most mould infestation is caused by the presence
of too much lubricant.
Some dressings can also darken leather and cause
increased stickiness. A sticky surface collects and
holds dust, and is very hard to clean.
Lubricants do not provide protection against acidic
pollutants.
Consider these points when deciding whether or
not to apply a dressing to leather. If the leather is
in its required shape, does not need to flex and is
in a relatively stable environment, then lubrication
is usually not necessary.
As leathers age, their ability to absorb fats and
oils effectively is reduced. The amount of fats and
oils needed in archaeological and older leathers is
less than in their modern counterparts. Lubricating
aged leather only causes more problems.
Dressings should not be used to ‘feed’ leather or as
a way of improving its appearance. These
approaches inevitably lead to over-lubrication and
the development of some of the problems outlined
above.
If you want to improve the appearance of a leather
object which originally had a polished surface, it is
better to use a wax polish. Because this is
primarily a surface treatment there should be
minimal impact on the leather itself.
When should lubricants be used?
Lubricants are really only necessary if:
• flexibility needs to be restored to an object;
and
• the leather is displayed in an environment
which experiences repeated and extreme
fluctuations in relative humidity.
It is important to realise that museum objects
rarely need to be flexible, because they are
generally not used. They are usually stored and
displayed. If the storage environment is stable,
there is little need for lubrication.
To restore flexibility to hardened leather, it is
necessary to rehumidify or condition the leather
before lubrication. Various procedures may be used
(Calnan, 1984). These include:
• sponging the surface with an alcohol solution
diluted with water or a water-based
moisturiser;
• covering the leather with damp sawdust
overnight; and
• placing the leather in a humidity chamber.
For more information
For more information about humidifying leather
and constructing a humidity chamber, please see
More About Leather later in this chapter.
If an object needs to be reshaped then
humidification often will be enough.
The next step in restoring flexibility to leather is
the actual lubrication itself.
Types of lubricants for leather
The fats and oils which lubricate the leather can
be applied either in a water-based emulsion or
dissolved in organic solvents. Fats and oils
dissolved in an organic solvent are known as
solutions or dressings.
Vegetable oils are not used as frequently as fats,
because in the long term they are more prone to
oxidation which results in the oil yellowing and
hardening; this is followed by loss of the
lubricating properties.
A water-based emulsion is best if tests show that:
• water does not discolour the surface; and
• the surface absorbs water.
Applying oils in emulsion increases the likelihood
of oils remaining evenly distributed throughout the
interior of the leather. If an emulsion cannot be
applied, use a solvent-based dressing.
For more information
For recipes to make leather lubricants,
please see the section More About Leather
later in this chapter.
Guidelines for the use of lubricants
Only apply lubricants to leather which is:
• deformed—the lubricant is used to make the
object more flexible and to assist in
reshaping the object;
• extremely dry; or
• cracked due to shrinkage.
CAUTION:
Never apply dressings to objects containing
untanned or semi-tanned materials such as
hides, parchment and vellum.
Always test the lubricant in an inconspicuous area
before use.
When the leather is generally in good shape, but is
dry and hard, applying a commercial dressing/wax
such as Fredelka is useful.
CAUTION:
Fredelka should not be used on items with
metal attachments or decorations because
it causes corrosion of metal.
Leather 37
 If the dryness is only a surface condition, or if the
leather is very thin—for example, book covers and
car seats—then a preparation such as British
Museum Leather Dressing adequately restores
surface-oil content.
Apply it sparingly, using a soft cloth. It can be used
on leather with metal attachments or decorations.
The beeswax in this dressing forms a thin film on
the leather surface which can be polished.
Some surface finishes resist the penetration of oils
and fats into the leather, whether you use an
emulsion or a dressing. If this happens, it is best
to rub an oil emulsion into the flesh side—or
underside—of the leather, to encourage
penetration.
In some circumstances, treatment chemicals may
be applied using bentonite paste.
Most of the copper corrosion products can be
removed easily using a soft, wooden spatula.
Residues can then be removed using cotton buds
soaked in leather emulsion cleaner.
To prevent further corrosion, coat the fittings with
microcrystalline or Renaissance wax. A corrosion
inhibitor, benzotriazole—5%—may be added to the
wax if additional protection is needed.
Iron fittings are best treated using sanding or
brushing methods to remove surface rust. Applying
microcrystalline wax to the cleaned surfaces
protects against further corrosion.

Although many commercial leather dressings are

available, these may not be suitable for museum
objects because they are designed for leather
objects which are being used. Static museum
objects have different needs because flexibility is
usually not an important consideration.

Do a careful assessment before applying any

treatment to the leather of a book cover. In most
cases it is preferable to store the books under the
best possible conditions.
Copper corrosion products on studs of a straitjacket.
For more information Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
For information about applying dressing to
leather book bindings, please see the chapter
on Books in Caring for Cultural Material 1.

Treatment of attached
metal fittings
The metals most commonly used with leather are
iron and copper alloys. The fats present in leather
accelerate the corrosion of these metals.
Studs after cleaning and coating with Renaissance wax.
A turquoise-blue, waxy material which forms on
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
copper fittings is usually the most visible sign of
corrosion.
For more information
Due to the intimate contact between the metals
For more information on using bentonite paste and
and the leather, immersion in chemical baths is
usually not an option for the removal of microcrystalline wax, please see the chapter on
disfiguring corrosion products. Metals later in this volume.

38 Leather
 Summary of conditions for storage and display

Storage Display

Temperature Reasonably constant and Reasonably constant and

preferably 18–22ºC. preferably 18–22ºC.
25ºC is the maximum 25ºC is the maximum

Relative Humidity 45–55% 45–55%

Brightness of the Light Dark storage is preferred; Should be 150 lux or less.
but if light is present it should be 150 lux If the leather is dyed,
or less. If the leather is dyed, the the brightness should
brightness should be 50 lux or less. be 50 lux or less.

UV Content of Light Dark storage is preferred but if light Less than 30µW/lm,
is present, UV content should be less no more than 75µW/lm
than 30µW/lm, and no more than 75µW/lm

Leather in Australia’s climatic zones

As leather is affected by changes in temperature and relative humidity, different storage and display
strategies may have to be adopted for leather objects in each of Australia’s climatic zones.
Leather is physically weakened when it is exposed to frequent cycles of expansion and contraction associated
with fluctuations in relative humidity. A combination of high relative humidity and pollutants can cause an
accumulation of acids and subsequent chemical attack.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very
cold at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity,
for example from 75%–20% in a day.
Leather which is exposed to these conditions is likely to become dry, hard and inflexible. Splitting and
cracking are also likely. You can overcome these potential problems by adopting the following practices:
• store leather in cabinets, boxes and wrappers to buffer the objects against fluctuations in
environmental conditions and to protect them from dust;
• make sure that any leather object is stored in the shape that the object is meant to have. If the
object does then dry out and become inflexible at least the desired shape will be retained;
• ensure that any additional sources of heat are reduced. Exposure to daylight and ‘hot’ light sources,
for example, should be avoided;
• leather objects should be stored and displayed away from external walls, fireplaces and similar
sources of heat; and
• portable humidification units may be used during periods of prolonged low relative humidity.
Note: If your collections of leather objects have been stored in an arid environment for a considerable
period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal
conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Leather 39
 Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
Temperate climatic zones are considered to have moderate conditions. It should therefore be easier to
maintain conditions reasonably close to those recommended for leather.
Care does have to be taken, however, to overcome the extreme climatic variations which still occur in
these areas.
• storage and display in sealed cabinets will usually provide enough buffering capacity to overcome
short term variations in relative humidity and temperature;
• wrappers, boxes and cupboards could all be used as layers of storage to provide buffering against
changes in the external conditions; and
• regular inspections of the collections should be carried out.
Note: If your collections of leather objects have been stored in a temperate environment for a
considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended
ideal conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.
In tropical zones high temperatures and relative humidities pose the greatest risk to leather objects. To
minimise damage to leather objects in these areas the following strategies may be adopted:
• place sensitive leather objects in well-sealed cabinets and maintain the relative humidity below 65%.
• use cabinets, boxes and layers of non-buffered acid-free tissue to create buffer zones. This will
reduce the impact of relative humidity and temperature fluctuations on leather. This is the “layers of
storage” principle;
• portable dehumidification units may be used during periods of extremely high relative humidity;
• if RH control is not possible then ensure you have good air circulation to minimise the risk of mould
growth; and
• inspect leather objects regularly and maintain high standards of cleanliness.
Note: If your collections of leather have been stored in a tropical environment for a considerable period
and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions.
This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

40 Leather
 MORE ABOUT LEATHER
Skin
Skin is a complex structure made up of:
• hair;
• sweat glands;
• fat;
• blood vessels; and
• a layer of collagen fibre bundles containing
protein. In the corium, or the body of the
skin, these fibres are large and losely-woven.
In the protective grain layer, these fibres are
finely and tightly-packed.
The grain layer or hair side is the outside surface
layer of the skin. The underside of the skin is
known as the flesh side.
Collagen
Collagen is probably the most abundant protein in
the animal kingdom. It is a major component of
skin, tendon, cartilage, and is found in bone and
teeth.
Collagen molecules are bonded together to produce
fibres. In animal skins there is a structure of fibres
held together by crosslinks. This structure accounts
for the great strength of collagen and the fact that
the fibres are insoluble.
These fibres can be broken down to produce a
collagen product that has a very random
structure—gelatine.
Untanned skin products
Rawhide
Rawhide is the dried skin of an animal which has
had all of the flesh removed. It is usually a very
rigid, tough material. Despite its inherent
toughness rawhide is in many ways the least
durable of the skin products.
It is used in the manufacture of suitcases, and for
hammer heads, drum coverings, thongs and lashings.
Parchment and vellum
Parchment and vellum are made by stretching the
skin on a frame and drying it. The skin is treated
with lime to remove fat and hair, and it is washed
and scraped repeatedly.
Parchment and vellum are untanned animal skins.
Occasionally, tanning solutions are applied to the
surface of the parchment or vellum to improve its
surface quality.
Parchment and vellum are usually light-coloured,
almost opaque, and smooth. They take ink and
colours well. Both were widely used as writing
materials before the introduction of paper to the
West. They have also been used as bookbinding
materials. Translucent parchment and vellums were
also produced, and sometimes used as window panes.
The terms parchment and vellum are sometimes
used interchangeably. Originally vellums came from
calf skins—the name vellum comes from the Latin
for calf. Vellums tend to be whiter and of better
quality than parchments. Modern parchments are
generally thought to be inferior to earlier
parchments. Many modern parchments tend to be
yellowish in colour, a bit greasy and thin. These
parchments are often made from split sheepskins.
Never force curled or distorted parchment to open
out or to lie flat—this can cause damage.
Humidification and drying under tension can
restore the parchment but this should only be
done by a conservator.
Semi-tanned leather
Semi-tanned leather—buckskin or buff leather—is
produced when skin is stretched and an oil and fat
emulsion, usually from the brain of an animal, is
rubbed into it. The skin is then manipulated until
it is dry, soft and flexible. Often it is smoked in
the final stage of treatment.
New, semi-tanned leather is soft, suede-like,
extremely flexible and durable.
In earlier times, semi-tanned leather was used for
clothing, lining, pouches, gloves, saddle seats, and
military uniforms and equipment. The most common
modern example is chamois or wash leather.
Leather 41
 In museums, galleries and libraries, untanned and
semi-tanned skin materials must never be allowed
to come into contact with water.
Leather
Skins are tanned to make leather in order to:
• get rid of smaller molecules which will
degrade readily, within the skin;
• stop biological degradation—that is, rotting;
and
• produce a product that is, flexible, strong and
resistant to deterioration.
Skins which are to be tanned go through a number
of pre-tanning processes. The skins are:
• cured—dried quickly to achieve a temporary
preservation so that they can be transported
without rotting;
• soaped—this returns the moisture to the
dried skins and removes water-soluble
materials;
• unhaired—this loosens hair and fats so that
they can be scraped and pulled away. This
process produces a plump hide;
• cleaned and the flesh side levelled. During
this stage, hair, dirt, grease and remnants of
chemicals from previous processes are
removed;
• delimed—the unhairing process uses lime
which makes the skins very alkaline. This
stage of the processing reduces the alkalinity,
in preparation for the next treatment stages;
• bated—this process makes the skins soft and
flexible. It also cleans the fibre network of
the skins and removes some of the smaller
and weaker fibres. Traditionally, dung was
used in this process;
• drenched—this is similar to bating, but uses
weak organic acids. Traditionally, fermented
grains were used; and
• pickled—this is the final stage that
conditions the skins for tanning.
42 Leather
The next stage in making leather is tanning. The
tanning process draws collagen fibres together and
creates crosslinks between them. This crosslinking
on a molecular and fibre level makes the skin much
more resistant to deterioration. Generally, leathers
are either vegetable-tanned or mineral-tanned.
Vegetable tanning uses tannins which are present
in the barks, woods, leaves and fruits of certain
plants. The colour of the leather prior to finishing
ranges from pale-brown to a reddish brown,
depending on the particular tanning agents used.
Vegetable-tanned leathers are particularly suitable
for bookbinding.
Mineral processing uses mineral salts to chemically
stabilise the skin. In the 1880s, chrome salts were
used to make leathers which were hard-wearing,
stable and water-resistant. The resilience and open
texture of chrome-tanned leathers meant that they
could not be embossed. These leathers were
unsuitable for some kinds of work, particularly
bookbinding.
During investigations into the improved durability
of leathers, a number of experiments have been
carried out using combined tanning techniques.
Another product which is thought of as a leather is
alum-tawed leather. These white leathers were
produced using a solution of alum and salt.
Leather produced by this process is not a true
leather, because it does not have the same
chemical stability and resistance to water that
fully tanned leather has. Zirconium salts are used
to produce a white leather that is washable.
Spews
Fatty spews
Fatty spews are fatty or greasy materials which
migrate to the leather surface. The materials which
migrate to the surface are either solid fats or
products of the acidic breakdown of solid fats.
These fatty materials are often present in
lubricants used to soften leather. Neatsfoot oil,
unless specified as cold-tested, contains a
considerable amount of fatty materials. Leather
dressings containing neatsfoot oil are a potential
source of these spews.
 Gummy spews
Gummy spews arise when oils—particularly fish
oils—used to lubricate leather, degrade to their
constituent fatty acids. These substances migrate
to the surface of the leather, where they appear as
gummy or resinous deposits. They are unpleasant
to touch and handle.
Additional
cleaning methods
Cleaning using a granular eraser
In this method an eraser—Artgum 211, Faber
Castell, for example—is finely grated using a
household grater. It is best to use a plastic grater,
because metal graters may rust or shed small,
metal particles which could damage the leather.
You could also use Draft Clean Powder, a
granulated eraser which is available from suppliers
of conservation materials.
The eraser grains are spread over the leather, then
lightly rotated with the palm of the hand or the
flat of the fingers until the entire area has been
covered. Because skin contains oils, or your hands
could be dirty, wear cotton gloves. If the area you
are cleaning is very small or particularly fragile,
use a small brush to move the granulated eraser
over the surface.
Vacuum clean thoroughly after cleaning to make
sure that the eraser crumbs are removed. This is
particularly important, as conservators are
concerned about the long-term effects of eraser
residues on the texture, colour, pH and wetability
of the surface.
Emulsion cleaner
Dirt which is particularly resistant to cleaning can
be removed using an emulsion cleaner. This
formulation is based closely on one described in
the literature (Fogle, 1985).
To make this cleaner, you need:
• 20ml of non-ionic detergent, for example,
Teric N9, Arkopal N090;
• 2g of carboxymethylcellulose—CMC;
• 1 litre of distilled water; and
• 2 litres of X-4 solvent, hexane.
Mix the non-ionic detergent, CMC, and distilled
water vigorously for several minutes before leaving
the mixture to stand overnight. This gives the CMC
time to swell.
Add 15 parts of this solution to 100 parts of X-4
solvent and shake it vigorously until a creamy
emulsion is formed.
This cleaning solution keeps indefinitely, but
should be shaken before use.
Before using the cleaner, test it on an
inconspicuous area of the object—to make sure
that there is no significant effect on the surface
coatings on the leather or on the leather itself.
Rub the cleaner onto the surface with a clean
cloth, rotating the cloth as it becomes soiled. If
the object is very small or delicate, apply the
cleaner with cotton buds or some similar soft
material. This solution easily removes both fats,
oils and water-soluble dirt.
CAUTION:
Before using hexane and white spirit to
clean the surface of the leather, test them
on an inconspicuous area of the object
to check that any surface finish on the leather
is not affected by the solvent.
Humidity chamber
A simple humidity chamber can be made using
plastic sheeting. The object to be humidified
is placed in a plastic tent with a jar containing
50:50 water and alcohol—methylated spirits
or ethanol. The alcohol prevents mould formation
in the high relative humidity environment
created inside the tent. The tent is then sealed
with tape.
In addition to being used to condition leather,
the raised humidity can also be used to help
reshape the leather. As the leather softens it can
be reshaped slowly. The time taken for softening
Leather 43
 depends primarily on the leather thickness and
the presence of surface coatings. The object
should be removed from the chamber periodically,
and progressively eased into the required shape.
It is usually necessary to use padding during this
process.
Lubricant formulations
The formulations and application methods described
below are those recommended by conservators at
the Central Research Laboratory for Art and Science,
Holland (Fogle, 1985).
Emulsion lubricant
• 2g of lanolin
• 10g of neatsfoot oil
• 6g of surfactant—Teric N9
• 100ml of distilled water
Warm the first two ingredients together at about
60°C until they melt. Cool the mixture to 20°C and
add the surfactant. Mix thoroughly and rapidly.
While stirring continuously, add the distilled water
bit by bit. When all the water has been added,
pour the mixture into a glass cylinder.
Observe the mixture for 10 minutes in the glass
cylinder. If it remains stable and does not
separate, it is ready for use. This mixture contains
no preservatives and does not keep long.
Refrigeration extends the life of the mixture.
Paint the cooled emulsion onto the leather using a
soft-bristled brush. Allow the leather to dry
between coats, if more than one coat is needed to
achieve the desired flexibility.
Lubricant solution
• 2g of lanolin
• 8g of neatsfoot oil
• 100ml of Shellsol T—aromatic-free white
spirit.
Dissolve the lanolin and neatsfoot oil in the
Shellsol T. Paint the solution on the leather using
a soft-bristled brush.
44 Leather
Some commercial neatsfoot oil products contain
significant quantities of fatty impurities. These
impurities will settle out on the surface of leather
after dressing to form fatty spews. To remove these
from your own neatsfoot oil, refrigerate it then
discard the solid upper layer.
British Museum leather dressing
• 200g of lanolin
• 30ml of cedar oil
• 15g of beeswax
• 300ml of X-4 solvent or hexane
To prepare the dressing, the first three ingredients
are mixed together and melted by careful heating.
The molten mixture is then poured rapidly into the
cold X-4 solvent and allowed to cool with stirring.
The dressing should be applied sparingly and
rubbed well into the leather with clean swabs.
After two days the leather may be polished with a
soft cloth.
If you have a problem relating to the storage or
display of leather objects, contact a
conservator. Conservators can offer advice and
practical solutions.
For further reading
British Leather Manufacturers’ Research Association
1957, Hides, Skins and Leather under the
Microscope, Griffiths & Sons Ltd, London.
Calnan, C. 1984, ‘The Conservation of Social
History and Industrial Leather’, Taken into Care:
The Conservation of Social and Industrial History
Items, Proceedings of the Joint UKIC/AMSSEE
Meeting, United Kingdom Institute for
Conservation, London.
Calnan, C., ed. 1991, ‘Conservation of Leather in
Transport Collections’, Papers given at a UKIC
conference, Restoration 1991, United Kingdom
Institute of Conservation, London.
Fogle, Sonja, ed. 1985, Recent Advances in Leather
Conservation, The Foundation of the American
Institute for Conservation of Historic and
Artistic Works, Washington D.C.
Raphael, T.J. 1993, ‘The Care of Leather and Skin
Products: A Curatorial Guide’, Leather
Conservation News, Vol. 9 (1) Materials
Conservation Laboratory of the Texas Memorial
Museum, Austin, U.S., pp 1–15.
Reed, R. 1972, Ancient Skins, Parchments and
Leathers, Seminar Press, London and New York.
Tuck, D.H. 1983, Oils and Lubricants Used on
Leather, The Leather Conservation Centre,
Northampton, U.K.
Waterer, John W. 1972, A Guide to the Conservation
and Restoration of Objects Made Wholly or in
Part of Leather, G. Bell & Sons, London.
which have been fully tanned.
c) Leather has no fat in it.
d) Tanning is a process that chemically alters
skins, making them more durable and more
resistant to rotting.
Question 4.
Cleaning of leather objects is recommended:
a) on a regular basis, preferably monthly;
b) for new objects before they are added to the
collection, if they could contaminate other
objects;

c) if the dirt is disfiguring;

Self-evaluation quiz
d) before an object is put on display.

Question 1. Question 5.

Of the possible cleaning techniques, which is the Which of the measures listed below will help to
safest to use on leather objects? minimise mould formation on leather?

a) Brushing with a soft bristle brush. a) Avoid over-lubrication.

b) Swabbing with a slightly moistened sponge. b) Store in the dark.

c) Vacuum cleaning, with the machine set on c) Maintain good air circulation.
low power.
d) Clean regularly.
d) Gently cleaning using a granular eraser.
e) Keep relative humidity below 65%.
Question 2.
Question 6.
Lubrication of leather objects in a museum is only
necessary if the leather: The major advantage of water-based emulsion
lubricants is that:
a) is hard and dry;
a) they promote an even spread of oil through
b) needs protection against changes in relative the leather;
humidity;
b) they do not darken the leather surface;
c) surface lacks sheen;
c) they induce greater flexibility than do
d) needs to be protected against pollutants. solvent-based dressings;

Question 3. d) they penetrate the leather better than

solvent-based dressings.

Which of the following statements are true?

a) Tanning softens leather.

b) The term leather only refers to skin products

Leather 45
 Question 7. Question 3.

Which of the following statements about storing Answer: b), d).

leather are correct?
Question 4.
a) Folds and creases should be avoided.

b) Buffered acid-free tissue should be used for Answer: b).

support.
Question 5.
c) Long leather pieces should be stored
horizontally.
Answer: a), c).
d) Storage cupboards should be made of painted
metal. Question 6.
e) Low light levels are best.
Answer: a).
Question 8.
Question 7.
In the long term, over-lubrication of leather can
cause: Answer: a), c), d), e). b) is not correct. Buffered
tissue should not be used as it is alkaline, while
(i) increased desiccation of the leather; leather is naturally acidic.
(ii) formation of fatty spews;
Question 8.
(iii) a leather that is too soft;
Answer: d).
(iv) formation of mould under conditions of high RH;

(v) the attraction of dust to a greasy surface.

Which of the above statements are correct?

a) All of them.

b) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv).

c) (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).

d) (i), (ii), (iv) and (v).

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: c).

Question 2.

Answer: b).

46 Leather
Wood
Objectives page 49
Introduction page 49
An introduction to the anatomy and
chemistry of wood page 49
What are the most common
causes and types of damage? page 50
Common causes of damage page 51
The do’s and don’ts of handling wooden objects page 51
Some basic do’s and don’ts of repair and cleaning page 51
Ideal conditions for storing and
displaying wooden objects page 51
General storage and display guidelines page 52
Coating wooden objects page 53
Summary of conditions for storage and display page 54
Wooden objects in Australia’s climatic zones page 54
MORE ABOUT WOOD
Additional notes on fungal attack of wood page 56
For further reading page 56
Self-evaluation quiz page 57
Answers to self-evaluation page 58
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• have a basic knowledge of the main problems
affecting the condition and longevity of
objects made wholly or partially from wood;
• have an awareness of the differences between
softwoods and hardwoods, and heartwood and
sapwood; and
• be able to protect wooden objects during
storage, display and handling.
This section gives a brief overview of the nature of
wood, and provides basic information about the
steps you can take to protect the wooden items in
your collections.
An introduction
to the anatomy
and chemistry of wood
To understand how wood behaves, it helps to have
some understanding of the structure of the living
tree.

Introduction Wood in a living tree is composed of cells—with

cell walls made of cellulose—which transport food
and waste products through the tree.
Wood is a material with which we are all familiar.
Its extensive everyday use for furniture, walls,
As the tree grows, new cell layers are added to its
flooring, ceilings, structural supports in buildings,
outer circumference, forming seasonal—generally
cooking utensils and garden tools builds an image
annual—growth rings.
of the nature of wood in our minds.
Eventually the older cells in the inner part of the
We know that wood is a strong, flexible, versatile
tree produce lignin in the cell walls and die.
and workable material. Items in our homes often
withstand rough use or handling over many years
This creates an area of wood in the centre of the
and still survive. All these factors can create the
tree stem which is comparatively dry—it still has
impression that wooden artefacts in our collections
bound water—and is free of sap. This is known as
don’t need much care.
heartwood.
This is not the case. We must care for wood as we
The outer, moister portion of the wood is called
are for other objects. For wooden objects to
sapwood.
maintain their condition and survive without
damage, they must be given the right environment
The differences between the types of cells and
and be handled appropriately.
their relationship to each other determine the
characteristics of particular species of trees, such
Wooden artefacts found in collections can vary
as their colour, grain and strength.
greatly. They include such items as furniture,
sculpture, technological and industrial artefacts
Many trees also contain other chemicals such as
and archaeological pieces. They can range in size
resins and oils which affect the nature and
from tiny, intricate carvings to horse-drawn
appearance of their wood.
vehicles and whole buildings.
To help with identification, timbers are divided
Although at first glance these objects seem to
into two distinct groups, which are based on their
have little in common with each other, the use of
botanical order:
wood in their manufacture means that they
respond to environmental changes in similar ways. • softwoods are derived from conifers—
These responses are also associated with the type gymnosperms. Softwoods have a more uniform
of wood from which the object is made—the type structure than hardwoods, but are not
of tree, the part of the tree from which the wood necessarily softer; balsa wood, the softest
was originally cut, and the conditions under which timber, is actually a hardwood; and
the wood was seasoned.
• hardwoods are derived from dicotyledons or
broad-leaved trees—angiosperms.

Wood 49
 There are significant structural differences between
softwoods and hardwoods. These allow them to be
distinguished from each other by microscopic
examination. Every timber species has a
characteristic arrangement of cells and tissues
which enables it to be specifically identified. The
tree structure determines the properties of the
resultant timber—for example, strength, degree of
shrinkage, durability, resistance to biological
attack, porosity and moisture permeability.
The susceptibility of wood to damage from a
number of factors depends on the chemical
composition of the wood—that is, the percentages
of the various components, such as cellulose,
lignin and resins. This composition varies,
depending on the original species of tree, the part
of the tree used and the seasoning process.
When trees are cut for timber, the moisture which
was present in the living wood dries out, until the
wood reaches its equilibrium moisture content;
this is called seasoning.
The equilibrium moisture content—EMC—of a
particular piece of wood varies according to the
relative humidity of its environment.
If the relative humidity increases wood will absorb
water and its EMC will rise. The absorption of water
causes wood to swell. If the relative humidity
decreases, the wood’s EMC drops and it shrinks.
If wood is seasoned too quickly, the sapwood dries
and shrinks faster than the inner heartwood—this
causes the sapwood to crack.
How much the wood shrinks when it dries depends
also on where, within the tree, the wood comes from.
Wood perpendicular to the grain shrinks
substantially more, that is, it shrinks across the
grain rather than down the length of the grain.
Wood warps when it swells and shrinks at different
rates.
What are the most common
causes and types of damage?
Rapid fluctuations in relative humidity can result in:
• warping;
• joints in objects pulling apart;
50 Wood
• twisting;
• panels distorting;
• splitting;
• cracking;
• cleavage and loss of paint and other surface
layers; and
• veneer can lifting up or popping off.
For more information
For more information about the adverse
effects caused by fluctuations in humidity,
please see Damage and Decay.
Wood is also very susceptible to biological damage.
Wood’s susceptibility to biological attack from
mould, bacteria and insects depends on its moisture
content and so can be related to the relative
humidity levels of the surrounding environment.
Fungal attack can cause:
• damage to wood fibres;
• structural breakdown of the surface; and
• staining.
Bacterial attack causes slow deterioration of wood,
accompanied by a putrid smell. This is most likely
to happen when wood is in constant contact with
water or mud.
Insects are the most serious pests affecting wooden
objects in Australia. Insect attack usually results in
structural damage. This damage can be severe.
For more information
For more information about the effects on wood of
fungi and insects, please see the chapter on
Biological Pests in Damage and Decay.
For more information about brown rot, dry rot
and soft rot, please see the section
More About Wood later in this chapter.
Other damage which must be considered includes:
• physical damage caused by falls, knocks and
continued use;
• fading and discolouration caused by exposure
to light and UV radiation; and
• burning or fire damage.
 Common causes of damage
All the most common types of damage are caused by:
• poor handling;
• poor storage methods;
• inappropriate display methods;
• chemical and physical changes in the objects
themselves; and
• a combination of any or all of these.
The following sections outline practical steps you
can take to minimise this type of damage.
The do’s and don’ts of
handling wooden objects
Handling wood objects with care and commonsense
helps to prevent damage. It is best to handle
items as little as possible. It is also important to
fully support objects when handling them.
Examine each object carefully to find the
strongest, most stable part—and handle it there.
Avoid lifting wooden items by their handles or
other weak points such as the backs of chairs,
table tops and damaged areas. Lift them by
holding the legs, or the lowest, strongest
structural member such as under the seat rail of a
chair. Pick up and carry furniture, rather than
pushing or pulling it. Pushing and pulling furniture
puts severe strain on the structure. Secure all
drawers and doors before moving furniture, and
check for loose decorations and members before
moving it.
If objects are painted, avoid touching these areas.
Don’t try to carry furniture alone—you risk
damaging the furniture and injuring yourself.
Some basic do’s and don’ts of
repair and cleaning
Repair small pieces which have broken off or
become detached, or store the pieces with the
object until a conservator can carry out the
repairs. When repairing wooden objects, use only
an adhesive which can be removed easily in the
future, such as:
• a traditional animal glue which is applied
warm; or,
• a conservation-quality, white glue such as
Rhoplex AC-33.
White or yellow woodworking adhesives available in
hardware stores are not ideal; but they are preferable
to epoxy adhesives like Araldite or the superglues
because it is virtually impossible to remove these
without damaging the underlying wood.
Be aware that the finishes on wood can be
affected by the adhesive—so use as little glue as
possible near the edges of the break.
If you are unsure about what glue to use, or if the
damage is extensive, contact a conservator for help
and advice.
Use soft, cotton cloths to gently dust varnished
furniture and wooden objects. For wooden objects
with more delicate surfaces, for example, those
painted or decorated with inlay, gently brush
surfaces with a Japanese Hake brush. If the surfaces
are flaking or unstable, do not brush them at all.
CAUTION:
Do not use feather dusters because the feathers
often get caught in cracks and crevices and can
cause the wood to splinter.
Ideal conditions for
storing and displaying
wooden objects
This section outlines the best long-term storage
and display environment for wooden objects. But
please note that if an ideal environment cannot be
created, the emphasis should be on providing a
stable environment.
Ideally, all wooden objects should be stored in an
environment where temperature is constant and
moderate—in the range of 18–20ºC. Changing
temperatures affect relative humidity levels; so if
temperatures are generally outside this range in
your area, it is important to try to keep
fluctuations to a minimum and to ensure that they
Wood 51
 are gradual. High temperatures can accelerate
degradation reactions, and cause wood to dry out
and become brittle.
Relative humidity should be constant and in the
range of 50–60%. For composite objects, a
compromise may have to be reached between a
relative humidity that is ideal for the wooden
components and the preferred relative humidity for
the other component materials, for example, metals.
Wood swells and shrinks with changes in relative
humidity. Wooden objects undergo dimensional
changes when the relative humidity changes. This
is generally a reversible process; but the speed of
the process varies—drying takes longer than
moisture absorption.
Avoiding rapid or excessive fluctuations in relative
humidity is critical. It is better to leave a wooden
object in a non-ideal relative humidity
environment to which it has acclimatised than to
suddenly change the relative humidity.
If relative humidity changes significantly, then
swelling or shrinking can cause irreversible damage
to a wooden object—this can include warping,
twisting, splitting and cracking. Joints can pull
apart, and panels distort. Cleavage and loss of
paint can occur on painted, wooden items. This
phenomenon is the most common and most
preventable cause of damage to wooden objects.
Mould grows where relative humidity is continuously
above 65%; but relative humidity levels of 60% and
less are not favourable to mould growth.
Items which are at risk of drying out too quickly
after they have come from moist conditions should
be kept in an environment where the relative
humidity is in the range of 50–60%. Items which
are acclimatised to drier conditions should be kept
in an environment where the relative humidity is
in the range of 45–55%.
Light should be kept to the minimum necessary for
the activity. Wherever possible, items which are
not on display should be stored in the dark. If
light is not required for viewing while the works
are being stored, then there is no need for them to
be illuminated. This reduces the risk of materials
fading and becoming discoloured.
The brightness of the light should be below 250 lux.
For objects on display, the maximum exposure to
light should be 650 kilolux hours in one year.
52 Wood
Ultraviolet radiation should be eliminated
completely, because it causes irreversible changes
to the appearance and structure of the wood surface
and greatly accelerates degradation reactions.
Ideally, the UV content of the light should be less
than 30 µw/lm and no greater than 75 µw/lm.
Avoid exposure to the sun if possible. Research
shows that after only three days’ exposure to the
sun, the lignin is completely broken down in the
surface of a piece of wood. This affects both the
colour and texture, as well as the strength of the
wood, often resulting in wood fibres shedding off
the surface.
Protect items from dust and pollutants.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.
General storage
and display guidelines
Give careful consideration to the storage site and
the storage system. In situations where you can
achieve the ideal conditions, a good storage system
in an appropriate storage site will give added
protection to your collection. If the available
facilities, or the local climate, make it difficult for
you to achieve the ideal conditions, then the
selection of the storage site and the maintenance
of a good storage system are even more critical in
preventing damage to the collections.
Wherever possible, the storage and display sites
should be in a central area of the building, where
they are buffered from the extremes of climatic
fluctuations which are experienced near external
walls or in basements and attics. Basements should
also be avoided, because of the risk of flooding.
The storage site should not contain any water, drain
or steam pipes, particularly at ceiling level. If these
pipes were to leak, extensive damage could result.
Ventilate storage and display sites. This helps
reduce the risk of insect and mould infestation.
Clean and inspect storage and display areas
regularly. Thorough, regular cleaning and vigilance
help greatly in controlling insects and mould.
Check objects regularly to detect insect infestations
early. Signs of infestation include holes and frass—
that is, wood powder left by borer insects.
Don’t store items in sheds or directly on the floor.
Polished surfaces should be protected from moisture.
Cover stored objects with cotton or Tyvek covers.
They provide protection from dust and unnecessary
exposure to light. These covers also provide some
buffering against fluctuations in environmental
conditions.
For more information
For more information about Tyvek, please see the
chapter on Textiles in Caring for Cultural Material 2.
Always give items adequate support, and try to
reduce the physical stresses which can cause damage.
Ensure that the supports for painted items will not
rub against painted areas and cause paint loss.
Small items can be supported on polystyrene-filled,
cotton bags. This also allows the items to be well
aired, preventing possible cracking through
differential drying.
Ensure that light-sensitive items are adequately
protected. They can be placed in covered storage
boxes, or covered with cotton or Tyvek dust cloths,
to reduce their exposure to light.
Rotate exhibitions—so objects are not on display
constantly.
Keep light levels low when items are on display,
and make sure lights are turned off after hours.
Always avoid direct sunlight on your objects. Make
sure that the heat produced by the lights does not
affect your objects.
Refer to Handling, transportation, storage and
display volume for more general information on
storing and displaying wood.
Coating wooden objects
Think carefully before deciding to apply a coating
to the surface of a wooden object. All coatings
require maintenance, and they generally attract
dust more readily than unfinished surfaces,
increasing housekeeping needs.
Many oils, polishes and waxes have been used over
the years to ‘feed’ or rejuvenate wooden surfaces.
Wood does not need feeding; and products which
claim to have this benefit are of dubious value.
It is most important to consider reversibility
whenever applying anything to an object.
Oils—for example, linseed oil—applied to wood
surfaces can crosslink as they age, becoming more
and more difficult to remove, and frequently
discolouring or darkening.
For more information
For information on crosslinking, please see the
chapter on Common Deterioration Processes in
Damage and Decay.
If the surface of a wooden object appears dry or
patchy, it is better to use a microcrystalline wax
polish such as Beckett’s Clear Furniture Wax or
Renaissance Wax. If necessary, these can be
removed using white spirits at a later date.
CAUTION:
Never apply products containing silicone to a
wooden object. And avoid colorants. Silicone
and colorants are usually found in proprietary
furniture cleaners.
Wax objects infrequently—once or twice a year at
the most—with wax applied sparingly with a soft
cloth. Polished items can be buffed lightly with a
clean, soft cloth to maintain shine.
Consider refinishing an object as a last resort only.
Remember that original and old finishes are as
much a part of the object and its history as the
wood from which it was made. It is appropriate
that the surfaces of historical wooden objects have
patina and look their age.
Many wooden ethnographic objects have very
fragile surfaces—for example decorations painted
in quite friable pigment. These objects should not
be cleaned without the assistance or advice of a
conservator. Neither should they be coated to
consolidate the surface—such an action would
cause considerable damage.
For more information
For information on how to care for ethnographic
material see the chapter Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Cultural Material in this volume.
Wood 53
 Summary of conditions for storage and display

Storage Display

Temperature 18–20ºC 18–20ºC

Relative Humidity 50–60% 50–60%

Brightness of the Light Dark storage is preferred. Should be less than

but if light is present it should 250 lux.
be less than 250 lux.

UV Content of Light Dark storage is preferred; Less than 30µW/lm

otherwise, UV content should be less and no more than
than 30µW/lm and no more than 75µW/lm.
75µW/lm.

Wooden objects in Australia's climatic zones

The climatic zones outlined below are broad categories. Conditions may vary within these categories,
depending on the state of repair of your building and whether or not it is air conditioned.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very
cold at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity,
for example from 75%–20% in a day.
When caring for wooden objects in arid climates it is important to note:
• these items will tend to give out the water they contain - this can lead to some items becoming dry
and brittle;
• wooden objects are particularly susceptible to damage from fluctuations in temperature and relative
humidity; and
• as different parts of items release moisture at different rates, warping, dimensional change and
flaking of paint can result.
Remember that even arid areas can have periods of higher relative humidity, even though the periods
may only be very short.
High humidities will cause swelling and will increase the likelihood of insect and mould attack.
Dust can be a major problem in an arid climate. It is important that steps are taken to protect items
from dust in storage and display.
Note: If your collections of wooden objects have been kept in an arid environment for a considerable
period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal
conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

54 Wood
 Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
If you are redecorating or designing storage and display areas, consider using materials that will help to
buffer these areas against rapid fluctuations and extremes of relative humidity and temperature. This will
help to reduce the risk of damage due to the fluctuations and extremes that occur in temperate
environments.
The system of layers of storage—boxes, boxes within cupboards and drawers, covering items on shelves,
etc—will be very useful in helping to buffer against the extreme conditions that can occur in a
temperate environment.
As for all climatic areas regular inspection of storage and display areas, is important so that developing
problems do not go unnoticed.
Remember that many of Australia’s main cities and major regional centres are in temperate regions.
These areas tend to be heavily polluted and this should be taken into account.
Note: If your collections of wooden objects have been kept in a temperate environment for a
considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended
ideal conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.
When caring for wooden objects in tropical climates it is important to note that:
• insects and moulds thrive and reproduce readily;
• chemical deterioration reactions generally proceed faster at higher temperatures;
• items that have been in a tropical environment for some time will have a higher moisture content. If
they are suddenly moved into a drier environment they are likely to suffer shrinkage and warping; and
• wooden objects are very reactive to changes in relative humidity.
Take steps to ensure that your storage and display spaces have good air flow.
Note: If your collections of wooden objects have been kept in a tropical environment for a considerable
period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal
conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Wood 55
 MORE ABOUT WOOD
Additional notes on fungal
attack of wood
Generally fungal attack can occur only when the
equilibrium moisture content of the wood is
greater than 20% and the temperature is below
40°C. Fungi attack sapwood faster than heartwood.
Some woods are naturally resistant to decay—
because their heartwoods contain substances
which inhibit fungal attack.
The presence of fungal fruiting bodies on the
surface of wood indicates the presence of rot; but
in many cases there is no visible sign of fungi.
Affected wood can be soft and spongy, or brittle
and powdery.
The term ‘decay‘ when used in relation to wood
specifically refers to attack by Basidiomycete fungi.
These are grouped into two types which are
particularly destructive to timber in buildings and
other artefacts: brown rot and white rot. They are
less likely to be a problem for indoor wooden objects.
Brown rot is a term which includes wet rot and dry
rot—Serpula lachrymans. It attacks softwoods more
commonly than hardwoods, destroying the
cellulose and leaving the lignin behind. After
attack, the wood is typically left stained and
brown, with cuboidal cracking of the surface.
Dry rot is extremely destructive because the fungus
can grow some distance away from its moisture
source, producing long strands which can travel
over large areas of masonry to infect new wood.
Dry rot is found only in cooler climates because it
can’t withstand temperatures greater than 40°C. It
is less common in Australia than in Europe, where
it causes extensive damage to buildings; but it has
been found in Melbourne and Tasmania. If a dry
rot outbreak is suspected, it should be dealt with
immediately by a conservator experienced in
dealing with dry rot.
White rot can destroy both the cellulose and lignin
in wood. It is caused mainly by Ascomycetes fungi.
After attack, the wood is a whitish colour and
lighter in weight, with a stringy or fibrous
appearance.
56 Wood
Soft rot occurs in wood that is continuously damp
or in contact with the ground, for example,
building timbers, archaeological wood, marine
artefacts, or objects in exterior displays such as
outdoor sculpture.
The fungus selectively attacks the cellulose from
the outer surface of the wood, causing the surface
to soften. After attack, the dried wood has a
cracked appearance.
Soft rot can be avoided in wooden objects on
outside display by ensuring that they are raised
slightly off the ground on plinths or supports, so
they are not in direct contact with the soil.
Objects should be sheltered where possible, to
ensure that water does not lie on their surfaces.
Numerous other fungi and moulds can grow on the
surface of—or within—wooden objects, causing
staining and possibly structural breakdown of the
surface being colonised. These fungi and moulds
are more commonly found on indoor objects than
are the rots described above. They can cause
staining, either by releasing pigments or through
the presence of dark, fungal structures.
For more information
For more information about fungi and steps
that can be taken to minimise the risk of
fungal attack, please see the chapter on
Biological Pests, in Damage and Decay.
If you have a problem relating to the storage
or display of wooden objects, contact a
conservator. Conservators can offer advice and
practical solutions.
For further reading
Ashurst, John and Nicola et al 1989, ‘Wood, Glass
and Resins’, Practical Building Conservation
English Heritage Technical Handbook, Vol 5,
Gower Technical Press, Aldershot, England.
Black, James et al (eds) 1987, Recent Advances in
the Conservation and Analysis of Artifacts,
Summer Schools Press, University of London
Institute of Archaeology, London.
Bramwell, Martyn et al (eds) 1979, The
International Book of Wood, Mitchell Beazley
Publishers, London.
Caneva, Giulia, Nugari, Maria Pia and Salvadori, Question 2.
Ornella 1991, Biology in the Conservation of
Works of Art, ICCROM, Rome.
Which of the following statements are true?
Gilroy, David & Godfrey, Ian (eds) 1998, a) There is no difference between sapwood and
Conservation and Care of Collections. Western heartwood.
Australian Museum, Perth, Western Australia.
b) Mould grows when the relative humidity is
Grosso, Gerald H (ed.) 1977, Pacific Northwest Wet continuously above 65%.
Site Wood Conservation Conference, September
19–22, 1976, P.O. Box 194, Neah Bay, c) Differences in the amount of swelling and
Washington. shrinkage within a piece of wood can lead to
warping.
Hodges, Henry 1976, Artefacts—An Introduction to
Early Materials and Technology, John Baker d) The susceptibility of wood to damage from a
Publishers, London. number of factors depends on the chemical
composition of the wood.
Plenderleith, H.J. and Werner, A.E.A. 1976, The e) None of the above.
Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art,
Oxford University Press, London.
Question 3.
Shelley, Marjorie 1987, The Care and Handling of
Art Objects—Practices in the Metropolitan When handling objects made from wood it is
Museum of Art, The Metropolitan Museum of important to:
Art, New York.
a) examine each object to find the strongest,
Simpson, Mette and Huntley, Michael (eds) most stable part, so that you can handle it
1992, Sotheby’s Caring for Antiques: A Guide to there;
Handling, Cleaning, Display and Restoration,
Conran Octopus Ltd, London. b) pick up and carry furniture rather than
pushing or pulling it;
Stolow, Nathan 1979, Museum and Monuments,
c) fully support objects when handling them;
XVII: Conservation standards for works of art in
transit and on exhibition, UNESCO, Paris. d) try to touch them on unpainted areas, if they
are painted;
Self-evaluation quiz e) all of the above.

Question 1. Question 4.

Wood is susceptible to damage caused by: Which of the following statements is true. If you
are carrying out repairs to wooden objects:
a) insects;
a) use Superglue so you can be sure it will stick;
b) fungal attack;
b) only use an adhesive which can be easily
c) fluctuations and extremes of relative removed in the future;
humidity;
c) avoid using epoxy adhesives, because they
d) exposure to light and UV radiation; cannot be removed easily without causing
damage;
e) none of the above—wood is a durable
material. d) be aware that the finishes on wood can be
affected by the adhesive, so use as little glue
as possible near the edges of a break.

Wood 57
 Question 5. Question 3.

What are the ideal recommended conditions for Answer: e).

storing wooden objects?
Question 4.
a) 18–20ºC, 50–60% relative humidity, dark
storage
Answer: b), c) and d). a) is not correct. Superglues
b) 18–20ºC, 20–40% relative humidity, dark should be avoided because they cannot be reversed
storage easily without causing damage to the underlying
wood.
c) 24–30ºC, 50–60% relative humidity, dark
storage
Question 5.
d) 18–20ºC, 50–60% relative humidity, in bright
light. Answer: a).

Question 6. Question 6.

When storing or displaying wooden objects: Answer: f).

a) protect polished surfaces from moisture;

b) keep the storage and display sites reasonably

ventilated;

c) always give items adequate support;

d) ensure that light-sensitive items are

adequately protected;

e) if the ideals for temperature and relative

humidity cannot be met or are inappropriate,
the emphasis should be on providing a stable
environment;

f) all of the above.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: a), b), c) and d).

e) is incorrect. Wood is a durable material, but it

is still susceptible to damage and will not be
durable unless it is cared for.

Question 2.

Answer: b), c) and d) are true.

58 Wood
 Aboriginal and
Torres Strait
Islander Cultural
Material
Objectives page 61
Introduction page 61
Previous Possessions, New Obligations—
a national policy page 61
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
heritage items in collections page 62
What are the most common types and
causes of damage? page 62
Common causes of damage page 63
The do’s and don’ts of handling Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander heritage items page 63
Storing and displaying Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander heritage items page 64
Care of bark paintings page 67
Care of items made from fibres page 68
Care of wooden objects page 69
Natural adhesives and cements page 71
Paint media on canvas and paper page 71
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
heritage items in Australia’s climatic zones page 72
MORE ABOUT ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT
ISLANDER HERITAGE ITEMS
Additional information on Previous Possessions,
New Obligations—a national policy page 73
Mould on objects page 74
Mounting bark paintings page 75
For further reading page 79
Self-evaluation quiz page 79
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 80
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• be aware of the range of materials which are
used to make Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander heritage items;
• have a basic knowledge of the most common
types of damage encountered in collections of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage
items;
• have an understanding of the factors that
contribute to the deterioration of these items;
• be able to take practical steps to reduce
future damage to items in your care;
• know about specific steps you can take to care
for particular items, such as bark paintings,
and carved and painted objects; and
• know about the national museums’ policy on
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander items.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
Introduction
Many museum, gallery and library collections
include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
heritage items. These items can be made from a
wide range of materials; and caring for them is not
always straightforward.
As with all heritage items, compromise is
necessary when trying to find a balance between
using and preserving collections. Yet, there is
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 61
much that you can do to preserve items in your
care: through careful and thoughtful handling,
storage and display.
This section identifies the main problems you will
encounter with Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander heritage items in your collections, and
provides information that will help you to prolong
the life of these items. The measures recommended
in this section relate to standard museum
conservation practice, and do not take into account
regional, indigenous conservation methods.
Previous Possessions,
New Obligations—a
national policy
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
In 1993, the International Year for the World’s
Indigenous Peoples, the Council of Australian
Museum’s Association—now Museums Australia—
released Previous Possessions, New Obligations:
Policies for Museums in Australia and Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Peoples.
The introduction to this policy document states:
Museums have tended to see their major role as
collecting and maintaining objects. But they in
fact have obligations to people, most
particularly as to how they portray the people
and societies whose cultural material and
heritage they hold. Increasingly, museums need
to strengthen their relationships with the
peoples and communities whose material culture
forms the basis of their collections. Museums in
Australia wish to join with Aboriginal and Torres
 Strait Islander peoples in collaborative programs What are the most common
to increase understanding amongst all peoples.
types and causes of damage?
Museums Australia’s policy encourages all State
and Territory museums to work closely with
As with most heritage material which is made
indigenous people to interpret, display and
mainly from organic materials, Aboriginal and
preserve their cultural property. Part of this policy
Torres Strait Islander heritage items are vulnerable
includes the identification and repatriation—to
to physical damage, and to damage caused by
their rightful custodians—of culturally sensitive
chemical deterioration of their components.
Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander material
in museums.
Physical damage includes:

• scuffing, abrasion and breaks to objects

Aboriginal and caused by poor handling and/or inadequate
support during storage and display;
Torres Strait Islander heritage
• creasing and tearing of works on paper and
items in collections canvas caused by excessive or careless use;

This section concentrates on Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander heritage items that are commonly
found in collections, and which are most at risk of
deterioration. These include items made from:
• feathers;
• dyed fibres;
• splitting and curling of bark paintings due to
fluctuations in relative humidity;
• woven plant fibres drying out and becoming
brittle in low relative humidity conditions;
• distortion of natural resins and waxes in high
temperatures;

• fibres;

• seeds;

• carved wood;

• painted bark;

• painted wood;

• natural pigments;

• natural gums, waxes and resins;

• paintings on canvas; Paint is flaking away from this wooden object.

Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
• printed fabrics; and

• paintings and drawings on paper; • loss of paint because of fluctuations in

For more information
For more information about the care
of paintings, works on paper, fabrics
and wooden objects, please
see Caring for Cultural Material 1 and 2.
relative humidity. Fluctuations in relative
humidity can cause the paint to flake and
become powdery and fall off the surface of
bark paintings and carved wooden objects;
• cracking of wooden objects in low relative
humidity conditions. Cracking occurs when
wood dries out too quickly. This can also lead
to a loss of paint from these objects;

62 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material

• flaking and powdering of paints because of
inadequate binder in the paint formulation.
The artists make their own paints for use on
barks and wooden objects, using natural
ochres and mineral pigments bound with
glues. Sometimes only a little bit of glue is
used, and this can cause the paint to fall off;
• insect attack—insects will attack wood,
feathers, seeds, fibres, human hair string,
bark, paper and canvas; and
• deterioration caused by mould growth.
Organic materials are potential food sources
for mould. Conditions are very favourable to
mould growth when the relative humidity
remains constantly above 65%.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.

Common causes of damage

All the most common types of damage are caused by:

• poor handling;

• poor storage methods;

• inappropriate display methods;

• chemical and physical changes in the objects

themselves; or

• a combination of any and all of these.

Areas of insect damage can be seen on this object.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum

• soiling caused by deposits of dust. Dust can

become permanently attached to objects if
components, such as natural resins and
waxes, soften due to high temperatures.

Damage due to chemical deterioration includes:

• fading and discolouration of natural pigments,

watercolour pigments, felt-tip pen inks and
other media caused by exposure to UV
radiation and high lighting levels;
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
• discolouration of paper due to exposure to UV
radiation and high lighting levels;

• fading of feathers, woven fibres, printed

fabrics, paper and unpainted wooden carvings
due to exposure to UV radiation and high
lighting levels;
• damage from pollutants;
• natural aging of materials which happens
more rapidly when objects are exposed to
extreme temperatures and high relative
humidity levels; and
The do’s and don’ts of
handling Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander heritage items
Handling Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
heritage items with care and commonsense will
help to prevent damage.
It is best to handle all items as little as possible
and to fully support all objects when handling

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 63

 them. This includes objects made from stone,
wood, fibres, feathers, bark, fabric and paper, as
well as painted objects and paintings on canvas or
other supports.
If objects are painted, try to touch them on
unpainted areas where possible. For example, carry
barks by holding the edges and decorated carvings
in the areas of plain decoration.
If an object is made up of different materials,
examine it carefully to find the strongest, most
stable part, so that you can handle it there.
Ochre-painted items are particularly vulnerable to
pigment loss—take extreme care when handling
these works.
Wear gloves to reduce the risk of pigment rubbing
off, and the possibility of transferring sweat,
grease and grime from uncovered hands.
CAUTION:
Do NOT wear white, cotton gloves when
handling objects with flaking or powdery pigment
surfaces, for example, Aboriginal bark paintings.
The pigment can be picked up by the cotton
gloves. If you must touch pigmented areas,
wear clean, close-fitting surgical gloves instead.
Remember, feathers are fragile and should not be
handled directly. If you must pick up single
feathers, handle them at the rachis, that is, the
vein portion.
Storing and displaying
Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander heritage items
Always remember to be sensitive to the cultural
group, and make sure that cultural mores are
respected, when handling, storing and displaying
cultural heritage material.
For example, with particular Aboriginal community
groups, it is appropriate to store items relating to
men’s business in a separate area to items relating
to women’s business.
With secret or sacred material, security is
important—to make sure that only the appropriate
people have access to the items.
64 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material
Just as there can be appropriate and inappropriate
ways to store particular items, it is important to be
aware that displaying these items should also be
handled sensitively. For example, it may never be
appropriate to place some items on general display.
If you are unsure of the appropriate way to handle,
store or display any Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander heritage items in your collection, contact
a curator at your State museum for further
information or for contacts with the appropriate
people to answer your questions.
Spears in storage.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
Ideal conditions for storage and display
It is important to note that ideal storage conditions
cannot always be achieved; nor is it always
appropriate to do so, because some items are
produced, and used, in extreme climates. For
example, if an item has been produced recently, or
stored for a considerable time, in a tropical
environment, placing it in a so-called ideal
environment which is much drier than the conditions
it is used to, could cause extensive damage.
This section describes the ideal storage and display
environment for most materials. If the ideal
environment cannot be achieved, or is
inappropriate, the emphasis should be on
providing a stable environment.
Ideally, store all Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander heritage items in an environment where
temperature is constant and moderate—in the
range of 18–22ºC. If temperatures are generally
outside this range in your area, it is important to
keep fluctuations to a minimum and to make sure
that they are gradual.
Relative humidity should be constant and below
60%. Minimise fluctuations in relative humidity,
and ensure that they are gradual. Fluctuations in
relative humidity can cause severe distortion,
cracking and splitting, and cause separation of
paint layers from the objects.
Mould grows where the relative humidity is
continuously above 65%, mould does not grow
when relative humidity is stable and below 60%.
Keep items at risk of drying out too quickly after
coming from moist conditions, in an environment
where the relative humidity is in the range of 55–65%.
Keep items acclimatised to drier conditions in an
environment where the relative humidity is in the
range of 50–55%.
Light should be kept to the minimum necessary for
the activity. Wherever possible, store items that are
not on display in the dark. This reduces the risk of
fading and discolouration of a range of materials.
It is necessary to have light when items are on
display. The brightness of the light should be
determined by the sensitivity of the particular
materials to light.
For sensitive materials such as feathers, woven
fabrics, dyed materials and watercolours on paper,
the brightness should be 50 lux or less. For
moderately sensitive materials, the brightness of
the light should be 250 lux or less.
For all items the UV content of the light should be
less than 30 µW/lm and no greater 75 µW/lm.
Protect items from dust and pollutants.
For more information
For more information on adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.
General storage and display guidelines
Give careful consideration to the storage site and
the storage system. In ideal conditions, a good
storage system in an appropriate storage site,
gives added protection to your collection. If the
available facilities or the local climate make it
difficult to achieve the ideal conditions, selecting
the storage site and maintaining a good storage
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 65
system are even more critical in preventing
damage to the collections.
Wherever possible, the storage and display sites
should be in a central area of the building, where
they are buffered from the extremes of climatic
fluctuations which can be experienced near
external walls or in basements and attics. The
storage site should not contain any water, drain or
steam pipes, particularly at ceiling level. Leaking
pipes can cause a lot of damage. Basements should
also be avoided, because of the risk of flooding.
The storage and display sites should be well-
ventilated. This helps reduce the risk of insect and
mould infestation.
Inspect and clean storage and display areas
regularly. Thorough and regular cleaning helps
greatly in controlling insects and mould. To detect
insect infestations early, check objects regularly
for signs of infestation—holes and frass, that is,
wood powder left by boring insects.
Don’t store items in sheds, or directly on the floor.
Cover stored objects with cotton or Tyvek covers.
They provide protection from dust and unnecessary
exposure to light. These covers also provide some
buffering against fluctuations in environmental
conditions.
For more information
For more information about Tyvek, please see
the chapter on Textiles in this volume.
Always give items adequate support and try to
reduce the physical stresses that can cause damage.
Spear throwers supported and shelved in storage.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
 Hafted axes—note the supports for each item. This woven bag is padded to help it maintain its
shape.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
Bark paintings should be stored flat, and any
curved or warped areas supported with
polystyrene-filled, cotton bags or something
similar. This gives the bark the greatest overall
support.

Ideally, place barks in drawers such as plan

cabinets: to protect them from dust and from
fluctuations and extremes in relative humidity and
temperature. If suitable drawers are not available,
store bark paintings on flat shelving, with support
for warped or curved areas as described above.

You can consider placing each bark painting on a

flat board, for example, acid-free Foam Cor, mount The support system on the right is designed to
board or in a box, so that you can lift the item prevent distortion of the dance hat on the left.
without touching the bark itself. This is
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
particularly helpful when it is necessary to move
items in storage or to have the bark painting
available for study purposes.

Woven material, such as pandanus, bark string

bags and baskets, should be well supported on the
inside with Dacron-filled cotton bags. This helps to
maintain their shape, and reduces the risk of The hat mounted on
splitting along the creases, which can occur if they its support ready for
storage or display.
are stored flat. It is wise to support them on the
outside with filled, cotton bags as well. Photograph courtesy
of Karen Coote,
Australian Museum
Design similar support systems for items that are
on display, especially for long-term display.

66 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material

Objects made with feathers and/or seeds are prone
to light and insect attack. It is better to store
them in large, dry, plastic containers with lids in a
storage system specifically made to fit the
container. As well as protecting against light
damage and insect attack, this stops the items
being squashed.
Always give carved and painted items adequate
support—using systems that will not rub against
painted areas and cause paint loss.
Store and display carved and painted items, such
as Pukumani poles from the Tiwi Islands, so that
their weight is supported and there is no friction
on painted surfaces, which could lead to losses.
Pukamani poles
supported in a
specially designed
storage system.
Photograph courtesy
of Karen Coote,
Australian Museum
Smaller items can be supported on polystyrene-
filled cotton bags, where the paint can be
protected and the carving is well-aired, preventing
possible cracking through preferential drying.
Painted bags, for example, decorated bark baskets
or painted pandanus bags, can be stored inverted
to give uniform support over the unpainted
surface, or on doughnut-shaped, padded cushions
which hold them upright and touch only unpainted
areas of the objects.
Make sure that light-sensitive items are adequately
protected.
Store light-sensitive material—such as the
pandanus and bark string bags and baskets—away
from strong light, because the vegetable dyes fade
readily. They can be placed in covered storage
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 67
boxes, or covered with cotton or Tyvek dust cloths
to reduce their exposure to light.
Rotate the exhibitions, so objects are not
constantly on display.
Keep light levels low when items are on display,
and make sure lights are turned off after hours.
Make sure also that heat produced by the lights
does not affect your objects.
Always avoid direct sunlight on your objects.
Care of bark paintings
The bark most commonly used for paintings is
called Stringybark—Eucalyptus tetrodonta. The
pigments used in the paintings are natural red and
yellow ochres as well as white gypsum and
charcoal. Since the 1960s these pigments have
been mixed with water and varying quantities of
PVA glue, generally the brand name Aquadhere.
Earlier, artists used vegetable binders with the
pigments, including orchid juice, the sap of certain
leaves and trees and turtle egg yolk.
Problems encountered with bark paintings
Loss of paint
Possible Causes
• Poor storage conditions.
• Poor mounting systems.
• Too little binder in the paint.
• Paint applied over unbound pigment.
• Environmental fluctuations cause movement
of barks, causing paint to flake.
• Some paints shrinking more than others as
the paint dries.
Preventive Action
• Store bark paintings flat, painted side up, and
in a stable, dust-free environment.
• Support barks so that they are protected
against vibration.
• Avoid stacking objects one against the other.
 • Seek the advice of a conservator.
• In communities where the artist is available
to retouch his or her work, take great care to
make sure only the damaged area is treated
and pigment colours are matched.
CAUTION:
It is unwise to spray commercial fixatives onto
flaking or powdery areas, because the fixatives
often yellow in time, and the pressure of the spray
can blow flakes from the objects.
Mould growth
Possible Causes
• Relative humidity above 65%. The main
storage room may be at a low relative
humidity; but pockets of higher relative
humidity can occur, especially in badly
ventilated corners and drawers.
• Mould can grow unseen on the back of a bark
where the relative humidity is higher because
of poor storage conditions. The mould can
then grow through fine cracks in the bark to
the painted surface.
Preventive Action
• Store or exhibit in a well-aired environment
with relative humidity below 65% and
preferably below 60%.
Splitting and curling
Possible causes
• Rapid fluctuations in relative humidity—fibres
absorb and lose water, which causes barks to
expand and shrink.
Preventive action
• Store the bark horizontally and well supported
in a stable environment.
• Avoid placing the bark near heaters, air
conditioning outlets or open windows. The
environment is not likely to be stable in
these areas.
• The most stable areas are normally the inner
rooms of a building.
• In time, the bark may relax into a flatter
position.
68 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material
Warping
Possible causes
• Normally because of uneven pressure on the
bark. It can occur over a long time, and can
eventually cause splitting and loss of
pigments.
• Can be the result of poor mounting systems,
which allow some areas of the bark to move
in response to environmental fluctuations
while others are kept immobile.
Preventive action
• Remove any uneven pressure from the back or
front of the bark.
• Remove, or get a conservator to remove, any
glued bars of wood from the back of the bark.
• If you wish to display your bark painting,
mount it in such as way that it is supported
without being subjected to uneven pressures.
Care of items made
from fibres
Vegetable fibres are used for the manufacture of a
range of woven objects. In the north of Australia,
the Pandanus Palm—Pandanus spiralis—and the
Sand Palm—Livisonia humilis—are used extensively
for basket making. Fibrous grasses of the genus
Cyperus are used also.
Bush string is made from a range of species—
including the Yellow-flowered and Red-flowered
Kurrajong—Branchychiton diversifolius and
Branchychiton paradoxum respectively—the Banyan
Tree—Ficus virens—and Beach Hibiscus—Hibiscus
tiliaceus. Bush string is used to make bags and
ornaments.
In recent years, Aboriginal people have developed
a range of vegetable-dye recipes for colouring their
vegetable fibres; and in some regions the purple
dye of the Murex shellfish is also used.

Fibre items and bark paintings on display
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
Objects are also made from human-hair string, and
some are decorated with the feathers from a
variety of birds.
Problems encountered
with items made from fibres
Insect attack
Insect attack can be avoided by:
• storing objects in sealed containers to
prevent infestation;
• placing these items indoors for exhibition,
preferably in sealed showcases;
• checking objects constantly for insect attack;
and
• fumigating or freezing items that are being
attacked by insects.
For more information
For more information on controlling insects,
please see the chapter on Biological Pests
in Damage and Decay.
Damage through exposure to light and UV
radiation
Light and UV radiation damage can be avoided by:
• storing objects in containers or boxes with
lids, or under cotton or Tyvek covers;
• rotating items on exhibition, so that
individual items are not exposed for long
periods;
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 69
• keeping light levels low when items are on
display, and turning lights off when they are
not needed for viewing; and
• using low UV-emitting light sources, and
avoiding sunlight.
Fibre items stored
in plan chest
drawers.
Photograph courtesy
of Karen Coote,
Australian Museum
For more information
For information about reducing UV radiation from
storage and display areas, please see the chapter
on light and UV radiation in Damage and Decay.
Care of wooden objects
In the Top End, many wooden objects—particularly
carvings—are made from the soft wood of the
Beach Hibiscus—Hibiscus tiliaceus—the Kapok
Tree—Bombax cebia—Shitwood—Cyrocarpus
americans—the Milkwood—Alstonia actinophylla—
acacias and eucalyptus woods.
Burial poles and weaponry on Melville and Bathurst
Islands are commonly made from Ironwood—
Erythophleum chlorostachys—or Bloodwood—
Eucalyptus nesophila.
Most items are made from freshly cut timber, that
has been dried for several days, though this varies
according to the maker. On Melville and Bathurst
Islands, burial poles are made, where possible,
from fallen logs which are already cured through a
long drying out period.
In arid central Australia, the most common wood
used for making weapons and carvings is Mulga
wood—Acacia aaneura. Other commonly used
 timbers for making artefacts are Bloodwood—
Eucalyptus opaca—Desert Kurrajong—Branchyiton
gregorii, and Sandhill Wattle—Acacia dictyophleba.
A canoe in storage.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
Problems encountered with wooden objects
Insect attack
Possible causes
• Softer woods are prone to insect infestation.
• Usually the infestation occurs before the tree
is cut down, and insects emerge from the
object because the conditions—relative
humidity and temperature—are favourable for
continuing their life cycle.
• Insect infestation shows itself by the typical
frass and exit holes in the wood. The size and
shape of the hole can tell an expert what
insect has emerged.
Preventive action
Freeze the object:
• place the affected object in a plastic bag;
• remove as much air from the bag as you can.
This reduces the amount of moisture which
would otherwise be absorbed by the object or
condense inside the bag;
• close the bag with a heat-sealer or waterproof
tape;
• place the object, in its bag, in a freezer for
48 hours at -20°C; and
70 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material
• then remove the object from the freezer and
allow it to thaw.
Wood, leather, feathers, fibre and textiles can all
be treated this way. This process kills insects at all
stages of their life cycles.
Cracking
Possible causes
• Aboriginal wooden objects have often been
cut and carved before the wood has had time
to cure or season. This leads to preferential
loss of water from particular areas of the
wood as they dry out in the natural
atmosphere.
Preventive action
• Place the object in a wetter environment, up
to 60%RH. This slows down the drying rate
and helps to reduce cracking.
Flaking paint
Possible causes
• Too little binding medium in the paint.
• Paint applied over unbound pigment.
• Environmental fluctuations causing movement
of the wood, leading to flaking of the paint.
• Preferential shrinkage of some paints over
others as the paint is drying.
Preventive action
• Wooden objects with flaking paint can be
stored by supporting them on sand-bags, so
that the painted areas are not under any
pressure.
CAUTION:
Do not try to treat painted wooden objects
without a conservator’s help. Using the wrong
adhesive and/or application technique can cause
problems, including further flaking and the
yellowing of the paint area over time.
It is unwise to spray commercial fixatives onto
the flaking or powdery area, because the
fixatives often yellow in time, and the pressure
of the spray can blow flakes from the objects.
 Natural adhesives
and cements
Wax, gums and resins are frequently used:
• as adhesives for mounting stone spear or axe
heads;
• for mending broken artefacts;
• as caulking for containers;
• for modelling small figures; and
• for making ornaments and ceremonial items.
In the desert the most common adhesive is resin
from the Spinifex bush—Triodia sp.—other types
include gums from the Desert Grass Tree—
Xanthorhea thorntonii—the Mulga—Acacia
aneura—and the Ghost Gum—Eucalyptus papuvan.
In the tropical north, the wax made by native bees
is the most commonly used sealant and adhesive;
it is used for making small modelled figures and
ornaments as well. Sometimes the gum from the
Ironwood tree is also used as a cement.
Problems encountered with natural
adhesives and cements
Problems encountered with paint media on
canvas and paper.
Flaking and powdering of paints
Possible causes
• Fluctuations in relative humidity.
• Too little binding medium in the paint.
• Inadequate support of the paper or canvas,
allowing them to flex.
Preventive action
• Store works on paper and canvas in a stable
environment.
• Use correct mounting techniques for works on
paper to ensure that they are fully protected.
• Use appropriate storage, handling and display
techniques for stretched and unstretched
paintings on canvas.
For more information
For more information about storage and
display of works on paper and or painting,
see Caring for Cultural Material 1.

Distortion and slumping

Possible causes

• These substances change as the temperature

and humidity fluctuate.

Preventive action

• Keep items with these types of materials out

of direct sunlight and away from heat.

Paint media
on canvas and paper
Artists’ paints can include combinations of acrylics,
natural gums and natural pigments.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 71

 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage items
in Australia's climatic zones
The climatic zones outlined below are broad categories. Conditions may vary within these categories,
depending on the state of repair of your building and whether the building is air conditioned.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very
cold at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity,
for example from 75%–20% in a day.
When caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage items in arid climates it is important to note:
• many of the materials that make up these items will tend to give out the water they contain–this
can lead to some items, and some components of items, becoming dry and brittle; and
• the composite nature of many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage items means that they
are particularly susceptible to damage from fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity. As
different materials release moisture at different rates, warping, dimensional change and flaking of
paints can result.
Remember that even arid areas can have periods of higher relative humidity, even though the periods
may only be very short. High humidities will cause swelling of some materials, and will increase the
likelihood of insect and mould attack.
Dust can be a major problem in an arid climate. It is important that steps are taken to protect items
from dust in storage and display.
Note: If your collections of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage items have been kept in an
arid environment for a considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to
meet the recommended ideal conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be
on long term stability.

Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
If you are redecorating or designing storage and display areas, consider using materials that will help to
buffer these areas against rapid fluctuations and extremes of relative humidity and temperature. This will
help to reduce the risk of damage due to the fluctuations and extremes that occur in temperate
environments.
The system of layers of storage—boxes, boxes within cupboards and drawers, covering items on shelves,
etc—will be very useful in helping to buffer against the extreme conditions that can occur in a
temperate environment.
As for all climatic areas regular inspection of storage and display areas is important so that developing
problems do not go unnoticed.
Remember that many of Australia’s main cities and major regional centres are in temperate regions.
These areas tend to be heavily polluted and this should be taken into account.
Note: If your collections of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage items have been kept in a
temperate environment for a considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the
environment to meet the recommended ideal conditions. This could do more harm than good. The
emphasis should be on long term stability.

72 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material

 Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.
When caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage items in tropical climates it is important
to note that:
• insects and moulds thrive and reproduce readily;
• chemical deterioration reactions generally proceed faster at higher temperatures;
• materials that have been in a tropical environment for some time will have a high moisture content.
If they are suddenly moved into a drier environment they are likely to suffer shrinkage and warping;
• many of the materials used in making Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage items are very
reactive to changes in relative humidity; and
• composite works will be particularly vulnerable.
Take steps to ensure that your storage and display spaces have good air flow.
Note: If your collections of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage items have been kept in a
tropical environment for a considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment
to meet the recommended ideal condition. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be
on long term stability.

MORE ABOUT ABORIGINAL preservation of objects. Conservation practice must

adapt to cultural requirements, most particularly in
AND TORRES STRAIT respect of secret/sacred items.

ISLANDER HERITAGE ITEMS Human remains

Return
Additional information on
Previous Possessions, New 1.5 All requests for the return of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander remains will be promptly and
Obligations—a national policy sensitively dealt with by the Museum.

The following principles and detailed policy
statements about preservation are taken directly
from Previous Possessions, New Obligations: Policies
for Museums in Australia and Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Peoples.
Management and collections
2. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
involvement in management of collections and
information, and their use in the public programs
and communication of museums, including
exhibitions, education and publications, is essential.
Assistance to Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander communities
8. Museums must assist Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander community groups in the care and
Storage, access and display
1.7 Human remains, if retained by the museum,
will be properly stored in an area separate from
other parts of the collections and treated with
respect at all times.
Secret/sacred material
Custodianships and access
2.5 Secret/sacred material shall be kept in a
manner consistent with its sensitive nature and
separately from other collections.
2.6 Traditional custodians will be consulted on
the method of storage and preservation of
secret/sacred material.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 73

 Display
2.8 Secret/sacred material shall not be displayed
to the public except with the specific permissionof
the traditional custodians or their descendants.
Return
2.10 Secret/sacred material will be considered for
return to the traditional custodians when
requested by them in accordance with procedures
which involve establishing that those requesting
return are the rightful custodians according to
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander custom and
have regard to the highly sensitive nature of the
material.
Collections in general
Acquisition, ownership, access and return
3.1 Acquisition, conservation, disposal and access
to collections, including use in public programs,
will take into account, or incorporate as
appropriate, the views of the Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander community of whose cultural
traditions the items form part.
3.3 Museums will lend cultural material from their
collections to museums and other appropriate
venues, especially local Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander keeping places, subject to appropriate
conditions concerning conservation and security of
the items.
Staffing, training and financial support
Employment
5.1 Museums will actively promote the
employment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people in activities concerning Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander cultures and heritage
including collections management, research and
conservation, public programs and administration.
Mould on objects
Mould can be very damaging to a wide range of
Aboriginal objects. It is disfiguring, can stain and
obscure the surface, or even penetrate through the
whole structure of an object.
74 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material
Mould grows where the relative humidity is
continuously above 65%, where there is stagnant
air, and in dusty and acidic environments. Mould
particularly affects wood-based objects which have
not been thoroughly dried or seasoned before use.
CAUTION:
Remember that mould is dangerous to your
health—always wear a dust-mask when dealing
with mould growth.
Preventive action
It is important to seek the advice of a conservator
before undertaking any action on a cultural object.
In the case of bark paintings, it is particularly
important if:
• painted surfaces are crumbly or powdery, and
brushing the mould removes the paint; and
• the mould growth is ingrained into the
surface of the object and the bloom is still
visible.
As a preventive measure, spray the back of a bark
painting or the unpainted areas of objects with
Glen 10 or Glen 20. The object can then be moved
to a drier and environmentally more stable area of
the building.
CAUTION:
Do not use Glen 10 or Glen 20 on acrylic paints.
Do building repairs, where necessary—to maintain
the relative humidity below 65%.
Keep air circulating by using oscillating fans,
which are more effective than ceiling fans.
Avoid placing objects in corners of rooms where
there is minimal air circulation.
Inspect regularly for any signs of mould growth.
Maintain a clean room by vacuuming to prevent
dust accumulation.
Avoid eating inside the room—foodstuffs are
nutrients for mould as well as insects.
If you have a persistent mould problem, you may
have to disinfect the room before your
housekeeping efforts become effective. This means
washing down the walls with a product such as
Exit Mould, and disinfecting, clean surfaces with a
Glen 20 or Glen 10 spray; Glen products have a
residual effect for up to 3 months.
It is important to document the condition of the
object before treating it. This can be a written
description with an accompanying photograph. By
examining the item thoroughly you will better
understand the extent of the problem. For
example, it is often found that mould grows
initially from the back of a bark painting, where a
hot, wet microclimate has developed, and the
mould on the front is symptomatic of the greater
problem on the back.
The method you use to clean mould from an object
depends on the state of the mould. The treatment
described below dries out and removes a light
dusting of mould.
Place the mouldy item in a well-aired, stable
atmosphere with relative humidity of 50–60%. This
dries the mould so that it can be removed.
Drying the mould does not kill it. Unless it is
removed outdoors or in a well-vented area away
from the rest of the collection, the spores can
spread, be deposited on other items and infect the
rest of the collection.
Do not over-dry the environment. A significant
drop in relative humidity can cause objects to
warp, curl and crack. For example, don’t place
infected items in direct sunlight because this
could cause them to split or warp.
Dried mould can be brushed off outside using a
medium/stiff brush.
CAUTION:
It is important to test-clean an area first to ensure
there will be no loss of paint during cleaning.
Where the mould has progressed to a thick growth
and is damp to the touch, it is safer to remove it
through a wet-cleaning process. This is particularly
true for carved and painted wood sculptures where
the paint is stable.
• Mix 7 parts industrial methylated spirits to 3
parts water in a small glass jar.
• Before you begin cleaning, test an
inconspicuous area using a cotton swab.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 75
• If there is no smudging of paint or colour
loss, clean off the mould with damp swabs.
• Change swabs regularly.
• An alternative method is to dip a brush into
the solution, brush the affected area with it,
then remove mould residue with lint-free
paper or fabric.
• Allow the object to air-dry naturally.
If there are any problems, consult a conservator.
It is also wise to see a conservator if the painted
surfaces are friable and brushing the mould removes
paint or if the mould growth is ingrained in the
surface of the object and the bloom is still visible.
Mounting bark paintings
The system suggested below is described in
Coote, 1995.
This method is straightforward, but requires you to
contour the mount to the shape of the bark. If you
are not confident doing this work, ask a
conservator for help, or work through it with your
local framer.
Problems which can occur with
inappropriate mounting systems
Bark is subject to movement when it is placed in
environments that are not controlled. This
movement can happen over a short or long period
of time, depending on the speed and extent of
environmental changes. If a bark painting is
constrained, or mounted in the wrong way, a great
deal of damage can occur during this movement.
In addition, if the paint is not held strongly onto
the bark surface, it is more likely to flake off when
the bark moves.
If a bark painting is fixed top and bottom, it tends
to develop a twist.
If a wood backing has been glued in spots to the
back of the bark then hung, it may develop a
central warp over time.
If strips of wood are glued to the bark, it can
develop a warp just below the adhesive line, which
can progress into splitting or pulling away from
the bark during natural movement.
 In the past, barks were nailed, screwed or wired
through from the front, and held onto a hard
board at the back. This is now considered
unethical: in the same way that any painted
surface by an artist should be respected in its
The back of the
entirety. In addition, those areas which are bark painting
unconstrained can move, split and warp as the showing the
environment changes, while the constrained areas mount in place.
cannot move. This can result in more damage than Photograph
occurs when the whole bark is unconstrained. courtesy of
Karen Coote,
A bark larger than about 750mm in length which is Australian Museum
leant unsupported on an angle against a wall
develops a curve, indicating that it cannot readily
support its own weight.

A mounting system for bark paintings

The best mount fully supports the bark and its

contours, using a reversible system that does not
employ adhesive contact with the bark. This
system has great advantages when used in
uncontrolled environments. The mounted bark
ready for display.
The system uses a padded, riveted, aluminium Photograph
framework, designed to conform to the significant courtesy of
contours of the bark painting. Karen Coote,
Australian Museum
Aluminium strips of 1.6mm and 3mm thick and
200mm wide are used.

The bark is held in place at the base by appropriately

coloured polyethylene-coated aluminium feet.

Strong, durable, polycarbonate clips hold the bark
in place at the top and sides.
When you are constructing the mount it is
important to constantly check the mount against
the bark, because small movements during
construction can cause problems and frustration in
the final alignment.

The method

Assess the bark painting to determine how many

A bark painting horizontal and vertical support struts are needed,
and its aluminium and the approximate placement of the clips and
mount. base feet.
Photograph
courtesy of A bark approximately 1100mm x 450mm needs two
Karen Coote, struts of 3mm gauge aluminium following the
Australian Museum longitudinal direction of the bark, and three struts
of the 1.6mm gauge following the radial direction
of the bark.

You may have to compromise between the best

structural support for the bark and the aesthetic

76 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material

placement of a clip over an important image on
the painting.
After you have determined where the clips should
be placed, mark the positions with chalk on the
back of the painting.
Then place the bark painted-side down on a
supporting bed of sand or Dacron-filled bags, so
that all the contours of the bark are fully
supported. Only proceed to this step if you are
confident that the paint is well attached to the
bark surface.
Photograph
courtesy of
Karen Coote,
Australian Museum
Photograph
courtesy of
Karen Coote,
Australian Museum
At this stage, the placement of the aluminium
strips can be mapped out precisely.
The 3mm-thick lengths are cut with a hacksaw to
the exact length of the bark.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 77
If the bark is overly convex or concave, you will
need to make some allowance in the length, to be
able to slightly bend the aluminium to conform to
the shape.
File and smooth the aluminium at the ends—to
prevent any damage to the bark.
The 1.6mm-thick lengths for the radial—or
horizontal—strips need to be cut about 100mm
over each end. This gives adequate allowance for
the shaping of the aluminium to the contours of
the bark in this direction.
These radial strips are then moulded by hand to
the shape of the bark.
It is recommended that shaping of each strip
starts from the centre and works to the sides.
Once the shape conforms well to the bark contours
with allowance in the length of the strips for any
curving at the edges, the strips are cut to the
correct length, filed and rounded to prevent
damage to the bark.
The 1.6mm aluminium can be bent readily using
thumb, finger and hand pressure. Practice speeds
the process and the using a vice and a pair of
pliers can help. Experience shows that hand and
finger pressure is often all that is required,
because tools can create too sharp a bend,
preventing smooth contours being formed.
When you have finished shaping the strips, lay
them in place over the back of the bark, with the
1.6mm contoured strips in direct contact with the
bark.
Then mark the aluminium with a fine, felt-tipped
marking pen: to help in placing the drilled holes for
the rivets, which will attach the aluminium strips
together and attach the D-rings to the mount.
CAUTION:
Do not drill the holes while the aluminium straping
is resting on the bark. For drilling, place the
aluminium strapping on a surface away from the
bark. Otherwise you could damage the bark.
Use a rivet gun and steel-stemmed, aluminium
rivets to rivet the aluminium strips together. The
recommended rivet size is 10mm long with rivet
diameter 3.2mm.
 To prevent any distortion or movement of the
system when in place, it is useful to make a
double rivet at one joint. This double rivet can be
put into place after all other riveting has been
done and final alterations made, to ensure a good
fit to the bark.
The D-rings, which are used to hang the painting,
can be riveted at this stage. They are always
attached to the heavier, 3mm-thick aluminium, as
these are the weight-bearing struts of the system.
Photograph
courtesy of
Karen Coote,
Australian Museum
Mount system with D-rings and polycarbonate clips
in place.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum
When the system sits snugly over the bark, holes
for the polycarbonate clips can be marked and
drilled along the top and sides. Remove the mount
from the bark during drilling.
Depending on the weight of the bark, the finer or
heavier gauge aluminium can be used to construct
the feet. A length of aluminium, approximately
78 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material
120mm, is cut to bend a U foot, on average, 8mm
internal width and a foot 10mm front.
The length of the back depends on the needs of
the joint, but would measure at least 40mm, to
enable two rivets to join the foot to the base and
ensure a strong joint.
An appropriately coloured, powdered, low-density,
polyethylene material—LDPE—can be heat-sealed
onto the feet: to give a durable, aesthetically
pleasing support. Alternatively, they can be
covered with a coloured fabric—or painted after
the application of an etch prime paint. The feet
are thus coloured and double-riveted to the base
of the system.
Thin strips of polyethylene foam—1–3mm—are cut
and glued to the inside of the aluminium system.
These will be in direct contact with the bark.
The foam can be glued with a hot-melt glue
applied with a glue gun.
It is important to create a fairly firm sandwich of
the bark/foam/aluminium system; and different
thicknesses of the foam may be needed.
When the system is ready, it can be attached to
the bark by slipping the bark into the feet and
clipping it into place with the polycarbonate clips.
If the system is loose at the clips, they can be
glued to the aluminium struts with hot-melt glue;
or extra polyethylene foam can be added to the
sandwich.
The final steps are:
• removal of the pen markings with ethanol;
• attachment of picture wire to the D-rings; and
• hanging the bark in place.
An alternative display system
For display purposes, a bark painting can be
exhibited by leaning it against the wall, with the
bottom of the bark resting on a narrow shelf. A
padded L-shaped bracket can be drilled into the
wall at the top centre of the bark, to secure the
bark so that it cannot fall off the shelf.
If you have a problem related to the care of Self-evaluation quiz
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage
items, contact a conservator. Conservators can
offer advice and practical solutions. Question 1.

For further reading Which of the types of damage to Aboriginal and

Coote, K. 1995, ‘Mounting Aboriginal Bark
Paintings’, SSCR Journal, Vol. 6 (2) The Scottish
Society for Conservation and Preservation
Edinburgh, pp 7–9.
Torres Strait Islander heritage items listed below
are caused directly by extremes or fluctuations in
relative humidity?
a) Splitting and curling of bark paintings.

b) Creasing and tearing of works on paper.

Coote, K., ed. 1997, Care of Collections for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural c) Cracking of wood.
Centres, Australian Museum, Sydney
d) Dimensional change leading to paint loss.
Hansen, Eric, Walston, Sue and Bishop, M.H., eds.
1993, ‘Matt Paint’, a bibliographic supplement e) None of the above.
to Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts,
vol. 30. The Getty Conservation Institute in Question 2.
association with the International Institute for
the Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works,
London. Which of the following statements are true?

Phillips, S. and Gaulton, A. A Storage and
Transportation System for Pukamani Poles,
AICCM Bulletin, Vol. 9, (3–4), Institute for the
Conservation of Cultural Material, Canberra, pp
93–100.
Scott, G. Kelly, M. 1991, ‘Improving Access to
Stored Objects: Support Systems for the
Ethnographic Collections of the Australian
Museum’, AICCM Bulletin, Vol. 17, (1–2),
Australian Institute for the Conservation of
Cultural Material, Canberra, pp 31–50.
a) Items that are at risk of drying out too
quickly should be stored at 65%RH or above.
b) Mould grows when the relative humidity is
continuously above 65%.
c) Fluctuations in relative humidity don’t matter
because they will not result in damage.
d) Items that are acclimatised to drier
conditions should be kept in an environment
where the relative humidity is in the range of
45–55%.

Walston, S. 1986, ‘A Mounting System for Paintings Question 3.

on Bark’, Symposium 86: The Care and
Preservation of Ethnological Materials, the
Canadian Conservation Institute, Ottawa,
Canada, pp 173-177.
Walston, S. Coote, K. Horton-James, D. 1988,
Ethnographic Collections: Case Studies in the
Conservation of Moisture-Sensitive and Fragile
Materials, Museum Conservation of Ethnographic
Objects, Senri Ethnological Studies No 23,
National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, Japan,
pp 69–110.
Which of the following factors should you take into
account when considering the display of Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander heritage items?
a) Whether the materials are sensitive to damage
from light and/or UV radiation.
b) Whether the display of particular items is
culturally appropriate.
c) Whether the items are likely to fade or
discolour.

d) Whether you are able to rotate light-sensitive

exhibits, to reduce the display-time per item.

e) All of the above.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material 79

 Question 4. Question 3.

What would you look for if you find fine wood Answer: e).
powder on the floor near an object?
Question 4.
a) Light damage.

b) Mould growth. Answer: c).

c) Insect infestation. Question 5.

d) Unsupported objects.
Answer: a) is false. If an item has been recently
Question 5. produced, or stored for a considerable time in a
tropical environment, placing it in a much drier
environment without allowing it to acclimatise
Which of the following statements is false? gradually could cause extensive damage.
a) If an item has been stored for a considerable
time in a tropical environment it should be
placed in a much drier environment as soon
as possible to prolong its life.

b) Covering objects in storage protects them

from dust and unnecessary exposure to light.

c) Bark paintings should be stored flat, and any

curved or warped areas supported with
polystyrene-filled cotton bags or something
similar.

d) Woven material such as pandanus, bark string

bags and baskets should be well supported on
the inside with Dacron-filled, cotton bags.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: a), c) and d).

Question 2.

Answer: b) and d) are true. a) is not true. Items

that are at risk of drying out too quickly after they
have come from moist conditions should be kept in
an environment where the relative humidity is in
the range of 50–60%. If the relative humidity is
above 65%, mould growth is highly likely. c) is not
true. Fluctuations in relative humidity can cause
extensive damage in a range of materials.

80 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Material

Metals
Objectives page 83
Introduction page 83
Metal objects in collections page 83
Common metals page 83
The nature of metals page 84
What are the most common types of damage? page 84
Common causes of damage page 86
Handling, storage and display guidelines page 86
Metals in Australia’s climatic zones page 88
Care of particular metals page 89
Silver page 90
Nickel silver page 92
Copper and copper alloys page 92
Iron and its alloys page 95
Plated iron page 99
Lead and pewter page 99
Tin and its alloys page 100
Aluminium page 100
Gold page 101
MORE ABOUT METALS
Alloys page 102
Corrosion of metals page 102
Electroplate page 104
Zinc carbonate blotter page 105
Brasses page 105
Bronzes page 105
Iron and steel page 107
Bentonite paste page 107
Chloride ions and aluminium and its alloys page 107
Spot-tests page 108
For further reading page 109
Self-evaluation quiz page 110
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 111
 Objectives Metal objects in collections
At the end of this chapter you should: An enormous range of objects in collections are
either made of metal or have metal components.
• have a basic knowledge of the nature of Among them are:
metals;
• weaponry; • sculpture;
• have a basic understanding of what causes
metals to corrode; • clocks and watches; • jugs;
• be able to take steps to minimise the • metal thread; • armour;
corrosion of metals in your collections;
• signs; • coins;
• be able to determine whether corrosion is
active or passive; • plates; • cutlery;
• be aware of when and where not to apply • buttons; • teapots;
chemical treatments to metals;
• pots and pans; • tools;
• know the correct treatments for particular
types of metal; and • zips, hooks and eyes; • aeroplanes;

• be able to determine when it is necessary to • backings on mirrors; • photographs;

seek professional assistance.
• automobiles; • boats;

• badges and regalia; • hammers;

Introduction
• agricultural machinery; • scythes;
Metals have played a significant part in human and
• sewing machines; • traps;
technological development. This is reflected in the
fact that two major periods in human history have • electrical equipment; • jewellery;
been named after metals: the Bronze Age and the
Iron Age. • scientific instruments; • buckles;

Metals have been used—either in pure form or • military machinery; • rigging for boats;
combined with other metals—to produce an
enormous variety of objects, including weapons, • screws and bolts; • coatings on CDs; and
tools, machinery, decorative art objects and
• fittings on saddles.
jewellery. Because of the huge range of uses for
metals, objects containing metal, or fully made
from metals, are all around us. They make up a
large part of many collections housed in museums, Common metals
galleries and even some libraries.
The metal objects in your collections will be made
But despite their apparent solidity, metals do from a range of different metals, including:
corrode and can be vulnerable to physical damage.
It is important that those responsible for the care • cast iron; • pewter;
of metal and metal-containing objects are able to
recognise problems when they see them, and take • wrought iron; • lead;
steps to halt them.
• bronze; • tin;

• brass; • aluminium;

• sterling silver; • gold;

Metals 83
 • Britannia metal; • galvanised iron;
• Sheffield plate; • stainless steel;
• steel; • zinc; and
• electroplated nickel silver.
The nature of metals
The atoms which make up metals are bonded in a
way that is peculiar to metals. A metal becomes a
solid at a certain temperature; and the atoms of
the metal settle into a characteristic, well ordered
configuration. In this configuration the atoms are
fixed rigidly in relation to each other. The
configuration is called a crystal lattice or a crystal.
Some of the basic qualities of metals include the
following:
• they are good conductors of heat and
electricity;
• high reflectivity when their surfaces are smooth;
• usually good ductility, that is, they are capable
of being drawn out into wire or threads;
• good malleability, that is, they can be
extended or shaped by hammering or by
pressure with rollers; and
• mechanical strength.
Alloys
For centuries, the properties of metals—such as
their appearance, strength, malleability and
chemical reactivity—have been altered by
combining them. These combinations are called
alloys. For example, iron combined with carbon
produces alloys such as cast iron and steel;
whereas the alloying of chromium and nickel with
iron forms stainless steel.
Similarly, copper can be combined with zinc, to
form brass; and with tin, to form bronze.
Patina
The patina is a film of metal corrosion products
which forms on the surface of an object as a
result of:
84 Metals
• exposure to the elements; and
• deliberate steps taken to produce this effect.
For example, sculptors often apply chemicals
to the surface of a work, to produce a certain
visual effect with the corrosion products.
Before any decision is made to remove this layer of
corrosion products from an object, the nature of
the object and its history must be considered very
carefully. For instance, under no circumstances
should the patina be removed from an ancient
bronze sculpture, whereas a Victorian-era silver
candelabra would have been highly polished and
so should be cleaned of accumulated tarnish.
Examples of copper alloy Japanese sword handles,
where the patina is an integral part of the object.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
What are the most common
types of damage?
Metals are vulnerable to physical damage and to
chemical deterioration.
Physical damage includes:
• dents;
• wear of machine parts through repeated
operation;
• wear of metal surfaces through excess
polishing; and
• scratches. On highly polished surfaces
scratches can be distracting and mar the
appearance of the object; and on finely
machined surfaces, for example in machinery,
scratches can adversely effect the operation
of the machine.
Chemical deterioration in metals is called corrosion.
Physical damage to metal objects can leave them
vulnerable to corrosion. For example, a scratch in
tin plate leads to corrosion of the base metal.
Corrosion
The tarnishing or corrosion of metals will be your
major problem if you are responsible for the care
of metal items.
Bullets showing copper and lead alloy corrosion
products.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Corroded rifle
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Gold, silver and copper are the only metals that
are stable enough to be found in their natural
metallic state. All other metals are more stable
when combined with other elements, to form
oxides, sulphides, chlorides, carbonates or mixtures
of these.
There is a natural tendency for most pure metals to
return to their more stable, corroded states.
Because of this, metal objects need to be
protected from environmental conditions and
pollutants which encourage corrosion.
In some cases—as the metal corrodes—the oxide
film that forms acts as an insulating barrier, which
slows the rate of corrosion to an acceptable level.
Copper and aluminium are two metals in which
oxide coatings form protective layers—called
passivating layers. When iron corrodes, however, it
does not usually form a protective film. Iron
continues to corrode until no metal is left, unless
some other protective coating is applied to protect
it from the elements.
It is important to note also that corrosion builds
up on top of the metal surface, and is often much
thicker than the original metal. You may find that
when you come to treat an object there is little or
no original metal remaining; and removing the
corrosion products could mean ending up with a
much reduced object or none at all.
Causes of corrosion
Moisture and oxygen are required for metals to
corrode.
Chloride ions, which are found in common salt—
sodium chloride—can speed up the corrosion rate,
and are also capable of penetrating protective
oxide layers.
Fats, oils and sweat can also enhance corrosion.
Acids formed when air pollutants combine with
moisture will attack metals. Outdoor monuments
and sculptures are particularly vulnerable to this
type of attack.
Relatively unreactive metals, such as copper and
silver, can suffer significant corrosion if sulphide-
containing materials are in the same environment
as the metal.
These sulphide pollutants are usually associated
with the breakdown of plant matter, and the
decomposition of sulphur-containing proteins such
as wool. A common pollutant is carbonyl
sulphide—COS.
Dust absorbs moisture readily. So areas with a
build-up of dust can have quite high local
humidity—higher than the surrounding
environment. Dust will absorb pollutants and other
reactive materials as well.
Metals 85
 Corrosion also occurs if dissimilar alloys and
metals come into contact with each other. This
type of corrosion is called galvanic corrosion.
Under these circumstances, the more reactive
metal or alloy corrodes while the less reactive
metal is protected. For example, if iron and copper
were in direct physical contact in the presence of
moisture and oxygen, then the iron would
selectively corrode while simultaneously protecting
the copper.
This problem can be overcome by avoiding direct
contact between dissimilar metals. This will not be
simple if the metals are components of the same
object.
The oxide film which forms on particular metals
acts as an insulating barrier or passivating layer
barrier, slowing the rate of corrosion to an
acceptable level. This type of passivation occurs
with copper and aluminium.
When looking at the way in which artefacts have
corroded and when deciding on management
strategies, it is important to ask these basic
questions: is it necessary to treat an object? or
can the causes of deterioration be controlled?
For more information
For more information on the effects
of humidity, dust and pollutants,
please refer to Damage and Decay.
For more information on how chloride ions,
fats, oils and sweat can speed up corrosion,
and on the effects of acids and sulphide
pollutants, please see the section
More About Metals, later in this chapter.
Common causes of damage
All the most common types of damage are caused by:
• poor handling;
• poor storage methods;
• poor display methods;
• inappropriate environmental conditions;
86 Metals
• chemical interaction between the metals and
other materials, including other metals; or
• a combination of any of the above factors.
The following sections outline general storage and
display principles for metals, as well as giving
details of the problems, care and treatment of
specific metals.
Handling, storage and
display guidelines
When you are handling metal objects, particularly
ones with polished surfaces, always wear clean
cotton gloves or surgical gloves. This prevents the
transfer of sweat and fats from the skin to the
metal object, and helps reduce the risk of
corrosion.
Always give your objects adequate support, and
remember that metals can weaken over time.
Don’t lift metal objects by their handles. The joint
between the handle and the object could be weak.
When displaying a hinged object open, take care
to support it—so that the hinges are not carrying
the weight of a part or all of the object.
Because some of the major contributors to the
deterioration of metals are oxygen, water and air-
borne pollutants, it is important to provide an
environment which offers protection against these
factors. This action can prolong the life of your
metal objects.
Simple steps can greatly improve the longevity of
objects. Steps such as:
• wrapping objects in unbuffered, acid-free
tissue;
• placing them in acid-free boxes; and
• storing them on painted—preferably baked
enamel—metal shelving.
CAUTION:
Avoid chipboard or wood cabinets. These
materials give off formaldehyde and organic acid
vapours, which can accelerate corrosion.
If you have no choice about the type of shelving
and you must use wooden shelves, we recommend
you take the following steps:
• coat wood with an epoxy or polyurethane
finish to seal the wood;
• paint chipboard with a solution of 400g of
urea in 1 litre of water; and
Guidelines for outdoor objects
If you are trying to prevent corrosion in an
outdoor object:
• bring the piece inside, or build a roof over it,
if it is appropriate and possible. In most
cases this won’t be possible;

• allow time for proper drying and curing.
Do not seal objects in plastic bags, because the
bags seal in moisture as well. This raises the
relative humidity inside the bag, providing a
microclimate which is favourable to corrosion.
CAUTION:
Avoid polyvinyl chloride—PVC—bags.
They can give off hydrogen chloride, an acidic
gas which will corrode most metals.
If you want to use plastic bags for storage, make
sure you select polyethylene bags, and punch holes
in the bag.
• look for areas where water can pool, and
improve the drainage in these areas or remove
water after rain;
• don’t allow objects to sit directly on grass—
raise them on a plinth;
• don’t allow the object to sit in water;
• don’t water the object when you are watering
the garden—unlike the plants, it won’t grow;
and
• clean off bird excrement immediately—it is
corrosive and will quickly etch the surface.

Store and display metal objects in environments

where:

• the temperature is stable—remember that

fluctuations in temperature can cause the
relative humidity to fluctuate;

• relative humidity is less than 45%.

• lighting levels are kept below 300 lux.

Lighting levels should be lower if the objects
are coated, because the light can adversely
affect the coating; and

• UV content is below 75 µW/lm.

For more information

For information about adverse environmental
effects, please refer to Damage and Decay.

Corrosion can be stopped by removing oxygen or

water from the local storage environment.
Reasonably small, particularly vulnerable objects
can be placed in a container with silica gel or an
oxygen scavenger. Removing only one element of
the corrosion equation, effectively halts
corrosion—including bronze disease.

Metals 87
 Metals in Australia’s climatic zones
When considering the conservation needs of metals, the environmental conditions associated with the
various climatic regions as well as those of the coastal areas must be taken into account. The moisture, salt
and pollutant levels of the storage environment will have the greatest impact on the rates of corrosion, of
metals. Metals corrode less in dry zones than in areas that have higher average relative humidity.

Metal objects housed in coastal regions are at great risk of corrosion, if steps are not taken to minimise the
impact of salt-laden air.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very
cold at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity,
for example from 75%–20% in a day.
Steps that can be taken include:
• storing metals in cabinets, boxes and wrappers to buffer the objects against short-term upward
swings in relative humidity. Protection against dust is also achieved in this way.
• using insulation and sensible house-keeping practices which minimise the differences between
internal day and evening temperatures. The corresponding fluctuations in relative humidity should be
minimised.
Note: If your collections of metal objects have been stored in an arid environment for a considerable
period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal
conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
Steps must still be taken to overcome the extreme climatic variations which occur in these areas.
High relative humidity conditions can be counteracted by:
• displaying metal objects in sealed cabinets to overcome short term variations in relative humidity
and temperature;
• store metal objects in cupboards, boxes and wrappers to buffer against variations in external
conditions; and
• protect metals by coating them with water repellents such as CRC, WD-40 or waxes. Consult a
conservator before doing this.
Note: If your collections of metal objects have been stored in a temperate environment for a
considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended
ideal conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

88 Metals
 Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.
To counteract the problems associated with high relative humidity and generally high temperatures that
characterise these regions the following strategies can be adopted:
• place sensitive metals in well-sealed cabinets and maintain the relative humidity at a level below
45%;
• use cabinets, boxes and layers of acid free tissue to create buffer zones which will reduce the impact
of high relative humidity and temperature on metals;
• use portable dehumidification units during periods of high relative humidity; and
• inspect metal objects regularly and maintain high standards of cleanliness.
Note: If your collections of metal objects have been stored in a tropical environment for a considerable
period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended ideal
conditions. This could do more harm that good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Coastal Regions
Coastal regions generally have more moderate climates than inland areas but they also have high levels
of wind-borne salt. Consideration must be given to counteracting the corrosive effects of salty air.
Steps which can be taken include:
• storing and displaying metals in sealed cabinets to buffer against environmental changes and to
exclude dust and salty air; and
• putting multi-metal vapour phase inhibitors, such as Senson, in sealed storage and display areas.
• sealing buildings to minimise air exchange with the external, salt-rich air, by keeping doors and
windows closed, eliminating drafts and using airlock doors.
• maintain relative humidity below 45% in storage and display areas.
• treat metals with moisture agents—waxes are recommend—and corrosion inhibitors.

Care of particular metals
In this section, information is given about a range
of metals. The information includes:
• a description of the metal and its alloys
where applicable;
• the signs and main agents of corrosion of
that metal and its alloys;
methods for cleaning the metals are quite
straightforward, others involve the measuring,
mixing and application of reactive chemicals. It is
strongly recommended that:
• you contact a conservator and discuss the
risks involved in treating metal objects before
you proceed;
• you do not treat an object unless you feel
confident about carrying out the treatment;

• methods of cleaning the metal;
• storage and display methods for each metal; and
• protective coatings that can be applied to
objects made from that particular metal.
It is important to note that, while some of the
• you do not treat an item if you are unsure
about the type of metal with which you are
dealing. A conservator can help you with this.
It is also possible to carry out spot-tests to
identify your metals;
• if possible, you practise the treatment on
another piece of the same metal; and

Metals 89
 • you attend a training workshop on the
treatment of metals before attempting some
of the more complex treatments.
For more information
Spot-tests to identify metals are described in the
section More About Metals later in this chapter.
It is extremely important that you are aware that
some of the chemicals used in these treatments
can also affect you.
CAUTION:
Thiourea is poisonous, is a suspected carcinogen
and causes goitre.
Acetone can cause headaches, depression, nausea
and dizziness when inhaled.
Industrial methylated spirits—IMS—is a mixture
of ethanol and methanol and should be used with
care. Ethanol can cause headaches, dizziness and
nausea, and methanol is toxic and can cause
blindness.
Ammonia can cause severe irritation to the skin and
eyes, breathing difficulties, nausea and vomiting.
Disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
EDTA—can be mildly toxic, and can affect unborn
babies.
Citric acid is moderately toxic and irritating.
Petroleum spirit is flammable; it removes fats
from the skin, and should be used with care.
Sodium carbonate can cause skin irritation and
ulcers. If it is swallowed, it causes nausea,
vomiting and diarrhoea.
If it touches skin, sodium hydroxide causes deep
skin burns. If inhaled, it irritates the respiratory
tract. If ingested, it can cause burning pain,
diarrhoea swelling of the larynx and suffocation.
Silica gel in its granulated form can cause silicosis.
Protect yourself when working with these
chemicals—wear gloves and masks. If you buy
any chemicals to mix up your own cleaning
solutions, ask for safety data sheets as well, and
make sure that you store the chemicals safely.
You must also remember to take care when
disposing of these chemicals—some of them
cannot be flushed down the sink.
90 Metals
Silver
Silver’s lustrous appearance and relatively low natural
abundance, its corrosion resistance and ability to be
easily worked have made it a prized metal. Silver is
often used for coins, jewellery and cutlery.
Most silver items found in Australia will be either
sterling silver or plated silver.
Sterling silver
Sterling silver is the standard alloy used in
jewellery and cutlery. It is made up of 92.5% silver
and 7.5% copper. The addition of copper to silver
increases hardness of the alloy, without any
significant loss of lustre or colour.
Plated silver
The two common forms of plated silver are
Sheffield plate and silver plate/electroplate.
Sheffield plate is made by fusion-bonding—
sweating sterling silver to both sides of a copper
or brass sheet; it is then worked to produce the
desired object.
Silver plate or electroplate is formed when a thin
layer of pure or sterling silver is deposited
electrolytically on the surface of a base metal.
Common base metals include copper, brass, nickel
silver—an alloy of copper, zinc and nickel—and
Britannia metal—a tin alloy with 5–10% antimony.
Electroplated materials are often stamped EPNS for
electroplated nickel or silver, or EPBM for
electroplated Britannia metal.
As commercial electroplating was developed in the
1840s, it is likely that a lot of the materials in the
collections of local museums in Australia will be
made of silver plate.
For more information
For more information on electroplating, please
see More About Metals later in this chapter.
Signs of corrosion on silver
Silver artefacts tarnish if they are not kept
polished. The silver surface changes through a
faint purplish hue to a deep black. The tarnish is a
layer of silver sulphide.
Artefacts excavated from underground or from the
sea may be coated with grey silver chloride and
copper corrosion products. If these materials have
been exposed to sunlight, the surface will have a
purplish tinge.
Cleaning silver
Clean silver only when absolutely necessary, and
not as a routine treatment. This is because any
cleaning removes minute amounts of silver.
Take great care to differentiate between tarnish
and decorative treatments which are an inherent
part of the object and which would be destroyed
by cleaning. For example, a decorative treatment
which should not be removed is niello, a black
silver sulphide/silver copper sulphide that is used
deliberately to highlight engraved sections of
silver jewellery.
Avoid abrasive cleaners. They can cause fine
scratching of the surface and remove small
amounts of silver.
There are a number of proprietary brands of silver
dip solutions available, which readily remove
tarnish. These are usually made up of thiourea and
acid mixtures. Silver dips should be used only
when the object is badly tarnished.
If you decide to use a silver dip, apply the
solution, or dip the object, only for as long as it
takes to remove the tarnish.
Silver tray after treatment.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Then rinse the object in hot water to remove
residues, and dry it with a lint-free cloth. After
drying, a final polish with a silver cloth will put a
thin layer of corrosion inhibitors on the surface of
the silver.
If Sheffield plate is in reasonable condition, it
needs no further treatment other than being wiped
with a silver cloth and displayed or stored under
conditions of low relative humidity and away from
wool.
Although there are commercially available
solutions which gradually redeposit small amounts
of silver on worn areas, these should be used only
after considering the history and function of the
object.
On no account should the object be replated. This
completely devalues the object by removing the
technological evidence of its manufacture.
Electroplated or silver plated objects which are in
good condition, but on which the silver has been
worn away to reveal underlying metal, can be
restored by using a solution such as the one
described above. This is a better way to rejuvenate
the surface than the standard electroplating, which
is a lot more costly and not always successful.
If the piece is in good condition, then it is better
to maintain it in that condition, rather than
continually cleaning it and wearing down the silver
coating. Wiping with a silver cloth, followed by
storage and display under conditions of low
relative humidity and low pollution levels is the
simplest method of protection.
Despite the best storage, display and care
methods, all electroplated silver will eventually
show pin-pricks of corrosion as the plating wears
thin. Once the plating has been perforated, the
underlying metal is prone to pitting corrosion; and
the surface will gradually become covered with
blotchy, black and green-blue areas of corrosion.
Plating with perforations
Base metal Corrosion
Metals 91
 Simple care techniques don’t have much effect on
this type of problem. It needs more complex
treatment.
• Immerse the object in a solution of 10g of
thiourea and 50g of citric acid in 1 litre of
water. This treatment will clean the object and
remove the silver corrosion products.
• After cleaning, the object must be placed in a
diluted bath of sodium carbonate, 1% by
weight in water, and left to soak for an hour or
so to remove any citric acid from beneath the
electroplate—to make sure that no further
corrosion occurs. Follow this with a final wash
in fresh, deionised or distilled water.
• If the corrosion damage is not too severe, then
the underlying metal can be re-touched using
one of the silver solutions which redeposit
small amounts of silver on worn areas. Finally,
polish the object with a silver cloth.
CAUTION:
Check your chemical safety data sheets, and take
the appropriate precautions.
Coating silver
There are lacquers available for coating silver
objects, and these can significantly slow down
tarnishing processes.
CAUTION:
These lacquers can be difficult to remove if
they break down. And unless an even coating
is applied, a patchy and blotchy tarnish
may develop on the surface. Consult a
conservator before coating your silver objects.
Storing and displaying silver
The general handling, storage and display
guidelines apply to silver objects.
If you must place a silver object in a display case
which has previously been shown to be corrosive
towards silver, add zinc oxide or an acid-free zinc
carbonate blotter to the base of the case to absorb
the damaging substances. This will help to keep
tarnishing to a minimum.
Alternatively, you could use the commercially
available sintered zinc oxide pellets, or sachets of
multi-metal vapour phase corrosion inhibitors.
92 Metals
For more information
For more information on making a zinc
carbonate blotter, please see
More About Metals later in this chapter.
Nickel silver
Most 19th and 20th century nickel silver objects
will be found either as the unchanged copper-nickel-
zinc alloy, or with a thin film of electro-deposited
silver on the surface.
An easy way to identify nickel—as nickel plating
or its presence in an alloy—is to look for the
bright, lemon-green corrosion products which
characterise nickel (II) compounds.
Australian coins minted before the introduction of
decimal currency in 1966 contain significant
amounts of silver. To remove tarnish from the
imperial pre-1966 coins, follow the procedures for
silver outlined above.
The corrosion products on Australian coins after
the introduction of decimal currency are better
treated according to the methods outlined below
for copper as well as its alloys in the form of brass
and bronze.
The treatment of electroplated nickel silver should
follow the guidelines for silver objects.
Copper and copper alloys
Copper, a lustrous red-brown metal, is thought to
be the first metal commonly used by humans.
When alloyed with other elements, it provides a
range of useful materials of widely different
mechanical and corrosion-resistant properties.
The two main categories of alloys are:
• those created when copper combines with
zinc, to form brasses; and
• those created when copper combines with tin,
which are known as bronzes.
 CAUTION:
Spelter bronzes which were popular from the 1850s
to the early 1900s are not bronze at all, but a
white, zinc-based metal to which various coatings
have been applied, to give the effect of patinated
bronze. Any attempt to chemically clean these
objects renders them worthless.
Corrosion of copper
The types of corrosion products formed on copper
and its alloys depend on the environment and the
metal’s composition.
The most common corrosion products are copper
oxides, basic copper sulphates and basic copper
carbonates. These are generally stable, and protect
the underlying metal from further corrosion.
The corrosion products are sometimes produced
artificially—to give the attractive green-brown
patina seen on outdoor bronze statues.
The passivating layers of copper corrosion products
tend to break down in the presence of chlorides.
Whether the chlorides are derived from the sea or
from ground water, the overall impact—accelerated
corrosion—is the same.
In a humid environment, the presence of chlorides
in copper alloys can cause the development of the
cyclic corrosion phenomenon known as bronze
disease. This type of corrosion is characterised by
the presence of a light blue-green, crumbly
outgrowth on the surface. If this is brushed away,
a pit will be evident on the surface. To determine
whether an object is affected by bronze disease,
consult a conservator.
It is important to note the difference between
bronze disease and a natural patina. Many bronzes
are formulated specifically to obtain a certain
coloured patina. If you are not sure, consult a
conservator before attempting any treatment. This
is particularly important for Japanese and Chinese
bronzes, and for bronzes from the Renaissance
period onwards, as the patinas of these objects are
intrinsic to the objects and should not be
removed.
For more information
For more information on the treatment of
bronze disease, please see More About Metals
later in this chapter.
What causes the corrosion of copper?
Constant high humidity, pollutants such as
sulphide gases, acids and careless handling causing
physical damage can all cause deterioration of
copper-based objects. In addition, heating and
acidic cleaning solutions can etch the zinc out of
brasses—leaving a copper-red discolouration on
the surface.
Copper and copper alloys which have been buried
or recovered from a wet site can suffer from the
effects of chloride salts, resulting in the
development of bronze disease.
Objects may also have special surface coatings,
such as lacquers, which can be damaged easily by
scratching or improper cleaning.
Cleaning copper and copper alloys
Items which are in good condition need only be
wiped with a dry cloth.
Alcohol, preferably ethanol, may be used to
remove greasy stains, but only after spot-testing
to ensure there are no surface coatings that will be
affected by this solvent.
If a badly tarnished copper alloy must be cleaned,
immerse it in a solution of 10g of thiourea and
50g of citric acid in 1 litre of distilled water. This
treatment will clean the object and remove the
corrosion products.
The thiourea is an inhibitor which prevents any
chemical attack on the metal itself. If thiourea is
not used in the treatment solution, dissolved
copper will be redeposited on the surface of the
object, leaving a salmon-pink blush on the surface.
This then has to be removed by polishing.
Leave the object in the solution until it is clean.
This can take from several minutes to several
hours, depending on the condition of the object.
Metals 93
 You can speed up the treatment by brushing the
surface, under running water, with a soft bristle
brush, for example, toothbrush or soft Nylon,
bristle brush. If necessary, a fine pumice powder
can be used as a mild abrasive.
If this solution is not effective in removing
tarnish, then the amounts of citric acid and
thiourea used in solution can be increased to up
to twice the strength.
The object must then be thoroughly washed to
remove all traces of acid. This can be done under
running water, or by immersion in baths of clean
water.
If the object has been soaking for a considerable
time or is porous, immerse it in a weak sodium
carbonate bath—5g in 1 litre of water—in order
to neutralise any remaining acid.
To ensure that washing has been effective, the pH
of the surface of the metal object and that of the
Bronze coins before treatment.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Bronze coins after citric acid/thiourea treatment.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
94 Metals
wash-water should be checked. The pH should be
very close to 7, that is, close to neutral.
After washing, and before applying any protective
coating, it is essential to make sure that the
surface is free from grease and water. Any such
contamination will show up later as corrosion
areas.
Wear rubber gloves when cleaning and coating the
artefacts.
If oven-drying at 100°C is not appropriate, the
object can be dried by painting it liberally with
acetone. The acetone drives out water in crevices
and cracks, ensuring that the metal is fully dry.
The metal is considered dry when there is no
longer any smell of acetone.
It is not appropriate to use acetone on composite
materials or painted surfaces. To dry composite
objects and painted objects, use a hair drier on a
cold setting.
Note that this cleaning procedure will not produce
a bright, shiny surface finish to the metal. If this
is required, a proprietary metal polish can be used.
Repeated polishing should be avoided, however,
because it wears the metal surface.
CAUTION:
Check your chemical safety data sheets and
take the appropriate precautions.
Coating copper and copper alloys
A protective coating can be applied, to maintain a
clean, shiny surface on copper-based objects.
Lacquers and waxes are commonly used for this
purpose. The patinas—excluding bronze disease—
that form on bronze and copper objects are
attractive and stable, and do not need a protective
coating unless they are in a harsh environment.
Do not get dirt or fingerprints on the object
between the cleaning and coating stages—any
such contamination shows up later in the form of
corrosion areas.
For coating, apply a microcrystalline-polyethylene
wax preparation. An alternative coating is an
acrylic lacquer containing a corrosion inhibitor.
This is most satisfactory in preventing retarnishing
of bronze and copper. Incralac is a commercially
available lacquer which is available in a spray can
or as a brush-on paint. This product can be
removed with acetone.
For more information
For a recipe and for information on the
application of microcrystalline-polyethylene wax,
please see More About Metals,
later in this chapter.
Iron and its alloys
Iron is the most useful and abundant of metals
and it is probably the most common metal found
in the collections of local museums and historical
societies. It has been known from prehistoric times
and in its various forms—such as cast iron,
wrought iron and various steels—it is the element
upon which our present industrialised civilisation
has been built.
Deterioration of iron and steel
Iron and steel, with the exception of stainless
steel and other similar alloys, are readily attacked
by oxygen when in the presence of moisture,
forming rust.
Rust is a term used to describe non-specific
corrosion products which form on the surface of
degraded iron.
Unlike copper, the surface layers of iron corrosion
products are not protective. They tend to
accelerate corrosion of the metal by forming
localised corrosion cells.
When an iron object is acquired, it should first be
examined to determine the extent of deterioration
and whether the corrosion is still active. If the
surface is covered with yellow to brown droplets of
moisture, it is a sign of severe corrosion activity,
and indicates the presence of chloride salts. This
necessitates a specialised conservation treatment
to remove chloride ions. Please consult a
conservator for more information about this
treatment.
Many objects are covered with thick scales of
rust—but there is often sound metal underneath.
Treatment of iron objects
Its future role, as either an object on display or in
storage, will have a major impact on the treatment
method.
To display an object in its working order, it may be
that nothing needs to be done other than keeping
it in a dry environment or coating it with an
appropriate protective layer.
As with every metal type, there is a range of
treatment options available; and the final decision
will depend on the balance between aesthetics,
economics and the function of the artefact.
Cleaning iron objects
Dirt, grease and loose or flaking rust must be
removed before protective coatings can be applied
to iron objects. Such deposits can be removed by
chemical or mechanical techniques.
Chemical cleaning techniques include:
• using soapy solutions to dissolve grease and
remove surface dirt; and
• immersing the object in an aqueous alkaline
solution—caustic soda—to remove grease
and paint. Concentrations in the range of
20–40g of sodium hydroxide per litre of water
are normally used.
• stripping corrosion products by immersing the
objects in a solution of 50g of citric acid in
water. While citric acid is relatively safe on
most objects, care should be taken to ensure
that cast iron, cast steel or spring steel, or
combinations of these, are not left
unattended for long periods, because these
metals will actively corrode. Prolonged gas
evolution—which you will see as bubbling—
indicates that the iron surface is corroding.
With harder alloys, this can also cause
hydrogen embrittlement in which the
hydrogen is generated within the metal and
the stress of the gas pressure cracks the
metal. Gas evolution can also result in pitted,
weakened or destroyed objects.
CAUTION:
Do not use hydrochloric acid and phosphoric acid,
because they will attack the underlying metal.
Metals 95

Japanese .32 calibre pistol before treatment.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Pistol after treatment with citric acid/heat, fish
oil/white spirit solution.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Because some mechanical cleaning techniques can
be quite severe, they should be used very
carefully—especially with small or fragile objects.
Techniques which can be used with care include:
• simple wire brushing. This is often very
effective in removing loose or flaking rust.
Wire brushes are available in a range of bristle
materials, for example, steel and brass, and
grades, for example, coarse to fine, so take
care to select one appropriate for your object;
CAUTION:
Never use a brass brush on an iron object.
• sandblasting. This technique uses a high-
speed jet of sand, and is usually applied to
large iron or steel objects, such as
agricultural implements. It is quick and
provides an excellent surface for long-life
96 Metals
coatings. You need approval from local
authorities to sandblast because of the
associated dust problem. An alternative form
of sandblasting, wet sandblasting, uses a
suspension of sand in water combined with a
corrosion inhibitor. This method causes less
pollution, and is more acceptable to local
authorities. Sandblasting should be carried
out by commercial operators, with
conservators close at hand to provide any
necessary advice; and
• flame cleaning. A blow torch or an
oxyacetylene flame is used to quickly and
effectively remove paint and rust.
CAUTION:
This technique must be very carefully applied
because thin, section metal is likely to distort
rapidly, and spring steel will lose its ‘temper’
and thus its ‘spring’, if overheated. There is
also a risk of injury, because rust particles fly
off rapidly with this method. Some form of eye
protection must be worn.
This work should be done only by people
experienced in the use of oxyacetylene equipment.
The techniques described above can be combined.
For example, flame cleaning and wire brushing
could be used to remove large areas of rust and
paint. This could then be followed by immersion in
citric acid for the removal of residual rust, and
neutralisation of the citric acid by immersion in a
caustic bath.
If in doubt regarding the type of iron or the
duration of acid treatment, more time should be
spent removing corrosion products by mechanical
means. Once the worst deposits are removed, a
short treatment in citric acid should clean the
object, with reduced risk of damage. Some forms of
corrosion leave spots on the object, which cannot
be removed by citric acid. These can usually be
picked off mechanically.
It is important to note that an object which has
very little metal remaining should not be cleaned,
but should be stored in a plastic bag containing
self-indicating silica gel to keep it dry. Prior to
storage, it is desirable to totally dry out the object
in an oven at 110ºC, to remove moisture from
fissures deep within the metal. This improves the
effectiveness of the silica gel.
 For more information
For more information about silica gel,
please see the chapter on Humidity and
Temperature in Damage and Decay.
Large steel objects
When treating large objects, it can be difficult to
find containers or tubs large enough to immerse
the objects for caustic or citric treatments. If
sandblasting is inappropriate, the acid or alkaline
stripping solution can be applied to the surface by
using a bentonite paste.
For more information
For more information about the preparation
and use of bentonite paste, please see
More About Metals later in this chapter.
A note of caution about
treating composite materials
As many objects are made up of a combination of
different metals and/or wood, different treatments
must be applied. For example:
• if an object is made up of iron and
aluminium, cleaning in caustic should not be
carried out, because the caustic will react
adversely with the aluminium; and
• similarly, a composite of iron and brass in a
citric solution will result in the copper from
the brass corrosion products plating out on the
iron, causing the iron to corrode more quickly.
Finishing techniques for iron objects
There are many varied methods available to give
the object the right colour and protective coating.
The type of finish chosen depends on the intended
role of the finished object, with the final decision
being a balance between ethical, aesthetic,
practical and personal considerations. The most
commonly used techniques are described below.
Tannic acid
Rust converters are commercial products which can
be applied to an object which has been cleaned
chemically or mechanically, or to one which still has
light rusting present on its surface. A rust converter
will form a thin, black layer on the surface.
Subsequent applications further darken the object.
This coating system results in the formation by
chemical reaction of stable iron tannates, which
passivate the metal and protect it from further
corrosion.
Fish oil/white spirit mixture
A mixture of 80 parts white spirit to 20 parts fish
oil can be applied very effectively to freshly
cleaned iron objects. Thinning the mixture with
white spirit allows it to soak into the steel. It
usually dries within minutes. Several coats can be
applied and, when dry, it can be painted if
required. This mixture does not change the metal
colour, and gives good protection. It does not
involve chemical reaction with the metal.
Oil quenching
Oil quenching is an old blacksmiths’ method which
gives good protection from rust. The end result is
a deep blue-black object. This method works best
on low carbon steel, because flaking occurs in
small patches on high carbon or alloy steels. The
method involves heating the metal, by either an
oxyacetylene torch or forge, to a dull red colour,
then plunging the object into old, dirty oil—the
dirtier the oil, the blacker the final colour. The
object is agitated for 30-60 seconds, depending on
its size, removed from the oil and then wiped with
a rag. Repeated applications of this method will
further darken the object. Protective clothing and
eye protection must be worn.
Blueing
Blueing is a method applied to many types of
firearms, especially to their barrels, to produce a
lustrous, dark blue finish. Although this is usually
done by commercial gunsmiths, a blueing paste is
available commercially, and can be applied easily.
After treatment, take care when you’re handling
the treated object, because acids from hands
readily etch these surfaces.
Paint
There are numerous enamel and water-based
paints, which protect and beautify metal surfaces.
A range of primers, undercoats and topcoats are
available. If these are applied correctly to properly
prepared and cleaned surfaces, adequate protection
should be maintained for many years.
Metals 97
 Inorganic zinc primer
For iron objects that are displayed outdoors—
particularly in an aggressive, marine
environment—an inorganic zinc primer, a high-
build expoxy top coat and a final clear
polyurethane coating—with a UV absorbing
reagent provide good protection.
Lacquer
Clear lacquers are available in spray cans, or can
be applied by brush. The desired surface finish and
colour must be obtained on the iron before you
apply the lacquer. Follow the manufacturer’s
instructions on the product. This finish gives a
lasting protection against oxide build-up, provided
the entire object is coated. If air or moisture
penetrates this layer, it will lift and the corrosion
will begin again.
Microcrystalline wax
Microcrystalline wax provides both good protection
and finish to an object. The object is immersed in
a hot liquid-wax solution for up to several hours,
depending on the size of the object. It is then
withdrawn and allowed to cool. Excess wax can be
scraped or wiped off. The wax can also be mixed
with white spirit and applied with a brush or rag.
This latter method is not as effective as immersion
in the molten wax.
For more information
For a recipe for microcrystalline-polythylene
wax please see the section
More About Metals later in this chapter.
Flame colouring
The colour of iron and steel can be altered by the
application of direct heat from a forge or an
oxyacetylene flame. After cleaning and removing
rust, a gentle flame is applied to the object. The
colour changes from light straw through to deep
blue. When the object has attained the desired
colour, it should be plunged into water.
CAUTION:
This method can change the molecular structure of
the steel, depending on the grade and its carbon
content. This method must not be used on
spring steel.
98 Metals
Natural patina
If an iron object is in a stable condition, with only
a lightly rusted surface, it may be that this is the
type of finish you require to demonstrate the
history and past use of the object. Such finishes
can be maintained if the storage and/or display
conditions are controlled to prevent further
deterioration.
Storing and displaying iron
and iron alloys
Although the general handling, storage and display
guidelines apply to iron and its alloys, a few
additional points need to be made.
Once an object has been treated and coated,
correct storage or display conditions and careful
monitoring should ensure its stability.
Large objects such as machinery and horse-drawn
and motor vehicles should be housed, if not in
controlled environments, at least with some
protection from the elements. This protection can
be in the form of a shed, a verandah or even a
lean-to. Unless some protection is provided,
moisture and dust accumulation will soon restart
deterioration processes.
If an object is displayed in the open, it should be:
• raised and supported above ground level;
• monitored regularly for signs of deterioration;
and
• treated as necessary.
Metal components of firearms should be cleaned
and re-oiled frequently, and if possible kept in a
protective environment.
As iron is one of the most reactive of the
commonly used metals, good environmental control
is essential to ensure continued stability of these
materials. The preferred relative humidity is less
than 45%.
Highly polished metal surfaces which are not
protected by a clear lacquer can be coated with a
light machine oil, a periodic spray of CRC or similar
water-dispersant chemicals. As long as they are
stored in a dust-free environment, this is a simple
and effective means of preventing deterioration.
 Plated iron
Iron may be plated with zinc, as in galvanised iron
or tin, copper, chromium or nickel. These coatings
protect the base iron sheet from corroding, and
also provide a bright surface finish.
Corrosion of plated iron
Corrosion usually occurs after the breakdown of the
surface plate. This exposes the iron, which then
starts to rust.
Treatment of plated iron
To remove the rust, a citric acid solution containing
an inhibitor can be used. The inhibitor is included
to prevent any attack on the plating metal.
The solution is 10g of thiourea and 50g of citric
acid in 1 litre of water. Thiourea is the inhibitor.
Test the solution on an inconspicuous area of the
object, or on a scrap piece of the same material,
before proceeding with the treatment.
Following removal of the rust, dry the object by
dipping it in three successive acetone baths. At
this stage, or earlier if there are no rust problems,
the plate can be cleaned with industrial
methylated spirits. Corroded areas can be removed
with a mild abrasive such as pumice powder in
methylated spirits.
CAUTION:
Check your chemical safety data sheets,
and take the appropriate precautions.
Coating plated iron
If a bright surface finish is required after cleaning,
a proprietary metal cleaner can be used as a once-
only polish. The artefact can then be coated with
a clear, acrylic lacquer.
Lead and pewter
Lead is a soft, grey metal, used mainly in
combination with tin to form pewter. Because of
toxicity problems associated with the use of
pewter food vessels, the lead in pewter was
replaced in the 19th century with antimony and
some copper. Modern leadless pewters are usually
alloyed tin and Britannia metal.
Corrosion of lead and pewter
The main corrosion product on lead and pewter is
white-grey basic lead carbonate. This provides a
deep, protective patina to the metal surface, which
should not be removed.
If the pewter and lead have been in a low-oxygen
environment and exposed to sulphide compounds,
a rich, lustrous, grey-black patina of metal
sulphides remains on the surface. These minerals
are stable and should also not be removed.
Lead and pewter are particularly susceptible to
attack by acids given out by wood. Acetic acid
combines with lead and pewter to form lead
acetates.
Both tin and lead are very soft and are susceptible
to denting and scratching.
Cleaning lead and pewter
The stable patinas which form on lead and its alloys,
the white-grey lead carbonate and the dark lead
sulphide, should not be removed because they form
protective layers which prevent further corrosion.
Other corrosion products may require treatment.
Because it is difficult to obtain very mild
abrasives, it is generally recommended that
abrasives not be used to clean these soft metals.
If, however, the white bloom on the surface of
these metals is thin, the deposit can be removed
from the surface using a one-micron-grade alumina
powder mixed into a slurry polish.
If the white, bloom—an acetate layer—is pustular
or thick, it is best removed by chemical or
electrochemical reduction. These techniques are
best left to conservators.
Thin layers of corrosion products can be removed
by soaking the objects in a solution of 50g of
disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid in 1
litre of water. Avoid prolonged soaking because the
dissolved oxygen can cause increased corrosion.
General cleaning can be carried out with warm
water and a pure soap. Then rinse the object with
Metals 99
 fresh water, wipe it with methylated spirits, and
polish it with a soft cloth.
A protective surface coating of microcrystalline
wax may be applied after cleaning.
For more information
For a recipe and for information on the
application of microcrystalline-polyethylene
wax, please see More About Metals,
later in this chapter.
CAUTION:
Check your chemical safety data sheets,
and take the appropriate precautions.
Storing and displaying lead and pewter
Lead and pewter are prone to attack from acetic
acid and other organic acid vapours, which are
found in poor-quality papers and some fabrics, and
given off by various woods.
Storing lead-based objects in cupboards containing
these materials contributes significantly to the
deterioration. This type of degradation usually
shows up when white, powdery crystals form on
these materials.
Because lead and pewter objects are particularly
susceptible to attack by acids emanating from
certain woods, it is very important to store and
display them in enamelled metal cupboards.
The general handling, storage and display
guidelines previously described earlier in this
chapter should be followed.
Tin and its alloys
Tin is a soft, white metal which is found in
essentially pure form in some objects such as
plates; but it is more commonly seen alloyed with
lead in the form of pewter.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, tin was combined
with a number of other elements to produce a
range of alloys which were used principally for
utensils and ornamental ware.
100 Metals
Typical examples are:
• Britannia metal which is 93% tin, 5%
antimony, 2% copper. It was developed in
England during the mid-1700s in response to
the threat to the pewter utensil industry from
cheap porcelain. Old pewter was dull and,
because of its lead content, was undesirable
as a food container. Although the new alloy
was brighter and stronger, it eventually lost
favour as a metal for the production of
household utensils; and
• leadless pewter which is alloyed tin.
Corrosion of tin
Although it is normally quite stable, tin reacts
slowly with the atmosphere to form grey, stannous
oxide and finally stable, white to grey-black
stannic oxide.
Many museum objects made of tin or its alloys are
covered with a dull, grey coating of corrosion
products. These form a protective patina. Unless
very pronounced or unsightly, this patina should
be retained.
Cleaning tin
Although tin objects are quite strong, careless
handling will still damage their surfaces.
If an object must be cleaned, a pure soap in warm
water can be used to remove dirt and grime. This
should be followed by rinsing it with fresh water,
wiping it with methylated spirits and then
polishing it with a soft cloth.
Ask the advice of a conservator before treating
badly deteriorated objects.
Aluminium
Most aluminium objects found in museum collections
are alloys containing copper as a minor component.
The addition of only 3% by weight of copper trebles
the mechanical strength of the parent metal.
As aluminium corrodes, an oxide layer forms on the
surface and protects it against further corrosion.
Therefore, under normal environmental conditions
the metal does not corrode to any great extent.
 Deterioration of aluminium
Aluminium cylinders showing the effects of attack by
chloride ions.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
If in contact with metals such as copper and iron,
or in the presence of chloride ions from sea water,
aluminium and its alloys will corrode appreciably.
Aluminium must never come into contact with
mercury. Since mercury prevents the formation of
the protective oxide patina, subsequent corrosion
of aluminium is rapid.
For more information
For more information on the effects of chloride
ions on aluminium and its alloys, please see
More About Metals, later in this chapter.
Cleaning aluminium
Aluminium should be cleaned only with industrial
methylated spirits, to remove dirt. Heavy deposits
of oil, grease and petroleum products, commonly
encountered on vintage car parts, can be removed
by using kerosene or similar products.
If the metal is heavily stained or corroded, a 1%
solution of phosphoric acid can be used. This will
produce a mild, uniform etch on the metal surface
which, after thorough washing and drying, should
be left for a day to enable the protective corrosion
film to reform through contact with the air.
Consult a conservator for more information about
this treatment.
Aluminium that has been contaminated with
chloride ions can be treated by washing the
corroded metal with a solution that contains
ammonia and ammonium sulphate. This is a long
term treatment which is best left to conservators.
A corroded sea plane float, for instance, was only
stabilised after soaking for a period of 12 months.
Sea plane float after treatment.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
CAUTION:
Never use caustic soda to remove grease or paint
from aluminium products, because it
reacts vigorously with them. Don’t use
abrasives on aluminium, because these can
remove the protective oxide layer.
Coating aluminium
After cleaning, the aluminium surface may be
coated with a protective, clear, acrylic lacquer.
This protection is generally not needed unless the
aluminium is likely to be affected by salt—for
example, because of a sea-side location.
Gold
Gold has been used from the earliest times. It is
yellow and lustrous, and the most malleable and
ductile of all metals. As it is a rare metal, it has
been used for jewellery and coinage.
Gold is often applied as a decorative surface
coating—in the form of gold leaf for manuscript
illumination and for gilt frames or tempera/fresco
paintings, and as gold amalgam for gilding copper
and silver. It is also alloyed with copper and silver
to improve its mechanical properties.
Metals 101
 Treatment of gold
Because gold is very resistant to corrosion, it
usually requires only polishing with a soft cloth.
No coating is required on pure gold; but if it is
alloyed with copper or silver, a clear acrylic or
nitrocellulose lacquer gives protection against
retarnishing.
Gold/silver watch from the wreck of the Pandora,
before treatment.
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
Watch after treatment
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
MORE ABOUT METALS
Alloys
All metals have physical properties—malleability,
conductivity, strength, impact resistance and
chemical reactivity. Their usefulness is determined
by how these properties can be altered through
102 Metals
alloying with other metals to produce a wide range
of materials with tailor-made properties.
Alloying changes the corrosion resistance of the
parent metal. Properties such as mechanical
hardness and melting point also alter dramatically
with alloying. The microstructure of alloys and
metals is dependent on the rate at which they are
cooled. This subsequently affects the rate of
corrosion.
Mechanical working—such as hammering, drawing
and rolling—also changes the microstructure of
metals. If the stresses imparted to the metal are
not relieved after fabrication, then stress corrosion
can significantly diminish the service life of the
materials.
An awareness of this behaviour in metals helps the
conservator to respond in the most appropriate
fashion to the various degradation problems that
they find in collections.
Corrosion of metals
The overall driving forces of nature work to return
metals to their stable oxidised states, that is,
combined with oxygen, sulphates, carbonates,
sulphides and chlorides. Unoxidised or native
metallic element is produced when metals are
unbound from their compounds with oxygen,
sulphate, carbonate, sulphide and chloride. For this
to happen there must be a sufficient driving force
available through a high energy intervention. This
intervention can be a carbon reduction or
smelting. When metal ores are processed to
produce metals, they start to corrode.
The primary property of electrical conductivity of
metals is due to the dispersed nature of the
electrons in the structure of the metals. When an
external voltage is applied to a metal, the
electrons flow. This very same useful property is
the underlying cause for the corrosion of metals,
because the voltage applied to the metal by the
presence of oxygen in a moist environment will
cause the electrons to flow irreversibly from the
metal into the oxygen—to form an oxide coating.
A simple overview of corrosion
The corrosion of metals consists of two separate
reactions:
• an oxidation reaction; and
• a reduction reaction.
To explain these reactions, it is necessary to give a
simple overview of the structure of atoms. Atoms
are made up of a nucleus which contains neutral
particles called neutrons and positively charged
particles called protons. Electrons, which are
negatively charged particles, orbit around the
nucleus of the atom. The number and activity of
the electrons will determine how readily the atoms
will react with other atoms. Many metals, because
of the way their molecules are structured, can
readily lose electrons. When they do this, they are
no longer atoms. They are positively charged and
are called ions. Because of the charge, ions are not
stable and combine readily to achieve a stable,
electrically neutral state.
An oxidation reaction is one in which an atom
loses electrons. This can be represented very
simply by the equation:
M Mn++ne-
where ‘n’ represents the number of electrons lost
For example, copper—Cu—can be put into this
equation. In an oxidation reaction:
• Cu Cu+ + e-
It can be oxidised further:
• Cu+ Cu2+ + 2e-
Copper is described as polyvalent, that is, it has
different combining powers: a Cu+ ion needs one
negative ion to achieve a stable state, while a Cu2+
ion needs two negative ions to form neutral
compounds. Once these ions combine with other
substances, they produce cuprous and cupric
compounds respectively. For example, Cu2O is
cuprous oxide or copper (I) oxide and CuO is cupric
oxide or copper (II) oxide.
Iron and zinc are other examples of polyvalent
metals.
In reduction reactions, atoms gain electrons.
A simple representation of this would be:
Mn++ ne- M
where ‘n’ represents the number of electrons needed
These electrolytic reactions are used to produce
solid metals from their ionic solutions. The
negative ions can be supplied by a range of
materials. For example, if the metal object is in a
seaside location, chloride ions—Cl-—will combine
readily with the metal ions.
They will also combine with:
• sulphides—SO3-—sulphates—SO42—nitrates—
NO32-—from atmospheric pollutants; and
• oxygen.
If the metal combines with oxygen, it forms a
metal oxide on the surface of the metal. If this
metal oxide is continuous, then the overall
corrosion rate of the underlying metal will slow
down and it will become passivated or protected.
Corrosion cells
Corrosion cells are small areas on metal objects
where electrical differences are set up. Electrons
flow between the charged areas, just as an
electrical current flows between the positively and
negatively charged electrodes of a battery.
A corrosion cell is an electrochemical cell which
acts very much like a battery. The corrosion of
metals consists of two separate reactions:
• oxidation. The oxidation reactions are called
anodic reactions; and
• reduction. The reduction reactions are called
cathodic reactions.
In an electrochemical cell the anodic, oxidation,
half of the cell produces electrons as the metal is
oxidised, while at the cathodic half of the cell,
reduction occurs. The electrons are taken and held
by the oxidising agent, which in aerated
environments is oxygen.
In a corrosion cell, these reactions can continue in
a cycle. The localised corrosion activity causes
pitting in the metal.
The rate at which the electrons move out of the
metal and across into the oxygen molecules is the
principal factor controlling the overall corrosion rate.
Metals 103
 Fats, oils and sweat
Organic acids—formed by the oxidation of oils and
fats—are capable of attacking metals which rely
on a protective oxide coating to produce a good
corrosion resistance. To prevent this type of
damage, avoid direct contact between the object
and the source of the organic material. Some
examples of this type of damage are leather
objects with copper fittings. The gradual
deterioration of old candle wax in leather-
lubricating oils leads to organic acids penetrating
the protective copper oxide film, and reacting with
the underlying metal—to form outgrowths of
bright green organic copper compounds.
Human sweat on metal objects causes corrosion.
Bacterial reactions with sweat can produce
sulphides as metabolic by-products, and convert
inherently inert sulphate ions into reactive
sulphide ions.
Uneven coatings of oil—from sweaty hands for
instance—can alter the ease of access of oxygen
to metal surfaces. This has two major effects. It
hinders the formation of passivating layers of
corrosion. It also alters the relative reactivities of
areas of the metals; and so it causes one part of
the metal to corrode at the expense of another.
Acids
Inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid—derived
from the decay of plastics like polyvinyl chloride—
and nitric and sulphuric acids—derived from air
pollution—will attack metals which are either in
the same storage environment as the plastic or in
the open air.
Anything that prevents direct contact between the
metal surface and acidic solutions helps to prolong
the life of the object. Therefore, vapour phase
inhibitors, lacquers, waxes and other coatings
minimise the damage from air pollution. The
filtering of external air also greatly helps to
minimise corrosion damage.
Sulphide pollutants
Normally unreactive metals such as copper and
silver can suffer significant corrosion in the
presence of sulphide ions. Common sources of
sulphide ions are:
104 Metals
• hydrogen sulphide—H2S—from the anaerobic
decay of plant material; and
• carbonyl sulphide—COS—from the
degradation of sulphur-containing proteins,
such as those found in wool.
Base metals such as zinc and tin are also
significantly affected by sulphide pollution and/or
contamination. Small concentrations of sulphur
compounds in damp, oxygenated conditions cause
corrosion. The resulting metal sulphides can often
form a protective patina, as in the case of tin
sulphides which protect pewter objects.
Adsorption of the sulphur-containing species is an
essential step in the overall corrosion process and
any factor which inhibits adsorption helps
minimise attack on the metal. Therefore,
adsorption of organic materials, such as vapour
phase corrosion inhibitors, greatly decreases the
corrosion rate.
Electroplate
The principal function of electroplating is to make
a cheaper metal look like silver. The physical
properties of the materials are dominated by the
underlying parent metal or alloy.
When an object is being electroplated, it becomes
part of an electrolytic cell, as if it were part of a
battery. The object is the negative electrode—that
is—the cathode. The anode—or positive
electrode—is usually made of pure silver. During
the electroplating process, the object is placed in
a solution containing silver salts—for example
silver cyanide—and a direct, electrical current is
passed through the object. As this happens, the
object becomes coated with a layer of pure silver.
At the anode, the silver is oxidised to produce
silver ions, which replace the silver in the
solution.
If an inert anode such as stainless steel or
platinum is used, the bath would need regular
replenishment of the silver salts, to keep the same
operating conditions in the plating bath.
 Source of electricity
(negative) (positive)
The object gradually The pure silver anode gets
becomes coated with a smaller as it replaces the silver
layer of pure silver ions in the solution. The dotted
lines indicate its original size.
If a silver/copper alloy layer is required, then the
appropriate combination of silver and copper salts
is dissolved, and the corresponding alloy is used as
the anode.
Zinc carbonate blotter
If woven charcoal cloth or sintered zinc oxide
pellets are not available or easy to obtain, then
zinc carbonate can be used as a simple and very
effective treatment against the adverse effects of
sulphur pollution.
Sheets of acid-free blotting paper are immersed in
a bath of a soluble zinc salt such as 10g of zinc
sulphate in 1 litre of water.
Once the blotter is wet, a solution of 20g of
sodium carbonate in 1 litre of water is poured into
the bath, producing a white, cloudy solution of
zinc carbonate.
The blotter is removed from the bath, and dried
under pressure—to prevent cockling.
When dry, it can be placed underneath textile
coverings in the base of a display case, or rolled
up and placed in a support beneath a raised
display platform within the display case.
This simple treatment has prevented the tarnishing
of silver objects for a period of six years in a
display case which has not been opened to release
pollutant build-ups.
Brasses
The addition of varying amounts of zinc—Zn—to
copper—Cu—produces a wide range of industrial
brasses of differing physical and mechanical
properties. These include:
• gilding metal. The addition of only 5% zinc
produces this alloy, which is commonly used
as an artificial gold in decorative uses;
• red brass: 85% copper/15% zinc. In this
alloy, the underlying red colour of copper is
still present;
• yellow brass: 65% copper/35% zinc. The
addition of more zinc hardens the alloy and
changes the colour. This alloy is used for a
wide range of industrial purposes, such as
hinges, taps and valves; and
• muntz metal: 60% copper/40% zinc. This
alloy has a variety of uses, including
sheathing for wooden sailing vessels.
In order to improve the ease of machining, varying
amounts of lead are added to the hard brass alloys.
Brasses containing more than 5% lead are self-
lubricating, a very important factor for bearings
and other similar objects.
Bronzes
When copper is alloyed with tin as the major
additional component, different types of bronzes
are formed. Bronzes can have significant
differences in reactivity towards oxygen. The
mechanical strength of the bronze normally
increases with the addition of more tin, but the
alloys become increasingly more brittle. Some of
these alloys include:
• bell metal. With 20–25% tin, this is very
strong, but very susceptible to cracking if
struck with hard and sharp instruments;
• leaded bronzes: 80% copper/10% tin/10%
lead. These are very robust and can be
extensively cold-worked;
• statuary bronzes: 65–85% copper/10–30%
zinc/2.5–5% tin. These are commonly used
for casting; and
• china silver is an alloy of copper, tin, nickel
and silver with 65% copper/20% tin/13%
nickel/2% silver.
Metals 105
 Bronze disease sodium carbonate and 10g of sodium bicarbonate
in 1 litre of distilled or deionised water.
Bronze disease is the name given to the type of
A first wash of two to four months, followed by a
corrosion of copper and its alloys in which light
second wash of four to six months in the solution
blue/green, pustular outgrowths form on the
is normally sufficient.
surface. It is due to the breakdown—by chloride
ions—of the passivating layers of corrosion
If the object originally had a bright metal surface,
products which normally protect the surface of
this treatment will produce a green-brown patina
these metals.
which is attractive and stable.
The surface deposits tend to crumble and fall away
If a clean, metal surface is desired, the patina can
when touched. As this loose debris is removed
be removed after treatment—using the citric acid
from the surface, a pitted surface is exposed
stripping process or by polishing.
directly under the corrosion mound.
This method is effective for all cases of bronze
Increased temperatures enhance this form of
disease, but the time required varies greatly from
corrosion. A detailed description of the fundamental
object to object.
processes involved in the bronze disease cycle is
given in an article by MacLeod, 1981.
Remove any protective coating on the object
before treatment.
This type of corrosion problem is most commonly
found with bronzes—hence the name—less
This treatment should be carried out by a conservator,
frequently in brasses, and occurs least frequently
or in close consultation with a conservator.
with copper itself.
After removing the chlorides, apply a finishing
Because of the relatively high background levels of
treatment. Wax impregnation, a coating with
chloride ions in much of the soil in arid Australia,
benzotriazole or a coating with Incralac are
the problems of bronze disease are encountered in
commonly used.
objects that have been recovered from land sites,
as well as those from a marine environment or
Benzotriazole is one of a number of corrosion
coastal areas.
inhibitors for copper and its alloys. The reaction
mechanisms are complex, but the primary
The corrosion problems are much worse when the
protection is due to the formation of a very stable
materials are stored in high humidities. Under
complex with copper, which protects the metal
these conditions, a series of little dots and
from further corrosion. Benzotriazole displaces
pustules will break out over the surface of an
chloride ions from cuprous chloride—this
object. If the humidity is not lowered, or if some
overcomes one of the fundamental causes of
other form of treatment is not given to the object,
accelerated corrosion.
then extensive corrosion and gross disfigurement
of the object is inevitable.
Microcrystalline/polyethylene wax
One of the problems associated with bronze
This is a good recipe:
disease is that after the surface has been pitted, it
is difficult to disguise that area, unless it is in- • 100g of microcrystalline wax
filled with coloured wax or some other suitable
resinous material. • 25g of polyethylene wax

Treatment of bronze disease • 230g of white spirits

The main aim of treating bronze disease is to
remove all of the chlorides from the object.
This is done simply and effectively by immersing
the object completely in a solution of 10g of
Melt the waxes together and stir well to make sure
they are mixed thoroughly. Quickly pour the
molten mixture into the white spirits and stir it
constantly while it cools. This makes a smooth,
white paste. The sheen of the resultant wax film

106 Metals
can be altered by varying either the grades or the
proportions of the waxes used. When it is dry, the
wax can be polished, for a shiny finish, or left
untouched for a matt finish. If subsequent
treatment is be necessary, this wax can be
removed with white spirit.
Iron and steel
The most important alloying element for iron is
carbon—because it combines to form a diverse
range of alloys, including wrought iron through to
steels and cast iron.
In cast iron, carbon can exist as discrete phases or
minute areas of graphite, in a variety of physical
forms. Because of the differences in the hardness
and chemical reactivity of the various phases,
steels and cast iron are subject to localised
corrosion—one phase is selectively corroded while
another is protected. This is a form of internal
galvanic corrosion.
The addition of other metals such as nickel and
chromium result in the wide range of stainless
steels, which are hard and chemically durable
alloys. These alloys corrode to form protective
coatings of chromium oxide/nickel oxide, and
transform iron into a much less reactive metal with
a much wider range of uses.
Adding elements such as molybdenum further
improves the corrosion-resistance properties of the
stainless steel alloys in chloride solutions.
Bentonite paste
Bentonite paste is made by sprinkling bentonite
powder into a prepared solution of the alkali or
acid, and mixing it into a paste. The
concentrations of acid and alkali in the paste are
usually higher than if a corresponding solution was
being used.
For example, an 8% solution—that is, 80g per
litre—of alkali and a 10% solution—that is, 100g
per litre—of citric acid are recommended. The paste
can be applied directly to the area to be treated.
If the surface is not smooth, residues of the paste
can become clogged, making it awkward to
remove. To make removal easier, first place a piece
of water-dampened tissue paper over the treatment
area, and apply the paste on top. It is preferable
to cover the poultice of paste with cling wrap, to
prevent it drying out.
Repeated applications of the paste may be
required. The paste can be removed by hosing the
surface with water and scrubbing it with a bristle
brush. Then dry the object fully.
Bentonite paste treatment is also recommended if
solder joints or related fastenings are present,
because these are also readily attacked by citric acid.
Chloride ions and
aluminium and its alloys
The presence of chlorides in aluminium alloys
containing copper is a problem because chloride
ions:
• penetrate the protective oxide coating;
• cause aluminium pitting corrosion; and
• promote localised copper corrosion from
within the alloy.
As the copper corrosion products move to the
surface, they interact with the aluminium corrosion
products and form a blue-green, copper-stained
aluminium hydroxide corrosion matrix.
The real problem occurs when—as a result of
electrochemical reduction by the parent metal—
copper is redeposited in metallic form on the
surface of the alloy. The redeposited copper acts as
a cathode in a pitting corrosion cell.
The conservation problem is to remove a relatively
unreactive metal deposit from the surface of a very
reactive metal, while at the same time trying to
remove the chloride ions.
One simple solution to the problem is to use a
solution of ammonia and ammonium sulphate to
wash away the chlorides and the metallic copper
from the surface. This produces complex reactions,
but is effective.
When a corroded sea plane float was treated this
way, it took 12 months of steady soaking,
scrubbing and cleaning to stabilise the corroded
metal.
Metals 107
 Spot-tests
Spot-tests are used to distinguish different metals
which make up an alloy. Simple instructions and a
list of the tests are provided, to help you identify
metal objects in your collections. It is important
to note that these tests are only qualitative in
nature—they will not tell you the relative amounts
of the different metals in an alloy.
General instructions
9 volt battery
Aligator clip
Metal
tweezers
Test
paper Object being tested
Do the tests in unobtrusive spots, because marks
may be left.
Remove protective coatings such as lacquers and
waxes, otherwise there will be no reaction and no
identification can be made.
The test papers to be used with the electrolysis are
best cut into triangles. They are easier to handle
this way and, if cut reasonably small, will leave
less of a mark on the metal object being tested.
When wet—but not soaking—with distilled water
or salt solution, the papers should be shiny.
The alligator clip needs to be attached firmly to an
area of reasonably solid metal.
The test paper in the tweezers should be put on
the surface of the object, about 1cm away from
the clip.
Don’t let the metal tweezers contact the surface of
the metal. The electrical contact must be made
through the wet test paper.
108 Metals
Rinse wet spots of electrolyte, for example, NaCl—
sodium chloride—or other reagents with distilled
water, and dry them.
The battery should be stored disconnected from
the tweezers and clip—to avoid accidental
discharging if the two should touch.
Tests for identifying metals in an alloy
Antimony—Sb
Procedure: dip a small piece of antimony test
paper in diluted HCl—hydrochloric acid—and
apply it to the object.
Results: the presence of Sb is indicated by an
orange colour. The reaction is complete in five
seconds on pure Sb using 2% HCl. Surfaces
containing trace Sb will be much slower. Gold—
Au—and silver—Ag—surfaces remain unaffected
by the test. Lead—Pb—is slightly darkened,
copper—Cu—and iron—Fe—corrosion products
change colour slightly.
Copper—Cu
Procedure: wet a small piece of commercial test
paper—Cuprotesmo—with distilled water and
place it on the surface of the metal.
Results: the copper metal or Cu+ and Cu2+ ions
cause the pale yellow paper to turn pink/purple.
This test works particularly well on corroded or
patinated areas, and leaves no trace of the test.
On highly polished or new surfaces, the reaction is
much slower.
Gold—Au
Procedure: dip a small triangle of plain, filter
paper in a saturated solution of sodium chloride in
water. Electrolyse for less than 15 seconds. Some
darkening will probably be evident if copper is
present. Leave the paper on the spot until it is
slightly dried, to ensure that gold is on the surface
of the paper. Then dip it into a mixture of 20% tin
chloride—SnCl2—in 15%HCl.
Results: the paper turns black if gold is present.
Iron—Fe
Procedure: for corroded objects, dip a small square
of dipyridyl test paper in distilled water and place
it on the surface of the object. This leaves no
visible effect on the object. For uncorroded
objects, dip a long piece of dipyridyl test paper in
NaCl saturated solution so that the paper is wet
but not saturated—electrolyse. The paper should
be long, to prevent confusion with any colour
reaction which occurs with the steel of the
tweezers.
Results: if iron is present, the white test paper
turns red after several seconds—for corroded and
uncorroded objects.
Nickel—Ni
Procedure: dip a small piece of nickel test paper
into a saturated solution of NaCl. Electrolyse for
about five seconds.
Results: on drying, the following colours may be
observed: pink-red for nickel, brown for iron, green
for copper and yellow for gold.
Silver—Ag
Procedure: wet a filter paper with 10% potassium
chromate K2CrO4. Electrolyse for one second or
less.
Results: if silver is present, a red silver chromate
Ag4CrO4 forms in the spot of the metal. This mark,
if small, can be polished off very easily.
Tin—Sn
Procedure: dip a small piece of filter paper in a
saturated cacotheline solution—0.6% aqueous.
When the cacotheline dries slightly, dip the filter
paper in NaCl saturated solution. Electrolyse.
Results: if tin is present, the paper turns purple.
Shiny surfaces become matte and dark after two
second of electrolysis.
Zinc—Zn
Procedure: dip a small piece of filter paper in
sodium hydoxide NaOH—5–10% solution—and
apply the paper to the surface of the object for
five to ten seconds. Electrolysis is recommended.
When the sample has been absorbed in the filter
paper, place this paper in the centre of a larger
filter paper, making a wet spot. Wash this spot
with successive drops of dithizone/carbon
tetrachloride, CCl4.
Results: if zinc is present, the edges around the
sport turn pink—not orange. Wipe off immediately
any NaOH remaining on the metal of the object.
This can be done with the same filter paper being
used for the dithizone reaction. Shiny zinc surfaces
may be slightly darkened or dulled after
electrolysis. There is a small effect on some copper
corrosion products, and the NaOH droplet causes a
shiny spot to develop on lead.
If you have a problem relating to the care of
metals, contact a conservator. Conservators can
offer advice and practical solutions.
For further reading
Brown, B.F., Burnett, H.C., Thomas Chase, W.,
Goodway, M., Kruger, J., Pourbaix M., eds.
1977, Corrosion and Metal Artefacts—A Dialogue
between Conservators and Archaeologists and
Corrosion Scientists, NBS Special Publication
479, U.S. Department of Commerce/National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
MacLeod, I. D., 1981, ‘Bronze Disease: An
Electrochemical Explanation’, ICCM Bulletin, VII,
ICCM Inc, Canberra, pp 16–26.
Stambolov, T., 1985, The Corrosion and Conservation
of Metallic Antiquities and Works of Art, CL
Publication, Central Research Laboratory for
Objects of Art and Science, Amsterdam.
Scott, David A., 1991, Metallography and
Microstructure of Ancient and Historic Metals,
The Getty Conservation Institute, The J. Paul
Getty Museum in association with Archetype
Books, Marina del Rey, California.
Scott, D.A., Podany, J., Considine, B.W., eds.
1994, Ancient and Historic Metals: Conservation
and Scientific Research, Proceedings of a
Symposium organised by the J. Paul Getty
Museum and the Getty Conservation Institute,
November 1991, The Getty Conservation
Institute, Marina del Rey, California.
Metals 109
 Self-evaluation quiz recovered from the sea;

c) bronze disease can be treated with a citric

acid/thiourea solution;
Question 1.
d) the presence of high concentrations of
chloride ions leads to bronze disease.
Select the incorrect statement from the following:

a) damaged Sheffield plate may be repaired by Question 5.

electroplating;

b) moisture and oxygen enhance corrosion; The presence of brown droplets of moisture on an
iron object indicates:
c) a protective oxide layer forms on the surface
of copper objects; a) there are low levels of chloride ions in the
metal;
d) microcrystalline wax gives good corrosion
protection for iron objects. b) the metal is being attacked by sulphide
pollutants;
Question 2. c) the metal has been buried in a low-oxygen
environment;
Gloves should be worn when handling metal
d) corrosion reactions are still active.
objects so that:

a) oils, fats and sweat are not transferred to the Question 6.

object;

b) the object is less likely to slip from your grip; Select the correct statement from the following:

c) protective lacquers are not damaged by nails; a) wooden cabinets are preferred to painted
metal ones for storing metal objects;
d) your hands are not affected by toxic corrosion
inhibitors. b) metal objects should be wrapped in
unbuffered, acid-free tissue paper;
Question 3. c) storage in plastic bags is acceptable as long
as they are not made of PVC;
Silver cleaning should be carried out only when
d) relative humidities greater than 45% are
absolutely necessary because: essential to help in the release of chlorides
from metals.
a) silver dip solutions are very expensive;

b) any cleaning solutions remove small amounts Question 7.

of silver;

c) cleaning solutions tend to accumulate in Which of the following statements are correct?
indentations and surface cracks;
a) The main corrosion products that form on
d) evidence of historic usage may be lost. lead are stable and protective.

b) Abrasives are recommended for the removal of

Question 4. most corrosion products from lead.

c) Use of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid is

Select the correct statement from the following:
effective in removing thin layers of corrosion
products.
a) copper is more susceptible to bronze disease
than is brass;
d) Microcrystalline wax may be applied to lead
as a surface finish.
b) bronze disease only occurs in objects

110 Metals
e) Storage of lead in chipboard cupboards is Question 4.
recommended because the resultant lead
acetate patina is protective.
Answer: d).
Question 8.
Question 5.
Which of the following statements is incorrect?
Answer: d).
a) Aluminium may be cleaned with methylated
spirits. Question 6.
b) Caustic soda should be used to remove grease
from aluminium. Answer: b).

c) Abrasives should be avoided for cleaning Question 7.

aluminium because they can damage the
protective layer.
Answer: c).
d) Chloride ions are potentially damaging to
aluminium objects. Question 8.

Question 9.
Answer: b).

Citric acid may be used to treat: Question 9.

a) cast iron, cast steel, spring steel and plated
iron; Answer: b).

b) brass and bronze, but only if thiourea is

added;

c) silver plate;

d) lead and pewter.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: a).

Question 2.

Answer: a).

Question 3.

Answer: b).

Metals 111
 Outdoor
Collections

Objectives page 115

Introduction page 115
What is outdoor cultural material? page 115
What is outdoor cultural material made of? page 115
What are the most common types and
causes of damage? page 116
Care of outdoor objects page 117
Australian survey of sculpture, monuments
and outdoor cultural material—SMOCM page 119
Guidelines for use with survey form page 127
What you can do—general do’s and dont’s page 130
If damage has occurred, what should
and shouldn’t be done? page 131
Outdoor cultural material in Australia’s
climatic zones page 132
Self-evaluation quiz page 135
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 135
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• be aware of the need to care for outdoor
cultural material;
• have a basic understanding of the main
causes of damage to objects in an outdoor
environment; and
• know the basics of caring for and maintaining
outdoor cultural materials.
Introduction
Sculpture, monuments, war memorials and even
stone horse-troughs are all familiar features of our
landscape. There is no doubt that we notice them
and appreciate them. They are decorative, they
have meaning for us and they contribute to the
visual texture of our surroundings.
Despite the fact that we value these items, it is
not often that we examine these objects closely
and observe their detail, or note any damage
unless it is very obvious—a graffiti attack, for
example.
Because these objects are designed to be outside
and are made from durable materials, we think that
they can withstand all sorts of conditions. They are
durable but, like all materials, deteriorate. The
process is constant.
Damage and deterioration can occur rapidly and be
obvious. However, many items deteriorate slowly
over long periods of time—and the damage is not
seen clearly until it is advanced. It is important to
be aware that this will happen inevitably and that
there are steps you can take to minimise the risks
to your valued outdoor cultural material.
What is outdoor
cultural material?
Outdoor cultural material includes such items as:
• sculpture—art work in three dimensions;
• fountains—figures, animals and other
decorative items combined with hydraulics to
form jets, sprays and waterfalls;
• monuments—dedicated to the memory of
people or events;
• murals—paintings or decorative items on walls;
• war memorials—dedicated to the memory of
those who died during a specific war. Often
with larger memorials, additional plaques have
been added as other wars have occurred; and
• artefacts—objects which have some link to
an historic event, often with a plaque or
other memorial features. Such items include
cannons, war relics, anchors and items saved
from larger pieces which have since been
destroyed.
A stone sculpture
in the grounds of
Carrick Hill, South
Australia.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with
permission of Carrick
Hill
What is outdoor cultural
material made of?
Outdoor cultural material includes a vast array of
items made from varying materials.
Sculpture gives an indication of the range of
materials. Traditional sculptures tend to be made
from:
• metals such as bronze and, less frequently,
cast iron;
• stones such as marble, sandstone, granite,
limestone and bluestone; and
• wood—this is used less frequently, probably
because it is generally considered to be less
durable.
Outdoor Collections 115
 • accidental damage such as vehicles crashing
into—or trees falling on—objects;

• splitting and cracking through plants growing

in small fissures in the objects; and

• splitting, cracking, distortion, and loss of

coatings and paint layers as objects adjust to
extremes and fluctuations in their
environment. This type of damage rarely
happens quickly. It usually happens over a
long period and is often considered to be
natural weathering.

Close-up of one component of a timber sculpture.

Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of Carrick Hill

In recent years, a greater range of materials have

been used. They are used in combination with
each other, and with the more traditional
materials. There is now sculpture which uses
materials as varied as:

• concrete;

• glass;
This imitation stone work has split, leaving it
• terracotta; vunerable to further damage.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
• fibreglass; with permission of Carrick Hill
• corrugated iron;
Environmental factors which can contribute to
• terrazzo; and physical damage include:
• painted metal. • extremes and fluctuations in temperature and
relative humidity;

What are the most common
types and causes of damage?
Objects in an outdoor setting are fully exposed to
almost all of the factors that cause damage and
deterioration.
Being outside, sculptures, memorials and other
objects are very vulnerable to physical damage
such as:
• scratching and abrasion, for example, through
children climbing on objects;
• graffiti;
• deliberate breakages and other forms of
vandalism;
• dust storms and dirt picked up by cars on dirt
roads—high velocity dust particles act like a
sand-blaster. Stone surfaces—especially the
softer stones such as limestone and
sandstone—are particularly vulnerable to this
type of damage especially on areas with fine-
detailed carving;
• chipping and flaking of the surface of objects
caused by mowing or whipper snippering too
close to them; and
• damage from insect and mould attack.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see Damage and Decay.

116 Outdoor Collections

Chemical deterioration also happens. Light, UV
radiation, high humidity and high temperatures all
contribute to chemical changes, which can include:
• corrosion;
• fading;
• discolouration; and
• materials drying out and becoming brittle.
Resins and other substances which fall on objects
from trees can be very difficult to remove from
porous materials, and can stain and disfigure
the objects.
For more information
For more information on the adverse
effects salts have on metals, please see the
chapter on Metals in this volume.

Airborne pollutants, which produce acid rain, are

one of the major causes of damage to outdoor
objects. The unsightly black and brownish-yellow
streaks seen on many bronze sculptures are a
direct result of pollution. This is not just a
problem in the city or in industrial areas. Acid
rain can travel vast distances before actually
falling. Pollution from fertilisers and crop sprays
can also have a detrimental affect on objects in
outdoor settings.

Salts cause damage to metals, as well as to

concrete and stone.
This piece is made from wood and iron. It is
vulnerable to corrosion of the iron and to
This bronze sculpture deterioration of the wood. It also collects large
is vulnerable to plant amounts of pine needles from surrounding trees,
growth below the because of its shape.
water level and to
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
accelerated corrosion
with permission of Carrick Hill.
at the water surface.
If the water
contained chlorine,
extensive damage
would occur. Care of outdoor objects
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with National inventory
permission of
Carrick Hill
The Australian Institute for the Conservation of
Cultural Materials—Sculptures, Monuments and
Outdoor Cultural Material specialty group—AICCM-
As bird droppings age, they can become quite SMOCM—is preparing a national inventory of
acidic and can etch into the surface of outdoor sculptures, monuments and outdoor cultural
objects. material.

Mould growth also involves chemical action on
the object, as moulds digest the items they are
feeding on. Moulds can also stain the surfaces on
which they are growing.
Plants growing on objects can cause chemical
damage, especially if they are feeding off the
object.
SMOCM’s leaflet Saving the Past for the Future—
We Need Your Help! states that the program will:
‘...culminate in the creation of a National
Inventory of Sculpture, Monuments and Outdoor
Cultural Material. The results of the primary
research, on-site documentation and condition
assessments will be used by custodians to
develop management plans for local collections.’

Outdoor Collections 117

 It further states:

‘AICCM wants to work with local councils and

private owners of significant objects to assist in
establishing conservation parameters for these
diverse heritage collections—from
documentation to graffiti removal to preventive
conservation.

Our aim is to ensure that collections are

appropriately documented and conserved for
greater understanding and enjoyment now and
into the future.’

At the end of the project there will be a central,

computerised database, which will be available
through public screens at the Art Gallery of NSW
and on the Internet. This database will be
available as a community tool for local councils
and custodians. The NSW inventory was completed
in December 1997.

To collect the information for the national

inventory, SMOCM is carrying out a survey. The
survey form and the instructions for completing
the form follow.

This survey form is a good starting point for local

groups to gather information about the sculptures,
monuments and outdoor cultural material in their
area. With this information, you can take stock of
what you have; and determine what items need
attention and the priorities for treatment.

118 Outdoor Collections

 Australian survey of sculpture, monuments and outdoor
cultural material—SCOCM—survey form

Guidlines for on-site reporting

• Read the entire form carefully before beginning the report.

• When filling out this form, type or print using a ballpoint pen or pencil. Legibility is critical.

• Do not guess at the information; an answer of ‘unknown’ is more helpful.

• Research at your local library or Council will be required to complete questions in Parts 4 and 5.

• For sculptures with several separate sculptural components, complete one Survey Form for the entire
work. If necessary, complete relevant sections of the Survey Form for each component and staple them
together. Attach photographs, photocopies, slides or other reproductions of the work to the back of the
Survey Form.

Send completed forms to Inventory of SMOCM, AICCM (NSW), GPO Box 3762, Sydney 2001. Keep a copy for
your records.

If you have any questions, please contact Julie Potts, Project Coordinator (02) 9225 1782.

SURVEY COMPLETED BY: _____________________________________________________________________

ADDRESS: _____________________________________________________________________

TELEPHONE: Work ___________________________Home _________________________________

DATE: _____________________________________________________________________

SUPERVISOR’S NAME: _____________________________________________________________________

ADDRESS: _____________________________________________________________________

TELEPHONE: Work ___________________________Home _________________________________

The printing of this Survey Form has been kindly funded by the Art Gallery of New South Wales.

Outdoor Collections 119

 1: BASIC DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION—See Guidelines

1.1 Category—see Guidelines

r Sculpture (S) r Fountain (F) r Monument (Mon)

(include war memorials)

r Mural (Mur) r Mosaics/terrazzo r Artefact (A) cannon,

floors (Mos) anchor, horse trough or other

1.2 Title of Work—if unsure, indicate ‘unknown’; if artist named the work ‘Untitled’, note accordingly.

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

1.3 Alternate Title(s)—other titles of work known by

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

1.4 Overall Description—see Guidelines

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

1.5 Overall Condition—see Guidelines

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

1.6 Primary Artist(s)—see Guidelines

___________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

120 Outdoor Collections

1.7 Other Collaborators—check as many as apply and see Guidelines

r Architect ______________________________________________________________________________

r Carver ________________________________________________________________________________

r Designer ______________________________________________________________________________

r Other (Designate role, eg. landscape architect, engineer) _______________________________________

1.8 Foundry/Fabricator ___________________________________________________________________

1.9 Execution Date—often found by sculptor’s name__________________________________________

1.10 Media—if known, name specific medium, and see Guidelines

MEDIA
Metal Stone Wood Ceramic Plastic Other
Sculpture
Fountain
Monument
Mural
Mosaic
Artefact
Base

Was information obtained by direct observation? r YESr NO

If no, indicate source of information.

1.11 Approximate Dimensions—indicate unit of measure, millimetres preferred

Height Width Depth

Sculpture
Fountain
Mural
Mos/Ter
Artefact
Base

1.12Markings/Inscriptions—check as many as apply

Is the artist’s signature visible on the piece?

r Yes, examined and found signature.

r No, examined sculpture/base but did not see any signature.

r Unable to determine, could not get close enough to check.

Outdoor Collections 121

 If signature is visible, record here—indicate location____________________________________________

Does the work have foundry/fabricator marks?

r Yes, examined and found foundry marks.

r No, examined sculpture/base but did not see foundry mark.

r Unable to determine, could not get close enough to check.

If foundry mark/marks are visible, record here. _________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Record the text of any associated nearby identification or commemorative plaques.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Are there any inscriptions badly worn or unreadable?

r Yes r No

If ‘yes’ provide details.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

PART 2: LOCATION/JURISDICTION INFORMATION

2.1 The sculpture is currently located at:

Street address or site location ______________________________________________________________

Suburb _____________________________City ____________________________State________________

2.2 Setting of Work—see Guidelines

Is the work a focus of space? For example, at the end of a road, in the centre of a prominent intersection, or
in a park with views along paths leading to the work.

If yes, describe the setting

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

122 Outdoor Collections

2.3 Immediate Locale—check as many as apply

r Industrial

r Street/Roadside—within 6 metres

r Tree-covered—overhanging branches or trees nearby

r Residential

r Commercial

r Institution

r Park

r Other—specify _________________________________________________________________________

2.4 Is the sculpture in a protected setting?—check if applicable

r Protected from the elements—for example niche, canopy

r Protected from the public—for example fenced

r Security—for example guards

r Lighting

Any other significant environmental factor—such as near airport, subway, sprinklers, cars or birds

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

PART 3: CONDITION INFORMATION

3.1 Surface Coating—see Guidelines

OBJECT BASE

Does there appear to be an applied surface coating? r r

Yes r r
Unable to determine r r

If known, identify type of coating—see Guidelines

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Outdoor Collections 123

 3.2 Surface Appearance—see Guidelines

Complete for all materials—check as many as apply

OBJECT BASE

1. Guano r r
2. Dirty surface r r
3. Graffiti applied to surface r r
4. Graffiti scratched into the surface r r
5. Abraded or gouged surface r r
6. Cracked surface r r
7. Discoloured surface r r
8. Dented r r

Other Comments: _________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Complete for metal objects

OBJECT BASE

9. Corrosion r r

Other Comments: _________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Complete for stone objects

OBJECT BASE

10. Organic growth r r

11. White crusts r r
12. Chalky or powdery surface r r
13. Spalling r r

Other Comments: _________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3.3 Structural Condition—check as many as apply

OBJECT BASE

Is the support deteriorating? r r

Are there any cracked joints? r r
Is mortar or caulking missing? r r
Are there any broken or missing parts? r r
Any cracks, splits or holes? r r
Look for straight or branching fractures r r
Dented r r

124 Outdoor Collections

Does water collect in recessed areas? r r

Other Comments: _________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

PART 4: OWNER/ADMINISTRATOR

r State Government

r Local Council

r Other

Please give the name and address of the agency, institution or individual who currently owns or administers
the work and is responsible for its long-term care.

Name

Department/Division ______________________________________________________________________

Street Address ___________________________________________________________________________

Suburb___________________________________State______________________Post Code ____________

Contact Name __________________________________________Telephone _________________________

If sculpture has been moved, please list former location(s) and owner(s)

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

PART 5: HISTORY AND IMPORTANCE—OR SIGNIFICANCE—OF THE WORK

5.1 Attach dated photographs, slides, and a photocopy of an illustration or drawing of the work.
Please provide details of the source material.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

5.2 Artist Intentions for Future Use/Weathering/Maintenance—if known

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

When did the artist make this statement?_____________________________________________________

Was this a verbal or written communication? __________________________________________________

What was the date of communication? _______________________________________________________

Who did the artist address? ________________________________________________________________

Outdoor Collections 125

 5.3 What is the history of the work?—see Guidelines

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

5.4 What is the importance—or heritage significance—of the work?—see Guidelines

Is the work already recognised, that is listed by any of the following?

r The National Trust.

r The State or Local Government Heritage Authorities.

r The Australian Heritage Commission—The Register of the National Estate.

r Other.

Supply any references.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

What value does the work have for the local community?—see Guidelines

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

126 Outdoor Collections

 Guidelines for
Use with Survey Form
PART 1: BASIC
DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION
This survey will include any three-dimensional
artwork or artefact which is cast, carved, modelled,
fabricated, fired or assembled in materials such as
stone, wood, metal, ceramic or plastic, located in
an outdoor setting, is free standing and accessible
to the public.
1.1 Category
‘Sculpture’ is any work of art carried out in three
dimensions.
‘Fountain’ is an important category of sculpture
linking art and hydraulics. Figures, animals and
other objects are combined to deliver jets, sprays
and waterfalls. This includes drinking fountains for
humans and animals.
‘Monument’ is usually in dedication to the memory
of a person(s), founder(s), institution or
government, which will usually be stipulated upon
an accompanying plaque.
‘War Memorial’ is dedicated to involvement in any
war, usually stipulated on a plaque as part of the
memorial.
‘Mural’ is a decorative item. However, our interest
lies with works executed by artists, rather than
minor decorative embellishments. What one needs
to look for is a signature or plaque commemorating
the work of the artist(s).
‘Mosaic’ is a design made by cementing small
pieces of hard, coloured materials (eg. marble,
glass, ceramic or semi-precious stones) to a base.
‘Terrazzo floor’ is a mixture of marble chips and
cement used for flooring. It is laid in situ, ground
smooth and then polished.
‘Artefact’ is an item which is related to historical
events, and may include items such as a cannon,
anchor or horse trough.
The following items will not be included in the
AICCM’s current project: plaque, gate, fence, step,
an architectural feature—part of a building, rock
art, outdoor site, engineering structure, mining
equipment, agricultural machinery, garden, ‘big’
thing—advertising material, street furniture,
playground equipment and cemeteries. These items
are not priorities for this survey. However, you may
decide to use this form for your own record-
keeping about these items.
1.4 Overall Description Briefly describe the work
including its subject/theme. For figurative works,
use the abbreviations PR—proper right—and PL—
proper left—to indicate the right or left side of
the statue from the perspective of the statue, that
is your right or left side if you were positioned on
the base facing in the same direction as the
statue. For abstract works, describe the
predominant forms, colours, shapes and textures.
For descriptions of either abstract or figurative
pieces, avoid judgemental language.
1.5 Overall Condition What is the overall general
appearance or condition of the work? Please
indicate any broken or missing parts and describe
evidence of cracks. Are there obvious signs of
deterioration which require urgent treatment, or is
it well maintained?
1.6 Primary Artist(s) Is(are) the person(s)
responsible for the overall conception and creation
of the work. Frequently the artist’s name will
appear toward the back, lower edge or another
inconspicuous place on the sculpture, followed by
the abbreviations ‘Sc’, ‘Sculp’ for sculptor/sculpted.
1.7 Foundry/Fabricator If the piece was cast, the
foundry name or monogram symbol, as well as cast
date, may appear on the base of the sculpture or
another inconspicuous place.
‘Base’ is the support on which the object is placed.
Some works will include a plinth as well as a base;
however, for the purpose of this survey they should
be described jointly.
Outdoor Collections 127
 1.10 Media

Metal Stone Wood

1. Bronze 9. Sandstone 17. Blackbutt
2. Copper Alloy 10. Limestone 18. Teak
3. Lead Alloy 11. Granite
4. Aluminium Alloy 12. Marble
5. Gold Alloy 13. Reconstituted Stone (Terrazzo) 19. Marine Grade
6. Iron Alloy 14. Trachyte (NSW) Plywood
7. Unknown metal 15. Bluestone (Vic) 20. Other
8. Other metal 16. Other

Ceramic Plastic Other

21. Terracotta 24. Polyester 30. Brick
22. Glazed earthenware 25. Epoxy 31. Concrete
23. Porcelain 26. Spun Glass 32. Glass
reinforced resin 33. Plaster
27. Cast Resin 34. Bone
28. Other Resin ie. 35. Fabric
expanded foam 36. Leather
29. Methods of construction 37. Rubber
eg. cast or laminated 38. Other

1.11 APPROXIMATE DIMENSIONS Always measure PART 3: CONDITION INFORMATION

the tallest and widest points. Do not climb on
objects or lean ladders against them while
measuring. A simple diagram or drawing of the 3.1 Surface Coating
object identifying where measurements were taken
from would be of assistance. Please include this on 1. Applied patina—chemicals applied to the
surface of metal to create a desired colour.
the back page of the Survey Form. Taking a photo
of someone of known height next to a sculpture
2. Electroplated—the process of depositing
can help to estimate height—measure against metal from a solution of its salts onto a
them with a ruler on the photo. surface, using an electrical current.

3. Gilded—thin layer of gold laid on as gold leaf.

PART 2: LOCATION/JURISDICTION
4. Glazed—smooth lustrous coating usually
INFORMATION applied to ceramics.

2.3 Environmental Setting of work The general 5. Painted—usually applied by brush or spray.
vicinity and immediate locale surrounding an
object play a major role in its overall condition. 6. Polished—smooth and glossy surface
produced by friction.
The size of the work can be an important factor
here. The Archibald Fountain in Hyde Park, Sydney
7. Textured—rough surface, applied as part of
is very much a focus of space, whereas a small the original design.
bust on a low pedestal between shrubs in a garden
is unlikely to be a focus. But size alone is not the 8. Waxed or lacquered—clear, protective
determining factor. For example, the Richard coating, often appears shiny.
Johnson Obelisk in Bligh/Hunter Streets, Sydney,
though smallish, is a focus of the space it 9. Other—please specify.
occupies—the little square at the street
intersection.

128 Outdoor Collections

3.2 Surface Appearance
1. Guano—bird droppings, insect or animal remains.
2. Dirty—accumulation of dust and dirt.
3. Graffiti—applied over the surface with paint,
felt pen or a similar material.
4. Graffiti—scratched into the surface, damaging
original object and exposing fresh material
below the surface.
5. Abraded or gouged surface.
6. Cracked surface.
7. Discoloured—a faded or darkened surface.
8. Dented.
9. Corrosion—iron is indicated by rust red but
can be orange/brown; copper is indicated by
green or black; aluminium is indicated by a
dull silver colour.
10. Organic growth—this can be moss, algae,
lichen, vines or any other plant matter.
11. White crusts—caused by crystallised salts on
the surface.
12. Chalky or powdery surface—loose material is
easily transferred to your hand when touched.
13. Spalling—small pieces breaking away from a
surface.
PART 4:
OWNER/ADMINISTRATOR
4.1 It is very important to establish who owns the
work, because that agency or body are responsible
for its long-term care and maintenance. The
researcher will need to check local Council records
and, if the owner cannot be clearly identified from
these records, it may be necessary to carry out a
Land Titles search. It is usually the case that
whoever owns the land is responsible for the
maintenance of any structure on that land.
PART 5:
HISTORY AND IMPORTANCE —
OR SIGNIFICANCE—OF THE WORK
This section is to be completed at your local
library, historical society or Council.
5.3 What is the history of the work?
(a) Why was it made?
(b) Are there any original drawings or records of
the work? Who owns these materials?
(c) Are there any historical photographs of the
work? For example, of the opening ceremony;
and any others which may illustrate changes
to the work or its surrounds.
(d) Are there any books or other references to the
work?
(e) Has the work been altered in any way—other
than through decay? For example, have parts
been added—plaques perhaps—or have the
surrounds been changed—was there once a
fence?
5.4 What is the importance—or heritage
significance—of the work?
Is the work:
(a) associated with events, or developments in
history?
(b) associated with important people?
(c) rare?
(d) of high aesthetic quality?
(e) a creative or technical achievement?
What value does the work have for the local
community?
(a) Observe how people react to the work.
(b) Listen to people’s comments about the work.
(c) Ask them whether the work is of special value
to them.
(d) How does the community use the work? Is it
the focus of events?
Outdoor Collections 129
 What you can do—
general do’s and don’ts
Maintenance
Regular maintenance is important if an item and
its surroundings are kept clean and tidy and
appear cared for, the item is less likely to be
vandalised.
This also helps to raise public interest in the
piece, which means that any vandalism that does
take place is more likely to be reported and can be
dealt with swiftly.
If maintenance is done regularly, you are more
likely to notice problems as they occur, and can
deal with damage earlier.
Maintenance includes:
• washing surfaces regularly with water and
sponges. This prevents a build-up of dirt on
the surface, which not only looks unattractive
but can lead to staining, particularly in the
case of porous stone items. Make sure that
water is not left pooling on the object; dry it
with rags if necessary;
• removal of bird droppings—the sooner the
better. Bird droppings become acidic over
time and can etch into surfaces. The longer
they are left, the more damage they can
cause. Bird droppings can remove patinas on
metal objects; and
• clearing drainage outlets and weep holes.
Many sculptures are designed with water
outlets, to prevent water building up in
unwanted areas. These holes are generally
quite small, and easily clog up with leaves
and debris. Clearing them regularly helps to
ensure the longevity of the object.
Ground barrier
Display items with wheels—like carts—in such a
way that the wheels are lifted up off the ground.
This alleviates stress on the small areas of the
wheels which are touching the ground, and
prevents contact between the wheel and the
ground.
130 Outdoor Collections
This is important, because every time it rains the
ground becomes wet and acts like a sponge around
the wheel, creating conditions that will contribute
to corrosion if the wheel is metal, and to rot and
insect attack if the wheel is made of wood.
There should always be a barrier between a
sculpture and the ground, unless the artist
specifically wants the work directly in contact with
the ground.
Grass and plants
If contact between an outdoor object and the
ground is considered necessary, it is important to
keep grass trimmed around the piece, because long
grass will also hold moisture close to the surface
of the object.
When you are mowing around outdoor heritage
items, take care that small stones and sticks are
not thrown up, because they can damage the
item’s surface. This is especially important with
painted metal items, where a break in the paint
layer can cause corrosion problems.
It is best not to whipper snipper close to outdoor
heritage items because the whipper snipper action
can cause damage.
Consider the positioning of plants around outdoor
objects. Remember that overgrown bushes make it
difficult to see the objects clearly. Plants can also
cause damage, for example, by scratching the
surface; by branches dropping onto the object; a
faster build-up of leaves in drainage holes; damage
to foundations from root growth; and by attracting
insects which will attack the object.
Naturally, it is important to consider the heritage
value of the planting as well. It is also important
to note that well positioned planting can act as a
windbreak on sites where dust and pollutants are
problems for the objects.
Water
Look for areas where rain can become trapped and
held against a surface. Where possible, alter the
display technique to prevent this happening. If
you are unable to make any alterations, it is
important to set up a program of regular
monitoring, so that you can identify damage early
on and act to treat it.
Avoid watering the object when you are watering
surrounding gardens. The garden may need water
to survive, but outdoor objects do better without
additional water.
Sprinklers often spread water horizontally, so that
the water can enter areas of the sculpture
protected from normal rainfall.
Coatings
Microcrystalline wax is often applied to bronze
sculptures to protect them from damage—from
both the environment and graffiti. Like all coating
systems, it offers protection only if it is complete.
A coating system which has broken down can be
more damaging to a sculpture than no coating
system at all. So it is important to monitor the
condition of the coating and renew it annually.
For more information
For more information on the care of bronze
items and the application of coatings to
bronze items,please see the chapter on
Metals in this volume.
Graffiti
Graffiti can be a major problem. If the object has
an anti-graffiti coating, then it is this coating
which is damaged, not the object. If an
appropriate system is used, it is far easier to
remove a coating system than graffiti.
CAUTION:
Beware of coating systems which seal off
stone surfaces, this can lead to spalling of the
stone, as moisture trapped under the coating
cannot escape and may build up pressure.
If a graffiti coating is to be applied to the
surface of a heritage item, it is recommended
that a conservator is consulted for advice.
If graffiti needs to be removed from the surface of
a heritage item, it is best to contact a conservator
for advice before taking any action. The successful
removal of graffiti is very much dependent upon
the media used to apply the graffiti and the nature
of the object which has been graffitied.
When consulting a conservator about graffiti
removal, try to be specific about the amount of
graffiti and what it looks like. Systems used to
remove graffiti can be quite specific and the
conservator needs specific information; this is
particularly important if a range of graffiti media
has been used, for example, spray can, pen or
crayon.
It is best to remove graffiti as soon as possible.
Graffiti invites more graffiti, and it is far easier to
remove when it is fresh than when it has had
several months to set.
If you are using solvents to remove graffiti from
stone, you run the risk of driving the stain further
into the object rather than drawing it out, as
stone is extremely porous. It is best to use a
poultice system such as Safest Stripper by 3M or
Quick Strip when removing graffiti from stone.
CAUTION:
If you are using Quick Strip
remember that even if the system used
removes the graffiti, it may alter the colour
of the underlying stone so that the ghost of
the graffiti is still present. Do not paint over
graffiti on a cultural heritage item.
Consult a conservator if you are considering using
an air-abrasive cleaning system, such as sand-
blasting to remove graffiti. Abrasive cleaning
removes graffiti, but often removes a layer from
the surface of the object as well.
If damage has occurred,
what should and
shouldn’t be done?
There has been a lot of discussion recently about
the appearance of outdoor cultural material. This
discussion has focused particularly on bronze
sculpture, but is equally valid for all outdoor
artefacts.
It is only natural that outdoor materials will
deteriorate, simply because they are located in a
harsh environment; and in many ways this
deterioration is a significant part of their history.
If treatment gives them an as new appearance,
Outdoor Collections 131
 this visual history will be lost. In some cases this
may be valid, for example, if the deterioration is
threatening the existence of the object. However,
in most cases it will be a matter of:
• consulting with the relevant people, that is,
conservators, custodians, historians and the
artist;
• weighing up a number of factors, such as the
artist’s intention, the relationship between
the item and its site, and the historic or
cultural significance of the piece; and
• taking into account the ethics of the
conservation treatment.
to treat an item, sand-blasting is generally
considered to be too abrasive. It causes loss of
surface detail and pitting of the surface, which in
metal objects can lead to accelerated corrosion.
Steam-cleaning is often used on stone and it is
also too harsh. It can cause loss of detail on
delicate, stone surfaces.
If you need to use metal fixtures with metal
outdoor objects, wherever possible use fixtures of
the same metal as the structure to be secured. In
this way you can avoid the problems of galvanic
corrosion. If you cannot use the same metal, place
an inert barrier layer between the two different
metals.

These general guidelines are provided to help you Some outdoor sculpture is intended to deteriorate.
if you have a damaged piece of outdoor cultural Unless there is a public safety issue involved,
material. these objects should be left alone to deteriorate
slowly. Any work that must be done on the piece
If part of an item has broken off, collect all the should always be carried out in consultation with
pieces, wrap each piece separately and place the the artist, if the artist is alive and accessible.
pieces in a clearly labelled box. Contact a
conservator as soon as possible. Because the other
half of the break is in an outdoor setting, it is
best that the repair is done as soon as possible
before the edges are worn by weathering, or before
more damage occurs.

Do not repair stone with concrete. These repairs

are usually unattractive; but they can also be
damaging because the concrete can be harder than
the stone. If this is the case, future cracks form in
the stone, not in the concrete.

Heritage items should not be repainted. The

original paintwork is an integral part of these
items and can be damaged and destroyed by
repainting. Consult a conservator if you feel that
repainting is important for the future survival of
any painted items.

Beware of replacing components of a heritage item

to ‘pretty it up’. It is often tempting to replace
worn or damaged components, especially where the
skills and technology are readily available; but you
must be aware that it may interfere with the
historic value of the item. Remember, an historic
artefact is only as historic as the sum of its
components. Consult a conservator if you are
unsure about whether to replace components.

Avoid using sand-blasting and steam-cleaning to

treat historic artefacts. While there are occasions
when an air-abrasive technique will be necessary

132 Outdoor Collections

 Outdoor cultural material in Australia’s climatic zones
The climatic zones outlined below are broad categories; and conditions may vary within these categories,
depending on the state of repair of your building and whether the building is air conditioned or not.

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very
cold at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity,
for example, from 75%–20% in a day.
When caring for outdoor materials in arid areas it is important to note that:
• insects can still survive;
• wood moved from more humid climates may be prone to cracking and splitting; and
• condensation may form on metal objects which become very cold overnight.
Dust storms effectively sandblast outdoor objects. It is worth considering strategic placement of
windbreaks to prevent damage. If the objects are small enough you may want to have covers made. The
covers can be put in place during periods of high wind.
Remember also that outdoor objects can be adversely affected by the dust raised when vehicles travel
over dirt roads. Similar steps as those taken for preventing damage from dust storms should be
considered.
If the area is very dusty, you may need to inspect items for dust and dirt build-ups, especially in periods
of low rainfall.
Note: If your collection of outdoor cultural materials have been displayed in an arid environment for a
considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended
ideal conditions. This could do more harm that good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.
When caring for outdoor cultural material in temperate climates it is important to note that:
• freezing conditions will occur in some regions. Where water has entered cracks in stone and wood,
freezing conditions can lead to splitting. Ice takes up more space than water and thus as the water
freezes it opens up cracks in the material;
• seasonal fluctuations can lead to the splitting of wood; and
• extended rainy periods can accelerate corrosion in metals and can promote the growth of lichens,
mosses etc.
Note: If your collections of outdoor cultural material have been displayed in a temperate environment
for a considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the
recommended ideal conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long
term stability.

Outdoor Collections 133

 Tropical
These climates are characterised buy heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures.
When caring for outdoor cultural materials in high humidity conditions, it is important to note that:
• insects, lichens, moulds and plants thrive and reproduce rapidly;
• metal corrosion will be accelerated;
• wooden components of objects will take up water and hold it. If the wood is in contact with metal
components, metal corrosion will proceed faster in these areas; and
• deterioration, particularly of plastic components, due to light and UV radiation will be accelerated.
Because the rate of deterioration is likely to be quite rapid, it is important to check items for damage
and carry out maintenance more regularly than in other climatic zones.
Carry out the maintenance of coatings on metal components during the dry season, when there is less
moisture present. In this way you are less likely to trap moisture between the coating and the metal.
Note: If your collections of outdoor cultural material have been displayed in a tropical environment for a
considerable period and they are stable—do not try to alter the environment to meet the recommended
ideal conditions. This could do more harm than good. The emphasis should be on long term stability.

Coastal Regions
Coastal regions generally have more moderate climates than inland areas but they also have high levels
of wind-borne salt. Consideration must be given to counteracting the corrosive effects of salty air.
When caring for outdoor cultural materials in coastal regions it is important to note that the presence
of moist salty air is going to lead to high levels of corrosion and damage from windborne particulates.
It is, therefore, vital that metal components are treated, coated and frequently inspected in these
conditions.
Take all steps possible to reduce water retention. These steps include ensuring there is good drainage
and clearing weep holes.
It is better to display outdoor cultural material away from the sea front. Windbreaks would also assist in
protecting items.
It is important to monitor items for the formation of salt crystals, and concrete and stone should be
check for spalling.

134 Outdoor Collections

If you have a problem related to the care of c) Removal of bird droppings as soon as
outdoor cultural material contact a conservator. possible.
Conservators can offer advice and practical
solutions. d) Ensuring that the surrounding plants and
grass do not become too overgrown.

e) Watering the object in dry weather to ensure

Self-evaluation quiz that it does not dry out too much.

f) Clearing drainage outlets and weep holes so

Question 1. that they do not become clogged.

g) Removing graffiti as soon as possible in

Which of the following statements are true? consultation with a conservator.

a) Objects in an outdoor setting have been

designed to be there and should last a long
time without attention. Answers to
b) Acid rain is only a problem in the city—
self-evaluation quiz
regional areas are not affected by pollutants.

c) Plants and mould can severely damage items Question 1.

and, if allowed to continue growing, will
continue to cause damage.
Answer: c) is true. a), b) and d) are false. Objects
d) Bird droppings don’t look too good, but they in an outdoor setting are exposed to almost all
don’t cause any damage. factors that cause damage and deterioration and,
although most are durable, they will deteriorate.
Question 2. Acid rain is not confined to the city: pollutants
can travel over large distances, and fertilisers and
crop sprays become pollutants when they are in
Regular maintenance of outdoor material and its the atmosphere rather than on the crops. Bird
surroundings is important because: droppings become quite acidic as they age and can
etch into the surface of outdoor objects.
a) people are more likely to care for objects that
appear well cared for;
Question 2.
b) vandalism is less likely to occur;
Answer: e).
c) you are more likely to notice problems if you
are regularly examining and caring for an item;
Question 3.
d) the sooner problems are dealt with, the less
damage is likely to occur; Answer: b), c), d), f), and g) are all valuable parts
e) all of the above of a regular maintenance program. a) and e)
should be avoided.
Question 3.

Which of the following should be included in a

maintenance program for your outdoor objects?

a) Regular whipper snippering close in to the

base of objects to remove long grass.

b) Regular washing with water and sponges,

followed by drying with rags if necessary.

Outdoor Collections 135

 Acknowledgments

Collection Management and Other

Conservation Working Party of the
Heritage Collections Council Stuart Anderson Simone Cordeauz
Sandra Flischer Michelle Koford
Margaret Anderson (Chair) Jacki Kossatz Linda Marlin
Ian Cook (Deputy Chair) Simon Prince Carly Romiero
Karen Coote Slade Smith Robyn Thomas
Tamara Lavrencic Di Virgil Guthrie Watson
Jan Lyall
Chris Tassell Prototype Development Consortium
Ian MacLeod Conservation Training Australia
Phil Gordon
Robyn Sloggett
Artlab Australia
John Stanton
History Trust of South Australia
Viv Szekeres
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
Ian Stephenson
State Library of New South Wales
University of Melbourne Conservation Service
Major Contributors Western Australian Museum

Karen Coote James Dexter Project Manager: Keith Fernandez

Keith Fernandez David Gilroy Technical Editor: Vicki Humphrey
Rosie Freemantle Ian Godfrey
Alan Howell Vicki Humphrey Field Trial Participants
Georgia Koronis Tamara Lavrencic
Ian MacLeod Joy Noble
Bob Alford Elizabeth Anya-Petrivna
Sarah-Jane Rennie Marion Roubos-Bennet
Denise Davis Luan Dunaan
Robyn Sloggett Michell Smith
Christine Ewings Jude Fraser
Geoff Speirs Greg Wallace
Ann Gibson Ken Hodge
Helen Weidenhofer Margie West
Jean Johnson Narayan Khadekar
Lindsay Knowles Heather Kriesl
Contributors Nicole Livermore Zoe McKenzie-Smith
John Reid Pauline Ross
Phil Alderslade Marie Boland Glen Smith
Peter Cahalan Glenn Cole
Sarah Feijen Fred Francisco Sunshine and District Historical Society
Helen Halley Charlotte Jenkin
Gillian Leahy Sophie Lussier Marketing Research
Holly McGowan-Jackson Elizabeth Murphy
Kristin Phillips Alex Roach
Environmetrics
Jennifer Ross Sue Valis
Sandra Yee
Editing and Publishing
Kimba and Gawler Ranges Historical Society
Migration Museum Communication Partners
National Motor Museum Cyranet
South Australian Telstra Historical Collection

Acknowledgments 137
reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia

DAMAGE AND DECAY

Foreword page iii

A Note to Readers page iv

Introduction page v

Light and Ultraviolet Raditation page 1

Humidity and Temperature page 19

Biological Pests page 39

Dust and Pollutants page 59

Common Deterioration Processes page 73

Acknowledgments page 81
© Commonwealth of Australia 1998 on behalf of the Heritage Collections Council
ISBN 0 642 37384 1 (boxed set)
ISBN 0 642 37385 X (this volume)
Information presented in this book may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or
training purposes, subject to the inclusion of acknowledgment of source and provided no
commercial usage or sale of material occurs. Reproduction for purposes other than those
given above requires the written permission of the Heritage Collections Council. Requests
for permission should be sent to the HCC Secretariat at the address given below.
One copy of this publication is available to Australian institutions on application. Multiple
copies to Australian institutions, copies to overseas institutions and copies to individuals
will be charged at A$100 plus postage and handling. Copies may be obtained by writing to:
Heritage Collections Council Secretariat
GPO Box 2154
Canberra ACT 2601
Australia
Phone (02) 6271 1094
Fax (02) 6271 1079
Email hcc@dcita.gov.au
This publication will be available online at the Australian Museums On Line website—
http://amol.org.au
Produced by the Commonwealth Department of Communications, Information Technology
and the Arts.
Cover images (from left):
Detail of photograph courtesy of Museum of Western Australia.
Detail of bark painting, Lightning Snake Story, Douglas (Nawurapu) Wununmurra.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum.
Detail of photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia.
Detail of hand-coloured 19th century children’s book. Photograph courtesy of
Vicki Humphrey.
There are an estimated 41 million objects held in Australian museums, art galleries and historical collections.
Collectively they tell the story of our history and our country and contribute to our sense of identity and
national pride. Increasing the conservation skills of people who care for these collections is an important
factor in protecting this heritage, and is a key goal of the Heritage Collections Council.

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia has been developed with this goal in mind. This set
of practical guidebooks is designed by the Council for use principally by non-conservators who are working
with Australia’s cultural heritage. The guidebooks are also a teacher-friendly resource which can be used in
professional development workshops.

Many of Australia’s most experienced conservators have been involved in researching, writing and editing
reCollections, through the Conservation Training Australia consortium, led by Artlab Australia, which
first developed the package, and through the Collections Management and Conservation Working Party of
the Council.

The Heritage Collections Council’s mission is to promote excellence in the management, care and provision of
access to Australia’s heritage collections so that together, they reflect Australia’s cultural and natural
diversity. The Council is a collaboration between the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments and
the museums sector, and comprises people working in a wide range of cultural heritage institutions across
the breadth of urban and regional Australia. reCollections is an important component of the Council’s
National Conservation and Preservation Strategy for Australia’s Heritage Collections.

Rob Palfreyman
Chair
Heritage Collections Council

Heritage Collections Council

GPO Box 2154, Canberra ACT 2601, AUSTRALIA
Phone: (02) 6271 1094 Fax: (02) 6271 1079 Email: hcc@dcita.gov.au

Foreword iii
 A note to readers

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia

has been written by practicing conservators and is intended to provide
a sound guide for the preventive care of cultural items. Active
conservation treatment of cultural material should only be undertaken
by, or on the advice of, a trained conservator. Before relying on any of
the material in this guide, users should check its accuracy, currency,
completeness and relevance for their purposes and should obtain
appropriate professional advice.

If in doubt,
consult a
conservator
To obtain the names of accredited practicing conservators who are in a
position to meet your particular conservation requirements contact the
Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material (Inc.)
a national organisation for conservators and people interested in the
preservation of cultural material.

AICCM
GPO Box 1638
Canberra ACT 2601
National Secretary Phone: (02) 6254 8695
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~conserv/aiccmhc.htm

iv A note to readers
 Introduction to

reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia
Our heritage is represented by a vast array of cultural material, from established national icons holding
pride of place in major museums and galleries, to everyday items such as household appliances or
newspapers which carry meaning for local communities or families. Yet so often the links to our heritage
are tenuous because the objects which represent our culture are in danger of decay. However, there is
a lot we can do to protect valued objects and collections and so prolong the life of our cultural heritage.
reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia provides practical advice and guidance designed
to help the reader care for their heritage.

reCollections explains how to apply preventive conservation techniques to cultural objects and collections.
Preventive conservation optimises the environmental conditions in which objects and collections are housed.
Controlling light and ultraviolet radiation, humidity and temperature, biological pests, and dust and pollutants
helps to prevent damage and decay to cultural material. Preventive conservation also means ensuring that
good handling, transportation, storage and display techniques are used at all times. Applying preventive
methods to the care of cultural artefacts and collections can prolong and protect their life for current and
future generations of Australians.

While reCollections provides conservation information about the care of cultural objects and collections,
it is important to recognise that all except the simplest conservation treatments should be undertaken
by trained conservators. Active conservation treatment is a response to the damage of cultural artefacts,
a highly skilled field which often involves the use of chemicals and complicated technical procedures.
Unless performed with a thorough knowledge of appropriate techniques and with the right equipment and
materials, conservation treatments can do more harm than good to the objects being worked upon, and
can be hazardous to the people performing the work. Conservation treatments should only be conducted by,
or on the explicit advice of, a trained conservator.

To complement the preventive conservation advice contained in the volumes Damage and Decay and Handling,
Transportation, Storage and Display, reCollections supplies detailed information concerning the care of some
of the most common cultural materials. These range from the paper and other materials on which so much
of Australia’s cultural history may be seen, to special considerations in caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultural artefacts. In addition, modern practices concerning the management of collections and
of the people who look after those collections are outlined.

Introduction v
 Light and
Ultraviolet
Radiation
Objectives page 3
Introduction page 3
Why worry about light and UV radiation? page 3
What materials are most sensitive to damage? page 4
Can the damage be prevented? page 5
Light sources in museums, galleries and libraries page 6
What lighting levels are acceptable? page 7
What do these levels mean? page 7
Measuring light and UV radiation page 9
MORE ABOUT LIGHT AND UV RADIATION
Light and UV radiation are types of energy page 9
The electromagnetic spectrum page 10
How does the energy cause damage? page 11
Sources of light and UV radiation page 12
The brightness of light page 14
Additional information about the units
used to measure light page 14
For further reading page 15
Self-evaluation quiz page 15
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 17
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• understand the adverse effects that visible
light and ultraviolet—UV—radiation can have
on museum objects;
• be able to identify the items in your
collections that are most susceptible to
damage caused by exposure to visible light
and UV radiation;
• know steps to take to control the lighting and
UV radiation levels, and so minimise damage
to your collections;
• be aware of the sources of visible light, UV
radiation and infrared radiation in a museum,
gallery or library; and
• be aware of the need for different lighting
levels for the different areas of the museum,
gallery or library.
Introduction
Light is necessary in museums, galleries and
libraries: for viewing exhibitions, for reading and
research, and for curatorial and collection
management work.
All common light sources, such as the sun, light
bulbs and fluorescent tubes, also give out other
forms of radiation, to varying degrees. The most
significant of these are UV and infrared radiation.
Light and UV radiation are potentially the most
damaging forms of energy present in museums,
galleries and libraries, and the damage they cause
is cumulative. So when lighting an area where
important or valuable works are housed, it is
essential to take steps to minimise the potential
for damage. We must also provide a safe and
comfortable working and viewing environment for
people.
Achieving both will nearly always involve some
sort of compromise. To determine the type and
extent of compromise required, it helps to have a
basic understanding of light and UV radiation and
how they affect various materials, as well as
knowing what types and levels of illumination are
required for various activities.
Why worry about light
and UV radiation?
Although we could not do without light in
museums, galleries and libraries, it is important to
remember light is an environmental factor that
contributes to the deterioration of our valued
collections.
It is vital to be aware that visible light is often
accompanied by:
• UV radiation, which can cause more damage
faster than visible light; and
• infrared radiation, which heats materials.
When light and UV radiation fall on an object,
they deliver bundles of energy to that object.
As a result, various chemical reactions can take
place, depending on the amount of energy
delivered. These reactions are called
photochemical reactions. In some cases it is
very easy to see the effects of these reactions:
try leaving a piece of newsprint in the sun for
a few hours and examine the results. The paper
becomes discoloured—yellowed. It often feels
different as a result. However, most changes
caused by photochemical reactions are not as
quick as this nor as obvious; so it is difficult
to know they are occurring. Nevertheless their
effects can be devastating and ongoing.
Light causes extreme and irreversible damage to many
materials, most notably organic materials—those that
derive from plants and animals. In a museum, gallery
or library, these will include furniture, textiles, prints,
books, drawings, manuscripts, wallpaper, dyes and
inks, feathers and fur.
For example, UV radiation and visible light:
• set off chemical changes in paper and textiles,
which weaken and discolour them; and
• cause inks, dyes and pigments to fade, and so
seriously affect the aesthetic quality of many
items.
Infrared radiation is less energetic than UV
radiation and visible light. It:
• heats materials and can cause them to
expand, leading to mechanical stresses; and
Light and Ultraviolet Radiation 3
 • can also cause chemical changes to progress
more rapidly. As a result, infrared radiation
can increase the destructive effects of visible
light and ultraviolet radiation.
CAUTION:
Once started, photochemical reactions can
continue even after the exposure to light or
UV radiation has stopped. This means the
deterioration of objects does not stop when the
objects are placed in the dark.
What materials are most
sensitive to damage?
Some materials are much more susceptible than
others to damage through photochemical
reactions. Some detailed examples are given below.
These illustrate the extent and types of damage
which are often found. You will probably recognise
some of the problems.
Textiles
Light and UV radiation are the greatest enemies of
textiles. Colours will become pale and dull, and the
fabric will become fragile and will split readily.
This piece of silk brocade has been folded back on
itself to show the degree of light-damage to one side
of the item.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia reproduced with
permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia
4 Light and Ultraviolet Radiation
Textiles produced in the 19th century require
particular care. The aniline dyes, which were first
manufactured and became popular around this
time, are particularly susceptible to fading,
especially the purples, blues and greens.
Watercolour pigments
Pigments of plant or animal origin, that is organic
pigments, tend to be more sensitive than others.
Photochemical action in pigments has severely
altered the appearance of many watercolours. For
example, Hooker’s Green is a pigment mixture that
was widely used for foliage in botanical illustration
and landscape watercolours. It is made up of the
reasonably durable Prussian Blue mixed with
Gamboge, a yellow pigment made from gum from a
Cambodian tree. Gamboge is sensitive to
photochemical action and fades, leaving the
foliage blue.
Many of these sensitive pigments were also used in
oil paintings; but because the pigment layer is
usually thicker, and the oil medium offers more
protection, the effects are less obvious.
Paper
Mass-produced, cheap, modern papers are made
from untreated wood pulp. These contain lignin,
the substance in trees that gives them their
strength. Lignin is very reactive and is susceptible
to photochemical deterioration. As lignin breaks
down it produces yellow–brown substances, as seen
when newspaper is left in the sun, as well as acids.
This paper is severely damaged; it is discoloured and
very brittle.
Photograph courtesy of Vicki Humphrey
The acids produced can then attack the paper
fibres, making them short, and the paper brittle.
The photochemical deterioration of paper is an
example of a reaction that continues even when the
paper is no longer exposed to light or UV radiation.
Moderately sensitive materials
Although not all materials are as sensitive to
photochemical reactions as those listed above, most
are affected by light and UV radiation to some extent.
Materials that are moderately sensitive to light and
UV radiation include:
• oil paintings;
• bone and horn; and
• furniture.
Therefore, it is important to consider the lighting
conditions under which you store, display and use
valuable items, as well as the length of exposure
they get.
Can the damage be prevented?
Damage to objects and collections cannot always
be totally prevented, but the rate of deterioration
can be limited and slowed:
• by exposing objects to light only when
necessary;
• by making sure the light is not too bright; and
• by eliminating UV radiation.
It is important to realise that protecting your
collections from the damage caused by light and
UV radiation may involve reassessing collection
and management policies, and taking a different
approach to the display of collections.
Select and control the light
Avoid displaying, using and storing items in direct
sunlight. Wherever possible, eliminate daylight
completely.
If daylight is a major light source for your
museum, gallery or library, take steps to diffuse
and filter the light. You can:
• use curtains or blinds over windows and
skylights; and
• use UV-absorbing plastic films on windows
and skylights to eliminate the UV radiation
coming into the room from the daylight.
If fluorescent or halogen lights are used, remember:
• some sort of UV-absorbing filter should be
used to remove the UV radiation;
• filtering can be used on the lamps or on
display cases and frames; and
• UV-absorbing films, acrylic sheets and
lacquers are available.
If you have fluorescent light fittings, remember:
• low UV-emitting fluorescent tubes should be
used. If you use these, give instructions that
the same type of tubes should be purchased
when the existing ones burn out; and
• low UV-emitting fluorescent tubes are more
expensive than ordinary tubes. It can be
tempting to replace these with cheaper and
more readily available tubes. If low-UV
fluorescent tubes are ever replaced with
ordinary tubes, the new ones should be filtered.
If you use incandescent tungsten spotlights or
floodlights, remember:
• the intensity of the light is greater the closer
the light source is to the object; and
• if the light source is too close to an object, it
can cause the temperature to rise, which can
lead to damage.
Control light levels by design
Lights should be on only when visitors are viewing
a display. You could install switches that turn
lights on when people approach particular areas
of the display and then turn off after a set period
of time.
Covers or curtains can be placed over or in front of
a display, for the viewer to move as required.
These can be used as part of your exhibition
design. Signs explaining why you have curtains
will make your audience more aware of the work
involved in properly caring for collections.
Light and Ultraviolet Radiation 5
 If your collection includes items that are likely to
be damaged by light:
• in an exhibition, try to group them in one
area and ensure this area has appropriately
low light levels;
• don’t keep all items on permanent display; and
• rotate items in the exhibitions, so their
annual exposure to light is kept low.
Screens and partitions can be used to create semi-
closed areas with lower lighting levels than the
general display area. Partitions can provide
intimate spaces for exhibits, or create a path
through your exhibition.
Arrange display areas so areas with low lighting
levels don’t appear dark:
• an area with low lighting will appear to
be much too dark for viewers who enter
from an area that is quite bright—like
walking from bright sunlight into a dark
room. However, if viewers move through
areas in which the lighting levels gradually
become lower, their eyes will adjust
gradually, and the low lighting level will
be quite acceptable for viewing.
Separate areas
for separate activities
Wherever possible try to separate different
activities into different spaces. For example,
• display, storage and work areas have
different lighting requirements, and should
be separated;
• items that are not on display should be
stored in a separate area, which is lit only
when access is required; and
• areas used for reading, for accessioning or
for checking the condition of items need
higher lighting levels, so people can see
well enough and do detailed work. These
areas should be separate from storage and
display areas.
If it is not possible to separate activities, consider
installing dimmer switches, so the lighting levels can
be adjusted according to the activity taking place.
6 Light and Ultraviolet Radiation
CAUTION:
Remember, photocopiers and photographic flashes
are sources of intense light—exposure of sensitive
items to these should be kept to a minimum.
Light sources in museums,
galleries and libraries
Visible light is necessary in museums, galleries and
libraries. But, as already noted, it is often
accompanied by other forms of radiation that are
unnecessary and undesirable.
The major sources of visible light in museums,
galleries and libraries—daylight and artificial light
produced by incandescent bulbs and fluorescent
tubes—are also sources of UV and infrared radiation.
Daylight
Daylight is bright and hot, and contains a high
proportion of UV radiation. Ordinary glass, used in
windows and skylights, blocks the most damaging,
high-frequency, longer wavelength UV radiation.
But it does not block the lower frequency range
that can still cause damage to sensitive materials.
Daylight is not essential for a display or working
environment. You can reduce unwanted UV
radiation by careful use of artificial lighting.
Artificial light
There are many types of artificial light sources.
Each has advantages and disadvantages:
• incandescent tungsten lamps, in spot or
floodlights, have a low UV output, but emit
infrared radiation in the form of heat.
Therefore, if they are close to items or placed
in a closed case, they can cause damage by
raising the temperature of the objects;
• fluorescent light tubes are cold, but many
emit higher than acceptable levels of UV
radiation. However, fluorescent tubes are
generally favoured, because they are more
cost-effective to run and are longer-lasting
than incandescent bulbs; and
• tungsten halide bulbs, which are more efficient
than ordinary incandescent bulbs, also give out
higher than acceptable levels of UV.
 What lighting levels
are acceptable?
In order to minimise damage, lighting levels
should be kept low. But what is a low level of
lighting and what is too high?
In considering appropriate levels of lighting, take
into account the following factors:
• how sensitive the materials are to damage by
visible light and UV radiation; and
• the activities that take place in the area
being considered.
Keep in mind that the amount of damage caused
by photochemical reactions depends on the energy
of the radiation as well as the amount of radiation
that falls on the material for the whole time it is
exposed.
Guidelines for lighting levels, UV levels and length
of exposure to light for materials of different
sensitivities have been developed. An outline of
the guidelines follows with further explanation in
the next section.
For sensitive materials
Note: Sensitive materials include items such as
textiles and watercolours.
• The brightness of the light should be no
greater than 50 lux.
• The exposure in one year should be no greater
than 200 kilolux hours.
• The UV content of the light on sensitive
materials should be no greater than
75 µW/lm—microwatts per lumen—and
preferably below 30 µW/lm.
For moderately sensitive materials
Note: Moderately sensitive materials include items
such as oil paintings and furniture.
• The brightness of the light should be no
greater than 250 lux.
• The exposure in one year should be no greater
than 650 kilolux hours.
• The UV content of the light should be no
greater than 75 µW/lm—microwatts per
lumen—and preferably below 30 µW/lm.
Non-sensitive materials
Note: Non-sensitive materials include items such as
stone and metal.
• Objects that are not particularly sensitive to
light should still be protected.
• Do not unnecessarily expose them to very
high lighting or UV levels.
Remember also that many objects are made from
composite materials and may contain small
amounts of sensitive materials.
What do these levels mean?
To get an idea of what the guideline levels for the
brightness mean, it is useful to compare them to
recommended lighting levels for more familiar
areas where other activities take place. Lighting
designers recommend:
• desktops in reference library reading rooms
should be lit to 500 lux;
• drawing boards in drawing offices should be
lit to 750 lux;
• car showrooms should be lit to 500 lux;
• domestic kitchen work surfaces should be lit
to 300 lux;
• cinemas, at seat level, should be lit to 50 lux;
and
• conservation laboratories in galleries and
museums should be lit to 2000 lux.
It is clear that the use of a particular area
contributes to what is an acceptable level of
illumination for that area.
For example, items in conservation laboratories can
be exposed to bright light, because conservators
must see clearly what they are doing to carry out
delicate treatments, and because they will not be
exposed to that intensity of light for extended
periods of time.
Light and Ultraviolet Radiation 7
 Lux? Kilolux hours? µW/lm? Help!
Lux, kilolux hours and microwatts per lumen are units for measuring different qualities of light. They
can be explained quite simply.

Lux:

• Is the unit which indicates the intensity to which a surface is lit, or the brightness of the light.

• The closer the light source is to the surface being lit, the higher the lux value will be, that is
the greater the intensity of light.

• So if we want to lower the intensity of light falling on an object we can simply move it further
away from the light source. For example, if the brightness or intensity of light falling on a
object is measured at 100 lux when the object is 1 metre away from the light source, we can
alter that intensity to 25 lux by moving the object to a distance of 2 metres from the light
source.

Kilolux hours:

• Is the unit which indicates the exposure to light over a period of time.

• Take the example of an historic costume on permanent display in a museum. The museum is
open 5 days a week for 5 hours a day all year round and while the museum is open, the costume
receives light to an intensity of 200 lux. In a year the costume is exposed to:

5 x 5 x 52 x 200 lux hours = 260000 lux hours or 260 kilolux hours

• This could be brought to within the levels recommended in the guidelines by adjusting the
intensity of light falling on the costume and/or reducing the display time. For example, if the
intensity of light was lowered to 50 lux and the costume was on display for only 6 months of
the year, the total annual exposure would be significantly altered:

5 x 5 x 26 x 50 lux hours = 32500 lux hours or 32.5 kilolux hours

µW/lm, Microwatts per lumen:

• Are the units which indicate the amount of UV energy in the light coming from a light source.

• Microwatts are a measure of energy; lumens measure the quantity of light from a particular light
source.

• This measurement is constant for a light source and does not alter if the readings are taken at a
greater distance from the source.

• If we want to lower the UV content of the light, we can use absorbing filters on windows or on
fluorescent tube fittings, or we can install lights that give out only small amounts of UV
radiation. Above all we must try to exclude sunlight.

Special instruments can be purchased to measure light and UV levels. The intensity of light on an
object is measured with a lux meter and the UV content of the light is measured with a UV meter.

8 Light and Ultraviolet Radiation

 Measuring light and
UV radiation
Measuring lux
The device used to measure the brightness of light
falling on an object is a lux meter.
A lux meter
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
The meter is held close to the object, facing the
light source. It measures the number of lumens,
that is, the quantity of light of all wavelengths per
square metre.
When setting up your exhibitions, it is handy to
have a lux meter. By moving it to different distances
from the light source, you can determine a suitable
position for the object in relation to the light.
Measuring microwatts per lumen
The amount of energy in the ultraviolet band can
be measured using a UV meter/monitor.
This device measures the amount of ultraviolet
light energy in each lumen of light.
Measuring the UV content of light can be useful in
determining whether or not you have a problem.
For example, a conservator taking UV readings in
an art centre in the far north of South Australia
expected very high UV content. The building is not
in a sheltered position and the principle light
source is sunlight. The readings, however, were
low, because the building has Perspex windows
instead of glass. Perspex does not allow as much
UV radiation to pass through it as glass. Because
the Perspex develops static electricity, it attracts
the red dust which surrounds the building. This
also helps to reduce UV radiation passing through
the windows. In this case, a problem was
expected, but did not in fact exist.
UV Monitor
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Measuring infrared energy
Infrared energy can be measured using a simple
thermometer. Infrared light causes objects to heat
up. So by measuring the rise in temperature with a
thermometer placed near the object and directly
exposed to the light, we can get an indication of
the quantity of infrared energy.
MORE ABOUT
LIGHT AND UV RADIATION
Light and UV radiation
are types of energy
Light and UV radiation are forms of radiant energy.
They are part of what scientists call the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing
work. The greater the amount of energy available,
the more work that can be done. If this work is a
chemical reaction leading to deterioration of an
object, then the more energy available, the greater
the damage that will result.
Light and Ultraviolet Radiation 9
 What is light?
Attempts to understand the nature of light and to
adequately describe it have involved scientific
experiments and debate over many centuries which
are still continuing to this day. This work has led to
our present knowledge of the nature of radiant energy
and the existence of the electromagnetic spectrum.
However, to understand light and its effects
on objects, we don’t need to be physicists!
A basic description of radiant energy and the
electromagnetic spectrum is adequate for our
purpose.
In the mid-19th century it was accepted that light
consists of waves. Then, at the turn of the 20th
century, light was described as a stream of tiny
particles because the wave model did not fully
account for some properties of light where it
behaves like discrete solid matter—albeit invisible.
To this day, both models are considered correct.
Though what light is precisely—wave or particle—
let alone what it looks like, is still a mystery.
Nonetheless, light is a form of electromagnetic
radiation and travels in waves and as particles,
delivering discrete energy in bundles or quanta
called photons.
A closer examination of the wave model of light
provides information necessary for a more
complete understanding of visible light and UV
radiation. The sine wave shown below gives us a
basic visual aid for the definition of some
important terms and will be used to introduce
some concepts regarding radiant energy.
The wavelength of a sine wave
10 Light and Ultraviolet Radiation
The energy in the diagram is travelling horizontally.
As it travels, it moves in a wave motion passing
through peaks and troughs. The distance between
the peaks of the waves is called the ‘wavelength’
and is measured in nanometres—nm.
There is a mathematical relationship between the
amount of energy transmitted and the wavelength of
the radiant energy—namely, they are inversely
proportional. In other words, the longer the
wavelength the less energy transmitted, and the
shorter the wavelength the more energy transmitted.
This is true for the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum
The light visible to humans is electromagnetic
radiation with wavelengths ranging from
approximately 400–700 nm.
But this is only a very small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The full spectrum has
wavelengths ranging in excess of several hundred
metres to less than a billionth of a metre. The
spectrum is broken into ranges according to the
amount of energy transmitted and, therefore, the
effect they have on matter.
Longer wavelength— Shorter wavelength—
less energy more energy
Infrared
Visible
Ultraviolet
The electromagnetic spectrum with some indicative
wavelengths
If you keep in mind that the longer the
wavelength, the less energy that is transmitted,
we can see:
• radio waves do not transmit as much energy
as gamma radiation; and
• infrared radiation is less energetic than UV
radiation. The higher energy transmitted by
UV radiation is known to be harmful to
humans, causing sunburn and skin cancer.
Visible light is further categorised into a spectrum
of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet light. We see these distinct colours because
the different wavelengths have different energies,
and so affect our eyes in different ways.
The visible spectrum
Within the visible light range, the violet/blue end
of the visible spectrum is more energetic and so
more harmful than the red wavelengths. This has
implications for museums, galleries and libraries in
the choice, for example, of luminaires—light
sources—for exhibitions.
How does the energy
cause damage?
When electromagnetic energy encounters matter,
such as items in a museum, gallery or library, it is
readily converted to mechanical, chemical or
electromagnetic energy of a different frequency.
Depending on the amount of energy being carried
by the waves electromagnetic energy can:
• cause the object to heat up;
• initiate simple chemical reactions; and
• produce complex chemical reactions called
photochemical reactions. If these reactions
produce deterioration, it is called
photochemical deterioration.
Photochemical deterioration
In the museum environment, photochemical
reactions are most likely to be initiated by UV
radiation and the higher energies of visible light,
that is, 320–500 nm. UV radiation nearly always
accompanies visible light, because it is produced
by the sun and by some common luminaires, such
as fluorescent tubes and tungsten halide bulbs.
Photochemical reactions are rarely isolated or
short-lived. For example:
• sometimes a new substance, which forms as a
result of the initial photochemical reaction,
has sufficient energy to also react with the
original substance and produce further
chemical change. This is called a ‘chain
reaction because the light produces not just
one chemical change but a whole series of
them; and
• if this happens while the object is still
exposed to light, a whole range of chain
reactions will occur at a rapid pace.
You should be aware that the amount of damage
depends not only on the wavelength of the light,
but also on the amount of light that falls on the
material for the whole time it is exposed.
And remember that some of these chemical
reactions continue after the exposure has stopped.
The deterioration reaction does not stop when the
material is placed in the dark. Light damage is
cumulative.
Examples of typical deterioration of artefacts
because of photochemical reactions include:
• dyes fading and changing colour. This is
perhaps the most obvious damage caused by
light and UV radiation. It can also be seen
that the radiation has its greatest impact on
the surface of the object, for example, dyes
on the exposed side of a carpet will fade,
while dyes on the unexposed side appear to
retain their original colour;
The areas protected from light, for example, in the
armpit of this dress, have not faded.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Light and Ultraviolet Radiation 11
 • watercolours fade and change colour. This is paper. These materials break down because of
often noticeable only when the watercolour is the production of acids in the reactions.
removed from its mount. The edges of the These acids attack the paper fibres and this
work, which have been covered by the mount, continues even when the paper is no longer
often seem to have stronger colour than the exposed to the radiation;
part of the work that has been exposed;
• textiles deteriorate and discolour. Silk, wool
and cotton are all affected by light and UV
radiation. But the reactions they undergo are
different, because of their differing chemical
compositions. Cotton will react in a similar
way to paper because both are cellulose-
The pigments on the
based; it will darken and become brittle. Wool
very edge of this and silk are made up of proteins, and behave
watercolour have differently from cellulose-based materials.
not faded because Both wool and silk are bleached by visible
they have been light, and will yellow when exposed to UV
protected by the radiation; and
mount.
Photograph courtesy • oil paintings change. This can include the
of Artlab Australia yellowing of varnishes and an increase in the
transparency of paints. Changes can also
involve complex interactions between the
oils, the pigments and the varnishes.

A painting during
• paper yellows. When prints are removed from treatment. You can
their mounts, you may see light-coloured clearly see the
paper at the edges that have been protected extent to which the
by the mount, while the exposed paper has varnish had
become yellowed or even brown; discoloured.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with
permission of Skipper
Garnthan

The areas of paper

that have been
exposed to light
have discoloured Deterioration of museum objects caused by
badly; in contrast to photochemical reactions is inevitable. However,
the area at the edge there is much that can be done to minimise this.
which has been
By being aware of the sources of harmful radiation,
protected by the
mount. museum staff can take positive steps to eliminate
it or reduce it significantly.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia

Sources of light and

UV radiation

• paper becomes brittle. The cellulose molecules
break down. This can be caused by
photochemical reactions in the actual paper
fibres or by photochemical reactions involving
other materials in the paper or used with the
There are two common ways of making light.
One way is to heat something until it glows. This
is the principle used for incandescent bulbs.
Heating the tungsten element causes it to emit or
give out light. The other way to make light is to

12 Light and Ultraviolet Radiation

excite something electrically so that it fluoresces.
Fluorescent light tubes and television screens are
examples of this method.
Light from heat
When an object is heated, it gives out light. A hot
object emits a broad spectrum of light. However,
the frequency and wavelength at which most of
the light is emitted depends on the temperature of
the object. The hotter the object, the shorter the
wavelength of the energy emitted. That is, the
hotter the object, the greater the energy emitted.
Observing a piece of metal in a very hot flame will
demonstrate this relationship. For example, when
the metal starts to heat up, it will initially glow a
dull red colour. As it becomes hotter, the colour
will become a brighter red, then yellow—the
frequency is increasing, the wavelength becoming
shorter and more energy is being transmitted. This
continues, and the metal glows blue and
eventually white.
Incandescent light bulbs
Incandescent light bulbs consist of a filament
of tungsten metal suspended between two
electrodes inside a sealed glass bulb. The bulb is
filled with an inert gas to prevent the tungsten
from burning up when it gets hot. When an
electric current flows between the electrodes,
the tungsten is heated.
The operating temperature of incandescent light
bulbs is about 2,500ºC. At this temperature
tungsten emits most of its light in the infrared
range. This is why light bulbs get so hot. But
less than 10 per cent of the energy used to power
a light bulb is converted into visible light,
meaning they are not very efficient. A much
smaller amount of power is converted into UV
radiation, making incandescent light bulbs a low
emitter of UV radiation.
Tungsten halide bulbs
Tungsten halide bulbs operate at a much higher
temperature than incandescent light bulbs, usually
at about 3,500ºC. They emit more light in the
visible range, and so are brighter light sources
than ordinary incandescent bulbs. They also emit
more UV radiation than incandescent light bulbs.
The sun
The sun also emits light because it is a hot object.
Its surface temperature is approximately 6,000ºC.
At this temperature, the sun emits not just heat,
but also a tremendous amount of light at higher
frequencies and shorter wavelengths than an
incandescent light bulb.
Overall, the sun emits about 9 per cent of its light
in the UV range, 41 per cent in the visible light
range and 50 per cent in the infrared range.
Fluorescence
Fluorescent lights work because some materials
fluoresce, that is, they absorb radiation at one
frequency and then give it out at another
frequency.
The materials used in fluorescent lights are known
as phosphors. Different phosphors are selected for
use in fluorescent tubes, depending on the specific
frequencies of the light they emit.
The inside of the tube is coated with the selected
phosphors. A gas inside the tube becomes excited
when the electric current is switched on. The
excited gas emits light, which is absorbed by the
phosphors and re-emitted at a different frequency.
The sharp peaks of a fluorescent spectrum are
made up of light emitted by both the phosphors
and the gas. The material becomes hot during this
process, so that it also emits some light in the
same way as hot objects.
The spectrum of light from a fluorescent light tube
is composed of a continuous curve caused by thermal—
hot object—emission, with sharp peaks corresponding to
strong fluorescent light emission at specific wavelengths.
The position of the fluorescent peaks depends on the
phosphors selected for the fluorescent tube.
Light and Ultraviolet Radiation 13
 The main advantage of fluorescent lights is that
they are very efficient at converting electrical
energy into light. This is because most of the
power goes into generating light at a few specific
frequencies, rather than generating energy over a
wider range of frequencies, as incandescent bulbs
do. This means that fluorescent lights do not
waste energy-producing infrared radiation or heat,
as incandescent lights do. Fluorescent lights are
therefore cooler and cheaper to run, and last
longer.
By selecting particular combinations of phosphors,
lighting manufacturers can determine the type of
light a fluorescent tube emits. This characteristic
is an important consideration when choosing your
light source. If fluorescent lighting is to be used
in museums, galleries and libraries, care must be
taken to select only those types of tubes which
emit very little ultraviolet light.
The brightness of light
From experience, we know that the closer we stand
to a light bulb the brighter it seems. This is a
simple consequence of geometry.
Light spreads out in all directions from its source,
rather like a ripple on a pond. The farther away we
are from the source, the more spread-out the light
is and so it becomes dimmer.
a
e are
are metr
1 metre distant 1 squ
14 Light and Ultraviolet Radiation
Brightness is expressed as the number of lumens
passing through a given area. The brightness of
the light an observer sees, therefore, depends on
how many lumens catch their eye. For
convenience, this area is defined as one square
metre and the name given to this unit is lux.
Lux = lumens/sqm
The mathematical law that describes the radiating
behaviour of light is the inverse square law. This
law states the brightness of the light decreases
according to the square of the distance from the
source. For example:
• if the observer is 1 metre away from a light
and sees a brightness of 100 lux, then at
2 metres distant they will see a brightness of
1
only a quarter— — 2 x 2 —of this, or 25 lux; and
• at 3 metres, they will see a brightness of a
1
ninth— — 3 x3 —or 11 lux.
The inverse square law is useful to help determine
the placement of lighting in a museum, and has
important outcomes for the wellbeing and
longevity of the art and valuable objects.
Additional information
about the units used to
measure light
In order to control the effects of light in a
museum, gallery or library, it is useful to measure
properties such as:
• the brightness or intensity of the light;
• the composition of the light and whether UV
radiation is present; and
• how much energy is contained in the light.
Brightness or intensity has already been discussed
in some detail; but some of the other units used
to measure light may need further explanation.
Watts are the amount of energy that falls on an
object per second. This should not be confused
with the wattage rating of a light bulb, which is a
statement of how much electrical energy goes into
the bulb to make it work, not how much light
energy comes out.
Lumens are the units that measure luminous flux, Self-evaluation quiz
that is the amount of light given out by a light
source. A 100 watt incandescent bulb, for example,
emits about 1200 lumens.
Question 1.
Because light is composed of different
wavelengths—or energies—we often need to know Which of the following statements are true?
the distribution of energy amongst the different
wavelengths. This is what we are doing when we a) Light is necessary in museums, galleries and
measure the UV content of light falling on an libraries.
object. b) Light does not cause damage.
So a measurement from the UV meter of 50 c) Light levels that are appropriate for people
microwatts per lumen indicates there are 50 units working are fine for objects too.
of energy in the UV wavelength band in every unit
of light being monitored. d) UV radiation can be very damaging.

Question 2.
If you have a lighting problem and don’t know
how to deal with it, contact a conservator. Which of the following statements are true?
Conservators can offer advice and practical Visible light:
solutions.
a) causes extreme and irreversible damage to
organic materials;
For further reading b) is often accompanied by UV radiation and
infrared radiation;
Brill, Thomas B., 1980, Light, Its Interaction with
Art and Antiquities, Plenum Press, New York. c) can cause fading of dyes;

Gardner, Carl, & Hannaford, Barry, 1993, Lighting d) can lead to the discolouration of paper and
Design—An Introductory Guide for Professionals, cotton fabric;
The Design Council, London.
e) all of the above.
The Chartered Institute of Building Services
Engineers, 1994, Lighting for Museums and Art Question 3.
Galleries—LG8 1994, The Chartered Institute of
Building Services Engineers, London. List the following types of light or radiation in this
order: from the most energetic to the least
Thompson, Paul & Wallace, Jim, 1994, Exhibition energetic, that is, the most damaging to the least
Installation & Lighting Design, Art on the Move, damaging.
Perth.
a) Infrared radiation.
Thomson, Garry, 1994, The Museum Environment,
3rd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. b) Green light.

c) UV radiation.

d) Yellow light.

e) Blue light.

Light and Ultraviolet Radiation 15

 Question 4. d) grouping light-sensitive items in low-light
areas;
Which of the following materials are considered to e) turning off lights if people are not viewing
be very sensitive to light? the display;
a) Stone. f) all of the above.
b) Oil paintings. Question 8.
c) Textiles.
What is the name of the unit which is used to
d) Watercolour pigments. measure the intensity or brightness of visible light?
e) Natural history specimens, such as feathers a) Lumen.
and fur.
b) Lux.
Question 5. c) Microwatts.

Preferred light sources for museums, galleries and d) Kilolux hours.

libraries are:
Question 9.
a) fluorescent tubes;
‘Microwatts per lumen’ is a measure of:
b) sunlight;
a) daylight;
c) low-UV emitting fluorescent tubes;
b) light from a fluorescent tube;
d) tungsten incandescent bulbs.
c) the amount of UV energy in a light source;
Question 6. d) the distance between an object and the light
source.
If you rely a lot on daylight in your museum,
gallery or library you should: Question 10.

a) try and eliminate all direct sunlight; What is the recommended maximum light level for
the display of a watercolour?
b) let the sun shine in as it produces a lovely
summery atmosphere;
a) 75 lux.
c) use curtains and blinds over windows and
skylights to diffuse the light; b) 250 lux.

d) use filtering films on your windows to c) 650 kilolux hours.

eliminate the UV radiation from the light
coming into the room. d) 50 lux.

Question 7. Question 11.

What is the recommended maximum light level for

You can take steps to reduce light damage by:
the display of an oil painting?
a) moving objects further away from the light a) 75 lux.
source to reduce the brightness of the light;
b) 250 lux.
b) installing dimmer switches on lights;
c) 650 kilolux hours.
c) reducing the length of time that items are on
display; d) 50 lux.

16 Light and Ultraviolet Radiation

 Question 12. Question 7.

What is the exposure, in kilolux hours, of a Answer: f).

costume displayed for 11 weeks in a museum
which is open for six hours a day, six days a week
Question 8.
and where light falling on the costume has been
measured as 150 lux?
Answer: b).
a) 69,300.

b) 59.4. Question 9.

c) 59,400.
Answer: c).
d) 69.3.
Question 10.

Answers to Answer: d).

self-evaluation quiz Question 11.

Question 1. Answer: b).

Answer: a) and d) are true. b) and c) are false.

Question 12.
Light can be very damaging and there is often a
need to compromise between accommodating Answer: b).
people’s needs and the needs of valuable items.

Question 2.

Answer: e).

Question 3.

Answer: c), e), b), d) and a).

Question 4.

Answer: c), d) and e). Oil paintings are considered

moderately sensitive and stone is considered non-
sensitive.

Question 5.

Answer: c) and d).

Question 6.

Answer: a), c) and d).

Light and Ultraviolet Radiation 17

Humidity and
Temperature
Objectives page 21
Introduction page 21
What is relative humidity? page 21
How does relative humidity change? page 22
Why worry about relative humidity and temperature? page 22
Can the damage be prevented? page 25
Identifying the source of the problem page 25
What can be done to minimise damage? page 26
Modifying the conditions in buildings page 26
A word of caution about travelling
exhibitions and loans page 29
In an ideal world … page 30
Australia’s climatic zones page 30
MORE ABOUT RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE
Measuring relative humidity page 32
Dehumidifiers page 34
Humidifiers and steam generators page 34
The use of silica gel page 35
For further reading page 35
Self-evaluation quiz page 35
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 37
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• know some of the adverse effects that
extremes and fluctuations in relative humidity
and temperature have on objects;
• understand the relationship between relative
humidity and temperature; and
• be able to take steps to limit damage to
collections caused by fluctuations in relative
humidity and temperature.
Introduction
Relative humidity and temperature are essential
components of a comfortable working environment.
However, there can be some conflict between the
needs of people and the requirements for the care
of collections.
Relative humidity—RH—is the amount of water
vapour contained in the air at a particular
temperature compared with the total amount of
water vapour the air can contain at that
temperature. Relative humidity is expressed as a
percentage. Various materials respond differently
over a range of humidity levels and there is an
optimum level of RH suitable for the display and
storage of mixed materials.
Extremes of relative humidity and temperature can
adversely affect the condition of objects,
particularly those made of organic materials. But it
is important to remember that many materials will
stabilise in a particular climate, even though
conditions are extreme. Once stabilised and
conditioned to the climate, these materials will
not necessarily be adversely affected by the
constant, extreme conditions.
If the climate changes or objects are moved to a
different climate, problems can arise. Changes in
relative humidity and temperature—particularly
rapid changes—are potentially far more damaging
to most materials than are constant extremes.
These changes can occur easily with sudden
changes in the local weather, when air-
conditioning units break down, and when objects
are moved from storage boxes to open display or
from one region of the country to another.
Steps can be taken to minimise fluctuations in
relative humidity and temperature, and to protect
valuable collections from the adverse effects of
extremes of relative humidity and temperature. To
do this, it is useful to understand how relative
humidity and temperature are related, what causes
relative humidity to fluctuate, and to know what
effects they have on different types of materials.
What is relative humidity?
Heat really needs no explanation. You may have
difficulty defining it, but you’re certainly familiar
with the experience of it. Relative humidity, on
the other hand, does need explanation.
Water is an extremely pervasive substance and can
be found everywhere on the planet—including in
the air, where it’s held as vapour.
The capacity of air to hold water-vapour varies
according to the temperature of the air.
The warmer the air, the more water-vapour it can
hold. As the air cools down, its capacity to hold
water will decrease.
Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of
the amount of water-vapour contained in air at a
particular temperature. It is basically a comparison
between:
• the amount of water-vapour held in the air at
any one time and at a particular temperature;
and
• the total amount of water-vapour which the
air can hold at the same temperature, that is,
the amount of water which will saturate the
air at that temperature.
Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage.
This can be written as an equation:
RH = water-vapour present in the air x 100%
water-vapour required to saturate
air at that temperature
As the temperature of air increases, its capacity to
contain water-vapour increases. For example:
• At 0ºC the air can hold about 6 grams of water
for each cubic metre of air, that is, 6g/m3.
Humidity and Temperature 21
 • At 10ºC this increases to 10g/m3
• At 20ºC it increases to 17g/m3
• And at 30ºC it increases to 30g/m3
So, if air at 20ºC contains 8.5g/m of water-vapour:
3
RH = 8.5 x100%
17
= 50%
Thus the relative humidity would by 50%.
How does relative
humidity change?
Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of
water-vapour contained in air at a particular
temperature. The capacity of air to hold water-
vapour varies according to the air temperature.
However, although raising the temperature increases
the capacity of air to hold water, there is not always
water available to move into the air to fill that
increased capacity. So changes in temperature often
lead to quite significant alterations to the relative
humidity.
For example, in an empty, sealed box containing a
fixed amount of water-vapour, raising the
temperature will lower the relative humidity. This
is because the capacity of the air to contain water
has increased but the actual amount of water has
remained the same. Using our previous example of
air at 20ºC with 8.5g/m3 of water-vapour, if the
temperature is raised to 30ºC and no additional
water is available:
This is an important concept, because display
cases and sealed storage areas in some ways
behave like sealed boxes; and the relative humidity
can vary because the temperature varies.
This principle can also be applied to some extent
to museums, galleries and libraries. But they are
generally far more complex.
They have doors which admit moisture-containing
air from the outside, where the temperature and
relative humidity is usually different from the
inside conditions.
People come into these areas. They raise the
temperature, especially when they are in large
groups; and they take in and give out moisture as
they breathe.
Museums, galleries and libraries contain objects
which take up water and give out water, according
to the temperature of the surrounding air.
There may also be heating and cooling devices
and/or air-conditioning in the building.
Why worry
about relative humidity
and temperature?
Relative humidity and temperature are two of the
environmental factors which can contribute to the
deterioration of our valued collections.

at 20ºC RH = 8.5 x 100% BUT at 30ºC RH = 8.5 x 100%

17 30
= 50% = 28.3%

The reverse is also true. If the temperature in a

sealed box continuing a fixed amount of water-
vapour is lowered, the relative humidity will
increase. The capacity of the air to hold water has
decreased but the amount of water has remained
the same.
A bark painting—split after drying out in a low
relative humidity environment.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the Museum of Victoria

22 Humidity and Temperature

Extremes of temperature and relative humidity—
and rapid fluctuations in these—can lead to a
range of problems. The risks of physical damage,
such as warping, cracking and splitting, chemical
deterioration, and insect or mould attack are all
increased when temperature and relative humidity
are too high or too low.
The discolouration of the cotton proceeded much
more rapidly in a damp environment.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Insects generally like a warm damp environment.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
For more information
For more information about insects and mould,
please see the chapter on Biological Pests
in this volume.
The effects of extremes
and fluctuations in temperature
Extremes and fluctuations in temperature are
potentially less harmful than extremes or
fluctuations in relative humidity; but it is difficult to
separate the two because they are closely
interrelated. Some independent effects of high
temperature include:
• increased biological activity. Most insects and
moulds thrive and reproduce readily in warmer
conditions; and
• acceleration of chemical deterioration
processes. Temperature affects the rate at
which chemical reactions take place. For
example, a temperature rise from 20–30ºC may
double the rate of some degradation reactions.
And this worsens if light, water or pollution
also contribute to these chemical reactions.
For more information
For more information about how light and
pollutants can affect chemical deterioration,
please see the chapters on Light & UV Radiation
and on Dust and Pollutants in this volume.
Fluctuations in temperature cause:
• expansion and contraction. If this is uneven
and/or rapid, it can cause physical damage
and distortion. This can be hazardous for
objects made of composite materials; and
• some types of plastic, for example, vinyl
records, shrink and warp in high temperatures.
The most important effect of temperature is the
effect it has on altering relative humidity levels.
The effects of extremes and
fluctuations in relative humidity
In high relative humidity conditions insects and
moulds thrive and reproduce readily, metals
corrode, dyes and textiles fade and deteriorate
more quickly, organic materials such as wood and
leather swell or change shape, and gelatine
emulsions and adhesives become sticky.
High relative humidity conditions promote the
corrosion of metals.
Photograph courtesy of Sarah Jane Rennie
Humidity and Temperature 23

The bolts are corroding in high relative humidity
conditions. The corrosion products are staining the
wood, and will eventually cause splitting.
Photograph courtesy of Sarah Jane Rennie
Organic materials absorb water. This is particularly
noticeable in thinner materials, such as paper,
vellum and parchment, textiles, leather and bark
paintings. As materials absorb water, they swell
and change shape, for example, stretched vellums
and mounted textiles sag.
The effects of humidity on organic materials are
not always immediately noticeable. But after a
while, extensive damage eventually occurs.
For example, a large block of wood may take weeks
or even months to transfer water from its surface
into its bulk, leading to different parts of the
wood having different water-contents. The
consequence this has on the wood is to make it
swell by different amounts, which will have the
effect of splitting and warping the material.
Wood also swells more across the grain than along
the grain; and by an amount which varies
according to the type of wood. This makes life
complicated when caring for furniture.
Textiles can display what seems to be the opposite
response to changes in relative humidity. A multi-
strand thread shortens in length when the relative
humidity goes up. This is because the individual
threads expand in diameter more than they expand
in length. The result is that the strands wrap
around each other more tightly, which causes the
overall length to decrease. Often this process does
not reverse when the relative humidity drops again.
A canvas responds in the same way as textiles;
however, the paint layer on the canvas does not
24 Humidity and Temperature
contract. Rather, it will compress, leading to cracking
or separation between canvas and paint layer.
Different components of single objects absorb
moisture at different rates and swell by different
amounts. This can cause problems, such as paint
layers splitting and separating from timber panels.
Composites of metal and wood are affected also.
As the metal corrodes, the wood starts to split in
order to accommodate the corrosion products.
Adhesives that absorb water become sticky and are
an attractive food source for moulds and insects.
Gelatine emulsions on photographs also swell in
humid conditions and can readily stick to the glass
in their frames or, if they are stacked, they can
stick together.
As for papers which are stuck down at the edges,
they will increase in size in humid conditions and
thus expand in the middle as their edges are
restricted. This can lead to creasing.
In very low relative humidity conditions, such as
in arid areas:
• insects can still survive;
• organic materials give out the moisture they
contain. This can cause materials to dry out
and become brittle or to distort and split;
• thicker materials lose moisture much more
rapidly from their surface. This can cause
warping;
• different components of single objects release
moisture at different rates, which can cause
the bonds between them to loosen; and
• adhesives dry out and crack, and can fail as
a result.
If fluctuations are occurring constantly, the
materials are being subjected to constant movement
which is usually not uniform and often results in
cracking, splitting and warping. Some examples of
extreme damage caused by fluctuations are:
• bark paintings expand and contract as they
absorb water and release it. This leads to the
bark warping and splitting, and they can lose
paint;
• bone and ivory are very susceptible to
damage caused by fluctuations; and they warp
 and split. This is especially a problem for very
thin ivory sheets, such as those used for
miniature painting;
• furniture with veneers can be damaged
severely, because the thin, veneer layer is
likely to curl and pop off the surface of the
furniture if it repeatedly expands and
contracts; and
• fluctuations in relative humidity can also alter
the chemical composition of some minerals,
so that they become another mineral.
What happens in extreme,
but stable environments?
When conditions are extreme but constant, damage
can still occur. Experience shows, however, that
many materials become conditioned to an extreme
environment.
An object in constantly high or low relative
humidity does not absorb and lose water
repeatedly; and it is not subject to the enormous
stresses of the cycles which affect objects in
fluctuating environments. Such an object is likely
to be preserved longer and in better condition
than a similar object in a fluctuating environment.
Remember, the emphasis should be on stability.
Can the damage
be prevented?
Damage to objects and collections cannot always
be prevented totally; but it can certainly be
limited and slowed by controlling the relative
humidity and temperature.
The most significant effect temperature can have
in a museum, gallery or library environment is the
way it can alter relative humidity levels.
Relative humidity and temperature are closely
linked; and it is helpful to understand this link
when setting out to control the environment where
collections and items of value are stored.
Remember that for a fixed quantity of moisture in
a given air space, as temperature rises, the relative
humidity drops and, as the temperature drops, the
relative humidity rises.
Identifying the source
of the problem
Extremes and fluctuations in relative humidity and
temperature which damage collections are
experienced in many museums, galleries and
libraries. These changes can be caused by:
• the regional climate;
• the climate within buildings;
• localised climates with buildings;
• microclimates; and
• visitors.
Australia is a large country with three very
different climates—tropical, arid and temperate.
Regional climates are particularly significant for
objects which are displayed outside.
Because buildings are not fully sealed, outside
conditions have a significant influence on the
climate inside the building. The building’s style,
the materials used, the state of repair of the
building and whether the building is insulated, air-
conditioned or without either, all influence the
impact outside conditions have on the climate
inside the building.
Although buildings are not fully sealed from the
outside weather, they act as barriers to the free
flow of heat and moisture. This is why air-
conditioning and heating are effective in providing
a comfortable climate.
Within buildings there are localised climates and
microclimates where conditions vary greatly from
conditions in other parts of the building. For
example, there would be greater variations in
temperature and humidity in a small tea room with
a toaster and a kettle than there would be in a
closed-off storage area.
Cupboards, display cases, boxes and frames act as
barriers to air and moisture circulation and can
develop their own microclimate. The materials used
to make the display cases, boxes and frames,
combined with what’s stored in them, also
influence the microclimate.
People are important to the museums, galleries
and libraries. The effect they have on the local
climate depends on:
Humidity and Temperature 25
 • how many visitors there are and whether they
arrive individually or in groups;
• whether they have wet or damp umbrellas and
coats;
• how long they stay; and
• their ages—school groups are potentially
more disruptive to a controlled environment
than adult tour groups or individuals.
All of these factors can contribute to fluctuations
in, and problems with, relative humidity. Careful
manipulation of these factors helps create a
stable environment where the risk of damage
is minimised.
What can be done to
minimise damage?
The potential for damage to collections from the
effects of relative humidity and heat is greatest
when relative humidity and temperature fluctuate
rapidly, or are extremely low or extremely high.
The damage can be minimised by modifying the
conditions, if possible, and creating buffer zones
between your objects and the extreme or
fluctuating conditions.
There are many ways of controlling temperature
and relative humidity. Some methods are better
than others and their advantages and
disadvantages will be discussed.
The measures you use to improve your building’s
environment should be selected so that you can
monitor their effects and, if necessary, modify them.
Modifying the
conditions in buildings
Airconditioning
Airconditioning is the most obvious, but not
necessarily the best, method of controlling
temperature and relative humidity. The method
involves taking air—either fresh air from the
outside or recycled air from the inside—and
changing its temperature and moisture content.
26 Humidity and Temperature
There are two basic types of cooling
airconditioners available.
An evaporative airconditioner works by passing air
over a moist surface and increasing the moisture
content of the air, raising the relative humidity.
This type of airconditioner should not be used
unless there is a dehumidifier to remove the
moisture from the cool air.
Cooling coil airconditioners work on the
refrigerator principle of keeping the air cool and
dry. This type of airconditioner should be used
with caution, and preferably with a humidifier to
add moisture to the air. Monitoring the
effectiveness of such equipment is crucial.
If you have airconditioning or you are considering
installing it, you should be aware of the following
important points:
• the cost of purchasing, operating and
maintaining an airconditioning plant is high.
If such a financial commitment is possible,
seriously consider getting a system which not
only regulates temperature but is capable of
controlling the relative humidity as well;
• if airconditioning is used to control the
environment, it should operate continuously.
For example, it is tempting to turn off the
airconditioner because of the high operating
costs. But the cyclic process of turning it on
and off is likely to be more damaging to
collections than no air-conditioning at all;
• airconditioning systems have a limited life.
They will operate at greatest efficiency for 10
to 15 years; and
• airconditioning systems should be well
maintained, otherwise you could experience
fluctuations in the environment.
Heating
It is sometimes necessary to heat whole buildings
or individual rooms. Generally, heating is used to
make people comfortable. This is an important
consideration; but you should be aware also that
raising the temperature affects the objects in the
building.
Heating affects relative humidity. Remember:
• heating a building in an already dry
environment could be disastrous, because it
will lower the relative humidity;
• heating a building when there is an
additional source of water will evaporate
more of the water. The relative humidity may
remain unchanged or it may alter, depending
on the amount of water available and the
amount of heat applied. This may not be the
effect you’re hoping to achieve; and
• if you want to raise the temperature without
lowering the relative humidity, you need
additional water. Additional water sources
could include mechanical devices such as
humidifiers or, more simply, dishes or trays
of water left to evaporate.
Altering the
relative humidity
It is possible to vary the humidity without
markedly changing the temperature. Relative
humidity can be reduced using a dehumidifier.
This is a remedial measure which adjusts a
dangerously wet environment.
Dehumidifiers.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Moisture can be introduced to the air using either
a steam generator or an ultrasonic humidifier.
These are remedial measures which adjust a
dangerously dry environment.
These machines should not be seen as permanent
solutions to your environmental problems. They
can be costly to run, they need fairly constant
attention and can be bulky and noisy.
The building as a buffer zone
Don’t despair if your building is not air-conditioned
and you can’t afford airconditioning. A well-
maintained building of solid construction provides a
very reasonable environment for collections.
A building made of thick stone walls or cavity-
brick construction with high ceilings provides good
insulation against climatic changes. In hot
weather, these buildings take a few days to heat
up; and then, as the outside temperature drops,
they lose heat slowly. Fluctuations occur, but they
occur gradually.
Make sure your building is well-maintained, so that
it provides the maximum possible seal against
fluctuations in the outside environment. This is
particularly important if the building is made of
light building materials and is in a fairly extreme
environment.
Clean out gutters, repair cracks in walls and
ceilings, and have leaky roofs checked. This
improves the stability of the temperature and
humidity inside.
If you are considering upgrading the buildings,
remember to insulate walls and ceilings—
especially if the building is constructed from
light-weight or heat-conductive materials such
as fibro and corrugated iron. By so doing, it can
not only help to modify the internal environment,
but also ensure better preservation of the
collection as well as making people feel more
comfortable inside.
Use the features of the building
Improved conditions for the storage and display
of collections can be achieved by choosing good
storage and display sites within the building,
and using the features of the building to modify
conditions.
The most stable area of a non-airconditioned
building is an internal room on the ground floor—
because it is buffered against climatic changes.
There are other areas one could choose. Basements
are acceptable as they provide a cool temperature.
However, they are likely to be damp. On the other
hand, an attic would often not be insulated, but
would be dry.
Humidity and Temperature 27
 If there is an optimum choice, the most sensitive
objects should be displayed in an internal room, or
at least against an internal wall in preference to
an external one.
In warm, humid conditions, such as in tropical areas:
• air flow and good ventilation are important if
you want to minimise damage to collections;
• use oscillating fans, with doors open to
improve air movement; and
• consider other ways of cooling the inside of
the building. For example, install interior
blinds on windows to limit the amount of
heat coming into the building, install exterior
shutters or awnings, or put up shade-cloth. If
possible, plant trees around the building, but
not too close because this gives insects easy
access to the building.
If you are building a museum or modifying an
existing building in the tropics, remember that
non-airconditioned buildings should have
breezeways, if possible.
In arid or temperate zones, when the temperature
is extreme outside the building, you can limit
temperature fluctuations inside your building by:
• keeping doors and windows closed;
• keeping self-closing doors well oiled, so that
they shut quickly and fully;
• installing interior blinds on windows, to
buffer against outside conditions;
• installing exterior shutters or awnings, or
putting up shade-cloth; and
• planting trees around the building—but not
too close because this gives insects easy
access to the building.
Encourage people to leave wet umbrellas and coats
at the front door—by providing umbrella basins
and coat hooks. This will prevent the introduction
of excess moisture.
28 Humidity and Temperature
Local climates and microclimates
In the same way that you use the features of a
building to modify the conditions within the
building, you can use doors, windows, blinds
and awnings—to modify conditions within
individual rooms.
There are a number of other steps which can be
taken to create and modify microclimates within
the building.
Layers of storage
When storing important objects, give them their
own microclimate by providing layers of storage as
this provides some protection against climatic
extremes and fluctuations, even when conditions in
the room or building are difficult to control.
Microclimates also exists within glazed frames,
display cases and boxes.
For more information
There is information about conservation framing
in the chapters on Textiles, Photographs and
Paper in Caring for Cultural Material 1 and 2.
A display case is a box with transparent sides into
which an object is placed. The walls of the box
isolate the object to some extent. Passive control
systems can also be set up within the box.
Silica gel is the most common material used to
control relative humidity in display cases. It can
be pre-conditioned to achieve a desired humidity
level; the quantity placed in the case depends on
the volume of the case.
For more information
Silica gel is not particularly easy to use.
For more information about its use
refer to the section on the use of silica gel
later in this chapter.
Other materials, such as Nikka pellets and Artsorb,
operate on the same principles as silica gel.
Cheaper alternatives which can be used include
clean, cotton scraps and shredded, acid-free paper.
These absorb excess moisture, but do little to
correct a dry environment.

These documents are well protected from
environmental fluctuations by layers of storage—
individual sleeves plus a storage box.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Acid-free wrappers, interleaving, mounting and
framing when used individually or in
combinations, create layers of protection from
extremes of, and fluctuations in, relative
humidity. They create small, isolated
microclimates in which the relative humidity
fluctuates slowly.
CAUTION
Avoid sealing objects in plastic in tropical
conditions—it will not allow them to breathe,
creating a risk of mould growth.
The layers of mounting and framing materials buffer
these items against environmental extremes and
fluctuations.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
A word of caution
about travelling
exhibitions and loans
Remember that your collections may be subject to
a changing environment within and outside a
museum. Of particular concern is if items are lent
to other organisations, or are transported for other
reasons. They should be well packed and sealed, to
ensure that they are not subjected to unacceptable
fluctuations in transit.
On arrival at the destination of transported items,
the local climate within the crate should be
allowed to gradually adjust to the conditions of
the new environment. The crates should remain
unopened at the destination for a full 24 hours.
This should also be done on the return journey.
If the objects are travelling from one extreme to
another, for example, from a tropical to an arid
climate, it may be advisable to allow more than 24
hours for conditioning at each end.
The hand on this polychrome sculpture split
after getting very damp and then drying out quickly.
Mould has grown on the sculpture as well.
The sculpture became very damp when it was
shipped from Europe to Australia.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Humidity and Temperature 29
 In an ideal world...
The levels of relative humidity—RH—recommended
for the safe-keeping of collections in museums,
galleries and libraries are:
• 50% ± 5%;
• this is a compromise which has been arrived
at by assessing the average requirement of an
average collection in an average climate;
• it is almost impossible to achieve a constant
relative humidity of 50%; so a margin of 5 per
cent either side of this has been permitted,
that is, between 45% and 55%;
• the danger zones for relative humidity are
over 65%, when mould grows and metal
corrosion is common; and below 35%, when
some materials dry out and become brittle;
• in tropical areas, 60% ± 5% is more realistic.
For the safe-keeping of collections in museums,
galleries and libraries, the temperature should be
kept constant—in the range 18–22ºC.
These recommended levels are ideal. However, in
some areas of Australia it is extremely difficult to
come close to achieving these recommended levels.
It is not always practical to put all our efforts into
achieving these levels within a building, when
there are many others ways of providing protection.
CAUTION
We’re not in an ideal world, so it is important
to remember that many objects become
conditioned to their environments—even
though these may be extreme.
A lot of damage can be done by attempting
to place an object, which is stable in
an extreme climate, into an environment that
conforms to the recommended levels.

Australia’s climatic zones

ARID
An arid climate is generally very dry.

For example:

Av. Min RH Av. Max RH Av. Min Temp Av. Max Temp
Broken Hill 25% 75% 12.1ºC 23.7ºC
Kalgoorlie 23% 74% 11.5ºC 25.1ºC
Alice Springs 17% 65% 16.3ºC 33ºC

In arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very cold at night. This wide fluctuation is
matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity. Take Alice Springs for example:

• temperatures have been known to range from 42ºC to 20ºC in summer;

• and in winter from 18ºC to -5ºC; and

• relative humidity can range from 75%–20%.

30 Humidity and Temperature

 TEMPERATE
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate.

For example:

Av. Min RH Av. Max RH Av. Min Temp Av. Max Temp
Launceston 44% 90% 6.2ºC 16.8ºC
Adelaide 34% 79% 12ºC 22.1ºC
Ballarat 40% 91% 7.3ºC 17.4ºC

However extreme and fluctuations can be experienced in temperate areas. Take Adelaide for example:

• temperatures have been known to range from 40ºC to 15ºC in a day;

• relative humidity can range from 100%–30%; and

• when it is hot in Adelaide it is often quite dry.

Temperate climates tend to have a greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include
extreme climatic variations.

TROPICAL
Tropical climates occur north of the Tropic of Capricorn. They are characterised by heavy rainfall,
high humidity and high temperatures.

For example:

Av. Min RH Av. Max RH Av. Min Temp Av. Max Temp
Darwin 43% 85% 23.8ºC 31.6ºC
Townsville 51% 75% 19.5ºC 28.6ºC

Average readings do not give a very good indication of the extremes that can be experienced. In Darwin,
for example:

• temperatures can range from 35ºC to 20ºC in a day;

• relative humidity can range from 100%–50%; and

• high temperature and relative humidity tend to coincide.

Note: Townsville may not be considered tropical—it may be more accurately classified as sub-tropical.
It must be remembered that these categories are only a guide. Climates change gradually and there are
many areas in Australia that would be difficult to place in these very broad categories.

Humidity and Temperature 31

 MORE ABOUT RELATIVE
HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE

Measuring relative humidity

Being able to measure relative humidity is not
absolutely necessary when controlling fluctuations
or extremes; but it is helpful in identifying
problems.

If the environment is very dry or very damp, you A whirling hygrometer or sling psychrometer.
can generally feel it—your skin responds to these Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
conditions. We feel dry and sometimes a bit itchy
in very dry conditions, and clammy in humid
The amount of water which evaporates depends on
conditions. But feeling the extremes doesn’t tell us
the capacity of the air to contain water. The
how extreme the conditions are; and it gives us no
decrease in temperature shows how much water
indication of how rapidly the conditions are
has gone into the air; this shows the capacity of
fluctuating.
the air to contain water.
To gather information about the levels, you need
The dry bulb gives the temperature of the air.
to measure the relative humidity and temperature;
and to get information about the rate of
By comparing the two temperatures after the
fluctuation, you need to monitor the environment.
instrument has been whirled, the relative humidity
can be calculated. This is made easier by using
Measuring the conditions involves taking readings
published tables listing the relative humidity
at a specific time—a snapshot of the conditions.
against the dry and wet-bulb temperatures. These
tables should be provided with the hygrometer.
Monitoring conditions involves continuous or
repeated measurement, so that you get a changing
The advantages of using a whirling hygrometer are:
picture or series of snapshots over a period of time.
• they are relatively cheap;
There are a number of devices which can be used
to measure relative humidity. • they don’t require ongoing maintenance; and

Whirling hygrometer • if you purchase another measuring device,

A whirling hygrometer—also called a sling
psychrometer—measures relative humidity and
temperature directly.
you will still need a whirling hygrometer, as a
reference device to calibrate the other device.
The disadvantages of using a whirling hygrometer
are:

It has two matched thermometers. One thermometer
is called the dry bulb and the other the wet bulb.
The wet bulb thermometer has a cotton sleeve
wrapped around its base. Distilled water from a
small reservoir is used to keep the sleeve wet.
The hygrometer is whirled around in the air. While
this happens, water from the sleeve of the wet
bulb thermometer evaporates, and the wet-bulb
temperature shown by the thermometer goes down.
• they provide a snapshot only. They do not
continuously monitor the environment;
• to monitor the environment with a whirling
hygrometer, you need to take readings in the
same places at regular intervals, and record
when and where you took the readings; and
• whirling a manually-operated hygrometer can
make your arm tired. Battery-operated
whirling hygrometers are available.

32 Humidity and Temperature

 Thermohygrograph
A thermohygrograph allows for continuous
measurement of relative humidity and temperature
over a period of time. It monitors the
environmental changes.
Thermohygrographs work on the principle that
organic materials expand and contract as the
relative humidity changes. In this case, the
organic material is human hair.
The hairs are bundled together and stretched
between a fixed pin and a moveable pin. The
moveable pin is attached to a series of levers,
which amplify the movement of the hairs.
A pen is attached to the end lever; and this pen
plots the movement of the lever on a chart, which
is mounted on a rotating cylinder. The rate of
rotation can be altered, so that the relative
humidity is plotted over a day, a week or a month.
A thermohygrograph also has a temperature
sensor—which records the temperature on the
same chart.
The chart should be changed at the end of each
recording period. When you change the chart, set
the pen on the correct time, and you will have a
record of the times when changes occur.
The advantages of using a thermohygrograph are:
• the thermohygrograph chart contains
information about temperature and humidity, as
well as the relationship between the two; and
A thermohygrograph.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
• the chart also shows when fluctuations occurred,
so you can relate fluctuations to events in the
area being monitored, for example, the arrival of
a bus-load of tourists on a wet day!
The disadvantages of using a thermohygrograph are:
• they require ongoing maintenance, to ensure
they are recording accurately and to ensure
that the cylinder is rotating at the right rate;
• they need to be calibrated periodically, and
the hairs need to be re-conditioned; and
• thermohygrographs give you information only
if you look at the charts. Most people look at
the charts only at the end of the recording
period, so they don’t respond immediately to
problems as they arise.
Dial hygrometers
Dial hygrometers work on the same principle as the
thermohygrograph—using human hair to operate a
lever which moves a dial.
A dial hygrometer.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
The advantages of using a dial hygrometer are that
it is small and can be placed in display cases and
on shelves.
The disadvantages of using a dial hygrometer are:
• they measure relative humidity, but not the
temperature; and
• they measure continuously, but don’t record
the information—you have to look at them
continuously if you want to use them to
monitor changes.
Humidity and Temperature 33
 Electronic hygrometers
Electronic hygrometers are generally used to
provide a snapshot of conditions. They measure
relative humidity and temperature, and need to be
calibrated periodically. Before they are used, they
need to be allowed to acclimatise to the area they
will be monitoring.
Data loggers
Systems which monitor relative humidity and
temperature, and download data to computers are
now available—they are called data loggers.
The advantages of using data loggers are:
• they can be linked to alarms so that when
conditions move outside the recommended
levels, action can be taken; and
• the remote sensors can be placed in display
cases, storage boxes and crates.
The disadvantages of using data loggers are:
• you need a computer to access the
information; and
• they are expensive—although they are likely
to become cheaper as time goes by.
Humidity indicator cards
Humidity indicator cards are also available. These
use moisture-sensitive salts which change colour
as the relative humidity alters. They can be very
useful for low-cost monitoring—especially within
display cases and storage boxes—provided you
check them regularly.
Separate temperature cards are needed if you want
to check temperature variations.
Calibration
Thermohygrographs and dial and electronic
hygrometers do not remain accurate. Ideally, they
should be calibrated against an instrument such as a
whirling hygrometer once a month and if they have
slipped out of calibration, they should be
recalibrated. The hairs in thermohygrographs and
dial hygrometers must also be reconditioned
regularly.
34 Humidity and Temperature
We will not give detailed instructions for the
calibration of individual instruments because there
will be slight variations, depending on the type of
instrument you have—whether a thermohygrograph
or a dial hygrometer. The instrument will come
with instructions. If it does not, ask the supplier
for clear instructions. If you don’t follow the
instructions, your readings won’t be accurate and
can’t be relied on.
If you buy a thermohygrograph, you will need to
buy a whirling hygrometer as well. If funds are
limited, the whirling hygrometer would be a wiser
investment.
Dehumidifiers
A dehumidifier is basically a cooling coil
airconditioner. Instead of conducting the
compressor heat out of the building, the heat is
retained inside the building—and so the
temperature does not change, except when the
dehumidifier is in a small room. In this case, the
temperature in the room can be raised by the
operation of the dehumidifier.
Moisture from the air, however, is still condensed
on the cooling coils, and taken away by a hose or
collected in a bucket. Dehumidifiers are a remedial
measure to adjust a dangerously wet environment.
If using a dehumidifier to dry an area of your
building, remember to empty the catchment
bucket—the buckets are not very big.
Humidifiers and
steam generators
Moisture can be introduced into the air by using
either a steam generator or an ultrasonic
humidifier.
A steam generator uses heat to create steam.
The steam is then cooled to form a water-vapour,
which can be introduced into the museum.
An ultrasonic humidifier uses a small crystal—
vibrating at very high frequency—to smash liquid-
water into tiny droplets. The droplets are small
enough to be suspended in air as a cold vapour.
Both devices are remedial measures to adjust a
dangerously dry environment.
NB. The water in humidifiers and steam generators
needs to be topped up regularly. If this is not
done, the steam generator or ultrasonic humidifier
could be severely damaged.
The use of silica gel
Individual display cases can act as buffer zones,
and maintain humidity at reasonably constant
levels—provided the temperature does not vary
greatly. However, fluctuations can occur and it is
sometimes necessary to use buffering materials:
silica gel, for example.
Silica gel is often seen as a simple solution to
environmental problems. In some museums and
galleries, small bags of silica gel are placed in
display cases and left there permanently.
Unfortunately, this has almost no effect.
Using silica gel is not simple. The calculation used
to determine the amount of silica gel required is
complex. It involves a knowledge of the daily rate
of air-changes in the case, the local humidity
conditions and the volume of the case.
The amount of silica gel required is far more than
most people imagine. The amount required can
range from approximately 7kg/m3 to about 20kg/m3,
depending on conditions. This is a lot of silica gel.
The dish of blue silica gel is ready for use. It will
absorb moisture and so remove water from the
atmosphere. When silica gel has absorbed all the water
it can, it turns pink. When the silica gel is pink, it
needs to be reconditioned.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Silica gel also needs to be reconditioned, because
it absorbs water and retains it. The silica gel has
to be removed from the case and reconditioned—
usually by heating in an oven—and then put back
in the case. You may need two batches of silica
gel, so that when you are reconditioning one, the
other is in the case.
Display cases that are to contain silica gel should
ideally have separate compartments: one for the
object and one for the silica gel; and there should
be air flow between these compartments.
CAUTION
If you use silica gel in its
granulated form, it is advisable to
wear a dust mask.
If you have a problem relating to temperature
and humidity and how to manage it correctly
for the preservation of your important objects,
contact a conservator. Conservators can offer
advice and practical solutions.
For further reading
Stolow, Nathan, 1987, Conservation and
Exhibitions: Packing, Transport, Storage and
Environmental Considerations, Butterworth and
Co., London.
Thomson, Garry, 1994, The Museum Environment,
3rd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Which of the following statements are false?
a) Extremes of temperature and relative humidity
can cause damage to objects in museums,
galleries and libraries.
b) Most insects and mould thrive in warmer
conditions.
c) Relative humidity and temperature are closely
related.
Humidity and Temperature 35
 d) Relative humidity can affect the comfort of c) the amount of water-vapour in the air and
people in museums, galleries and libraries, the total amount of water-vapour that the air
but won’t affect the collections. can hold at a particular temperature;

Question 2. d) the humidity inside relative to the humidity

outside.

In high relative humidity conditions: Question 6.

a) bark paintings dry out and crack;
Which of the following statements are true?
b) dyes and textiles fade and deteriorate quickly;
a) Changes in temperature can often lead to
c) moulds become too wet to grow; significant alterations in relative humidity.

d) mounted vellums become taut. b) People have no effect on relative humidity

and temperature levels in museums, galleries
Question 3. and libraries.

c) If the temperature inside a sealed box drops,

Rapid fluctuations of relative humidity: the relative humidity inside the box will be
raised.
a) subject materials to constant movement as
they absorb moisture and give it out again; d) Display cases have 0% relative humidity.

b) can cause extreme damage; Question 7.

c) can alter the chemical composition of some
minerals; The climates which are relevant to objects in
museums, galleries and libraries are:
d) should be avoided;
a) microclimates;
e) all of the above.
b) the climates within their storage and display
Question 4. areas;

c) the regional climate;

If a collection has become conditioned to an
extreme environment, you should: d) the climate in the building in which they are
stored;
a) alter the environment to meet the
recommended ideal conditions because this e) all of the above.
will be better for the collection;
Question 8.
b) concentrate your efforts on maintaining a
stable environment;
In warm, humid conditions:
c) send the collection to a more moderate climate;
a) good ventilation and air flow help to prevent
d) none of the above. mould outbreaks;

Question 5. b) you should shut all doors and windows to

prevent mould spores entering the building;

Relative humidity is a comparison between: c) dehumidifiers should be used to dry the air;

a) water in the air and temperature; d) seal your objects in plastic.

b) the amount of water-vapour in the air at

different temperatures;

36 Humidity and Temperature

 Question 9. Question 5.

To protect important objects from fluctuations in Answer: c).

relative humidity and temperature, you should:
Question 6.
a) provide them with layers of storage;

b) ensure the building is well maintained; Answer: a) and c) are true.

c) get air-conditioning installed; Question 7.

d) buy a steam generator.
Answer: e).
Question 10.
Question 8.
Layers of storage to protect against fluctuations and
extremes of relative humidity can be created by: Answer: a) is correct. b), c) and d) are not correct.
It is no use shutting doors and windows to keep
a) placing items in storage boxes; mould spores out because they are everywhere
anyway. Dehumidifiers should be used only as a
b) interleaving or wrapping objects; remedial measure to adjust a dangerously wet
c) placing items in display cases for exhibition; environment. In warm, humid conditions, you
should avoid sealing objects in plastic, because it
d) mounting and framing; will not allow them to breathe, creating a risk of
mould growth.
e) all of the above;
Question 9.
f) combinations of the above.

Answer: a) and b). You could install

airconditioning; but it’s not completely necessary
Answers to if you are able to create suitable microclimates.
self-evaluation quiz Steam generators should only ever be used to
adjust a dangerously dry environment.

Question 1. Question 10.

Answer: d) is false. Answer: e) and f). The methods used will depend
on the object type.
Question 2.

Answer: b) is correct. a), c) and d) are incorrect.

Bark paintings and vellums absorb moisture. This
can cause changes in shape and distortion.
Mounted vellums sag. Moulds thrive.

Question 3.

Answer: e).

Question 4.

Answer: b). The emphasis should be on stability.

Humidity and Temperature 37

Biological Pests

Objectives page 41
Introduction page 41
What damage do moulds cause? page 41
What can be done to control moulds? page 42
If a mould outbreak does occur? page 43
What damage do insects cause? page 43
Other pests page 45
Control of common insect pests page 45
Common insect pests: a guide to identification
and non-toxic control page 46
Tropical insects page 51
MORE ABOUT BIOLOGICAL PESTS
Moulds page 52
Insects page 53
Common pesticide application methods page 55
For further reading page 55
Self-evaluation quiz page 56
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 57
 Objectives What damage do
moulds cause?
At the end of this chapter you should:

• be aware of the types of damage that
biological pests can cause and have an
appreciation of the need to control them;
• be able to protect collections from mould
attack;
• know the main insect pests which pose a
threat to your collections; and
Damage caused by mould attack can be
devastating. Moulds digest and break down the
materials they feed on. In the process, paper,
textiles and wood become weak and eventually
crumble away, and pages of books become mashed
together as digestive enzymes attack many layers
of paper at once.

• know and understand how to set up an

integrated pest management system to
protect valuable items in your care.

Introduction
In nature, insects and moulds perform the vital
task of reducing animal and plant products to
reusable chemicals. This is an important part of
the cycle of life. There are numerous species of
insects and moulds, with an equally huge range of
habitats, food sources and behaviours. The lighter area in this photograph is an area of dry
rot in a canoe.
Collections in museums, galleries and libraries, as Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Art Gallery
well as possessions in our homes and workplaces of the Northern Territory
provide food and breeding places for insects and
moulds. We see them as simple organisms, but in
many ways they are more successful than we are in
finding food and adapting to the conditions we
impose on them.

If they are not controlled, insects and moulds can

severely damage many types of organic materials
in our collections. Controlling them can be much
more complicated than just buying a can of
insecticide or calling a pest control company.
Chemical warfare on insects and moulds can have
very serious effects on humans. Many of the
chemicals used are toxic—that’s why they kill
insects and moulds. These chemicals can also
damage objects in collections. This is from a book which suffered severe mould
attack. This page was completely stuck to the ones
It is important, therefore, to be able to recognise below it. The paper has no strength left at all, and
the signs of insect and moulds activity—and these suffered damage as the pages were separated.
can sometimes be very subtle. It is also important Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
to know which biological pests pose a threat,
so that you can take steps to control them, but These digestive enzymes produce acids that attack
without placing your collections or yourselves materials which are not normally susceptible to
at risk. mould growth, for example, stone and metals.

Biological Pests 41

Mould growth can produce bright stains.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
They also produce coloured materials which stain
wood, paper and textiles.
These stains can be extremely difficult to remove,
because they are often insoluble. Even when they
are soluble, the stained material is often too weak
to treat. If these enzymes attack photographic
gelatine, they destroy the photographs.
CAUTION
Don’t try cleaning mould off a photograph—you
may take the photograph with it.
This document suffered severe mould attack and the
paper became very weak and crumbly.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Structural elements attacked by mould crumble
away, leaving other parts of objects under
considerable physical stress.
Mould can produce toxic chemicals which can
cause allergies and illness.
42 Biological Pests
What can be done to
control moulds?
It is impossible to stop fungal spores falling on
objects. Because of this we must concentrate our
efforts on making the environment unfavourable for
their development into a mould colony. This can be
done by controlling the relative humidity—RH.
If the relative humidity is maintained at a low
enough level—that is, below 65%—spores cannot
germinate. It is safer to aim quite a bit lower than
65%, because if the relative humidity hovers
around this level, fluctuations in temperature could
cause the relative humidity to rise above 65%.
Certainly between 45% and 55% is considered safe.
If the relative humidity is too low—that is, below
45%—some materials can be damaged.
For more information
For information about practical steps you can
take to control relative humidity and temperature,
please see the chapter on Humidity and
Temperature in this volume.
In many situations—such as in buildings without
air-conditioning—it can be difficult to control
temperature and relative humidity. But there are
other steps which can be taken.
Consider the location of materials which are
susceptible to mould infestation. If they are
against damp walls or in contact with cold
surfaces, the local relative humidity may be high
enough to permit mould growth. Move any items
which are likely to be affected in this way, or wrap
them and box them to protect them.
Make sure there is adequate ventilation in storage
and display areas. Breezeways are vital in tropical
areas.
Try to make sure all materials which could support
mould growth are stored in acid-free wrappers or
boxes, or are at least covered with dust covers.
Keep objects which are on open display clean.
Make sure the microclimates in display cases are
suitable and will not create a favourable
environment for mould to grow.
Inspect collections regularly. Don’t let the mould
grow for months before you find it.
Make sure the building is well maintained. Check for
problems such as broken pipes, blocked gutters,
rising damp from damaged water mains, broken sewer
pipes, inadequate damp coursing and leaky roofs.
If a mould outbreak does occur?
Isolate the affected material immediately. If
possible, place it in a plastic bag and seal the bag.
Treat other items which have been in close contact
with the affected material in the same way.
Throw away acid-free tissue and other storage
materials which have been in contact with the
affected object.
Find out what caused the relative humidity to be
high enough to allow mould growth. If you are in
a tropical area, the climate is the obvious culprit.
But you should also check to make sure that there
is no other secondary cause, for example, a
blocked gutter overflowing.
Take steps to correct the problem. Clear the gutter,
buy or borrow a dehumidifier, and change your
storage system to allow more ventilation. It is
important that you deal with the problem, or it
will happen again.
If the outbreak is general and throughout a
storage area, you may need to remove all of the
items and thoroughly clean the whole area to stop
the mould growing again.
Fumigate affected items, if possible. Seek the
advice of a conservator before doing this, because
some fumigants can cause damage. Regulations
about the use of chemicals can vary from State to
State, so check the regulations on the use of
fumigants for mould, as well.
CAUTION
You should be aware that many chemicals which
were used for fumigation treatments in the past
are now banned because they are too toxic. If you
are following instructions from an old museum
manual, you may be breaking the law and putting
people, including yourself, at unnecessary risk.
Ideally mould should be killed before it is removed
from the object. However, while there is a danger
of spreading live spores to other objects, brushing
mould off an object is better than leaving it
there.
Clean objects using the brush vacuum method.
This combines gentle brushing with vacuuming. To
reduce the suction of the vacuum cleaner, cover
the end with one or more layers of a gauze-like
material. Then with a soft brush, push the mould
toward the suction pipe of the vacuum cleaner.
CAUTION
Do not attempt to clean mould from an object
which has a loose or fragile surface, for example,
a pastel or charcoal drawing, a natural history
specimen or an ochre painting, because the
surface will also be removed. Seek the advice of a
conservator before attempting these treatments.
Items may require conservation treatment after
mould attack—it is advisable to have them
assessed by a conservator.
Once the area and the objects affected have been
treated, put the objects back into storage in
suitable wrappers and boxes.
Continue to check all of your collection.
CAUTION
If you are going to clean mould from
objects, wear a mask so that you don’t
breathe in the spores. It is advisable to use
HEPA filter vacuum cleaners.
What damage do
insects cause?
Insects eat organic materials, leaving them
damaged and weak. In some cases, the damage is
obvious: holes in textiles, for example. In other
cases, you have to inspect things carefully to find
the damage, for example, some borers in woods.
The following table briefly outlines the insects
which are likely to be a problem in museums,
galleries and libraries, and the materials they are
likely to feed on.
Biological Pests 43
 Insect What they eat in museums, galleries & libraries

Cigarette beetles A wide variety of plant and animal-based materials.

Drugstore beetles A wide variety of plant and animal based materials.

Spider beetles A variety of plant and animal-based materials.

Carpet beetles Wool, fur, hair, feathers, silk, insect specimens, books and other
products of animal origin, for example, horn.

Green timber borers Freshly-felled trees.

Green to dry timber borers Live and freshly-felled trees. They will complete their life-cycle
in, and continue to feed on, dry or drying timber.

Dry timber borers Dried wood.

Powderpost beetle The sapwood of hardwoods.

Furniture beetle The sapwood of softwoods; will infest some hardwoods.

Common clothes moths Wool, fur, hair, silk, dead insects, horn and feathers.

Casemaking clothes moths Wool, fur, hair, silk, dead insects, horn and feathers.

Cockroaches Cockroaches will eat just about anything, including leather, hair,
skins, paper and books. They also cause damage through
regurgitation or by gluing their egg-cases onto objects.

Termites Timber. Termite damage can be extensive if left undisturbed or if

not discovered. Dry wood termites will infest small pieces of
timber, and are easily transported in artefacts such as wooden
carvings.

Psocids—booklice Booklice feed mostly on mould growing on old books or dead

insects, but they can also damage the surface of materials.

Silverfish Paper, fabrics—starched or stained material especially—cotton,

linen, photographs, book bindings and paste or sizes.

44 Biological Pests
 Other pests
Mice, rats and birds can also damage collections. The
following table outlines the damage they can cause.
Pest Damage they can cause
Rodents Rats and mice can cause
extensive damage to collections,
through feeding—gnawing on
materials—and through stains from
their droppings. Their nests can also
become infested with insects.
Birds Bird droppings can damage
collections; their nests can also lead
to insect problems.
Control of common
insect pests
The damage caused by insects can range from
feeding and regurgitation marks to the total
destruction of cultural property. Unfortunately, many
of the chemicals used to fumigate or protect this
material have the potential to damage the things
we are trying to protect, as well as posing
significant health hazards to the people using them.
In recent years, many new, low-toxic and non-toxic
methods of insect control, which are suitable for
use with heritage collections, have been
developed. Some of these methods are:
• use of low temperatures;
• fumigation using controlled atmospheres;
• use of sticky traps;
• biological control—the use of parasites and
predators; and
• use of some of the new-age pesticides, for
example, insect-growth regulators and
pheromones, to control insect pests.
Integrated pest management
Although the methods mentioned above will help
to overcome an existing pest problem, it is
preferable to avoid problems. Because of this,
there is greater reliance on Integrated Pest
Management—IPM—within cultural institutions.
An IPM program aims to reduce the occurrence of
pests and the damage they cause within collections.
An IPM program relies on a knowledge of pests and
their habits, to make the environment undesirable
or hostile for them. The success of an IPM program
comes from a thorough understanding of pests’
ecologies, and the ability to modify the conditions
which will enhance pest numbers. That is, the
ability to control temperature, food and shelter.
Probably the most important first step in an IPM
program is to find and identify any insects
infesting the collection. By correctly identifying
the insect, you can find out:
• whether or not the insect is a pest normally
found in museums, galleries and libraries;
• what types of material are likely to be
infested; and
• where to look and what to look for, for
example, frass from borers.
If you have no success identifying the insects from
the notes in this section, try insect identification
books or the entomology department of a museum.
You can also contact your local pest control
operator for assistance.
One of the major benefits of IPM is that pest
problems are controlled without relying solely on
the use of chemicals. It involves the
implementation of a number of measures. These
include physical, cultural and chemical control.
Physical control alters the environment by making
it hostile or inaccessible to pests. Some examples
of physical control are:
• physical exclusion, that is, packaging to
exclude insects, seals around doors and insect
screens;
• sealing cracks and other crevices in which
insects can hide, using a caulking gun or
sealer; and
• draught strips and seals around and under
doors, and screens for windows and vents.
Cultural control manipulates the pest’s environment
to make it less favourable. Some examples of
cultural control are:
Biological Pests 45
 • controlling relative humidity and temperature;
• good housekeeping. A clean environment
helps to deter or reduce most pest problems
because there will be no food for them. A
vacuum cleaner is useful for several reasons:
it instantly reduces insect numbers by
removing them, their eggs, and any materials
they have left behind. It removes a variety of
insects in one hit; and
• improving ventilation and air movement.
For more information
For more information about the control of relative
humidity, please see the chapter on Humidity and
Temperature in this volume.
Chemical control means carefully selecting and
applying pesticides on the advice of your local
pest control operator or museum conservation
officer. There are two main categories of
pesticides:
• biological: insect growth regulators and
pheromone attractants; and
• general pesticides: insecticides, rodenticides
and herbicides.
Summary of integrated pest management
Make the environment undesirable to pests by:
• physical exclusion;
• physical removal—vacuuming;
• good housekeeping;
• maintaining good environmental conditions;
and
• applying chemicals as required.
Monitor the area by:
• inspecting the area regularly; and
• placing and inspecting insect traps.
If a pest infestation is found, implement non-
chemical eradication methods first:
• inspect and remove all infested or suspect
material;
46 Biological Pests
• thoroughly inspect neighbouring material;
• thoroughly clean the area by vacuum
cleaning;
• apply pesticides, if and where necessary;
• use blunder or pheremone traps; and
• carry out subsequent inspections.
To treat infested material:
• Bag and seal material to contain infestations
until the situation is controlled; and
• Freeze infested material, or treat it using one
of the alternative methods, such as low-
oxygen fumigation.
Check the IPM program you have developed with a
conservator.
Common insect pests:
a guide to identification
and non-toxic control
Beetles
Beetles make up the largest insect order. All have
a complete life cycle. That is, they develop right
through from larval stage to adults. They can be
distinguished from other insects by their hardened
wing-covers, which are called elytra.
Cigarette beetles
Description: Adults are 2–3mm in length, oval-
shaped and brown to red in colour. Their hardened
wing-covers are covered in fine hairs and their
antennae are serrated. Larvae are cream to white-
coloured and hairy.
Attack: They attack a wide variety of plant and
animal-based materials. The destructive stage is
the larval stage. But the adults often cause
damage when they eat their way out of a food
source: chewing their way out of a cereal box, for
example. Affected materials will have a shot-hole
appearance.
 Attack: Spider beetles attack a variety of plant and
animal-based materials.

Control: Thoroughly inspect and treat new

acquisitions as necessary to prevent their
introduction. Locate the source of the infestation.
Arrange for the treatment of any infested artefacts
by one of the low-toxic methods available:
freezing, low oxygen and controlled atmospheres.

Carpet beetles

Description: There are several species which will

Cigarette beetle—Lasioderma Serricorne.
Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Art Gallery of
the Northern Territory
Control: Thoroughly inspect and treat new
acquisitions as necessary to prevent their
introduction. Locate, then have treated, the source
of the infestation. Arrange for the treatment of
any infested artefacts using one of the low-toxic
methods available: freezing, low-oxygen and
controlled atmospheres. Pheromone traps are
available for cigarette beetles, and are useful in
locating infested material.
attack museum and library collections. The adults are
up to 5mm in length and are oval or elongated oval
in shape. They vary in colour, depending upon the
species, and can be black, white, brown, mottled or
variable. The larvae vary in size, depending on the
species; they are very active, and usually brown in
colour. All are covered with bristles. The only
evidence usually found of this beetle’s presence is
cast-off skins of the larvae and pupae.

Drugstore beetles

Description: Drugstore beetles are almost identical

to Cigarette beetles in their size and feeding
habits. The main difference is that Drugstore
beetles have lines of pits on their hardened wing
covers and their antennae end in a three- Carpet beetle - Attagenus Fascisculatus.
segmented club. Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Art Gallery of
the Northern Territory
Attack: They attack a wide variety of plant and
animal-based materials.

Control: Thoroughly inspect and treat new

acquisitions as necessary to prevent their
introduction. Locate the source of the
infestation. Arrange for the treatment of any
infested artefacts with one of the low-toxic
methods available: freezing, low oxygen and
controlled atmospheres.

Spider beetles

Description: Adults are 1.5–4.5mm in length, are

red or brown-black in colour, with a bulbous body
and long legs, and resemble small spiders. Their Carpet beetle larvae.
larvae are white and up to 4mm long, and often Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
spin a silken case in which to feed.

Biological Pests 47
 Attack: All damage is caused at the larval stage. The
adults are mostly pollen or nectar feeders, which
means that this pest could come in on cut flowers.

The materials likely to be attacked include wool,

fur, hair, feathers, silk, insect specimens and other
products of animal origin, for example, horn. They
will also attack books, making irregular holes and
cavities for pupation.

Control: Thorough vacuuming, with particular

attention to areas which are rarely disturbed as
these are often used for pupation. Avoid bringing
cut flowers into storage areas. Thoroughly inspect
and treat new acquisitions, to prevent their Large Auger beetle—Bostrychopis Jusuita.
introduction. Locate the source of infestation.
Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Art Gallery of
Arrange for the treatment of any infested artefacts the Northern Territory
by one of the low-toxic methods available:
freezing, low-oxygen and controlled atmospheres.
Attack: These attack live and freshly-felled trees,
Borers but complete their life cycle in dry, or drying
timber. For example, if a piece of untreated green
timber is used for a carved wooden figure, any
Borers are insects which as larvae bore their way
larvae present continue to feed and complete their
through timber. Most borer larvae feed on the
life cycle in the carving, although the time taken
sugars and starch found in the sapwood of trees.
to complete the life cycle may be extended.
When the larval stage of their life cycle is
complete, the adults emerge through holes which
Dry timber borers
they make in the surface of the wood. The length
of time taken for the life cycle depends on many
The two most common borers found damaging
things, including the temperature and moisture
artefacts are the Powderpost and Furniture beetles.
content of the wood. There are many different
These borers attack dried wood. They continue to
types of borers, but they can be broken down into
re-infest the timber until there is no sapwood left.
three main groups.
Most attack only the sapwood because of its high
starch and sugar content; but some also attack the
Green timber borers
heartwood.
Description: These borers need a moist
Powderpost beetle. Description: Adults are 4–5mm
environment to survive, and will not re-infest dry
long, cylinder-shaped and red to brown in colour.
timber. They include Pin-hole borers and the
Their larval stages are not usually encountered
Cypress Bark weevil.
because these remain inside the wood. After
feeding, the larvae tunnel close to the surface of
Attack: They attack live and freshly-felled trees.
the wood and pupate. The adults emerge two to
four weeks later through round holes which are
Green to dry timber borers
1–1.5mm in diameter. The dust or frass produced is
like fine talcum powder when rubbed between
Description: Most of the borers in this group will
fingers.
not re-infest the wood once it has dried out. One
exception is the Auger beetle, which can continue
Attack: Powderpost beetles eat the sapwood of
to re-infest the wood as long as the moisture
hardwoods.
content is above 20 per cent. This group also
includes such borers as the wood wasps, Longicorn
Control: Thoroughly inspect and treat new
and Jewel beetles.
acquisitions as necessary to prevent their
introduction. Locate the source of the infestation.

48 Biological Pests
Arrange for the treatment of any infested artefacts
by one of the low-toxic methods available:
freezing, low-oxygen, controlled atmospheres.
Record any damage; for example, put chalk marks
on existing holes. Try to use borer-resistant timber
when building.

Furniture beetle. Description: Furniture beetles Common Clothes moth—Tineola Bisselliella—lavae

are 4–6mm in length, cylinder-shaped and
red/brown in colour.
Attack: Unlike the Powderpost beetle, the Furniture
beetle attacks aged wood. The adults emerge
through round holes about 1.5–2mm in diameter,
leaving frass—like fine sand. Furniture beetles
attack the sapwood of softwoods, but will infest
some hardwoods.
From Northern NSW to Queensland, the Queensland
Pine beetle does the same damage as the Furniture
beetle.
Control: Thoroughly inspect and treat new
acquisitions as necessary to prevent their
introduction. Locate the source of the infestation.
Arrange for the treatment of any infested artefacts
using one of the low-toxic methods available:
freezing, low-oxygen, controlled atmospheres.
Record any existing damage: make chalk marks on
existing holes; take photos. Try to use borer-
resistant timber when building.
For more information
For more information on sapwood, softwoods
and hardwoods, please see the chapter on Wood
in Caring for Cultural Material 2.
Moths
Most moths will not attack artefacts, so it is
important to identify them correctly. The two most
damaging moths encountered in collections are the
Common clothes moth and the Casemaking clothes
moth. Neither of these moths are attracted to light.
Common clothes moths
Description: Common clothes moths are 8–10mm
long and are white to silver-buff in colour. The
larvae are up to 12mm long and can be found
amongst a network of silken tubing.
(left) and adults with laval case (right).
Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Art Gallery of
the Northern Territory
Attack: They feed on wool, fur, hair, silk, dead
insects, horn and feathers.
Control: Keep rooms light and airy. Dry-clean
material where necessary before storing it in
sealed plastic bags. Thorough, regular vacuuming
helps to reduce the moth’s food sources.
Thoroughly inspect and treat new acquisitions as
necessary to prevent their introduction. Locate the
source of the infestation. Arrange for the
treatment of any infested artefacts by one of the
low-toxic methods available: freezing, low-oxygen
and controlled atmospheres.
Casemaking clothes moths
Description: Casemaking clothes moths are
7–10mm long, are darker than Common clothes
moths and have three dark spots on their wings.
The larvae are up to 10mm long and are usually
found in a case made from the material that they
are feeding on. The colour of this case usually
indicates what is being attacked.
Attack: They feed on wool, fur, hair, silk, dead
insects, horn and feathers.
Control: Keep rooms light and airy. Dry-clean
material where necessary before storing in sealed
plastic bags. Thorough, regular vacuuming helps to
reduce its food sources. Thoroughly inspect and
treat new acquisitions as necessary to prevent
their introduction. Locate the source of the
infestation. Arrange for the treatment of any
infested artefacts by one of the low-toxic methods
available: freezing, low oxygen and controlled
atmospheres.
See image overleaf.

Biological Pests 49

Cases of a Casemaking clothes moth—Tinea
Pellionella—found in an Aboriginal feathered bag.
Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Art Gallery of
the Northern Territory
Cockroaches
There are several species of cockroaches which can
damage collections. Most of the damage is caused
while feeding, which makes irregular surface
erosion on the object. But cockroaches can also
cause damage through regurgitation, leaving marks
on the object they have been feeding on, or by
gluing their egg cases onto objects. Cockroaches
are social insects, living in groups or colonies, so
it is not unusual to find hundreds in the same
location.
Attack: Cockroaches eat just about anything,
including leather, hair, skins, paper and books.
German cockroach (left) and Brown Banded cockroach
(right).
Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Art Gallery of
the Northern Territory
Control: Clean regularly and thoroughly. Fill all
cracks and crevices with a suitable sealant.
Thorough, regular vacuuming helps to reduce its
food sources. Lay cockroach baits and sticky traps
where necessary. Thoroughly inspect and treat new
acquisitions to prevent their introduction. Locate
the source of the infestation. Arrange for the
50 Biological Pests
treatment of any infested artefacts by one of the
low-toxic methods available: freezing, low oxygen
and controlled atmospheres.
Termites
Termite damage can be extensive if left undisturbed
or if not discovered. Termites are social insects,
living in groups or colonies. There are many
different species; the three main varieties are:
• subterranean termites. These termites travel
underground from the nest to a food source.
They form mud tunnels across surfaces which
are exposed to air;
• dampwood termites. These are found in dead
and dying trees, or wood which is in contact
with damp soil. They can also be found
infesting wood in poorly ventilated sub-floors.
Dampwood termites rarely infest timber in
well-ventilated areas; and
• drywood termites. These termites do not need
ground contact because they obtain their
moisture from the atmosphere or the wood
that they infest. They are common in tropical
and sub-tropical areas where the high
humidity increases the moisture content of
wood. They infest small pieces of timber, and
are easily transported in artefacts such as
wooden carvings.
It is recommended that you obtain information
through the Forestry Commission, or from one of
the many books available, about the different
types of termites and how to control them.
Prevention: Many buildings are given a preventive
termite treatment during construction or in
subsequent years. As the pesticides used in these
treatments are extremely stable, it is unlikely that
further treatment will be necessary for some years
after the initial treatment. This is assuming that
the initial treatment was effective, and that the
chemical barrier around the building has not been
breached. Gardens planted near a building
sometimes break the barrier, as do excavations for
plumbing and extensions. Measures which reduce
the risk of attack from termites include:
• not storing anything, especially wood, under
buildings;
• maintaining good ventilation in sub-floor
areas. This helps to prevent mould, which in
turn can lead to termite attack;
• repairing any leaks; and
• using resistant and treated timbers for any
structural work.
Control: Only a qualified pest controller should
treat termite infestation. If the area is high-risk, a
qualified person should do a regular inspection. As
most termites require ground contact, removing
affected material from an infested area should be
sufficient to control an infestation of individual
pieces. Artefacts infested with Drywood termites
can be treated by one of the low-toxic methods
available: freezing, low-oxygen, controlled
atmospheres.
Psocids—booklice
Booklice are 1–2mm long and greyish-white in colour.
Attack: They feed mostly on mould growing on old
books, or dead insects; but they can also damage
the surface of materials.
Control: As booklice feed on mould, their presence
usually indicates other problems: poor ventilation,
for example. Look at the environment in which the
material is stored and improve ventilation if
necessary. Thoroughly inspect and treat new
acquisitions to prevent their introduction. Locate
the source of the infestation. Arrange for the
treatment of any infested artefacts by one of the
low-toxic methods available: freezing, low oxygen
and controlled atmospheres.
Silverfish
Silverfish are 5–15mm long and silver-grey in
colour. They have three distinct tails. Young
silverfish resemble adults.
Attack: Silverfish feed on paper, fabrics, especially
starched or stained material, cotton, linen, photos,
book bindings and paste or sizing. Their damage
includes holes and surface erosion.
Control: Increased ventilation and regular
vacuuming will help to make the environment less
desirable to this pest. Wrap material in acid-free
tissue and seal in plastic bags. Thoroughly inspect
and treat new acquisitions to prevent their
introduction. Locate and treat the source or
sources of infestation. Treat any infested artefacts
by one of the low-toxic methods available:
freezing, low-oxygen, controlled atmospheres.
Rodents
Rats and mice can cause extensive damage to
collections through feeding—gnawing on
materials—and through staining from their
droppings. Their nests can also be a source for
insect infestations.
Control: Seal possible entry points. Removing food
sources and repairing any leaking pipes helps to
deter rodents. Avoid baiting because the rodent
may die somewhere where you are unable to find
the body, causing unpleasant odours as well as
insect problems. Use traps if necessary.
Birds
Bird droppings can damage collections; their nests
can also cause insect problems.
Control: Many different methods of deterring birds
are available. These methods include:
• using chicken wire to keep them out of roof
and wall cavities;
• placing deterrents such as plastic or wire
strips on landing surfaces; and
• increasing the angle of the ledge to remove
roosting sites.
Tropical insects
Most of the pests found in museums, libraries and
art galleries are cosmopolitan in nature, that is,
they can be found infesting artefacts throughout
the world, irrespective of the climatic zones in
which they are located. These pests vary in
species, but by and large the pest and its damage
will remain the same.
The most common insect pests of museums in the
tropics are borers, termites, clothes moths, carpet
beetles, silverfish and, to a lesser extent,
cockroaches.
The high temperatures and humidity found in the
tropics are conducive to a higher incidence of
insect attack. Some pests, notably the termite
Mastotermes Darwiniensis, are found exclusively in
the tropical north of Australia.
Biological Pests 51
 MORE ABOUT BIOLOGICAL PESTS
Moulds
What are they and what do
they need to live?
Moulds are simple plants which do not require
sunlight for their existence. But they require
organic material as a food source, and water if
they are to grow and reproduce.
We are familiar with fungi as harmful organisms: in
the form of moulds, diseases of crops and fungal
infections. But humans have also used mould very
productively in the fermentation of beer,
production of cheeses and antibiotics, and as a
food source—mushrooms.
drops below 60%, the fungal body normally dies;
but the spores usually released at the time of such
adversity lie dormant until the conditions are
suitable for growth again.
Fungi and moulds survive best in environments
where there is little disturbance and where air-flow
is low. Such environments are found underneath
suspended floors and in cellars, and can be present
in store rooms and cupboards, or where objects are
stacked very closely together.
Where do they come from?
Most people at one time or another have seen
mould growing on old bread, cheese, jam, damp
wood or leather. This growth, usually appearing as
a fine, fluffy mass on the surface of such
materials, is called the mould colony.

Fungi feed on organic material; and museums,

galleries and libraries are full of organic materials.
Provided there is sufficient moisture available in the
material or in the atmosphere, they will feed on:

• leather • cotton

• wool • paper

• wood • bark

• fur • rawhide

• photographic emulsions • some varnishes

and glazes This mould colony appeared as thick multicoloured
lumps.
• adhesives • some pigments Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

Under suitable conditions they will also grow on

If you look at a thriving colony under a microscope
metal and stone surfaces, particularly those with a
it is possible to see fruiting bodies. These
coating of dust or organic debris. Some species
structures contain the individual reproductive
will grow on creosote-treated wood, or will even
bodies called spores. The fruiting bodies stand up
incorporate poisonous, chlorine-containing
above the mass of the colony—so that the spores
compounds into their diets.
can be discharged unhindered into the atmosphere
and be carried away by air currents.
Fungi can tolerate extreme temperatures—some
species are known to survive in temperatures as
Mould spores are microscopic in size, but are
low as -10ºC and as high as 110ºC.
produced in very large numbers. They are
everywhere—in the air we breath, on every surface
Fungi and moulds are more affected by relative
around us, on our skin and on every object we value.
humidity than by temperature. A few species
survive at relative humidities below 60%, but the
Under favourable environmental conditions the
majority require a relative humidity of at least
spores absorb water and grow. They grow rapidly
65% to survive and reproduce. If relative humidity
and branch repeatedly—forming a new mould

52 Biological Pests
colony. When the colony is established and large
enough, the fruiting structures appear, spores are
produced and the cycle is repeated.
Insects
Insect life cycles
Most insect pests have similar life cycles: going
from egg, to larval and adult stages. In all pests
except silverfish, larvae do most of the damage to
artefacts. The adults are generally most active in
selecting the site for egg-laying.
The silverfish has no larval stage and develops
straight from the egg to a miniature adult form,
termed the nymph stage. The insect develops to
the adult stage by a series of intermediate nymph
stages. At the end of each of these stages, it
sheds its skin—moults—and continues, slightly
bigger, towards its next skin-shedding.
The other museum pests go through the usual egg-
larval-adult process of most common insects. This
process occurs generally as follows. The adult lays
an egg or batch of eggs on a suitable material in a
suitable site. Miniature larvae hatch from the eggs,
which then either burrow into—or browse across—
the material on which they have been laid. As the
larvae feed they grow, usually to several times the
size of the adults before pupating, during which
time the larvae change to the adult form. When
they are fully developed, they fly off to mate.
Insect control without
damage to collections
In recent years, many new, low and non-toxic
methods suitable for use on heritage collections
have been developed. These methods are described
below.
Use of low temperatures: fumigation by freezing
Exposure to low temperatures is lethal to insects.
The technique has been used at the Australian
Museum and other institutions for many years. It
provides an efficient and inexpensive alternative to
other fumigation methods.
A large variety of materials can be disinfested by
exposure to low temperatures for varying periods
of time. The mortality rate depends upon the
temperature used, the type of insect and the
thermal conductivity of the material being treated.
The possibility of damage to some artefacts caused
by exposure to sub-zero temperatures is a common
concern. Any material which may become brittle
and crack when frozen should be treated by one of
the many alternative methods now available. Seek
advice from a conservator to be sure freezing is
appropriate.
The object to be treated is placed inside a plastic
bag. The bag is necessary to prevent condensation
forming on the object after freezing.
As much air as possible is evacuated. This reduces
the amount of moisture which would otherwise be
absorbed by, or condense on, the artefact. A buffer,
such as silica gel or cotton wool, can be added to
absorb excess moisture. This should not be
necessary with organic materials which do not
contain excessive amounts of moisture.
The bag is sealed using a heat-sealer or waterproof
tape.
The bagged and sealed object is then placed in the
freezer for 48 hours at -20°C. Times can vary, so
please refer to the notes below for further
information.
After the appropriate length of time, the object is
removed from the freezer. Allow it to thaw before
taking it out of the bag.
Freezing times will need to be extended if:
• the freezer being used cannot hold
temperatures of -20°C or lower. If the
temperature of the freezer is around -15°C,
the time required for 100 per cent mortality
may be up to 14 days. The time needed varies
according to the material and insect being
treated; and
• fumigating large artefacts, for example,
carved trees, or objects where the diameter
exceeds 35 centimetres.
Wood, leather, feathers, fibre, books and textiles
can all be treated this way. Freezing kills insects
at all stages of their life cycles.
Biological Pests 53
 Low-oxygen atmospheres
Another method of disinfesting material is by
exposing it for varying lengths of time to an
atmosphere which lacks oxygen. Low-oxygen
atmospheres can be achieved using an oxygen
scavenger.
AGELESSTM is a scavenger which is used extensively
in the food industry to remove any oxygen present
within a sealed bag or container, thus preserving
the product and preventing deterioration from
mould and insect attack. The chemical oxygen
absorber present in AGELESSTM is prepared from
powdered iron oxide, which rapidly absorbs
atmospheric oxygen.
At some major museums, AGELESSTM is used routinely
as part of the fumigation program. Artefacts requiring
treatment are placed in a bag manufactured from a
material which has a low-oxygen permeability. The
amount of AGELESSTM needed to absorb the oxygen
present is calculated and then added, along with the
indicator tablet AGELESS Eye.
another, cause a certain response, either behavioural
or physiological. Some examples of these are:
• aggregation pheromones, which may attract
both males and females, for example, to a
food source;
• trail-marking pheromones, such as those used
by termites and ants; and
• sex pheromones, which cue for mating.
Many traps use pheromones as an attractant to lure
insects. Any insects within a certain distance of the
trap, home in on the odour and become trapped.
By checking these traps on a regular basis, it is
possible to get an indication of the presence of a
specific insect within the monitored area.
Pheromone traps are insect-specific, that is, a
clothes moth trap will attract only clothes moths.

The time needed for disinfestation depends on the

temperature at which the bag is then stored. For
example, at a constant temperature of 30°C it
takes, three weeks to achieve 100 per cent
mortality—based on the more tolerant insects
tested. But if the bag is stored at 15°C the time
taken to achieve 100 per cent mortality could be
as high as 24 weeks.

Fragile artefacts or those which are of an odd shape

or size may require large amounts of AGELESSTM.

Insect traps An example of a commercially available insect trap.

Blunder traps are non-specific traps which assist
in identifying any insects present within the
collection.
Although food is the attractant in most traps, the
insect’s capture is due largely to the location and
placement of traps where insects are common.
Most traps incorporate a piece of cardboard, one or
both sides of which are sticky; but many other
types are available.
Many traps now incorporate a pheromone.
Pheromones are chemical messengers similar to the
hormones within our bodies. Insects produce them
to communicate messages. These chemicals, when
passed from one insect of the same species to
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Making blunder traps
You will need corrugated cardboard, another non-
corrugated piece for use as a backing board, and a roll
of double-sided sticky tape, the stickier the better.
Cut the backing board and the corrugated cardboard
pieces into rectangles about 15cm x 7cm.
Cut the corrugated board so that the holes formed
by the corrugations are along the edge.
Cut a second, smaller rectangle out of the centre
of the corrugated cardboard.

54 Biological Pests
Cover one side of the backing board with the
sticky tape, and then stick the corrugated
cardboard to the backing board.
Another piece of backing board can be placed on
top to prevent dust entering if required.
Traps can be baited with wheatgerm oil, or
something else which will attract insects.
Check the traps regularly and identify any insects
found in the traps. Change traps when they are no
longer sticky or when they are full.
Common pesticide
application methods
The methods chosen to control pests will depend
largely on the area being protected and the type
of pests present. Infested material should be
treated before being introduced to a clean
collection. As long as storage conditions are good,
this greatly reduces the risk of infestation.
Misting, or gassing, using pesticides
An insecticide, for example, Pestigas or pyrethrum,
is applied to an area as a mist or aerosol.
Residual sprays
A residual spray is one which is applied and
remains active for a long period of time. Most
household pesticides are not residual sprays: they
usually become inactive and lose their toxicity
within a matter of hours. Other pesticides,
organochlorides and organophosphates can remain
active for many years.
Residual sprays are applied to skirting boards,
cracks and crevices within the area being treated.
When the water dries away, the pesticide remains
on the surface, where it is picked up by insects or
ingested by insects during grooming.
Baiting
Cockroach, ants or rodent baits.
Fumigation using toxic chemicals
Fumigation is one of the oldest methods of pest
control. It allows the pesticide to penetrate areas
which would not be affected by other applications.
The fumigant, one of many toxic chemicals, is
released inside a specially-built chamber, or under
a gas-tight tarpaulin. Fumigants are generally
broad spectrum pesticides, that is, they kill a wide
variety of insects and animals.
Non-toxic fumigation
There are now many methods of disinfesting
material without the use of toxic chemicals. Some
of these methods are freezing, controlled
atmospheres, and oxygen deprivation using a
scavenger.
If you have a problem related to attack or damage
caused by insects, contact a conservator.
Conservators can offer advice and practical
solutions.
For further reading
Australian War Memorial, n.d., Pesticides for
Museum Use. Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
Banks, H.J., 1976, ‘Physical control of insects—
recent developments’, Journal of the Australian
Entomological Society, Australian Entomological
Society, Canberra, pp 89–100.
Banks, H.J., & Annis, P.C. 1990, ‘Comparative
advantages of high CO2 and low O2 types of
controlled atmospheres for grain storage’,
Food Preservation by Modified Atmospheres,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA.
Fellenberg, S.J., 1994, The introduction to
collecting and preservation of insects. This is
one of the best insect identification keys to
date. For availability, call the author on (02)
4628 5450, or write to: Stephen Fellenberg, 11
Appaloosa Circuit, Blairmount NSW 2559.
Florian, M. L. & E., 1986, ‘The freezing process—
effects on insects and artefact materials,’
Leather Conservation News 3(1), Materials
Conservation Laboratory of Texas Memorial
Museum, Austin, Texas, pp 1–17.
Biological Pests 55
 Gilberg, M. & Roach, A., 1991, ‘The use of a Suppliers of pheromone and blunder traps
commercial pheromone trap for monitoring
Lasioderma Serricorne (F.) infestations in museum
collections’, Studies in Conservation 36 (4), Globe Australia
International Institute for Conservation of 163 Port Hacking Road
Historic and Artistic Works, London, pp 243–47. Miranda NSW 2228
Phone: (02) 9522 0000
Gilberg, M. & Roach, A., 1992, ‘Inert atmosphere
disinfestation of museum objects using AGELESS
oxygen absorber’, 2nd International Conference Self-evaluation quiz
on Biodeterioration of Cultural Property, Japan,
1992, International Communications Specialists,
Tokyo, pp 397–406. Question 1.
Hadlington, P.W. & Gerozisis, J., 1985, Urban Pest
Control in Australia, NSW University Press, Sydney. Which of the following statements are true?

Hadlington, P., 1992, Termites and other common a) Mould can digest paper, textiles and wood.
timber pests, New South Wales University Press, b) Mould never grows on metal.
Sydney.
c) All fungi are safe—after all we eat
Hanlon, G., Daniel, V., Ravenel, N. & Maekawa, S., mushrooms.
1992, ‘Dynamic system for nitrogen anoxia of
large museum objects: a pest eradication case d) Mould can stain objects.
study’, 2nd International Conference on
Biodeterioration of Cultural Property, Japan, 1992, e) Fungal spores are everywhere.
International Communications Specialists,
Tokyo,. Question 2.
Horwood, M. 1992, ‘Insect growth regulators
(IGRs)’, Pest Talk 12 (6), pp 2–4. To control moulds, you can

a) control the environment—keeping relative

Paton, R. & Creffield, J. W., 1987, ‘The tolerance of humidity between 45%–55%;
some timber insect pests to atmospheres of
carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide in air’, b) make sure storage spaces are clear and well
International Pest Control, Jan; 1(29), Rhodes ventilated;
Industrial Magazines, London, pp 10–12.
c) separate infected items from non-infected items;
RentokilTM Bubble information booklet, RentokilTM.
d) set up a program of building maintenance
Strang, Thomas J.K., 1992, ‘A review of the published and housekeeping;
temperatures for the control of pest insects in
museums’, Collection Forum 8 (2), Society for e) All of the above contribute to the
the Preservation of Natural History Collections, controlling moulds.
Pittsburgh, Philidelphia, pp 41–67.
Question 3.
Valentin, N., Alguerò, M. & de Hijas, M., 1992,
‘Evaluation of disinfection techniques for the Which of the following are low or non-toxic
conservation of polychrome sculpture in Iberian methods of controlling insects?
museums’, Conservation of Iberian and Latin
American Cultural Heritage, IIC, London, a) Fumigation with ethylene oxide.
pp 165–67.
b) Freezing.
Verkerk, R., 1990, Building out termites, Pluto
Press Australia Limited, NSW. c) Sticky traps.

d) Controlled atmospheres.

56 Biological Pests
 Question 4. Question 3.

What are the main elements of Integrated Pest Answer: b), c) and d) are true. a) is untrue—
Management? ethylene oxide is toxic.

a) Find the insects and fumigate the area. Question 4.

b) Prevent insects entering the building and
fumigate on a regular basis in case some
get through.
c) Make the environment undesirable to pests,
monitor the area and fumigate regularly.
d) Make the environment undesirable to pests,
monitor the area and if pests are found
implement non-chemical methods of
prevention and treat infested material.
Question 5.
Answer: d).
Question 5.
Answer: a) and c) are false. Not all moths attack
artefacts—the most damaging to objects in
collections are the Common clothes moth and the
Casemaking moth. Rats and mice can damage
collections by eating objects, by staining them
with their droppings and by encouraging insect
infestation.

Which of the following statements are false?

a) All moths attack artefacts.

b) Carpet beetles attack wool, fur, hair,

feathers, silk, insect specimens and other
animal products.

c) Rats and mice should be kept in museums to

control insects.

d) Silverfish prefer dark, unventilated areas.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: a), d) and e). b) and c) are not true.

Mould can grow on layers of dust on metal objects.
Many moulds are toxic and you should take
precautions when handling mouldy objects.

Question 2.

Answer: e).

Biological Pests 57
 Dust and
Pollutants
Objectives page 61
Introduction page 61
Particulate matter page 61
Protection from dust page 62
Pollutant gases page 63
Display and packing materials page 64
Nitrate film page 66
Methods for detecting pollutant gases page 66
Outdoor objects page 67
Protecting from atmospheric pollution page 67
MORE ABOUT DUST AND POLLUTANTS
Particulate matter page 68
Developing a strategic plan for examing
the problems in your building page 69
For further reading page 69
Self-evaluation quiz page 70
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 71
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• be familiar with the types of dust and
pollutants which can affect cultural
heritage material;
• be familiar with the sources of these
pollutants;
• have a basic understanding of how to
minimise pollution in your collection’s
environment;
• have a basic understanding of how to deal
with the problems caused by dust and
pollution; and
• be familiar with the types of materials which
are safe to use with cultural material.
Introduction
There are three main sources of damaging
pollutants that can affect cultural material:
• the external environment, that can produce
dust and atmospheric pollutants;
• the environment inside the museum or
storage space that can produce dust and
pollution through workshop, tearoom or
conservation activities; and
• materials that are used to store or display
objects which can contain harmful chemicals.
Sulphur dioxide, salt-laden winds, and
carbonaceous material are good examples of
pollutants produced in the external environment.
Acetic acid or formaldehyde offgassing from display
cases, cement dust from a new building, and dust
generated from workshops are all good examples of
pollutant material that may be produced in close
proximity to the collections area.
Damaging pollutants are usually referred to as
being either particulate or gaseous.
Particulate matter
Solid particles that are suspended in air are usually
referred to as particulate matter or aerosols.
Materials that settle on surfaces in still air are
usually referred to as dust or grit.
The size of the particles is measured in microns—
µm. One micron is one-thousandth of a millimetre.
Smaller particles remain suspended in the air until
they are trapped on a surface. Materials which are
porous or have heavily textured or sticky surfaces
are particularly likely to attract these very fine
particles. Larger particles tend to settle near their
source.
Where does particulate matter come from?
Particulate matter from the outside environment
comes from a variety of sources: burning fuel,
motor vehicle exhaust, furnaces, metal from tram
tracks, dust from building sites, chlorides from salt
spray or dust and dirt from the natural
environment.
Particulate matter can also be generated within
a building. In new buildings, concrete and
cement can give off very fine dust particles for
up to two years after initial pouring. These
particles are extremely alkaline and will damage
objects they settle on, for example, they will
discolour linseed oil, some dyes and pigments
and attack alkaline-sensitive material such as
silks and photographs.
In existing buildings, air-conditioning systems
which are not cleaned regularly or do not have
appropriate filters, as well as gas and oil heaters,
kitchens and workrooms, have the potential to
produce particulate pollution which can affect
objects.
A lot of dust is made up of human skin and hair.
These materials are very attractive to insects.
Chemically active particulate material can also
be introduced as part of some pest control
treatments. For example, certain large chemical
dust particles placed on surfaces such as
shelves can poison pests as they crawl over
these areas. However, this type of pest control
treatment is not advised where cultural materials
may be present.
Particulate matter may also contain other adsorbed
or absorbed material such as acids from
atmospheric sulphur dioxide, or traces of metal
from industrial processes.
Dust and Pollutants 61
 Problems with particulate matter
Dust can build up to quite a large mass in areas
that are not easily accessible, or which may easily
trap airborne dust particles. Dust absorbs moisture
readily, so that areas with a large build-up of dust
can have quite high local humidity even when the
environment surrounding the object is completely
stable at 50%RH.
In recessed areas, such as between the lower
stretcher bar and the canvas of a painting or
in the interstices of basketwork, the build-up
of dust creates problems for paint layers. This
can lead to cracking and other physical damage
as the dust creates physical distortion of the
structural components of the object.
Dust on objects will absorb and adsorb pollutants.
In conjunction with moisture, absorption of
pollutants can lead to severe damage. For example,
dust particles which contain chlorides can cause
bronze disease on bronze objects.
Dust also attracts and harbours pests—enabling
insects to hide and nest in secure environments.
Gritty dust causes physical damage, particularly if
you clean the dust away by rubbing. It could lead
to abrasion and scratching.
Sticky dust, for example, soot, will stain most
surfaces. Dirt can be absorbed into extremely
porous or intricate surfaces such as paper,
basketwork and plaster casts which, once dirty,
may be impossible to clean.
Carbonaceous material
Carbonaceous particulate matter is produced from
several sources including cigarette smoke, car
fumes, furnaces and industrial workplaces which
burn material. It is often extremely sticky and tarry.
If a surface is not porous, carbonaceous particles
are quite easy to remove when they first settle.
However, if left on an object, their acidity will
cause them to etch into the surface. Airborne
carbonaceous material is also likely to contain
sulphur compounds.
Chlorides
Salt air is a particular problem. While marine
environments are the most likely source of salt,
62 Dust and Pollutants
there are other sources of chloride contamination
of cultural material. These include chlorinated
water and areas with high saline concentrations—
such as occur in some inland areas of Australia—
and sweaty fingers.
Chlorides are gritty and will abrade surfaces, but they
can also produce chemical reactions. An example of
this is the reaction in copper which produces copper
chlorides—a highly corrosive substance capable of
causing considerable damage to cultural material.
This type of damage to copper and bronze objects is
commonly known as bronze disease.
For more information
For more information on chlorides and bronze
disease, please see the chapter on Metals in
Caring for Cultural Material 2.
Protection from dust
Protecting your collection from the harmful effects
of dust is a combination of common sense and
expertise. Good building design to keep dust out—
together with good housekeeping practices to stop
its distribution through to display and storage
areas—will radically reduce damage from
particulate matter.
It is worth developing a strategic plan to identify
and deal with problems. The best place to start is
to look at the building and its ability to keep out
dust. In salty, dusty or dirty environments:
• use air-sealing strips around doors, windows
and filter air vents;
• provide doormats for visitors;
• double doors will provide some protection
against dust entering the building;
• keep windows closed if possible. This is not
always advisable in a tropical climate,
because good ventilation is vital to reduce
the risk of mould growth; and
• place any objects which are particularly
susceptible to abrasion—or are hard to
clean—in dust jackets or boxes during
storage, and in display cases for exhibition.
Even well-protected buildings can have large
amounts of particulates in the atmosphere. New
concrete should be sealed. But remember to check
that the sealant is safe for use in areas which changed as necessary. An air-conditioning system
contain cultural objects, and make sure that there which is not maintained properly can cause more
are no objects nearby when it is applied. It is damage to a collection than no air-conditioning
important also to allow enough time for the at all.
sealant to dry and offgas before housing the
objects in the area. Don’t underestimate the time
it takes a material to offgas. Plastic paints need to Pollutant gases
be aired for three to six weeks to allow for the
acetic acid to dissipate fully.
Damage from pollutant gases may result from:
Workshop areas and kitchens are known producers
• the offgassing of chemically active materials
of particulate matter. If possible, these areas
in the museum, gallery or library; or
should be sealed well and sited away from storage
and exhibition areas. Use good housekeeping • from pollutants in the external environment.
practices in these areas—try to vacuum regularly.
Industrial pollution occurs in most major cities in
Remember that air-conditioning systems will the world. In Australia, Melbourne and Sydney are
circulate harmful material from one outlet to well known for their polluted environments; but
another, so check that your ducting system is not
even in small country towns air pollution can be
pumping workroom dust or tearoom grease onto
a problem.
your objects. If possible, design your air-
conditioning ducting so that dust-producing areas
Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide
are at the end of the system.
and ozone are all pollutant gases. Of these,
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone cause
Protect particularly susceptible surfaces. Plaster
the most damage. Sulphur dioxide and nitrous
casts and natural history specimens should be
housed in cases or provided with dust jackets. oxide are called acidic gases because they react
Works of art on paper should be stored in Solander with water to produce acids.
boxes or sealed in frames. Objects with intricate
surfaces, such as basketry or textiles, should be Sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid
boxed for storage or displayed in display cases.
And avoid spraying aerosols near objects. These Sulphuric acid and sulphur dioxide are harmful
usually contain hydrocarbons and other harmful substances produced from pollutants in the air.
pollutants. Hydrocarbons react in the presence of These substances are formed when sulphur reacts
air, and become brown and sticky over time, with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce sulphur
causing irreversible staining. dioxide, and ultimately sulphuric acid while in the
presence of water.
Many materials are either electrostatic or sticky
enough to attract dust. Perspex, Mylar and plastics
Polluting sulphur in the environment reacts with
are good examples of this. Some coatings which
oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide:
are recommended in conservation literature may
also be sticky, for example waxes and dressings, or
will build up an electrostatic charge, for example, S + 02 = S02
synthetic resins. Seek the advice of a trained
conservator before using coatings and resins on The sulphur dioxide further reacts with oxygen:
cultural objects.
2SO2 + O2 = 2SO3
Cases, boxes, slip covers and folders can all be
used to protect objects from particulate matter. and in the presence of water sulphuric acid is formed:
Cases can be fitted with dust filters; and silicon
sealant can be used in loose-fitting cases. Slip SO3 + H2O = H2SO4
covers can be made out of undyed, natural fabrics
such as calico. Sulphuric acid is highly corrosive. It attacks
outdoor sculpture and damages buildings as these
If you have an air-conditioning system, it needs to contain calcium carbonate—a material present in
be kept in good condition, and filters checked and limestone, marble and sandstone.

Dust and Pollutants 63

 All three sulphur compounds—sulphur, sulphur
dioxide and sulphuric acid—also have an affect on
certain metals. For example, sulphur dioxide rusts
iron. Whereas sulphur on its own can cause silver
to tarnish. As for lead, this metal deteriorates
rapidly in the presence of sulphur dioxide.
But not all metals are affected by the sulphur
compounds. For example, bronzes which have a
patina are generally not affected by sulphur dioxide.
Materials containing cellulose—as used in the
production of paper—are susceptible to damage from
sulphuric acid. The widespread phenomenon of brittle
books is a direct consequence of this problem.
Sulphuric acid also affects protein-based materials.
One example of this is red rot—a well-documented
problem in libraries—caused by sulphuric acid
attacking bookbinding leathers.
Silk and photographs are affected by sulphuric
acid—whether in the gaseous or liquid state.
Synthetic textiles are also affected by acid gases.
For more information
For information about red rot,
please see the chapter on Books in
Caring for Cultural Material 1.
Nitrogen oxides
Like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide is also a
harmful substance in itself, which, when combined
with water, forms nitric and nitrous acid.
2NO2 + H2O = HNO2 + HNO3
nitrous acid nitric acid
Nitrogen dioxide attacks cellulose and polyesters
as well as some dyestuffs.
Nitrogen oxides also produce oxidising agents.
These are very reactive and cause severe damage to
most materials with which they come in contact.
Ozone
Ozone is an extremely reactive oxidising gas. It
attacks organic materials at a molecular level.
Because many objects in museums, galleries and
libraries are organic, ozone in your environment
could be disastrous.
64 Dust and Pollutants
Photographs, which are usually made up of a paper
support with a gelatine emulsion, are extremely
susceptible to damage from ozone.
Metal corrosion is also very common in the
presence of ozone.
Fortunately, ozone has a short life. Even in a
polluted environment, it is likely to have reacted
with the external environment before it reaches the
collection storage and display areas. Unfortunately,
ozone can still be produced within a museum
environment—for example, by photocopiers.
Factors which increase the
effect of acidic gases
Strong visible light, continuous exposure to UV
radiation, and high levels of humidity and
temperature in the museum environment, all
increase the effects of acidic gases on materials
used in cultural objects.
For example, strong light levels can accelerate the
chemical production of harmful acids in the
environment as well as increase the rate of
deterioration of various materials with these acids.
Some reactions are initiated by more energetic
wavelengths of light and by UV radiation.
Furthermore, chemical reactions are more likely to
take place and proceed faster in humid conditions
and at higher temperatures. As a rough guide, a
10°C increase in temperature doubles the rate of
chemical reactions.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see the chapters on Light and
Ultraviolet Radiation and on Humidity and
Temperature in this volume.
Display and
packing materials
There are many reasons to place items in their own
sealed environment when they are on display, in
storage or being transported. A sealed and
protected environment will:
• limit damage from dust and air pollution;
• impede insects;
• reduce accidental and physical damage such
as scratches, knocks and breakages; and
• reduce the risk of theft.
But remember, objects that are placed within a
sealed, secure environment are at risk if that
environment contains active chemicals which can
affect the object. Paper is affected by acidic
materials such as wood-pulp, cardboard or wood,
whereas ceramics will be unaffected by these
materials. The following information is provided as
a guide—so that you can avoid damage caused by
display and packing materials.
Wood
Different woods produce different volatile
substances. For example, plantation pine gives off
phenolic acid; other woods produce acetic acid.
Paper, textiles and other items which are adversely
affected by acids should not be in direct contact
with wood.
Lead is extremely susceptible to acids from wood,
particularly from oak. Solid, metallic lead will react
with acids from the oak, to form a white powdery
substance.
Woods are generally considered safe for packing,
storing and displaying cultural material include
Hoop, Kauri Pine and Ash.
Metals
Metals are generally considered to be safe, but if
they are likely to corrode they should not be used.
Some problems have been noted with enamelled
coatings on steel cabinets, where underfiring of
the coating has resulted in the subsequent
offgassing of formaldehyde (Applebaum, 1991).
Stainless steel and aluminium are generally
considered safe.
Acrylics
Acrylics are generally considered safe. They include
Perspex and resins which can be mixed to form
emulsions and solutions.
Acrylics in emulsion and solution form can be used
as varnishes or surface coatings. If you are using a
commercially prepared emulsion or solution, make
sure that it does not contain harmful additives such
as excess catalysts, or materials like toxic plasticers.
Polyvinyl chlorides—PVC
Polyvinyl chlorides breakdown over time—with
moisture from the air— to produce hydrochloric
acid. Avoid using PVC and other chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
Polyester, polyethylene and polypropylene
Polyester, polyethylene and polypropylene come in
a variety of forms and grades. Whatever the type,
these substances are safe to use.
Polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohol—
PVA & PVOH
Polyvinyl alcohol is a derivative of polyvinyl
acetate. Both of these materials are used as a base
for paints, coating and adhesives. They are safe to
use in some circumstances, but must be allowed to
fully dry and cure. For advice on their use in
specific applications, consult a conservator.
Fabrics
In general, pure cotton and linen which are
unsized and undyed are safe to use near objects.
Wool—sized or dyed fabrics—should not be used
because they may contain reactive substances and
may hold water, increasing the local relative
humidity. Wool should not be used with metals and
other sulphur-susceptible materials, because it
usually contains sulphur.
Polyurethanes
Polyurethanes react with light and heat, and break
down. As they always contain additives, a range of
potentially harmful chemical compounds can be
released into the environment. They should not be
used as coatings.
Chipboard, compressed board and plywood
Chipboard, compressed board and plywood should
be avoided. They are usually prepared with
formaldehyde, which produces formic acid. It is
Dust and Pollutants 65
 possible to buy processed wood products which do
not contain formaldehyde, but it is important to
check that they do not contain other corrosive
volatile organics.
Sealants
It is often suggested that sealing cases with
varnish or an acrylic sealer will stop offgassing.
This is not true. No sealant is truly impermeable
and their use will slow down, but not reduce, the
total amount of offgassing.
Nitrate film
CAUTION
Nitrate film is extremely dangerous. It is made
from cellulose nitrate which is a very unstable
material. As it degrades, it produces nitrogen
oxide. Further degradation will result in
spontaneous combustion of the film. And as
nitrogen oxide reactions produce oxidising agents,
this reaction can occur without the presence of
oxygen in the air. This means that degraded
cellulose nitrate can burn even under water or
when smothered. Degraded cellulose nitrate
becomes dark, sticky and smelly.
The National Film and Sound Archive has conducted
a search for nitrate film in Australian collections. If
you suspect you have cellulose nitrate in your
collection, contact the National Film and Sound
Archive, or a relevant State institution.
Cellulose nitrate was used as a coating, as a film
emulsion and to make objects. It seems to be at
its most unstable as film stock; however, if you
suspect you have cellulose nitrate in any form seek
the advice of a conservator.
Methods for detecting
pollutant gases
Detecting the presence of pollutant gases is
generally best left to the experts. But there are
some simple methods that will detect pollutant
gases which might affect your collection.
66 Dust and Pollutants
Oddy tests
Oddy tests are named after the person who devised
them. They involve placing different types of metal
strips in the areas where you think pollutant gases
may be a problem. The effect of the gas is
measured by the condition of the metal.
These tests are described in the literature (Oddy,
1975) and are a quick and easy way of checking
for problems.
Draeger detector tubes
These tubes are available commercially and there
are a wide variety of tubes—each specific for a
certain gas.
You will need to contact a supplier to buy these
tubes. Try chemical supply companies in your area,
or ring your State or Territory Environmental
Pollution Authority.
Various monitors
There are a wide range of specialist monitors and
detectors on the market. Osborn (1989) provides a
list of many of these. In most cases, you will need
to commission an expert who is familiar with the
use of the equipment to undertake an assessment
and provide a report.
pH indicator strips
pH indicator strips are used to determine whether
acidic gas is being produced in an area. When
moistened with neutral pH distilled water, the
strips absorb gases from the air and indicate
whether acids are formed.
You will need distilled water and one or two pH
indicator strips for each test you make. Test the
pH of the distilled water with a pH strip. Compare
the colour change on the strip with the reference
chart on the case, and record the pH of the water.
The water should be at pH 7: neutral. A small
variation in pH—down to 6—is acceptable,
because contact with carbon dioxide in air makes
distilled water slightly acidic.
Leave the moist pH strip in the air for 15-30
minutes, and monitor any colour changes against
the reference chart on the indicator strip case.
pH indicator strips are a guide only, so further
testing should be done.
Check with experts
Your local municipal offices have information
about environmental pollution in your area, and
may be able to help you contact local experts.
The Environment Protection Authority or similar
authority in your state should be able to give you
the names of professionals who can help.
Outdoor objects
The protection of exposed objects from pollutant
gases requires commonsense and expert knowledge.
Remember that reactions from pollutant chemicals
are increased with high light levels, and changes
in relative humidity and temperature. The possible
impact of these factors can be reduced fairly
easily. The following steps will help.
• Provide drainage channels around the base of
statues and clean away accumulated organic
debris.
• Reduce moisture levels in and around cultural
objects. Moisture in tropical climates can be
more difficult to control, but you may be able
to provide shelter from rain, and shade to
help keep the temperature down.
• Relocate an object to the least-exposed area
of a building. For example, moving an object
from the seaward side of a building to a more
protected location will reduce, although not
completely stop, the effect of salt-laden
wind.
• Commonsense often dictates the use of
protective coatings on objects. But
commonsense can be wrong. If you want to
provide a protective coating on an outdoor
object, then you need to consult an expert.
Surface coatings applied inappropriately can
do more harm than good. If the coating is to
be applied to a work of art and is likely to
change the finish of the work, then you
should consult the artist as well.
• Some metals provide their own protective
layers against corrosion. These could be
disturbed by cleaning.
Protecting from
atmospheric pollution
To develop proper strategies for the care of your
objects, you will need to do much more reading
and familiarise yourself with a wider body of
information than it is possible to provide in this
manual. Talk to as many experts as possible, and
get to know the problems which are particular to
your area.
Air-conditioning
If you are thinking of installing an air-
conditioning system, it is advisable to talk to
small museums or institutions similar to your own.
Cultural material has special requirements, and if
you deal with experienced people you are likely to
have fewer problems.
Pollutant gases are removed usually by water
sprays or activated carbon filters. Air-conditioning
systems which incorporate water sprays pass air
through a sheet of water to trap pollutant gases.
It is important that a system like this incorporates
a dehumidifier, to maintain a stable humidity.
It is important also to keep the water source clean
because it could become acidic from a build-up
of pollutants, and circulate humidified, acidic air
onto objects.
Air-conditioning systems should be designed to
correct specific temperature, relative humidity and
pollution problems. They are expensive to build,
install and maintain, and it’s best to consult an
expert who has experience with buildings of a
similar scale to yours; rather than, for example, a
firm with experience in domestic air-conditioning
only.
Many new buildings are designed to incorporate
passive environmental control techniques within
the building. Air-conditioning may not be required
if your building has been designed this way and is
working effectively.
If you have an existing system in the building,
have it checked regularly and keep a report on its
condition which can be reviewed at each
subsequent examination.
Dust and Pollutants 67
 Activated carbon filters
Activated carbon filters control pollution emissions
by adsorbing pollutants onto their surfaces. They
need to be checked regularly. Once they are
saturated, they will give out pollutants—and the
problem will worsen rather than improve.
Potassium permanganate
Potassium permanganate is a good filtration
system for museums (Appelbaum 1991). The
system is similar to silica gel systems used for
humidity control. You should seek advice from a
conservator before considering this option.
Commonsense approaches
While some options for controlling pollution
require expert advice and financial outlay, there
are a number of options which offer protection
with little cost and effort. For example:
• use display cases and layers of storage to
provide a protective local environment for the
object;
• frame and glaze artworks which are on
display;
• provide dust jackets for books;
• place flat paper-based objects in Solander
boxes;
• provide archival-quality boxes for fragile or
susceptible objects; and
• cover large objects which will not fit in
storage cases or boxes with appropriate
sheeting, for example, unbleached and undyed
cotton or linen, or Tyvek, when they are not
on display.
For more information
For more information about Tyvek, please see the
chapter on Textiles in Caring for Cultural Material 2.
These are some options only. As you familiarise
yourself with more information in other sections of
reCollections, you will find that other simple
options are available. Even if you can’t control the
environment completely, you can make some
difference with even small changes.
68 Dust and Pollutants
MORE ABOUT
DUST AND POLLUTANTS
Particulate matter
Aerosols
The term aerosol is used in a number of different
ways in the literature. Osborn (1989) provides a
good definition. He defines aerosols as ‘very small
particles which are less than 1 micron and which
act as a nucleus for the condensation of liquid’.
Smaller particles which tend to be trapped
Generally, smaller particles—from .01 microns to
15-20 microns—remain suspended in the air until
they are trapped. They can be trapped by adhesion
to sticky surfaces such as waxes; porous surfaces
such as paper; textured surfaces such as feathers;
or by a physical barrier. Being small, they are
usually light and are extremely mobile.
Larger particles which tend to settle
Larger particles—particles greater than 15-20
microns—tend to settle near their source. This
means that near the source there is likely to be a
heavy deposit of these large particles. This kind of
particulate matter is easier to collect than the
smaller particles, but it will cause more damage
because of its mass.
Concrete buildings
Studies have indicated that concrete dust can be
given off for up to two years after the completion
of the building. The only studies on this have been
done by Toishi (Thompson, 1986). However, this
phenomenon has been seen in buildings in
Australia, and is easily checked in buildings—by
placing a clean blotter on a shelf in a suspect
area. If concrete dust is a problem, you will see
dust settling on the paper.
 Developing a strategic plan
for examining the problems
in your building
If you are concerned about your building, try to
work systematically through a checklist of perceived
problems, and determine strategies for dealing with
these problems. In some cases you’ll be able to deal
with the problems simply and without expert help;
in other cases you’ll need expert help.
If you have a plan, you can budget in advance for
times when specialist advice or expensive
modifications to the building are needed. First
determine your problem.
The external environment
The first step is to look at the external
environment and determine any problems.
If one side of the building is near a busy freeway,
you may need to completely seal this side of the
building.
You may be surrounded by dusty parkland, and so
may need to put good seals around doors and
windows.
You may be in a very polluted environment and so
need to have sealed cases with pollutant
scavengers to protect your objects.
The internal environment
Look at areas which produce dust or pollutants, and
work out how these move through your building.
Simple solutions—like providing doormats and
keeping doors shut; or more complex solutions like
adding a double entry door into a collection
area—may reduce significantly the movement of
dust or pollutants.
If the dust is being produced in a workshop,
consider installing a localised extraction system.
If the air-conditioning system is pulling dust into
collection areas, you may need to have the duct
system redesigned.
Products used with cultural material
While you will probably be more concerned with
offgassing, some materials with your cultural
materials will cause dust problems.
For example, polystyrene packing material breaks
down into small particles which are extremely
electrostatic.
Call in experts
Think about whether you need to call in experts.
Do you understand the problems you are facing?
If you’re not sure of the type of pollutants in the
air, you may want to have an analysis undertaken.
Then take action
Once you have determined the problems you’re
facing, draw up an action plan.
Deal with the simple problems, and get expert
advice and written reports if you need them. Plan
for the long term.
It may be advisable to allocate a budget line—to
ensure that you can afford to fund changes.
If necessary, locate larger grant programs which
will enable you to undertake major works when
required.
If you have a problem related to dust or
pollutants and don’t know how to deal with it,
contact a conservator. Conservators can offer
advice and practical solutions.
For further reading
Appelbaum, Barbara, 1991, Guide to Environmental
Protection of Collections, Second View Press,
Madison, Connecticut.
Blackshaw, S.M. & Daniels, V.D. 1978, Selecting
Safe Materials for use in the Display and Storage
of Antiquities, ICOM Committee for
Conservation, 5th Triennial Meeting, Zagreb,
International Council of Museums, Paris.
Dust and Pollutants 69
 Blackshaw, S.M. & Daniels, V.D., 1979, ‘The Testing Question 2.
of Materials for Use in Storage and Display in
Museums’, The Conservator 3, The United Kingdom
Institute for Conservation, London, pp 16–19. Particulate matter includes:

a) sulphur dioxide;
Carpenter, J. & Hatchfield, P. 1987, Formaldehyde:
How Great is the Danger to Museum Collections?, b) aerosols;
Centre for Conservation and Technical Studies,
Harvard University Art Museums, Cambridge, M.A. c) dust and grit;

Miles, Catherine, 1986, ‘Wood Coatings for Storage d) carbonaceous material.

and Display Cases’, Studies in Conservation Vol 31,
No 3, International Institute for Conservation of Question 3.
Historic and Artistic Works, London, pp 114–24.

Oddy, W.A. 1975, ‘The Corrosion of Metals on Display’, Give examples of sources of particulate matter.
Conservation in Archaeology and the Applied Arts,
Preprints of the IIC Conference, Stockholm, Question 4.
International Institute for Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works, London, pp 235–37.
Which of the following statements are true?
Osborn, Peter D., 1989, The Engineer’s Clean Air a) Dust attracts and harbours pests.
Handbook, Butterworths, London.
b) Dust can cause mechanical damage.
Sandwith, Hermione & Stainton, Sheila, 1991, The
National Trust Manual of Housekeeping, revised c) Dust adsorbs and absorbs pollutants.
edn, Viking in Association with the National
Trust, London. d) Dust deposits can create localised areas of
high humidity.
Thomson, Garry, 1994, The Museum Environment,
e) Dust can impregnate porous surfaces, making
3rd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. them impossible to clean.

f) All of the above.

Self-evaluation quiz
Question 5.

Question 1.
Chloride contamination can come from

Which of the following are sources of pollutants a) sweaty fingers;

that may affect cultural material?
b) chlorinated waters;
a) The external environment, a source of dust
and atmospheric pollution. c) cigarette smoke;

d) sea air;
b) The internal environment which produces dust
and pollution from activities undertaken in e) car exhausts.
the building.

c) Inappropriate materials which will offgas or Question 6.

contain chemicals which may damage cultural
material.
Collections can be protected from the effects of
d) All of the above. particulate matter by:

a) providing seals and filters on windows, doors

and air vents;

70 Dust and Pollutants

b) locating workshops and kitchens away from Question 10.
collection display and storage areas ;

c) spraying regularly with aerosol polishes; Activated carbon filters:

d) boxing, framing or providing covers for a) adsorb pollutant gases;

cultural objects.
b) need to be checked regularly;
Question 7. c) need to be used with caution because if
saturated they will give out pollutants;
Which of the following statements are false?
d) all of the above.
a) Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone
are pollutant gases. Question 11.
b) Photocopiers present no risk to valuable
items. Give four examples of how you can protect items
from the effects of pollutant gases.
c) Sulphur dioxide can convert to sulphuric acid
in the presence of moisture.

d) Nitrogen dioxide is not a problem for Answers to

collections.
self-evaluation quiz
Question 8.
Question 1.
Match the following materials with the damaging
materials they can produce. Answer: d).
a) wood 1. sulphur
Question 2.
b) metals 2. acetic acid

c) acrylics 3. phenolic and acetic Answer: b), c) and d). a) is a pollutant gas.
acids
Question 3.
d) PVC 4. formaldehyde

e) PVA 5. hydrochloric acid Answers could include:

f) compressed 6. corrosion and some • burning fuel;

wood pulp coatings are damaging
• exhaust fumes from cars;
g) wool 7. some additives can be
harmful • industrial furnaces;

• burning off;
Question 9.
• metal from train and tram tracks;

Which of the following methods can you use to • dust from building sites or paddocks;
detect pollutant gases?
• salt spray;
a) Oddy tests using metal strips.
• pesticide dust;
b) Activated carbon filters.
• old or poorly maintained air-conditioning
c) pH indicator strips for acidic offgassing. systems;

d) Air-conditioning. • dust from new concrete.

Dust and Pollutants 71

 Question 4. Question 11.

Answer: f). Answer: Answers could include:

Question 5. • frame and glaze artwork;

• provide dust covers for large objects;

Answer: a), b) and d). c) and e) are sources of
carbonaceous materials. • use display cases for smaller objects;

• ensure stable temperature and humidity—

Question 6. avoid high temperatures and high humidity;

Answer: a), b) and d). You should not spray • provide layers of storage;
aerosols near valuable items.
• place items in boxes.
Question 7.

Answer: b) and d) are false. Photocopiers produce

ozone which is extremely reactive with carbon-
based material, and it increases the corrosion of
metals. Nitrogen dioxide can convert to nitric acid
in the presence of moisture, and is very corrosive.
It produces oxidising agents which are very
reactive and easily break chemical bonds.

Question 8.

Answer:

a) 3

b) 6

c) 7

d) 5

e) 2

f) 4

g) 1

Question 9.

Answer: a) and c). b) and d) are methods to help

protect against pollutant gases.

Question 10.

Answer: d).

72 Dust and Pollutants

 Common
Deterioration
Processes

Objectives page 75
Introduction page 75
Examples of deterioration page 75
For further reading page 79
Self-evaluation quiz page 79
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 79
 Objectives extreme vulnerability to physical damage is a result
of chemical deterioration. Acids within the paper
attack the paper’s fibres, making them shorter and
At the end of this chapter you should: much less flexible.
• have a basic understanding of some
deterioration processes;
Examples of deterioration
• have a visual reference for some of the issues
discussed in other sections; and
The following examples illustrate the common
• have a basic understanding of some of the changes that occur in materials as they deteriorate
problems you may encounter in your chemically:
collection.
• flexible organic materials, for example, paper,
fabrics and some plastics, often become
brittle;
Introduction
• the change in solubility characteristics and
loss of flexibility of some adhesives, paint
Deterioration is caused by physical damage and layers, varnishes and coatings;
chemical activity—usually in combination. For
many materials, physical damage can create • colour change, for example, dyes fading and
conditions that are favourable for chemical becoming discoloured; and
activity.
• corrosion of metals.
For example, as aluminium corrodes, an aluminium
oxide layer forms on the surface which protects the Flexible organic materials becoming brittle
rest of the metal from corrosion. If this layer is
scratched or broken in any way, un-oxidised
Paper is made up of cellulose fibres. Fabrics are
aluminium will be exposed and it will corrode.
made up of cellulose, protein or man-made fibres.
Fortunately the corrosion produces a new oxide
layer which protects the rest of the metal.
All of these fibres are made up of long ribbon-like
molecules. Flexible plastic films are also made up
Iron objects are often coated to protect them from
of long molecules.
contact with moisture and oxygen. If they are not
protected they rust. Rust is iron oxide; but unlike
aluminium oxide it does not protect the underlying Long ribbon-like
metal from further corrosion. If a coating applied molecules are very
to an iron object is scratched or broken in any strong and flexible.
way, the object rusts. At first, the rust is localised,
but it spreads gradually over the whole object,
destroying it totally.

Chemical activity often accelerates physical

damage, or leaves objects more susceptible to
physical damage. For example, pressure-sensitive
adhesives—as used to make sticky tapes—age and
become less sticky. The adhesives harden and no
longer hold things together. This also happens to
Chemical attack The attack—represented here
adhesives such as rubber cement. Collages and can shorten these by a lightning flash—can
other items which include a lot of adhesives can molecules or break the come from, among others:
fall apart once the adhesives have aged. links between groups • acids;
of molecules. • UV radiation;
• light; and
Paper that was once flexible and easy to use can • alkaline substances.
become brittle, to the point where it crumbles
away to fragments when handled roughly. This

Common Deterioration Processes 75

 The shortening of the molecules has a major impact As chemical changes occur, The formation of these
on the physical characteristics of the materials. crosslinks form between the crosslinks gives the
individual molecules. drying effect. The
varnish or paint
Long molecules and becomes less sticky to
fibres are flexible and the touch and it ‘sets’
can be moved around or hardens, but it
and partially folded remains flexible.
without damage.

If crosslinking
continues the
material becomes
more rigid.
As it loses flexibility,
it is more likely to
fracture and break up.
If the molecules have been attacked and have been broken into
shorter units, they and the fibres they make will be much less
flexible and cannot be moved and folded without braking. For this
reason, textiles should not be stored folded, paper should not be
folded and any aged and degraded materials should be supported
and handled with care.
With a great number of Solvents that were effective
crosslinks, it is harder for before crosslinking took place
Change in solubility characteristics solvents to get into the are sometimes able to act on
material to dissolve it. the material to soften it even
and loss of flexibility if they cannot fully dissolve it.

Many paints, inks, varnishes and coatings dry by a
combination of evaporation and chemical change.
The chemical change that takes place is called
crosslinking. The relative importance of
evaporation and chemical change in the drying
stage depends on the original formulation of the
paint, ink or varnish.
When it is part of the drying process, crosslinking
is seen as a useful and desirable chemical reaction.
But it is not desirable when it is seen as an ageing
process which causes:
• sticky tape adhesives to set and become
insoluble;

• varnishes to become less soluble and to

Varnishes and binders for Once applied to a discolour; and
oil paints and some surface, some
printing inks are made up evaporation occurs,
of long molecules. bringing the molecules
• paint and ink films to become very hard
closer together and brittle.
allowing them to
interact with each It is important to note that crosslinking can occur
other more readily.
at the same time as other parts of the same
molecules are being broken into smaller units.

Colour change

We see materials as coloured because they

The surface area of the
selectively absorb some wavelengths of visible
material is fully exposed light and reflect others.
to oxygen and other
reactive substance in
the atmosphere.

Other materials in contact with the paint,

varnish or ink can also react with it or speed
up its reaction with oxygen. Some pigments
in paints have this effect.

76 Common Deterioration Processes

 This long molecule is made up a chain of atoms
White objects Black objects Coloured jointed together, for example, it may be:
appear white appear black objects -C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=C-C=0
because they because they selectively
reflect all absorb all absorb some
wavelengths wavelengths wavelengths
of visible light. of visible light. and reflect
others. A blue
object, for
example,
absorbs all
wavelengths
apart from blue,
which it
reflects.

At a molecular level there are certain chemical

groups which determine the absorption of
particular wavelengths of light—these groups are
called chromophores and are responsible for the Breaking these molecules may involve breaking double
colour of materials. bonds—this would lead to loss of colour.

In organic materials, colour is associated with

particular molecular structures that absorb and
emit visible light of specific frequencies; that is,
chromophores are groupings of atoms within a
molecule.

For example:

-C=C- -C=O -N=N-

C=C C=O N=N

represents two represents a represents two
carbon atoms carbon atom nitrogen atoms Chemical crosslinking involves creating new bonds
joined by a double joined to an joined by a between molecules and atoms. These new bonds may
bond. Each carbon oxygen atom double bond. Each be double bonds that produce chromophore groups.
is then bonded by a double nitrogen is then This could lead to darkening of colour or colour where
with a single bond bond. The carbon bonded with a there was no colour before ie. staining or
to adjoining atoms. is then bonded single bond to discolouration.
The single bonds are with a single bond adjoining atoms.
represented by -. to adjoining atoms. The single bonds
The single bonds are represented If molecules are being broken down and
are represented by -. by -. crosslinked at the same time, a whole range of
colour changes are possible. Just what the colour
Double bonds are strong, but they are far more changes will be is difficult to predict.
reactive than single bonds, so they are broken
readily during chemical reactions.

When talking about flexible materials becoming

brittle, and the change in solubility characteristics
and loss of flexibility of materials, we examined
the breaking and crosslinking of large organic
molecules. The chromophores described above
occur in these molecules.

Common Deterioration Processes 77

 Corrosion of metals
The chemical deterioration of metals is known as
corrosion.
This diagram represents a
group of metal atoms
bonded by metallic bonds
to form a pure metal.
In a metallic bond,
the individual atoms
share electrons.
This bond means
that the atoms
are connected in all
directions, producing
a cubic structure in
the molecule.
Corroded metal
surfaces are often
crumbly, while the
un-corroded metal
surfaces tend to be
smooth and relatively
even. For example,
compare a piece of
un-corroded iron and
a piece of rusty iron.
Some metals are protected by a layer of corrosion.
For example, when aluminium is exposed to air, it
corrodes to form aluminium oxide which covers the
surface of the metal item.
If the layer of corrosion is
stracthed or cleaned away the
metal is left exposed.
Other metals like iron are not protected by their
corrosion products.
78 Common Deterioration Processes
Many corrosion products
appear as encrustation
on the metal surface.
Each atom is made up of
a nucleus which contains
neutral particles called If the corrosion products are
neutrons and positively cleaned away the extent of the
charged particles called damage can be seen.
protons.
If the metal is not protected
corrosion will continue until all
Electrons, which the metal has been coroded.
are negatively
charged particles,
‘orbit’ around the
nucleus of the Some metal objects are electroplated.
atom.
Electroplating is used to make cheaper metals look
like silver. The physical properties of the materials
When a metal are dominated by the underlying metal.
corrodes, the metal
atoms become
bonded to other During the eceltroplating process The silver layer protects
non-metallic the cheaper metal is coated with a the cheaper metal from
substances. The fine layer of silver. corrosion.
metal atoms are
removed from the
cubic structure of
the metal molecule.
If the plating is stratched or
broken in any way, the underlying
metal can start to corrode.
Wherever the underlying metal is in contact with air, moisture or
any other agents of corrosion, it will deteriorate.
This layer of corrosion
coats the metal surface
and protects the
underlying metal.
If the underlying metal is like iron The encrustations of
ie. its corrosion products do not corrosion will lift the
protect it from further corrosion, plating.
Exposed metal will corrode, and the corrosion will move through the
the corrosion layer then metal and will spread out under
protects the underlying metal. the layer of electroplating.
As stated earlier, this section provides a simplified
overview of some of the processes of deterioration.
For further information about the effects of these
processes and on minimising these effects, please
refer to the chapters relating to specific types of
materials.
 For more information
For more information about deterioration of paper
and fabrics, please see Caring for Cultural Material 1.
For more information about corrosion in metals,
please see Caring for Cultural Material 2.
If you would like further information about the
deterioration of items in your collection,
consult a conservator.
For further reading
Crafts Council Conservation Science Teaching
Series 1982, Science for Conservators Book 1—
An Introduction to Materials, Crafts Council,
London.
Crafts Council Conservation Science Teaching Series
1983, Science for Conservators Book 2—
Cleaning, Book 2, Crafts Council, London.
Mills John S. and White Raymond, 1987,
The Organic Chemistry of Museum Objects,
Butterworths, London.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Which of the following statements are true?
a) For many materials, physical damage can
create conditions which are favourable for
chemical activity.
b) Physical damage and chemical deterioration
are in no way linked.
c) Chemical deterioration can accelerate physical
damage.
d) None of the above.
Question 2.
Crosslinking:
a) is part of the drying process of oil paints,
some printing inks, and varnishes;
b) is part of the ageing process that makes some
adhesives and varnishes less soluble over
time;
c) can lead to discolouration of some adhesives;
d) is all of the above.
Question 3.
Which of the following statements are false?
a) Crosslinking and breaking of molecules can
occur simultaneously.
b) The change in the length of organic molecules
can have a major impact on the physical
characteristics of materials.
c) All metals are protected from further
corrosion by their corrosion products.
d) Chemical deterioration has no effect on the
colour of materials.
Answers to
self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Answer: a) and c) are true.
Question 2
Answer: d).
Question 3
Answer: c) and d) are false. Aluminium is an
example of a metal that is protected by its
corrosion products but many other metals are not.
Aluminium will not be protected if the corrosion
layer is broken. The breaking and re-forming of
bonds in molecules, processes which are part of
chemical deterioration, can have significant effects
on colour changes, both fading and staining.
Chemical deterioration causes these changes.
Common Deterioration Processes 79
 Acknowledgments

Collection Management and Other

Conservation Working Party of the
Heritage Collections Council Stuart Anderson Simone Cordeauz
Sandra Flischer Michelle Koford
Margaret Anderson (Chair) Jacki Kossatz Linda Marlin
Ian Cook (Deputy Chair) Simon Prince Carly Romiero
Karen Coote Slade Smith Robyn Thomas
Tamara Lavrencic Di Virgil Guthrie Watson
Jan Lyall
Chris Tassell Prototype Development Consortium
Ian MacLeod Conservation Training Australia
Phil Gordon
Robyn Sloggett
Artlab Australia
John Stanton
History Trust of South Australia
Viv Szekeres
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
Ian Stephenson
State Library of New South Wales
University of Melbourne Conservation Service
Major Contributors Western Australian Museum

Karen Coote James Dexter Project Manager: Keith Fernandez

Keith Fernandez David Gilroy Technical Editor: Vicki Humphrey
Rosie Freemantle Ian Godfrey
Alan Howell Vicki Humphrey Field Trial Participants
Georgia Koronis Tamara Lavrencic
Ian MacLeod Joy Noble
Sarah-Jane Rennie Marion Roubos-Bennet Bob Alford Elizabeth Anya-Petrivna
Robyn Sloggett Michell Smith Denise Davis Luan Dunaan
Geoff Speirs Greg Wallace Christine Ewings Jude Fraser
Helen Weidenhofer Margie West Ann Gibson Ken Hodge
Jean Johnson Narayan Khadekar
Lindsay Knowles Heather Kriesl
Contributors
Nicole Livermore Zoe McKenzie-Smith
John Reid Pauline Ross
Phil Alderslade Marie Boland Glen Smith
Peter Cahalan Glenn Cole
Sarah Feijen Fred Francisco Sunshine and District Historical Society
Helen Halley Charlotte Jenkin
Gillian Leahy Sophie Lussier Marketing Research
Holly McGowan-Jackson Elizabeth Murphy
Kristin Phillips Alex Roach
Jennifer Ross Sue Valis Environmetrics
Sandra Yee
Editing and Publishing
Kimba and Gawler Ranges Historical Society
Migration Museum Communication Partners
National Motor Museum Cyranet
South Australian Telstra Historical Collection

Acknowledgments 81
reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia

MANAGING COLLECTIONS

Foreword page iii

A Note to Readers page iv

Introduction page v

Management Practices page 1

Purpose and Policies page 7

Planning and Budgeting page 15

Aquisitions and Significance page 27

Collection Surveys and

Condition Reporting page 39

Counter-Disaster Planning page 57

Acknowledgments page 89
© Commonwealth of Australia 1998 on behalf of the Heritage Collections Council
ISBN 0 642 37384 1 (boxed set)
ISBN 0 642 37385 X (this volume)
Information presented in this book may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or
training purposes, subject to the inclusion of acknowledgment of source and provided no
commercial usage or sale of material occurs. Reproduction for purposes other than those
given above requires the written permission of the Heritage Collections Council. Requests
for permission should be sent to the HCC Secretariat at the address given below.
One copy of this publication is available to Australian institutions on application. Multiple
copies to Australian institutions, copies to overseas institutions and copies to individuals
will be charged at A$100 plus postage and handling. Copies may be obtained by writing to:
Heritage Collections Council Secretariat
GPO Box 2154
Canberra ACT 2601
Australia
Phone (02) 6271 1094
Fax (02) 6271 1079
Email hcc@dcita.gov.au
This publication will be available online at the Australian Museums On Line website—
http://amol.org.au
Produced by the Commonwealth Department of Communications, Information Technology
and the Arts.
Cover images (from left):
Detail of photograph courtesy of Museum of Western Australia.
Detail of bark painting, Lightning Snake Story, Douglas (Nawurapu) Wununmurra.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum.
Detail of photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia.
Detail of hand-coloured 19th century children’s book. Photograph courtesy of
Vicki Humphrey.
There are an estimated 41 million objects held in Australian museums, art galleries and historical collections.
Collectively they tell the story of our history and our country and contribute to our sense of identity and
national pride. Increasing the conservation skills of people who care for these collections is an important
factor in protecting this heritage, and is a key goal of the Heritage Collections Council.

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia has been developed with this goal in mind. This set
of practical guidebooks is designed by the Council for use principally by non-conservators who are working
with Australia’s cultural heritage. The guidebooks are also a teacher-friendly resource which can be used in
professional development workshops.

Many of Australia’s most experienced conservators have been involved in researching, writing and editing
reCollections, through the Conservation Training Australia consortium, led by Artlab Australia, which
first developed the package, and through the Collections Management and Conservation Working Party of
the Council.

The Heritage Collections Council’s mission is to promote excellence in the management, care and provision of
access to Australia’s heritage collections so that together, they reflect Australia’s cultural and natural
diversity. The Council is a collaboration between the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments and
the museums sector, and comprises people working in a wide range of cultural heritage institutions across
the breadth of urban and regional Australia. reCollections is an important component of the Council’s
National Conservation and Preservation Strategy for Australia’s Heritage Collections.

Rob Palfreyman
Chair
Heritage Collections Council

Heritage Collections Council

GPO Box 2154, Canberra ACT 2601, AUSTRALIA
Phone: (02) 6271 1094 Fax: (02) 6271 1079 Email: hcc@dcita.gov.au

Foreword iii
 A note to readers

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia

has been written by practicing conservators and is intended to provide
a sound guide for the preventive care of cultural items. Active
conservation treatment of cultural material should only be undertaken
by, or on the advice of, a trained conservator. Before relying on any of
the material in this guide, users should check its accuracy, currency,
completeness and relevance for their purposes and should obtain
appropriate professional advice.

If in doubt,
consult a
conservator
To obtain the names of accredited practicing conservators who are in a
position to meet your particular conservation requirements contact the
Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material (Inc.)
a national organisation for conservators and people interested in the
preservation of cultural material.

AICCM
GPO Box 1638
Canberra ACT 2601
National Secretary Phone: (02) 6254 8695
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~conserv/aiccmhc.htm

iv A note to readers
 Introduction to

reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia
Our heritage is represented by a vast array of cultural material, from established national icons holding
pride of place in major museums and galleries, to everyday items such as household appliances or
newspapers which carry meaning for local communities or families. Yet so often the links to our heritage
are tenuous because the objects which represent our culture are in danger of decay. However, there is
a lot we can do to protect valued objects and collections and so prolong the life of our cultural heritage.
reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia provides practical advice and guidance designed
to help the reader care for their heritage.

reCollections explains how to apply preventive conservation techniques to cultural objects and collections.
Preventive conservation optimises the environmental conditions in which objects and collections are housed.
Controlling light and ultraviolet radiation, humidity and temperature, biological pests, and dust and pollutants
helps to prevent damage and decay to cultural material. Preventive conservation also means ensuring that
good handling, transportation, storage and display techniques are used at all times. Applying preventive
methods to the care of cultural artefacts and collections can prolong and protect their life for current and
future generations of Australians.

While reCollections provides conservation information about the care of cultural objects and collections, it
is important to recognise that all except the simplest conservation treatments should be undertaken by
trained conservators. Active conservation treatment is a response to the damage of cultural artefacts, a highly
skilled field which often involves the use of chemicals and complicated technical procedures. Unless
performed with a thorough knowledge of appropriate techniques and with the right equipment and materials,
conservation treatments can do more harm than good to the objects being worked upon, and can be
hazardous to the people performing the work. Conservation treatments should only be conducted by, or on
the explicit advice of, a trained conservator.

To complement the preventive conservation advice contained in the volumes Damage and Decay and Handling,
Transportation, Storage and Display, reCollections supplies detailed information concerning the care of some
of the most common cultural materials. These range from the paper and other materials on which so much
of Australia’s cultural history may be seen, to special considerations in caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultural artefacts. In addition, modern practices concerning the management of collections and
of the people who look after those collections are outlined.

Introduction v
Management
Practices

Objectives page 3
Introduction page 3
What is management? page 3
Who manages? page 3
Recognising good management page 4
A word about this volume page 4
For further reading page 5
Self-evaluation quiz page 5
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 5
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• understand the principles of good
management;
• be aware of how museums, galleries and
libraries can benefit from good management
practices;
• know the four basic tools of management; and
• understand how best practice and
benchmarking can help museums, galleries
and libraries.
Introduction
Operating a museum, gallery or library involves
many tasks. These cover everything from running
the building, maintaining the collection and
organising the finances to communicating with
visitors, promoting the exhibitions and dealing
with staff. Coordinating these tasks, and making
sure that all the activities involved work in
harmony, is what management is all about.
What is management?
Management is the art of making effective use of
resources to achieve your goals. It concerns
planning, coordinating and implementing all
aspects of an organisation’s operation in a manner
which fulfils the organisation’s aims. In other
words, once a museum identifies its purpose, good
management helps to achieve it.
As different processes are needed to achieve
various aims, we tend to discuss management
practices in terms of particular functions. In
museums, these can include business management,
financial management, collections management,
program management, and personnel management.
Regardless of the area being considered, all good
management practices rely on four basic tools:
• policies set the framework for decision-
making in museums. Good management
ensures that policies are developed, kept up
to date, and are understood by all staff;
• plans are the blueprints for action, which set
out how the aims and policies will be
achieved. Policies need plans to turn them
into realities. Good management creates and
implements plans to cover relevant areas of
museum operations;
• procedures are the step-by-step instructions
on how to carry out tasks they carry out
policy and implement plans. Good
management develops procedures and ensures
that they are followed; and
• people are the resources who make the
operations of the museum possible. Good
management provides for the needs of people.
This volume focuses on these tools and how they
contribute to good management practices in
museums, galleries and libraries.
Who manages?
In the past, museum management was often
referred to as ‘administration’, and seen as
covering the non-collection aspects of the
museum’s operations, like salaries and business
dealings. Administration was the responsibility of a
small, select group. Nowadays, administrative
functions are regarded as only one aspect of
management, and in management as a whole as a
collective responsibility. Everyone in a museum
who deals with some part of its operation has a
role to play in good management. A well-managed
museum is one in which:
• everyone has a clear idea of the purpose of
his or her work and its value to the museum;
• staff work to a plan which has been devised
for their area;
• clear procedures are followed for the activities
which they undertake; and
• each section of the museum is involved in,
and is responsible for, the efficient operation
of its area.
So who manages a museum? You do!
Management Practices 3
 Recognising good What resources does it need to keep its collection
well cared-for. Can you use your existing resources
management to achieve similar aims?

Why are its displays interesting? Perhaps the scripts

Management practices must evolve and change to
and documentation presented with the objects tell
continue to meet the needs of an organisation.
a story rather than just exhibit an artefact.
Over the years, this has given rise to a wide
variety of management techniques, like scientific
Are the staff well-informed because the museum
management, management by objectives, total
offers training assistance or has internal
quality management, risk management, and even
mechanisms for keeping people up to date?
crisis management. Numerous books on general
business management each advocate some of these
Next, see if you can adapt, change or introduce
techniques. But for a small organisation good
into your organisation practices that help you
management is often a matter of using
achieve a similar level of excellence. The aim is
commonsense to determine what works in your
not to follow slavishly everything a best practice
particular circumstances.
organisation does, but try to apply to your own
circumstances some of its techniques which work
Even large businesses recognise this. Increasingly,
well, in order to manage your organisation better.
businesses are using two concepts to identify good
management and measure management progress.
You can do this by setting some goals; for
Both these concepts are relevant to the running of
example, one goal may be to improve your displays
museums, galleries and libraries.
by introducing themes into your exhibits. Discuss
with your best practice organisation what it
Best practice involves examining the operations of
required to produce theme-based exhibits.
a number of organisations and determining whose
operations are most successful. Those
As you begin introducing the changes needed to
organisations are deemed to have achieved best
reach your goals, check your progress against your
practice in those areas, and set the standard
best practice organisation. Its example becomes
against which similar organisations are measured.
the benchmark against which you can measure
Best-practice organisations are widely recognised
your achievements. As you achieve your goals, look
as having achieved excellence in their fields.
for new examples of best practice to strive
towards. Recognising excellence, implementing
Benchmarking is the process of comparing your
measures to attain it, measuring your progress and
current operations to those of an organisation
improving your operations—these are all part of
which is recognised as having achieved best
good management!
practice, in order to chart your progress towards
achieving similar goals.

To apply these concepts to managing your A word about this volume

organisation, think about a museum, gallery or
library which everyone agrees is a leader in its
field. It need not be a large organisation—perhaps
a small museum you know has a well cared-for
collection, interesting displays and an informed
staff. Do you feel they have achieved a standard of
excellence which it might be useful to follow? If
so, use them as your best practice standard.
Look closely at what this best practice
organisation does, and how it does it.
Does it have policies and procedures which you
could adapt?
This volume and Managing People deal with aspects
of management that can help ensure that resources
are used to develop and care for your collections
in the best way possible. Sound management
practices will help you decide when, where and
how to implement the preventive conservation
techniques learned in this training package. They
can assist you in setting criteria for which objects
should receive conservation treatment. They will
help you determine whether you have the staff and
resources to undertake the conservation or
collection development programs you desire, and
to integrate effective conservation practices into
your organisation’s routines.

4 Management Practices
Each section of the volumes Managing Collections
and Managing People provides basic information
concerning policies, planning, procedures and
people management. To place this information in
context, we have focused on the issues important
in small social-history museums, and used their
examples to illustrate our points. So some of the
procedures in the sections on collections
management and access may be different from
those developed for archaeological or natural
history collections, larger museums, art galleries,
historical societies or libraries. However, the
principles which underlie the discussion of good
management remain constant, and can be applied
to all types of cultural collecting institutions.
Many other aspects of management—such as
managing change, promotion and marketing,
educating your visitors or promoting research
activities—though important, are outside the
scope of a conservation training manual. Museums
Australia has developed national guidelines for
regional, special and local museums and galleries
that address all these core responsibilities. The
guidelines are presented as a series of comments
and questions designed for self-evaluation. They
are framed to help museums explore their
directions and plans for the future. When
completed, they will be a useful framework for the
development of management practices.
If you have a problem relating to good
management practices, contact a conservator.
Conservators can offer advice and practical
solutions.
For further reading
Keene, Suzanne, 1996, Managing Conservation in
Museums. Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers,
Oxford, England.
Moore, Kevin, ed. 1991, Leicester reader in
museum studies, Museum Management,
Routledge, London.
Museums Australia (Inc). 1988, Caring for our
culture: National guidelines for museums,
galleries and keeping places. Department of
Community and the Arts, Canberra.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Why are the following statements false?
a) Management is only a useful tool for large
organisations.
b) The people responsible for management are
the organisation’s director, advisory
committee and financial staff.
c) Even if you haven’t got a clear idea of where
your organisation is going, management will
ensure that your museum, gallery or library
runs properly.
Question 2.
How do policies, plans, procedures and people
each contribute to good management?
Question 3.
Which of the following statements is true?
a) Best practice organisations are recognised by
their peers as having achieved a standard of
excellence worth following.
b) Everything done by best practice organisations
should be reproduced by others, so that all
organisations do exactly the same thing.
c) Best practice organisations can be used as
benchmarks against which others can measure
their progress towards similar goals.
d) All of the above.
Answers to
self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Answer:
a) Management is the art of coordinating all
activities of an organisation so that it runs
smoothly and achieves its aims; therefore,
management is just as useful for small
Management Practices 5
 organisations as it is for large ones. In fact,
because their resources are often more
limited, smaller organisations cannot afford
to have badly run operations–so in some ways
good management becomes even more
important.

b) Although the director, the committee and the

administrative staff are closely involved with
management practices, good management is
achieved only when all sections of an
organisation are involved in and take
responsibility for managing their operations.
This includes curators, collection managers,
guides, conservation staff and volunteers.
Management is the whole approach to
keeping an organisation going–not just
specific jobs held by special people who deal
with office matters.

c) Management is based on trying to achieve the

aims and goals of an organisation by making
sure it operates efficiently. If you don’t know
what those goals are, you cannot manage
effectively.

Question 2.

Answer: Policies set the framework for decision-

making in a museum, gallery or library. Plans are
the blueprints for action, that implement the
policies. Procedures are the step-by-step activities
that carry out the plans. People are the resources
which ensure that the policies, plans and
procedures are followed. Working together, these
are the tools used to achieve good management.

Question 3.

Answer: a) and c) are true. Best practice

organisations provide a model for others to follow.
However, there will always be in individual
museums, galleries or libraries operations which
are special to that organisation. Therefore it is
neither possible nor advisable to try to reproduce
exactly what is done in a best practice
organisation; instead, the most appropriate aspects
of these organisations should be adapted to your
situation.

6 Management Practices
Purpose and
Policies

Objectives page 9
Introduction page 9
Mission statement or statement of purpose page 9
Policies page 9
Policies versus procedures page 10
Self-evaluation quiz page 13
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 14
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• understand the purpose of a mission
statement;
• be aware of the relationship between mission
statements and policies, and between policies
and procedures;
• understand the value of policies, and why
museums, libraries and galleries should
formulate them;
• know the basic components of a collections
policy; and
• be able to write a mission statement and
collections policy for your museum, gallery or
library.
Introduction
The result of not
having a collection
management policy!
Photograph courtesy
of the History Trust
of South Australia
The fundamental building blocks for good
management are a clear statement of the purpose
of your museum, gallery or library, and guidelines
to make sure all decisions are consistent with that
purpose. Statements of purpose are also known as
‘aims and objectives’ or ‘mission statements’.
Guidelines are known as ‘policies’.
Mission statements and policies are important to
help guide your museum, gallery or library in its
development. Setting out your purpose and goals
helps you to make consistent decisions. It ensures
that everyone knows what you want to achieve,
and that all your work is focused on this purpose.
Maintaining written statements and policies, rather
than ‘keeping them in your head’, makes it easier
for new people to understand the practices of the
organisation, and to help apply them.
Mission statement or
statement of purpose
The most important working document in your
organisation is your mission statement. This sets
out the broad aims of the museum, gallery or
library. All organisations need a clear identity, with
stated aims understood by the membership and by
those who work for the organisation, whether in
paid or unpaid roles.
For an incorporated body, this statement of purpose
is usually expressed in its Articles of Association.
For a municipal museum, the local government
authority’s corporate plan will generally encompass
it in terms of the organisational structure within
which the museum operates.
A statement of purpose (also known as a mission
statement) describes the reasons for having a
museum in terms of who it is there to serve, and
how it will do it. Ideally, this mission statement
should be only one or two sentences. All policy
development flows from this statement, and it
should be the point of reference against which any
policy decision is measured.
The following example of a mission statement was
reproduced from the publication What’s in your
museum? a handbook on museum registration
methods for local museums (3rd edition), compiled
by the History Trust of South Australia and
published by the University of Canberra.
The aim of the Axel Stenross Maritime Museum
is to develop the existing residence and
workshop of the late Axel Alfred Stenross into a
Maritime Museum; foster active interest in the
preservation of the tools, workshops and other
relics formerly owned by the late Axel Alfred
Stenross; and generally foster a public interest
in the maritime history of the Port Lincoln area.
Policies
Museums are long-term operations which are
supposed to last forever. While in reality this may
Purpose and Policies 9
 not be achieved, museums are certainly expected
to last longer than a single human lifetime. For a
museum to continue long after we are gone,
guidelines—commonly known as policies—must
be developed.
Policies stem directly from mission statements and
are developed to provide long-term frameworks for
decision-making. They exist at all levels. National
policies like the National Conservation and
Preservation Policy for Movable Cultural Heritage
help set the agenda for thinking about issues in
conservation. Organisational policies set the
agenda for the operations of your museum, gallery
or library.
Uses for policies
Written policies have practical purposes in museums.
They clarify the museum’s views on issues, and can
be referred to when decisions on those issues have
to be made. This makes the operation of the museum
easier, and makes decisions more consistent. Written
policies make it easier to convince outside bodies
that you have thought about your goals, and know
where you are headed. This can be useful when
applying for assistance, dealing with local councils,
or meeting with industry.
In addition, every object your museum, gallery or
library acquires has associated costs. In order to
manage both the cost and the object, you must
have a clear idea of why you want an item;
whether it is important enough to obtain; what
you will do with it after you acquire it; and the
implications of handling and storing the item in
terms of your funds, resources and time. Policies
which clarify these issues can help you manage
and contain your costs.
A collections policy
Many different aspects of museums, galleries and
libraries can be covered by policies. Large
organisations may have separate policies to cover
such issues as: acquisitions, research, sponsorship,
education, volunteers, cultural diversity,
interpretation and exhibitions; collection
management and conservation; and access to or
the return of indigenous material, secret or sacred
objects and/or human remains. Smaller
organisations often develop a single document
which incorporates the fundamental policies of the
museum or gallery. This document is referred to as
10 Purpose and Policies
a ‘collections policy’.
Collections policies include:
• a mission statement setting out the purpose
of the museum or gallery;
• an acquisition policy stating what the
museum intends to collect, and defining the
scope of the collection, how the material will
be used, and the criteria for determining
significance when acquiring material; and
• a collection management policy setting out
the principles of how the museum will
manage what it acquires, addressing all the
issues relating to the care and maintenance
of the collection, including guidelines for
dealing with documentation, loans,
conservation and care, storage and security,
and deaccession and disposal.
These elements are the core of a collections policy;
however, individual policies may include other
types of material. These can be policy statements
on special issues of importance, or references to
other documents such as disaster plans, insurance
policies or procedure manuals. Often policies
include definitions of terms used in the document,
or the reason why a policy is needed on an issue.
In some areas in Australia, the term ‘collection
management policy’ is used to encompass all these
policy elements.
Examples of policies
The following policy statements demonstrate that
policy documents do not have to be complex or
legalistic. The first policy statement guides the
Yackandandah and District Historical Society’s
museum, nominated Best Small Museum of 1985
in Victoria’s Museum of the Year Category C.
The second statement is the City of Unley’s
Museum Acquisition Policy.
Policies versus procedures
Policy statements set out the broad framework for
development. They do not spell out the processes
used to achieve the development. This is the task
of procedures.
Procedures are step-by-step instructions on how to
perform specific tasks. They are guided by policies,
and are the result of implementing policies and
 Yackandandah and District Historical Society Inc.

1. The Mission Statement

We aim to provide a place where local information and objects can be collected and stored as a means by
which that information and those objects can be looked after and shared.

2. Acquisitions

The Bank of Victoria Museum and Manager’s Residence is now an established Museum, furnished with
banking and domestic furniture relevant to the buildings and their community from 1858 to 1893, and to
later tailoring uses of the buildings to 1969. A research collection of information and photographs is also
established, also relevant to the town and communities from 1852 to the present.

A small collection also exists of objects pertinent to the business of the town, from 1852 to the 1930s.

2a. We shall continue to enhance the collection with:

2a.1 Objects by gift or purchase only, unless for temporary display; donations with conditions will not
be accepted;
2a.2 Objects and information concerning the Bank of Victoria in Yackandandah 1860 to 1893;
2a.3 Domestic furnishings of the 19th century relevant to the buildings;
2a.4 Objects and information relevant to the uses of the building by the Haig family 1893–1969;
2a.5 Information and photographs relevant to the history of the town to the present day, with
particular reference to gold, family history and local business;
2a.6 Oral and written histories of local relevance.

2b. Collection criteria:

2b.1 The accepted item must be relevant to the collection.
2b.2 Documentation and provenance must be available.
2b.3 The condition of the item must be reasonable.
2b.4 Storage and display conditions must be suitable to the item.
2b.5 Conditional terms will not be accepted.
2b.6 Duplicates will not be accepted unless with particular relevant provenance.
2b.7 The donor must demonstrate clear legal title.
2b.8 All items are available for research or viewing; appointments may be made to view items not
readily accessible or fragile.

3. Documentation

Staff members who are directly involved and trained in the management of the collection will fully
document the process of acquiring an item into the collection. All pro-formas are kept in the
administration files.
3.1 A donor form will be completed for each object, if appropriate.
3.2 Each item will be considered by the committee before being accepted.
3.3 On acceptance, the signed donor form copy, with letter of acknowledgment, will be sent to the
donor.
3.3a If not accepted, the item is to be returned to the donor, personally if possible, with written
explanation and thanks.
3.4 Purchased items begin at this point.
3.5 On obtaining title to the item, an accession entry is made, the item given a number, identified,
and any conservation work or protection done. A photograph may be taken, or copy made.
3.6 Full detail is then entered on a catalogue sheet.
3.7 The item is then either stored or displayed.
3.8 Indexing, copying, or use of information from the catalogue may be done.

Purpose and Policies 11

 4. Loans
4.1 Short-term loans will apply in order to further the intent of the mission statement.

4.2 Inward and outward loan forms are held in the files.

4.3 Time limits are to be monitored.

4a Inward loans
4a.1 Short-term inward loans will be accepted for temporary display.
4a.2 Completed loan forms will be kept under the file of the temporary display.
4a.3 Documents and photographs offered for copying and return, if appropriate, may be accepted.
Care must be taken that details are correct.
4a.4 Time limits are agreed upon by both the museum and the owner.
4a.5 Particular care will be taken with items not owned by the museum.

4b Outward loans
4b.1 Each request for an outward loan will be considered by the committee.
4b.2 Time limits will be agreed upon by both the museum and the borrower.
4b.3 Conditions of display and transport will be closely monitored.
4b.4 The borrower will not modify, repair nor adapt any item loaned.

5. Storage and conservation

5.1 Storage and display restrictions must be considered before acceptance of an item.
5.2 Upgrading storage and conservation work areas is a high priority (a new building is planned.
Sponsorships are being currently sought to finance the project).
5.3 Temporary storage to be organised, not available to the public, to be the best we can do (not
on the floor, nor piled high, nor inaccessible).
5.4 Staff and visitors to be trained in the correct handling of items. Particular staff are trained in
the correct handling for processing of items.
5.5 Housekeeping will be efficient and regular. This will include checking for pests and atmospheric
deterioration. Pest control is to be regular.
5.6 Light and climatic conditions will be monitored and regulated.
5.7 Archival quality materials will be used for conservation, preservation and storage.
5.8 A copy of the accession register, and where possible, up-to-date catalogue sheets, will be kept
separately.

6. Deaccessioning may occur when:

6.1 The object is clearly owned by the Society and:

6.1.1 the object is of no further relevance or use to the purposes of the collection;
6.1.2 the object is damaged beyond repair;
6.1.3 the object has been stolen with no hope of return;
6.1.4 the museum has identical objects, with identical provenance;
6.1.5 the object in question has no provenance nor known local connection;
6.1.6 the object is not within policy;
6.1.7 there is a reasonable request for return from the donor or family.

6.2 Disposal may be by:

6.2.1 return to donor;

6.2.2 exchange, gift or sale to another museum or institution;
6.2.3 use for hands-on in the museum or outside;
6.2.4 public tender or sale;
6.2.5 destruction or recycling.

7. Review.
This Policy will be reviewed at the Annual General Meeting.
Courtesy of Museums Australia Inc. Victoria, reproduced with permission of the Yackandandah and District Historical Society. Inc

12 Purpose and Policies

 City of Unley Museum

Acquisition Policy

Each of the following criteria should be met before an item is acquired as part of the collection.

1 It must have a distinctive and verifiable connection with the local area.

This may include the following:

• designed locally
• manufactured locally
• commonly used locally
• valued by sections of the Unley community for social, economic, cultural, spiritual or religious
reasons associated with important themes in Unley’s history.

2 It should be in good condition or should be able to be conserved or restored to good consition.

3 It can be readily stored and cared for by the Museum.

4 It is an unconditional donation or purchase and the person donating the item has valid and/or
legal title to it.

5 Duplicates will only by acquired in the case of light sensitive materials that require changeovers
during display and where duplicates assist in the interpretation of the items.

6 In the case of photographs, if the donor is copyright owner, permission should be soght fot the
transfer of copyright ownership to the Museaum.

NOTE: Items may also be collected by the Museum for use in ‘hands on’ activities or as props for displays
if they do not meet the above criteria (they must always comply with point 4).

plans. Written procedures document what is
actually done in an area. They take time to write
down; and this often prevents small museums with
limited resources from developing manuals on
procedure. However, written procedures introduce a
consistency into operating practices and reduce
the risk of important steps being overlooked. They
are especially useful if a number of staff or
volunteers perform the same task. In the long run,
they will save time and improve operations.
If you have a problem relating to good
management practices for the storage or display
of objects, contact a conservator. Conservators
can offer advice and practical solutions.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.

Procedures are required in any part of a museum, A mission statement should be:
gallery or library where tasks are repeated
regularly. They are most important in areas with a) ideally only one or two sentences long;
complex sequences of tasks, for example, in
collection documentation and conservation b) a point of reference against which policy
practices. reCollections is an example of a range of decisions can be measured;
conservation procedures. The Management Practices
c) understood and accepted by all members,
chapter in this volume deals with the processes employees and volunteers of the organisation;
involved in managing collections, and provides
advice on where to find assistance on specific d) a statement of purpose clearly setting out the
procedures. aims of the organisation;

Purpose and Policies 13

 e) all of the above. Question 3.

Question 2. Answer: All the statements are true.

How can policies be used in practical ways to help Question 4.

museums, galleries and libraries operate more easily?
Question 3
Which of the following statements are true?
Answer: Policies provide a framework and
guidelines that help an organisation reach its
goals. Procedures are the step-by-step activities
which implement policies.

a) Many different aspects of an organisation can

be guided by policy statements.

b) Mission statements, acquisition policies and

collection management policies are three
basic policy documents which should be
maintained by all museums.

c) An acquisition policy covers what an

organisation intends to collect and how it
defines significant material.

d) A collection management policy addresses

issues related to the care and maintenance of
a collection.

Question 4.

How do policies differ from procedures?

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: e).

Question 2.

Answer: Policies ensure that consistent decisions

are made about museum operations. They can be
cited to back-up decisions on controversial issues.
They can be used to convince funding bodies,
councils and others that you know where you are
heading. They can help manage your resources by
guiding what goes into and comes out of your
collection.

14 Purpose and Policies

Pl anning and
Budgeting

Objectives page 17
Introduction page 17
Planning page 17
Prerequisites for planning page 18
Planning via aims and objectives page 18
Planning cycles page 20
Budgeting page 21
Conclusion page 24
For further reading page 24
Self-evaluation quiz page 24
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 25
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• state the advantages of planning and
budgeting, and be aware of the relationship
between the two processes;
• describe the prerequisites for effective
planning;
• describe the steps involved in planning via
aims and objectives;
• differentiate between strategic and
operational planning;
• describe the budgetary process in terms of
planning, controlling and reviewing income
and expenditure, and the achievement of
objectives; and
• use appropriate procedures to frame a budget
for a small museum or gallery.
Introduction
Planning and budgeting are essential for the
effective and efficient use of resources in running
a museum, gallery or library. Best use is made of
these processes if they are in balance.
While budgeting should not determine the
planning process, neither should unrealistic visions
be pursued without any consideration of economic
feasibility. Although each topic is treated
separately below, in practice neither is carried out
in isolation from the other.
Planning
Someone once said that if you don’t know where
you are going, then don’t be surprised if you don’t
know when you’ve reached your destination. Most
of us would not dream of trying to drive to a new
place, in a direction we had not previously
travelled, without using a road map. There are
occasions when we don’t mind ambling along from
place to place. When on a business trip, however,
with limited time and a tight budget, it would be
extremely rare for anyone to set off on a journey
knowing neither the destination nor the route.
Unfortunately it is the case that in some museums,
galleries and libraries, despite the best intentions
of the people associated with the organisation,
there are no maps to steer by. Such groups are
often characterised by a sense of malaise, of being
overwhelmed with so much to do that they don’t
know where to start. Frequently they don’t. These
groups often appear either to have lost their way
or to have no sense of direction.
Planning would be of great benefit, giving them
a focus and mechanisms by which to achieve
their goals.
Definition of museum planning
Museum planning has been defined as being a
professional response to challenges:
… the study and practice of facilitating the
preservation and interpretation of material
culture by ordering all those components that
comprise a museum into a constructed or
renovated whole that can achieve its functions
with optimal efficiency. (Lord & Lord, 1991)
This may sound very high-powered and formal, but at
its simplest level it involves developing a map to
guide a museum along a path—whether it be a
short-term activity, a major development project over
several years or an annual program of activities.
Planning is a process which can be learnt by all
members of an organisation and used to great effect.
Plans try to anticipate opportunities and
obstructions along the route, and attempt to
provide a defined and trouble-free path which is
still able to cope with the unexpected.
Why plan?
The goals of museum planning have been defined
by Lord & Lord, 1991, as:
• to provide space and facilities that are both
aesthetically pleasing and effective in
preserving and interpreting museum
collections for museum visitors;
• to establish and/or maintain an institution
which can perform these functions efficiently;
and
• to provide an organisation with the
opportunity to anticipate and be prepared for
likely future events. This reduces the stress of
having to cope with the unanticipated.
Planning and Budgeting 17
 Examples of planning in museums
It is difficult to answer the question, ‘What sorts
of plans are used in museums, galleries and
libraries, and how detailed should they be?’ While
not every minor, routine activity warrants formal
planning, clearly those activities which are
complex in terms of personnel, resources, and the
scale or time involved require careful planning.
Plans vary in scale and comprehensiveness. They
can range from those required for an individual
activity or function to a comprehensive plan for the
whole organisation or a master plan integrating
complex components of a major project.
Examples of plans include:
• long-term strategic plans;
• annual or semi-annual operational plans;
• master plans;
• project plans—often entailing a feasibility
study component;
• collections management plans;
• conservation plans;
• safety and security plans;
• disaster plans; and
• information management plans.
At their simplest, plans set priorities and identify
sequences of events and resources that may be
utilised to achieve objectives.
Prerequisites for planning
Museums, galleries and libraries cannot really start
to plan any activity until they have at least the
basics of a policy framework for their organisation.
This framework should include a mission
statement, which sets out the purpose or goals of
the organisation, as well as policies, which act as
guidelines for decision-making. Once this
framework is in place, plans can be developed to
help the organisation achieve its objectives.
18 Planning and Budgeting
Planning via aims
and objectives
This approach involves determining a set of
achievable objectives, placing them in order of
priority, and focusing on achieving them. To arrive at
this stage requires a number of steps. These include:
• exploring visions;
• carrying out a Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats—SWOT—analysis;
• reviewing the result of the SWOT analysis
against the mission statement;
• setting priorities; and
• defining objectives.
Dreaming the impossible dream—
exploring visions
In many ways the hardest step in museum, gallery
or library planning is the first: the identification of
visions. For complex museum projects, it may be
desirable to bring in external expertise for
guidance. Nowadays many local government
authorities have staff trained to act as facilitators
for these sorts of sessions. For larger projects, a
museum planning consultant may be needed.
Keep your visions realistic. If you aim too high,
you may fail. It is better to work toward a realistic
level of stability than an overambitious program of
development and change.
Visions are best developed by allowing everyone to
come up with ideas and recording them on paper
or whiteboard. At this stage the ideas should be
encouraged to flow freely, without any critical
analysis, and usually results in a variety of good
ideas. Everyone has a say, and group or individual
imagination is not hindered.
SWOT analysis
Once a list of visions has been established, it
should be put aside temporarily while you go to
the next step in the process. Rather than a critical
look at the visions, the organisation and its
environment are put under the microscope first.
The methodology of a SWOT analysis involves
looking closely at the elements of the environment
in which the organisation currently operates. In
some cases, the analysis must take into account
the possibility of changes in the organisational
environment and the associated impacts of such
changes.
During a SWOT analysis you identify the organisation’s
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
Again, an outside facilitator may be of use in
this process.
The product of this process will be pieces of paper
or a whiteboard full of lists of factors under
various headings. The likely factors are numerous
and varied, but would be expected to include,
among others, considerations of the building—
security, suitability, ease of maintenance, space,
the environment and so on—personnel; and
finances and possibly even the political and
economic environments.
There are no golden rules here. Each organisation
and location is different. The significance of
factors will vary because of the unique character of
each institution and its associated environment.
Some factors may in fact emerge under a couple of
headings. Funding, for example, may appear under
both the Threats and Opportunities headings.
Outside factors likely to affect your museum,
gallery or library—either directly or indirectly—
should also be considered. Examples which might
emerge include:
• a major industry closing or a new one being
established;
• development of a new State or regional
tourism strategy;
• emergence of an indigenous artists’ collective;
• changes in the local population base, such as
an increase in the number of people born
elsewhere or overseas; and
• changes in the local economy resulting from
upturns or downturns in regional exports.
Identifying realistic, not idealistic, options
While museum visions need not be realistic,
decisions about which visions to pursue must be.
On completion of the SWOT analysis, the wish list—
the visions—should be revisited and critically
assessed, to identify which of the idealistic visions
can be reclassified into a subset of achievable options.
The SWOT analysis provides the factors against
which the visions list may be compared and
subsequently pruned. Factors such as available
funds, personnel and projected demand often
weigh-in heavily at this stage.
In addition to fulfilling this function, a SWOT
analysis may also identify the need for further
information or for more critical assessment. You
may decide you need a feasibility study.
Achieving the achievable dream—assigning priorities
The achievable options must then be measured
against the organisation’s statement of purpose
and its policies, to determine priorities. In reality,
factors of internal and external political nature
often come into play at this stage.
If a decision is taken to embark in a direction
contrary to the aims of the organisation, then it
must be asked whether the organisation’s aims are
out of date or whether those making the decision
are out of line. Obviously such decisions should not
be taken lightly—they challenge the fundamental
reasons for the organisation’s existence, and require
input from the whole organisation.
A challenge for readers
Now that you understand the theory of a SWOT
analysis, consider how you would apply this
process to a museum situation. Use your own
situation, or pick several factors from the
environmental and outside factors listed above.
Do a SWOT analysis. Note how each factor may
have a negative and/or positive impact on your
museum, and how it might provide opportunities
for, or constraints to, museum operations.
Next, consider the following list of options
identified as visions worth considering—add more
if you like. Try prioritising them into a realistically
achievable list measured against your SWOT
analysis of environmental factors.
A new storage facility to house a collection of
watercolours of great significance to the local
community.
Planning and Budgeting 19
 Development of a collection strength based around
a long-established and distinct local industry
which is about to be closed down.
The establishment of a conservation workshop
equipped to handle large objects.
Modification of the environment of an exhibition
gallery to meet loan requirements from a major
collecting institution.
A simple but large-scale conservation project that
will need input from volunteers, working under a
conservator’s supervision; the project entails
cleaning a collection of items used at the nearby
factory, and requires the specialised knowledge of
former operators.
Defining objectives
The final stage in the overall process of ‘Planning
via aims and objectives’ is to formalise the
assigned priorities into a set of objectives.
Objectives should be framed in terms of achievable
and measurable outcomes. They should, therefore,
be expressed in terms that are definite, not vague;
and it should be easy for everyone to recognise
the point at which the objective has been reached.
These objectives should then be used to provide
the focus for the museum, gallery or library.
Knowing what you hope to achieve provides a
focus. Resources, personnel and finances can be
allocated and steps taken on the path to achieving
the first objective.
Planning cycles
Regardless of whether any major new projects are
under consideration, it is worthwhile undertaking
organisational-level planning in regular cycles
based on two, sometimes three, time-scales.
Longer-term planning for the general directions and
major thrusts that an organisation sets out to
achieve over an extended period is best covered by a
strategic plan. Shorter-term organisation of projects
and programs is best described using an operational
plan that usually covers one or two years. A series of
operational plans effectively acts as a subset for the
achievement of the broader strategic goals.
Both types of plan must be monitored and
reassessed by reference to the goals and objectives;
20 Planning and Budgeting
and both should be subject to regular review.
Goals can be said to be the endpoint for which we
aim, and objectives are the list of measurable
achievements that provide milestones along the way.
When all the objectives have been achieved, we
know the goals have been reached.
The need to identify clearly defined and
measurable objectives cannot be overemphasised.
Without milestones it is all too easy to lose one’s
way and not know whether a goal has been
reached!
Strategic planning
A strategic plan outlines the organisation’s long-
term aspirations and goals. Without this plan, it is
easy to concentrate on short-term objectives and
consequently might constrain future development
options.
Strategic plans have defined time-frames, and
identify major goals and the staging of processes
for their achievement. They may cover several
years, in some cases 5 to 10 or more. They should
not be inflexible and should be reviewed say, every
three to five years, to take into account achieved
goals and to consider changes in the museum’s
operating environment.
Strategic plans must present a broad overview and
be holistic in scope. All aspects of the museum,
gallery or library and its operational environment
must be considered.
Different strategic plans vary greatly in their
complexity. At its simplest, the strategic plan
should include a list of strategic objectives, a
summary of the key resources required to achieve
them, and a staged time-line for their
achievement. It should be entirely consistent with
the museum’s mission statement.
Operational plans
Operational plans are smaller-scale and are usually
more detailed than strategic plans. They may cover
a period of one to two years. They should consist
of realistic, achievable and measurable
objectives—lists of things that can and will be
achieved.
Operational plans detail the resources that will be Expenditure categories for small museums
committed to achieving objectives. They should
encompass ongoing activities or programs as well
Many expenditure items are fixed expenses and
as fixed-term activities or projects, which in an
must be allowed for each year. Other items relate
operational plan must be consistent with the
to programs that are not necessarily ongoing.
strategic plan and the mission statement.
Outlined below are expenditure categories that
Museums, galleries and libraries should have clear,
should be considered when framing a budget.
annual budgets consistent with, and based on,
their operational plans.
Maintenance of building and grounds, general
expenses
Operational plans should be set and reviewed at
least annually, with a focus on the achievement— • heating and cooling
or otherwise—of objectives. This review process
provides an indication of progress toward the • security
achievement of longer-term goals outlined in the
strategic plan. At the same time the realisation of • cleaning
objectives achieved is a source of satisfaction,
with obvious implications for morale and future • spraying, mowing
activities. The review process may also provide
• insurance
early warnings—changes in the operational
environment, for instance. These should be noted • pest control
and contingency plans formulated. Amended
objectives may be necessary. • health and safety issues—guard rails, fire
prevention
Budgeting • electricity—power, lighting requirements

Budgeting is the process of planning income and • repairs

expenditure for a specific time or project. It is an
essential component of the planning process. Publicity and marketing

• regular advertising in chosen publications

Measurement of actual income and expenditure
against that projected in a budget provides key • special-occasion advertising—newspapers,
indicators, as well as warnings, for the radio and posters
achievement of objectives.
• direct contact—phone and mail
The variations in income and expenditure for small
museums are almost as diverse as the museums • guide sheets
themselves, which range from those fully attached
• education packages
to a parent body, such as local government, to
those relying entirely on their own efforts to • signage
survive. The former may benefit from assistance in
the areas of building, ground maintenance and • publications
administrative support. The independent museum
normally has to rely on income derived from • preparation of brochures
admission fees, sales, fund-raising, rent and
grants. Sponsorship may also be a factor. • membership of tourist associations

Expenditure is more complex. Outgoings can be Volunteer services

grouped into various categories, but not all will
• information dissemination—phone,
appear in each year’s budget, as changes in plans and
information sheets, booklets and tours
objectives vary. Yet some expenses will be incurred
every year, the only variable being the amount.
• tea, coffee

Planning and Budgeting 21

 • social events, thank-yous • development of a reference library

• skills training Administration

Museum services • phone

• display maintenance, repair, cleaning • postage

• conservation of displayed objects • photocopying

• conservation of stored objects • stationery

• documentation of incoming objects for • computer hardware and software

collection display development
A typical income and expenditure statement
• acquisition of required objects

• repair and restoration of objects in the During a period of development, a typical budget
collection, as appropriate for a progressive, independent museum with annual
visitor numbers of about 6,000 might be structured
• development and maintenance of storage area as follows:

Income ($) Expenditure ($)

Admissions 8,500 Rates incl. water 1,500
Shop sales 4,500 Repairs/maintenance 1,000
Fund-raising 2,000 Insurance 1,500
Rent 2,000 Light and power 1,500
Interest 500 Administration 900
Grant—Rotary 1,000 Wages (grounds) 500
Grant—MAGP 6,000 Cleaning materials 200
Grant—contributions 3,000 Pest control 300
Stock for shop 3,500
Fund-raising costs 250
Amenities 100
Transport costs 100
Display—museum 4,500
Conservation—museum 3,000
Conservation—store 1,500
Tourism membership 100
Signage 1,000
Petty cash 700
Advertising 4,000
Totals 26,500 26,500

22 Planning and Budgeting

 Budget planning expenditure may be moderated, for example, in
anticipation of an upcoming period of low income
generation. It is important to monitor attendance
Review past budgets. Take into account strategic
figures, especially for institutions to which
and operational plans. Consider initiatives
admission is by donation only. By analysing the
alongside income and expenditure.
income per visitor via the donation box and in
relation to shop sales, strategies can be adopted
When framing a budget it is essential to take into
to maximise returns in each of these areas.
account past budgets, and to examine the
Monitoring attendances also provides valuable
relationship between the budgetary performance
information which may be used as part of a
and the achievement of objectives. For example,
package aimed at attracting sponsorship.
Were the objectives achieved? If not, why not?
Was the failure to achieve the year’s program
As well as considering the aspects mentioned
related to availability of money? If this was the
above, it is also important when going through
case what—if anything—can be done about it?
this planning process to examine initiatives in areas
such as alternative funding sources. Is there the
The review process may result in either a
opportunity to seek corporate sponsorship? What
realignment of priorities or the reassessment of the
grant sources are available that may be of
proposed expenditure and sources of income.
assistance for particular projects? Both government
and non-government sectors should be targeted. It
As most of the income in small museums tends to
is worthwhile contacting groups such as Museums
be used in its day-to-day running, framing the
Australia, the Heritage Councils and the
budget may have to link some aspects of a
Departments of Tourism, as well as local government
program to specific fund-raising efforts.
agencies, for advice on funding sources.
The budget must take into account both the
Control process
strategic and operational plans, with money
allocated to projects described in those
During the financial year it is important to monitor
documents. There is an intimate relationship
expenditure and income. While it is acknowledged
between planning and budgeting: budgetary
that money allocated for a period of 12 months
constraints must be considered when objectives are
will not be spent in equal amounts each month, it
set and, conversely, objectives of the organisation
is useful to monitor the relationship between the
must be taken into account when framing the
period over which money has been spent and the
budget. Finding the correct balance between
corresponding proportion of the budget that has
planning and budgeting is critical if an
been spent. This may then prevent a blow-out in
organisation is to have a realistic chance of
the budget.
achieving its objectives.
Likewise it is important to monitor projected
It is wise to build some flexibility into the budget,
sources of income. Are visitor numbers and takings
if possible. Despite the best plans and intentions,
at the door sufficient to match the projected
costs do blow out and anticipated revenue may not
income? How successful have the fund-raising
match that projected in the budget. In addition,
efforts been so far? By looking at both sides of the
unanticipated opportunities may arise, which you
ledger, it may be possible to alter programs to take
should take advantage of. Having a contingency
into account changed circumstances.
allocation set aside would be of obvious benefit in
both these instances.
Monitoring and adjustment are important aspects
of the budgetary process, especially for
Budget planning should also take into account the
organisations which do not have a guaranteed
experiences of past years with respect to both
annual income.
income generation and expenditure. For a small
museum or gallery which depends on admission
Review process
fees and shop sales for most of its funding, there
will be obvious peaks and troughs throughout the
Reviewing the budget is not just an activity that
year, corresponding to school holidays and tourist
takes place as the end of the financial year
patterns. By being aware of these patterns,
approaches. It is ongoing, and an inevitable part

Planning and Budgeting 23

 of the processes associated with monitoring Self-evaluation quiz
income and expenditure during the year. The
review process should examine the following
aspects of budgetary performance projected
Question 1.
expenditure against that actually spent; projected
income against that actually received; and the
relationship between budgetary performance and Which of the following statements are false?
the achievement of programs.
a) Planning and budgeting have nothing to do
The outcomes of this review will influence the with each other.
framing of the next budget, as well as operational b) Planning and budgeting should be balanced
and strategic plans. It is a time to evaluate overall for the best results.
strategies in light of performance. Any changes
in circumstances must be taken into account at c) Budgeting determines the planning process.
this stage.
d) Museum planning is a specialised area and
cannot be done without expert knowledge and
training.
Conclusion
e) Organisations don’t need to plan or budget—
Funding is often very restricted in small museums these are just activities designed to fill in
and collecting institutions, and it is therefore very time.
important that the best use is made of available
funds. Planning and budgeting will help you to Question 2.
do this.
What are the prerequisites for planning?
Planning and budgeting also are vital steps to be
taken toward providing proper care for museum, a) Have a statement of purpose for the
gallery and library collections. Without forward organisation.
planning it is very easy for all available resources to
be used in day-to-day operations. And if the day-to- b) Carry out a SWOT analysis.
day operations swallow up all the resources,
c) Have policies in place to provide a framework
expensive problems can be developing quietly in the
for decision-making.
background. It is wise to encourage the allocation
of at least a portion of the budget to conservation. d) Know what your budget will be for the next
10 years.
The focus of spending on conservation should be
directed to identifying what the problems are, Question 3.
fixing them and slowing down deterioration of the
collections. Improving the conditions and the
environment in storage and display areas will be of The steps involved in planning via aims and
greater benefit in the long term than treatments objectives are:
applied to objects which are then returned to
a) work out all your broad aims and divide them
inappropriate storage or display environments.
up into detailed objectives;

b) write down everyone’s ideas on a whiteboard

For further reading and be sure not to be critical;

c) carry out a SWOT analysis, review its result

Lord, G.D. & Lord, B.L., 1991, The Manual of against the mission statement, define
Museum Planning, HMSO, London. objectives;

d) explore visions, carry out a SWOT analysis,

review its result against the mission
statement, set priorities and define
objectives.

24 Planning and Budgeting

 Question 4.
A SWOT analysis looks at:
a) the elements of the environment in which an
organisation operates;
b) the visions of the people in the organisation;
c) what the organisation needs;
d) the strengths and weaknesses of, and the
opportunities for and threats to, a particular
organisation.
Question 5.
Which of the following statements apply to a
strategic plan?
a) It is a plan which details the resources that
will be committed to the achievement of
objectives.
b) It is a plan which outlines the long-term
aspirations and goals for an organisation.
c) It should identify major goals and the staging
of processes that will lead to their
achievement.
d) It is a plan that identifies, in detail, the
conservation program for the next year.
e) All aspects of the organisation and its
operating environment must be considered in
the plan.
Question 6.
Which of the following statements are true?
a) Budgeting is the process of planning income
and expenditure for a specific time-period or
project.
b) When framing a budget it is essential to take
into account past budgets and to examine the
relationship between the budgetary
performance and the achievement of
objectives.
c) Finding the correct balance between planning
and budgeting is completely unnecessary for
any organisation.
d) Budgets, once developed, must be completely
rigid. Changing them is irresponsible.
e) During the financial year it is important to
monitor expenditure and income.
Answers to
self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Answer: a), c), d) and e) are all false. Planning
and budgeting are complementary parts of a
management approach essential for the effective
and efficient use of resources in running a
museum, gallery or library. Best use is made of
these processes only if they are in balance. To
maintain this balance, budgeting should not
determine the planning process, neither should
unrealistic visions be pursued without any
consideration of economic feasibility. Planning can
be learnt by all members of an organisation.
Planning and budgeting are necessary processes for
the most effective use of resources and to provide
the organisation with a focus for their operations.
Question 2.
Answer: a) and c). Planning can take place without
knowing your budget exactly. You may plan for
programs that require you to look for alternative
funds which are not part of your usual funding. A
SWOT analysis is part of the planning process—you
don’t need to complete it before you commence
planning.
Question 3.
Answer: d) lists the steps involved, in the order in
which they should take place.
Question 4.
Answer: a) and d). A SWOT analysis provides the
factors against which the visions can be compared;
it does not examine these visions. It may identify
needs, but it does not set out to examine the
needs of the organisation.
Planning and Budgeting 25
 Question 5.

Answer: b), c) and e). The other statements refer

to plans that are more specific and narrower in
focus than the strategic plan.

Question 6.

Answer: a), b) and e) are true, c) and d) are false.

Finding the correct balance between planning and
budgeting is critical if an organisation is to have a
realistic chance of achieving its objectives. It is
wise to build some flexibility into the budget if
possible. Despite the best of plans and intentions,
costs do blow out and anticipated revenue may not
match that projected in the budget. Unanticipated
opportunities may also arise, which you should
take advantage of. Having a contingency allocation
set aside would be of obvious benefit in both
these instances.

26 Planning and Budgeting

Aquisitions and
Signifi c ance

Objectives page 29
Introduction page 29
Acquisition page 29
Assessment of significance page 31
Objects significant to your collection page 34
Object not significant to your collection page 34
Examples of significance and decision-making page 35
Assessment of significance and setting priorities page 36
For further reading page 36
Self-evaluation quiz page 37
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 38
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should understand:
• the ways in which items are acquired for a
museum, gallery or library;
• the processes, policy considerations and legal
issues involved in acquisitions;
• what significance means in relation to
museum, library and gallery collections;
• why it is important to have criteria on
significance as part of an acquisition policy;
and
• how knowing the significance of an object
can help institutions set priorities for work
programs and the allocation of resources.
Hand-drawn cart and fire hose reel with a horse-drawn
Shand Mason fire engine in the background to the
left. These rare pieces are from the South Australian
Metropolitan Fire Services Historical Collections.
Photograph courtesy of the History Trust of
South Australia
Introduction
Setting up the proper framework for your museum,
gallery or library is just one side of the management
process. The other is having a collection to manage.
This section begins to focus on dealing with your
collection, starting at the point of obtaining material.
The following sections concentrate on what you do
with the material you have acquired—collection
management—and how you protect it while making
it available to the public—access to collections.
A good collection does not necessarily just grow, it
is developed through careful planning. Every
object in your collection should in some way
contribute to the aims of your museum, gallery or
library. Just as much thought should be given to
refusing material as to obtaining it. Every item in
your collection, even if it is a gift, costs money in
terms of staff time, record-keeping, maintenance,
storage and display. Wise decisions made about
what material you accept could provide
tremendous savings in the future, and ultimately
result in a better collection.
The process of obtaining material, the decisions made
about what to obtain and the policies that drive
these decisions make up the acquisition process.
Acquisition
This telephone duplicates one already in the collection
and has no associated documentation. It would not be
accepted.
Photograph courtesy of the History Trust of
South Australia
Acquisition is the process of obtaining legal
possession of an item for accessioning into a
collection. It can be by three methods:
• donation—the process of acquiring an item
whereby a donor gives that item or a group of
items to the institution;
• purchase—acquisition involving the transfer
of legal ownership by exchange of money.
Many institutions will not have to deal with
this method, because they do not maintain
acquisition budgets; and
• bequest—acquisition involving an individual
transferring title of an item to the institution
upon his or her death, through a will.
Aquisitions and Significance 29
 When an object is offered to an organisation,
information about the object should be gathered,
to be used in assessing the item at an acquisition
committee meeting.
Acquisition committees
An acquisition committee is formed to decide
which items are suitable for the institution to
acquire, based on the information gathered about
the items.
In large organisations, the committee is usually
made up of a group of curators representing the
various interests of the organisation. In smaller
institutions, the committee could be made up of
three or four people who have a particular interest
in the development of the collection. They should
be prepared to do some networking and research
to find more information about some objects.
The work of an acquisition committee is made
easier if the museum, gallery or library has a
written acquisition policy to help guide the
committee’s decisions.
Policy considerations
It is possible to refuse an item on the grounds
that it does not fit into the acquisition policy of
the institution. It is important not to accept items
that the institution cannot afford to take. Items
which are too large to be stored, which are too
badly decayed to be conserved, which already exist
in the collection or have no significance to the
museum, gallery or library, should be refused.
There are also some categories of objects your
institution may decide not to acquire, for example,
Aboriginal skeletal remains or secret or sacred
objects. It is important to determine what you
should not acquire, and ensure that this is noted
in your policy statements.
The following is an example of a checklist for
acquisition, used by the History Trust of South
Australia.
1. The object is of historical significance.
2. The object fits the collection aim of the
institution.

Contents of an acquisition policy 3. The object is relevant to the purposes and

collection aim of the institution.
The Jewish Museum of Australia in Melbourne has a 4. The object is in good condition.
lengthy acquisition policy, divided into sections
which clearly set out the aims of collecting and 5. The object can adequately and appropriately
areas to be considered. An outline of its policy is be conserved, catalogued and stored.
presented here, as an example of what can be
included in an acquisition policy. 6. The intending donor has legal title to the
object.

The Jewish Museum of Australia

Acquisition Policy (outline)

1. Aims and Philosophy of the Jewish Museum of Australia

2. Why the Jewish Museum of Australia Collects
3. What the Jewish Museum Collects
4. (a) Selection of Acquisitions: Ritual, Historical and Personal
4. (b) Selection of Acquisitions: Works of Art
5. Contractual Considerations between Donors and Museum
6. Accessibility of Collection
7. Deaccession Policy

Courtesy of Museums Australia Inc. Victoria, with permission of the Jewish Museum of Australia

30 Acquisitions and Significance

7. The object is donated free of encumbrances.
8. The object has clearly established provenance.
9. Acquisition of the object does not
unnecessarily duplicate material already in
the institution’s collections.
10. Acquisition of the object does not unduly
compete with acquisition policies of other
public institutions.
Points 6 and 7 above are very important. You
should confirm legal ownership before an object
can be accessioned into the collection.
Legalities
Once the decision is made to acquire an object, it
is important to:
• ensure that the donor understands the
implications of signing an Object Donation
form, which ensures that legal title of the
item is transferred to the institution;
• deal with the legalities, in the case of
bequests and purchases, to ensure the
institution can use the object as it wishes.
For example, the object may come to you
with conditions that limit its use or make it
uneconomical to accept. It may be possible
to negotiate to have such restrictions relaxed.
When objects are donated, every attempt should
be made to find out who owns the copyright.
Copyright is a complicated issue, and specific
inquiries should be made either to the Australian
Copyright Council (02) 9318 1788, or the Arts Law
Centre of Australia (02) 9356 2566.
Assessment of significance
It is a fundamental fact of life that some things
are more important than others. We are confronted
by this continually. If you’re going on holiday,
what items will you pack? What will you leave
behind? Why are some issues given greater
prominence in the news?
Most people would also be aware that something
which is significant to one group of people may
have little or no meaning at all to others. For
example, religious icons sacred to some cultural
groups are largely irrelevant to others. Similarly,
an object may have no significance to one museum
yet be quite significant to another. A mouldboard
plough, for example, is of no interest to a doll
museum, but might be highly relevant to a
museum of farm machinery.
Uniqueness plays a part in significance. If an
object is duplicated in a museum collection, its
significance is often diminished.
The significance of an item will vary depending on
what it is and what collection it is in. And its
significance will, in turn, have a bearing on how it
is managed and its future treatment in the
collection.
What is significance?
Significance will be defined differently by each
museum, gallery and library; and considerable work
has been done by organisations which have already
arrived at their own definitions of significance.
It is helpful to look at some of the broad
categories already developed by others, in order to
get a clearer picture of the values you may wish to
include in a definition of significance.
The Australian National Committee of the
International Council on Monuments and Sites
(Australia ICOMOS) adopted a charter, known as
the Burra Charter, in 1979, which provides ethical
and practical guidelines for the selection of built
heritage sites for conservation and for the
conservation treatment of those sites. The charter
is based on principles that are accepted world-
wide. In 1984 the committee adopted guidelines
to assist in determining cultural significance:
Cultural significance is a concept which helps in
estimating the value of places. The places that are
likely to be of significance are those which help
an understanding of the past or enrich the
present, and which will be of value to future
generations.
In the Burra Charter, assessing cultural significance
means determining the aesthetic, historic,
scientific and/or social value of a place.
Definitions of significance can be very broad or
quite narrow. The Burra Charter is designed to
cover sites and monuments over the whole country
and therefore has to be broad enough to
encompass a range of local differences.
Most museums and galleries will be concerned with
collecting only in relation to their own locality or
Acquisitions and Significance 31
 their special area of interest. Their definitions of
significance should reflect this.
It should be noted also that although the definitions
of significance in the Burra Charter are designed to
cover sites and monuments, they can be applied
easily to other types of objects, and have been.
Significance and collection management
The assessment of the significance of objects has an
important function in both the decision to acquire
an object and in collection management. Knowing
the significance of an item can help museums,
galleries and libraries determine such matters as:
• whether they should acquire an item;
• whether an item should have conservation
treatment and whether there is a high priority
for this treatment;
• how it will be conserved—what information
and attached wrappings, labels and dirt, must
be preserved along with the item;
• whether the item will go on immediate display
and whether there are any protocols to be
observed in the way the item is displayed;
• whether the item should be displayed in a
particular way to give heightened emphasis to
particular features; and
• how much interpretive material is required.
Many specialist and local museums face the
problem of large backlogs of items which have yet
to be registered. Assessing the significance of each
object in turn will help the museum decide
whether it should be accessioned or become
Special Purpose Material. This process should also
determine whether or not the object should even
be accepted into the collection.
The assessment of significance is not always easy;
and it is even more difficult to make judgments
about the relative significance of objects. Taking
three objects at random from a typical local
museum, how would you rank the relative
significance of a police baton, a corn dolly and a
fob watch? The answer may depend not merely on
the objects themselves, but on their provenance or
accompanying documentation, which provides
supporting information about their manufacture and
history of use. For a great many museum objects,
significance is greatly enhanced if information
exists on their history of ownership and use. Such
32 Acquisitions and Significance
information may lead you to research the item
further, in order to establish its significance relative
to other items in the collection.
Assessment of the
significance of acquisitions
As stated earlier, most museums and galleries will
be concerned with collecting only in relation to
their own locality or their special area of interest.
It is worthwhile to clearly define that locality or
special interest in order to:
• develop curatorial guidelines to assist in
decisions about allocation of resources;
• develop an acquisition policy; and
• make it clear to other organisations what
your interests are. This can lead to greater
cooperation between organisations, and
reduces the chance of clashes with other
museums or galleries in the region.
By networking you can be more aware of
what other institutions are doing.
When determining whether or not to acquire an
object, test each object against a list of curatorial
criteria. Lists of criteria are often contained in the
collections policy. There is no set number of
criteria which each object should fulfil. It may be
that only one of the criteria is met but, if the
supporting evidence is strong enough, this might
be sufficient to justify acquisition of the object.
Below is an extract from the History Trust of South
Australia’s acquisition policy document, which sets
out its criteria for historical significance. These
criteria are quite detailed and reflect this
organisation’s position as a large collecting
institution. Smaller organisations may have less
complex criteria.
Other factors in determining whether or not to
acquire an object could include:
• its future display purpose;
• whether it is original or has been
substantially restored;
• whether it will increase our understanding
and knowledge of some aspect of our history
if placed in association with other related
objects, for example, if it were one of a group
of devotional objects; and
• the size of the object.
 Historical Significance

Discussion

An object, site, activity, idea or the like is considered historically significant if it is important to the
history of South Australia.

The History Trust of South Australia describes the historical significance of an object according to the
criteria set out below.

The practice varies between the History Trust’s divisions. The National Motor Museum, for example, has a
national rather than a South Australian focus.

The following criteria are always applied within the context of the History Trust and divisional aims and
objectives as well as acquisition policies.

Criteria

a) Objects which were designed locally

b) Objects which were manufactured locally

c) Objects which were used locally

d) Objects which demonstrate important social or technological changes

e) Objects reflecting creative communal or technical accomplishment

f) Objects which are valued by sections of the South Australian community for social, economic,
cultural, religious or spiritual reasons

g) Objects which demonstrate important social customs

h) Objects associated with important themes in the State’s history, such as early non-Aboriginal
settlement, political and social change and the impact of war

i) Objects which are the first or last of a series

j) Objects which are rare examples of once commonly available types (note: the History Trust
distinguishes sharply between rare survivals of the once common and the rare survival of the
always rare. The National Motor Museum rejects vehicles fitting into the latter category)

k) Five additional criteria are applied where objects meet any of the above criteria:

i) extent of accompanying documentation

ii) condition of the object
iii) cost of preserving and storing the object
iv) relationship to other objects which reinforce its significance
v) availability in collections elsewhere.

Courtesy of the History Trust of South Australia

Acquisitions and Significance 33

 Objects significant to 4. no

your collection 5. yes

6. possibly for exchange

How do you decide what is significant for your
collection? 7. yes

Consider this. Imagine you are the curator of the
Mythical Museum in a small coastal country town
settled by Europeans in 1845. Mythical was
originally a base for sealing and whaling and was
once a busy shipping port with a railway line
connecting it to the interior, a busy centre for
agricultural exports. It is now a busy service
community whose economic future will be strongly
linked to tourism as well as to agriculture and
other service industries.
Would you accept or reject the following items which
have been offered to your museum? This example
was adapted from a book by Ellis Burcaw (1975).
1. The wedding suit of the town’s first mayor;
2. a well-catalogued collection of North
American birds’ eggs;
3. a stone reputedly brought back from the
shores of Gallipoli by a veteran of
World War I;
4. a header harvester in poor condition;
5. the uniform of a local Aboriginal soldier who
served in World War I;
6. a small collection of carnival glass—there is
no accompanying documentation;
8. possibly for exchange
9. yes
10. It would depend on how important the local
identity had been in the town’s history, and
what other objects relating to him are held by
the museum.
There are no right answers for any of these. Each
object should be examined individually. What is
important to one group of people, say with an
interest in Mythical’s civic history, may be
considered insignificant and of no interest by
another group with a passionate interest in sealing
and whaling.
Some items could be worthwhile keeping as Special
Purpose Material, which could be held for possible
future exchange or for educational purposes. If
acquiring an object is completely out of the
question, it may be possible to refer the would-be
donor to a more suitable museum or collecting
institution.
Objects not significant
to your collection

7. the piano owned by a woman who taught music

to children from the district for 30 years;

8. a BSA motor bike, restored by an enthusiast

who brought it with him to the district two
years ago;

9. a quilt made by the local branch of the

Country Women’s Association to commemorate
the town’s 150th anniversary;

10. a meteorite collected from another State by a

local identity 30 years ago.

Some suggested answers in numerical order are:

A rare surviving example of a Cornish bier, used in
1. yes funeral ceremonies at Moonta, South Australia, from
the 1880s. Displayed at the Moonta Mines Museum.
2. no Photograph courtesy of the History Trust of
South Australia
3. no

34 Aquisitions and Significance

Once you have established your criteria for
assessing significance, it won’t be long before
objects are identified as not significant. At this
stage, the action you take will depend on whether
the objects have been accessioned into the
collection or not.
If the object has not yet been accessioned into
the collection:
• it is important to explain politely to the
potential donor why it is unsuitable for the
collection. Everybody believes their object has
value, whether monetary or sentimental. It is
important when refusing an object to explain
clearly and concisely why it does not fit
within your organisation’s acquisition policy;
• outright refusal to accept an object without
explanation and giving no alternative may
offend the would-be donor, so it is
worthwhile offering some alternatives. There
may be other museums, galleries or libraries
which would welcome the object;
• remember that the potential donor may have
other objects which are considered both
significant and worthy of collection. An
insensitive refusal may guarantee that those
objects are never offered to your institution,
or to any other; and
• when acquiring objects, it is vital to be aware
that every item has an associated cost for
storage and conservation. Accepting an
unsuitable object will merely add to the
financial burden of the institution, which is
probably already stretching the dollar as far
as it will go.
If an object is already in the collection and is
judged to be not significant, it can be
deaccessioned. Examples of objects deaccessioned
because they were not considered significant to
particular collections include a Lutheran Bible from
the National Motor Museum and an AWA Radiola
receiver from the South Australian Telstra
Historical Collection.
The reverse situation can also occur—some objects
at first appear to have little relevance to
collections until their history is established. An
example of this is a pair of pliers from the South
Australian Telstra Historical Collection.
These examples are explained in more detail in the
following section.
Examples of significance and
decision-making
Lutheran bible from the National Motor Museum
The National Motor Museum aims to establish a
collection of objects representative of Australian
road motor transport history.
Lutheran bibles from the National Motor Museum.
Photographs courtesy of the History Trust of
South Australia
The Lutheran Bible was originally accepted when
the museum was both a motor museum and a local
history museum. Since then the collection policy
was refined, so that the museum now specialises
only in motor vehicles. At that time the Bible was
offered to the nearest local museum, but was not
accepted. The museum already had an extensive
collection of Lutheran Bibles and was not prepared
to add to their duplication.
When the original donor found that the Bible was
not being displayed, he requested it be returned
to him.
Obviously, the Bible does not meet the collection
criteria of the National Motor Museum, and it has
no significance to Australian road motor transport
history. The museum feels it is entirely appropriate
that it be returned to the original donor, and has
recommended to its governing body that the Bible
be deaccessioned.
AWA Radiola receiver
The South Australian Telstra Historical Collection
has two main criteria to establish significance
within that collection:
• technological objects designed and/or
manufactured in South Australia; and
• objects with a direct relevance to the
activities of Telstra and its predecessors in
South Australia.
Aquisitions and Significance 35
 AWA Radiola Reciever–Not as special as I look!
This attractive console radio receiver will not be
taken into the collection because:
• it has no connection with the history of
telecommunications in South Australia;
• there is no provenance or history of use
information associated with this object;
• it has no connection with Telstra;
• it was designed and manufactured by AWA in
Sydney; and
• it does not appear in official company
catalogues, so may be a prototype rather than
a production model.
AWA Radiola
receiver.
Photograph courtesy
of the History Trust
of South Australia
Pair of pliers—Thousands like me!
This 19th century pair of pliers is important to the
collection because:
• it has established provenance, including the
name of the lineman who owned it;
Pliers used in the construction of the Overland
Telegraph Line.
Photograph courtesy of the History Trust of South
Australia
36 Aquisitions and Significance
• it was used in the construction of the
Overland Telegraph Line, one of the
collection’s defined areas of interest; and
• there is archival information, including work
details of the lineman and the Overland
Telegraph construction in general, to provide
a context for this otherwise undistinguished
object.
Assessment of significance
and setting priorities
Objects which have been identified as significant
within a collection should be given priority in
terms of their conservation. At its simplest, this
means ensuring that they are given preference
when it comes to providing secure covered storage
or display space. If a conservation survey shows
that a number of objects require treatment, again,
the most significant items should have priority.
Keep in mind that an object which was made
locally but which may not have been widely used
outside your district may be more significant to
your museum than a similar object which enjoyed
wider use. For example, there may have been a
blacksmith or implement maker who built a
successful local business but could not compete
later with larger manufacturers. One of his ploughs
could still be more important to your museum than
another type used locally but manufactured
elsewhere. If so, its conservation should have
greater priority.
If you have a problem relating to the
acquisition and significance of objects, contact
a conservator. Conservators can offer advice and
practical solutions.
For further reading
Buck, Rebecca A., Jean Allman-Gilmore, eds.
1998, The New Museum Registration Methods,
American Association of Museums, Washington
DC.
Burcaw, G. Ellis, 1975, Introduction to Museum
Work, The American Association for State and
Local History, Nashville.
History Trust of South Australia 1993, Collection
Management Policy, History Trust of South
Australia, Adelaide.
ICOMOS 1975, The Australian ICOMOS Charter for
the Conservation of Places of Cultural
Significance (The Burra Charter), ICOMOS, Burra
Burra, Australia.
Speirs, Goeff, 1990, Collecting South Australian
History, Community History Unit, History Trust
of South Australia, Adelaide.
Thompson, John M.A. et al., eds. 1992, Manual of
Curatorship—A Guide to Museum Practice, 2nd
edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford & Boston.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Name three methods by which objects are
acquired.
Question 2.
Some of the main reasons why museums should
assess the significance of objects for their own
collections are:
a) they may already be duplicated in the
collections, or other museums in the locality
or region may hold examples;
b) objects of particular significance should be
given priority for conservation work;
c) some of them may be secret or sacred objects
which can only be viewed, for example, by
initiated Aboriginal men;
d) it would be desirable to feature particular
aspects of some objects in displays, for
example, the weighted return on a stump
jump plough;
e) some objects need quite a lot of
interpretation before visitors can properly
appreciate them;
f) all of the above.
Question 3.
Assume that you are the curator of a local history
museum in a small town from a region renowned
for its wheat and barley farming. Would you accept
or reject the following objects offered to you as a
donation?
a) An operational Hornby Dublo model railway
collection, acquired over many years by a
local enthusiast.
b) A Diamond T fire engine used in the district
for many years.
c) A mid-Victorian rosewood chair on cabriole
supports, made in England and offered by a
local resident who inherited it from her
mother in Sydney.
d) A Scottish niblick with a steel head, leather
grip and hickory shaft.
e) A forge and bellows used for many years by a
local implement maker.
Question 4.
If someone offers you an object which is not
significant from the point of view of your
collections, you should:
a) acquire it anyway;
b) refer it to your committee for consideration;
c) refuse it at the time of the offer;
d) refuse it after committee consideration, with
a polite letter explaining why the object is
not suitable for your collections;
e) direct the would-be donor to a more
appropriate museum or collection.
Question 5.
An object offered for donation could be refused
because:
a) the object duplicates an object already in the
collection;
b) the object has no supporting documentation;
Aquisitions and Significance 37
 c) the object is in so bad a condition that it Question 3.
would either be too costly to repair or not
feasible to try;
Answer:
d) the object has no significance to the role of
the institution; a) No

e) any of the above. b) Yes, provided suitable storage can be found

c) No
Question 6.
d) No
A local museum should acquire an object if:
e) Yes
a) it is rare now but once was in common use in
the district; Question 4.
b) it is a rare survival of something that was
always rare; Answer: b), d) and e). The decision to accept or
reject should be made by the organisation, not by
c) it was made elsewhere but commonly used an individual within it. Potential donors are entitled
locally; to an explanation as to why the object offered is
not suitable; and there may well be another
d) there is very little known about the object, museum which would be eager to acquire it.
but it has value as an antique;

e) it has no special significance but it is only Question 5.

small.
Answer: e).

Answers to Question 6.
self-evaluation quiz Answer: a) and c). If it was in common use it
represents an important aspect of local history,
Question 1. whereas if it was always rare it has little historical
meaning. Even if it was made elsewhere, its history
of use in the district is important. Objects of
Answer: Objects are acquired through purchase, antique value may have no local significance
donation or bequest. whatever, and museum collections will soon
become cluttered and inaccessible if they take the
Question 2. easy option and accept everything.

Answer: f). Museums should be aware of the

significance of objects before they acquire them.
Particularly important objects should be given
priority for conservation work; some may have
restrictions on how they can be viewed, while
others may need to have particular features
emphasised, or require a great deal of
interpretation so that their significance can be
understood.

38 Aquisitions and Significance

 Collection
Surveys and
Condition
Reporting

Objectives page 41
Introduction page 41
Examining objects page 41
Graphic reporting on condition page 45
Collection surveys page 46
Condition reporting page 48
For further reading page 55
Self-evaluation quiz page 55
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 56
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• understand the value of examining and
recording the condition of your collection and
individual items in the collection;
• appreciate the use of collection surveys as a
collection management tool;
• appreciate the need for condition reports to
accompany travelling exhibitions;
• have a clearer understanding of what to
report and the language to use in reporting;
and
• understand the use of photographs and
diagrams in condition reporting.
Introduction
This section is essentially about the examination
of collections, of the individual items in
collections and/or the environments in which
collections or items are kept. Examining items to
determine their condition is an extremely
important part of collection management.
There are two commonly used examination procedures
are collection surveys and condition reports.
Collection surveys serve as a snapshot of the
collection, or part of the collection, at a particular
time. The level of detail of surveys will vary
according to what you wish to know. The
information gained can be extremely useful for
planning for the future; and it should give you a
very clear picture of the extent of the problems
you face in maintaining and managing your
collection. Knowing the extent of the problem and
setting up a program of action to deal with it is
far better than being taken by surprise.
Condition reports can be used as part of the survey
process, if you are looking at individual items in
detail. They are also prepared before conservation
treatments, and are commonly used for travelling
exhibitions and for loans. Before an item leaves
your museum, gallery or library for a travelling
exhibition or on loan, you should document its
condition. If the item is going to a number of
venues, it is wise to have condition reporting
documents that travel with it. These forms should
be filled out on arrival at and departure from each
venue. If a work is damaged, these forms will help
in determining what damage occurred, how the
damage occurred, and how to prevent the problem
recurring. They can also assist in insurance claims.
Examining objects
Examination of items can occur at any time, but
there is much to be gained from a systematic
approach.
Firstly, it is wise to examine items which you are
thinking of acquiring. It may be that you decide
not to acquire an item if its poor condition will
make it a liability.
A good time to examine items and record their
condition is when they are being accessioned. This
way you have a record of their condition from the
beginning and can compare this with future
condition reports.
Surveys are also a fundamental part of developing
a conservation plan for your collections.
Conservation plans provide museums, galleries and
libraries with a framework for managing the
preservation and conservation of their collections.
Collection surveys identify the conservation needs
of the collections and can also identify any
problems with storage and display environments.
Before you examine any items, decide on the
information you want to know and the amount of
detail you will find helpful. Planning will allow you
to record relevant information, and reduce the risk
of overlooking important points. It will also help
you decide whether you want to examine every
item or a representative sample of the collection.
The method of recording the information is equally
important. Information resulting from the
examination should be readily accessible for it to
be of maximum use.
Planning ahead and preparing a suitable space for
the examination will reduce the risk of damage.
Don’t examine items on cluttered desks or where
there is constant activity—this is courting disaster.
Examination of collections can involve taking
items off display; and it is therefore important to
plan the timing of this activity, so that it doesn’t
coincide with peak visitor period and does happen
when your most experienced staff and volunteers
are available.
Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting 41
 It is vital that during the examination of objects
they are handled correctly and supported
adequately, so that they are not damaged.
For more information
For more information on the correct handling
of objects, please see Handling, Transportation,
Storage and Display.
Examination—getting ready
Proper preparation for the examination can make
things much easier and allow you to be more
efficient. Before examining items from your collection:
• ensure you have a clear, dedicated space with
adequate lighting and a tabletop large
enough for the job;
• the place for examination should be at the
same temperature and relative humidity levels
as the usual display or storage environment.
If necessary, let the objects become
conditioned gradually to the new environment;
For more information
For more information on the effects of exposing
objects to fluctuations in relative humidity and
temperature, please see Damage and Decay.
• lighting in the examination area is likely to
be brighter than usually recommended for
display, but this is necessary to see detail
clearly. Objects should be exposed to these
higher light levels for short periods only;
• plan how to move objects from their usual
position to the examination area;
• consider gathering together some basic
equipment;
• lamps or torches can be used for additional
light and to provide directional or raking light;
• small magnifiers such as thread counters or
photographic magnifiers are reasonably cheap
and come in magnifications of about 8x or
10x. This magnification is perfect for routine
examination of most items;
• if you have access to a light box, it can be
very useful for examining paper, textiles and
paintings. If the item is larger than the light
box, you will still need to support the item
fully;
42 Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting
• white cotton gloves will protect your objects
from oils, salts and sweat from your hands.
Clean, close-fitting surgical gloves are a good
alternative to cotton gloves;
• pencils—not pens—are to be used for
recording your findings;
• camera and film if you are planning to
photograph items;
• a fine palette knife or stamp handling
tweezers to help lift fine delicate materials;
• have your recording system planned and
prepared before you commence. Use the same
system for similar materials; and
• discuss the terms you will use to describe the
items if a number of people are to be
involved in the examination. People’s use of
language is very subjective, and this can lead
to inconsistencies in the description of the
condition of items.
Lighting for examination
In addition to examining objects under good even
light, it can be helpful to use:
• raking light. This is light which is very
strongly directional and emphasises surface
characteristics;
light source
viewer’s position
Raking light
emphasise the
uneven surface of
this creased and
damaged poster.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia,
reproduced with the
permission of The
South Australian
Performing Arts
Collection
• strong light reflecting off the surface of the
object can also be useful in examination,
because it emphasises detail and can help
determine the surface texture, the continuity
of surface coatings and the differences in ink
qualities on a document, as well as
distinguishing between surface and ingrained
dirt; and
• transmitted light—for example—by placing
an item on a light box will reveal splits,
insect damage and small tears and areas of
weakness in paper, textiles and paintings.
Sometimes such damage is not clearly visible
until the object is examined with transmitted
light.
Light source
Viewer’s position
This floral embroidery has been placed
on a light box; the light transmitted through
the object clearly shows areas of damage.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with the permission of Ms M Gabb
Other diagnostic tools and techniques are
available; however, they require specialist
equipment, and many require specialist knowledge
to interpret the results.
What to record
Type of item
This could be:
• watercolour on paper
• 19th century dress
• wooden mask with feathers
• plough
• oil painting on canvas
• leather harness
• photograph
• certificate
• ceramic bowl
• book
• sword
• lace tablecloth
• cutlery
• bark painting
• acrylic painting on door
• Bakelite radiogram
• ivory miniature glass jug
Item details
• title of object, if any;
• name of artist, manufacturer, author;
• provenance, if known; and
• date and place of manufacture.
Dimensions
These should be recorded in millimetres. For
example, an A4 piece of paper is 297 mm x 210 mm.
The convention is that height is recorded first.
The dimensions of three-dimensional objects are
recorded in the order of height, width and depth.
For recording the dimensions of irregularly shaped
objects, agree within the examining group on what
dimensions you will record. For example, for a
teapot you might record height, circumference, and
distance from the tip of spout to the furthest
point of the handle.
Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting 43
 For flat-image items, further descriptive • paper and vellum;
conventions can be useful. Where the height is
greater than the width the work is said to be in • printing ink and handwriting inks;
‘portrait format’. Where the height is less than the
• linen and cotton;
width it is called ‘landscape format’.
• watercolours and reproduction prints;
Number of parts
The number of parts which go to make up the • acrylic paint and oil paint;
item. This could apply to:
• silver gelatine prints and albumen prints;
• a set of books;
• glass and ceramic;
• a broken object;
• silk and some synthetic fabrics;
• a chess set;
• leather and synthetics; and
• a game;
• paint and ink.
• domestic appliances;
Damage
• cutlery sets;
For example:
• agricultural tools;
• losses;
• bottles with bottle tops;
• insect damage;
• furniture;
• tears;
• sculpture;
• mould;
• items in a time capsule; and
• creases;
• a ripped-up photograph.
• slack canvas;
Accessories
• splits;
For example:
• discolouration;
• frames;
• yellowed varnish;
• mounts;
• breakage;
• instruction manuals;
• fading;
• covers or cases; and
• foxing;
• belts, hat bands.
• accretions;
Materials
It is sometimes difficult to determine precisely the • stains;
materials of which the object is made, so it is
• cuts;
advisable to indicate where you are not certain.
The convention for recording information you are • holes;
unsure of is to enclose it in square brackets, for
example, [silver gelatine photograph]. If precise • rust stains;
identification is required, seek expert advice.
• flaking paint/ink;
Examples of materials which can cause confusion
include: • distortion;

44 Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting

• damaged bindings; Graphic reporting
• cracks; on condition
• metal corrosion;
In addition to written reports on the condition of
• yellowed sticky tape; objects, diagrams and photographs can be used.
These are especially useful to indicate the location
• brittle paper; of damage. Photograph or draw the objects from as
many angles as necessary to record the damage.
• cockling;

• abrasion; When using photographic prints to record

condition, you can attach an overlay of Mylar to
• previous repairs; the photograph and, using permanent markers,
note damage on the overlay sheet. This is
• frayed edges; especially helpful for consistency of recording. The
verbal description together with the graphic
• graffiti; and recording give a much fuller picture of your
findings.
• bronze disease.
Provide a key to the symbols you use in the
Examination Details
diagram or on the overlay. For example:
Who examined each object and the date on which
it was examined.

Consistency in recording

If a number of people are to be involved in the

examination, discuss the terms you will use to
describe the items—so that your reports have some
consistency. The sections in this package on the
care of different types of objects will provide you
with more terms for description of damage, as well
as photographs of some typical types of damage.
Producing an overlay
Remember to use simple straightforward language
in all reporting. Other people who use the reports To produce an overlay:
in future may not have the same technical
knowledge that you have. Take a piece of Mylar taller than the photographic
print, and fold the Mylar at the top. Attach the
Terms such as good, fair, reasonable, poor are Mylar fold-over to the back of the photographic
often used in condition reporting, but can create print with double-sided tape, and then note down
problems. What is poor to one person may be fair the condition on the face of the Mylar.
to another. If you use these general terms, try
always to qualify them with a more detailed
description of the object.

Take a piece of Mylar taller Attach the Mylar fold-over to

than the photographic print the back of the photographic
and fold the Mylar at the top. print with double-sided tape
and then note condition on the
face of the Mylar.

Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting 45

 Collection surveys
Collection surveys have the potential to provide an
enormous amount of information vital to planning
the management of your collection. But to be truly
effective, surveys require proper planning. They
take time, and require a good set-up for the safe
examination of the objects.
Before commencing a survey, think about what you
want to find out. This will determine the level of
detail and the scope of the survey.
Do you want to know:
• how your storage and display environment
compares to recommended levels;
• the details of the condition of all items in
your collection;
• the details of the condition of one class of
objects within your collection;
• the details of the condition of a sample of
one class of objects in the collection;
• what you have in the collection;
• how many of each class of item you have in
the collection;
• which items within the collection are
priorities for treatment;
findings are used as a basis for planning. They may
be used in the collection management plan, the
building maintenance plan, the museum, gallery or
library improvement plan, in a disaster response, a
risk management plan, or in developing a
conservation plan.
In view of this, a survey is really not complete
until the findings have been written up,
conclusions drawn and recommendations put
forward.
Most importantly, use the information, don’t just
file it away.
Survey forms
There are no predefined rules for carrying out a
survey correctly. You are better off setting up your
own structure. Once you have decided what
information you want to gather, design a form to
record that information. Using such a form, you
are less likely to forget some of the details you
have to record for each object.
The form on the right is provided as a guide only.
It was designed by Helen Halley, a paper
conservator at Artlab Australia, for a very specific
purpose: a survey of the condition and previous
treatment of works of art on paper owned by
Carrick Hill in South Australia.

• what storage needs upgrading;

• whether the building is sound or if it needs

maintenance;

• what sections of the display need upgrading;

or

• priorities for salvage in a flood or fire?

Or do you just want a general overview of the

condition of the whole collection?

Once you have established the level of detail and

the scope of the survey, you will have an idea of
the extent to which it will disrupt normal
operations. You will then be able to decide when
and how to carry it out, and where to set up the
examination area, if one is needed.

Allow time for reporting after all examinations

are complete. A survey is most effective if the

46 Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting

 Carrick Hill Survey of Paper Works
Summary Sheet

Accession No.

Name of Artist

Name of Work

Type of Work/Medium

Existing Storage Display System/Location

Dimensions

Accessories

Condition

Proposed Treatment Summary

Treatment Steps Hours Materials Cost Estimate

Treatment Priority

Con No.

Previous treatment ❒ Yes ❒ No Year

Recommendations

Signature Date

Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting 47

 Condition reporting

Condition reports

Condition reports are usually produced after a

detailed examination of objects. They need to be
clear and concise. They may be the result of a
collection survey.

They are most often produced as documentation to

accompany travelling exhibitions or loan items. If
items are going to several venues, it is wise to
have condition reporting documents that travel
with them, filled out at each arrival and departure
point. No-one anticipates confrontation over
responsibility for damage. But damage does occur,
and it is important to have an accurate record of
the existing condition, including damages and
repairs, before the items leave.

Condition reports are often accompanied by some

graphic condition report such as a diagram or
photograph with an overlay.

It is advisable to keep copies of condition reports.

Documents travelling with exhibitions can become
lost or separated from the objects they are
supposed to be with.

Some samples of condition report forms used in

travelling exhibitions are shown following.

The first—3 pages—is a very general one which

can be used to cover a broad range of items. The
second—2 text pages and a diagram page—is one
commonly used for paintings. The diagram page is
used to note damage to frames. The example
supplied has been filled out so that you can see
how the form is to be used. Marks denoting
damage are usually colour-coded.

They are provided as a guide only. Use them as

they are, or as a basis for designing your own
forms.

48 Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting

Crate Number: (your logo)

Control Number: (your address)

Exhibition: (phone number)

Condition Report
Origin:

Artist:

Title:

Owner: Accession Number:

Dimensions: H:

mm (Actual Size) W:

D:

Description of Item:

Accessories:

Instructions

• Do not remove from frame or exhibition stand or treat work without permission from:
..........................................................................................................................................

• Please ensure installation teams comply with special installation instructions when setting up,
dismantling and repacking—handle with white cotton gloves at all times.

• Please check the work against the condition report on page 2 and the accompanying photograph
overlay. Record any changes on page 3.

Page 1

Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting 49

 Exhibition: Crate Number:

Artist: Control Number:

Title:

Brief summary of condition of work on departure from owners:

Examined by: Date:

Note: Specific observations are indicated on the accompanying photograph overlay.

Overlay key:

Condition on return:

Changes in condition:

No changes apparent
Examined by: Date:

Page 2

50 Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting

 Exhibition: Crate Number:

Artist: Control Number:

Title:

VENUE A: VENUE A:
Arrival Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

VENUE B: VENUE B:
Arrival Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

VENUE C: VENUE C:
Arrival Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

VENUE D: VENUE D:
Arrival Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

Page 3

The total number of pages used in the Condition Report is determined by the number of venues for the
travelling exhibition.

Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting 51

 CATALOGUE NUMBER: CRATE NUMBER:
TRAVELLING CONDITION REPOR T — PAINTINGS
EXHIBITION:
ACCESSION NUMBER:
ARTIST:
TITLE:
DATE:
MEDIUM:
DIMENSIONS:
PAINTING SUPPORT
1. Tension/strength:
2. Surface plane:
3. Damages:
AUXILIARY SUPPORT
PAINT FILM
4. Craquelure pattern:
5. Cleavage/cupping:
6. Losses:
7. Scratches/abrasions:
SURFACE
8. Appearance:
9. Surface dirt:
10. Abrasions/damages:
FRAME
11. Rigidity:
12. Splits/cracks/losses:
13. Gilding/paint losses:
FITTING
14. Secured by:
15. Backboard:
16. Glazing:
17. Alignment:
GENERAL COMMENTS:
NAME: DATE:

52 Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting

ANY CHANGES IN CONDITION SHOULD BE NOTED.

VENUE A: VENUE A:
Arrival Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

VENUE B: VENUE B:
Arrival Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

VENUE C: VENUE C:
Arrival Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

VENUE D: VENUE D:
Arrival Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

VENUE E: VENUE E:
Departure Departure
New damage: New damage:

No apparent change in condition: No apparent change in condition:

Conservator: Conservator:
Date: Date:

Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting 53

 CATALOGUE NO:
CRATE NO:

TRAVELLING CONDITION REPORT - PAINTINGS

ARTIST:
TITLE:

54 Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting

If you have questions about how to conduct a Question 2.
collection survey or want more information about
condition checking, contact a conservator.
Which of the following should be determined in
Conservators can offer advice and practical
advance when carrying out a survey?
solutions.
a) The depth and scope of the survey.

For further reading b) The outcome of the survey.

c) Where and when the survey will take place.

Allen, Errol J. 1992, Condition Reporting and
Conservation Guidelines for Touring Exhibitions, d) The descriptive terms that will be used in
National Exhibitions Touring Structure for reporting.
Western Australia, Perth.
Question 3.
Kelly, Sara 1994, Travelling Exhibitions—A Practical
Handbook for Non-State Metropolitan and Condition reports are used:
Regional Galleries and Museums, National
Exhibitions Touring support for Victoria, a) as part of the survey process when looking in
Melbourne. detail at an item;

Richard, Mervin, Mecklenburg, Marion F., Merrill, b) to accompany items on loan or in travelling
Ross M., eds. 1991, Art In Transit—Handbook exhibitions;
for Packing and Transporting Paintings, National
Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. c) to determine how damage occurred to an item
whilst on loan, or with a travelling
exhibition;
Stolow, Nathan 1987, Conservation and
Exhibitions: Packing, Transport, Storage and d) to assist with insurance claims if an item is
Environmental Considerations, Butterworths & damaged;
Co., London.
e) all of the above.
Thompson, John 1994, Manual of Curatorship:
A Guide to Museum Practice, Butterworths, Question 4.
London.
Your record should include:

Self-evaluation quiz a) the number of parts that go to make up the

item;

Question 1. b) broad statements using language and terms

that match your technical knowledge;

Examination of objects is undertaken to: c) a note of any accessories of the object,

including frames, mounts and instruction
a) record their condition from the beginning to manuals;
enable future comparison;
d) only terms such as good, fair, reasonable and
b) build a history of items in your collection; poor;

c) determine whether you want to acquire them; e) details of any damage to items;

d) identify the conservation needs of your f) the title of the object, name of artist, date
collection and assist in planning; and place of manufacture.

e) all of the above.

Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting 55

 Question 5.

Why is the use of photographs and diagrams

important as part of condition reporting?

a) They indicate the location of the damage to

the object.

b) Together with the written report, photographs

and diagrams help give a fuller picture of your
findings.

c) They improve the presentation of your report.

d) You can attach an overlay of Mylar to the

photograph and use permanent markers to
note the damage on the overlay sheet.

e) They allow you to produce a visual record

from a number of different angles.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: e).

Question 2.

Answer: a), c) and d).

Question 3.

Answer: e).

Question 4.

Answer: a), c), e) and f). The terms good, fair,

reasonable and poor can be used if it is clearly
understood what you mean by them. It is better to
give detailed descriptions using language and
terms that match your technical knowledge than to
be too vague or too complicated in the
descriptions.

Question 5.

Answer: a), b), d) and e). If you’ve answered c),

this is not a vital consideration, but may be useful
in some circumstances.

56 Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting

Counter-Disaster
Pl anning
Objectives page 59
Introduction page 59
Counter-disaster management page 59
Summary of important points page 60
Prevention page 60
Preparedness page 61
Reaction page 62
Recovery plan page 62
Disasters in Australia’s Climatic Zones page 64
MORE ABOUT COUNTER-DISASTER PLANNING
Hazard assessment page 65
Some causes of damage in a disaster page 65
The counter-disaster plan page 69
Disaster kits page 69
Disaster stores page 70
Disaster response team page 72
Networks page 72
Safety during a disaster page 73
Recovery plan page 73
Assessment checklist page 74
Recovery teams page 74
Recovery specialists page 75
Freezing page 77
Drying wet objects page 77
Procedures for the recovery of
particular types of materials page 78
For further reading page 83
Self-evaluation quiz page 84
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 86
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• conduct a hazard assessment for your own
collection;
• decide on the appropriate materials required
to assemble a disaster bin, and implement
preventive procedures;
extensions. In addition to leaking roofs, burst
pipes, and overflowing gutters and downpipes,
these include blocked drains, air-conditioning
failure, faulty sprinklers and faulty wiring.
Despite this long list of potential hazards, many
custodians and collection managers remain
unaware of the role they can play in disaster
prevention and preparedness.

• prepare a counter-disaster plan for your

organisation;

• understand the need to assess the extent of a

disaster, and quickly assemble the resources
you need to deal with it;

• produce a recovery plan for a disaster;

• implement safe practices for the reaction

phase;

• prevent mould outbreaks and cope with them

if they occur;
This personal computer melted
• understand the need for efficient and during a fire in an office.
effective disaster recovery; Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia

• appreciate the need for training, so that

response and recovery teams can work
effectively;
Counter-disaster management
• select and identify items and formats that
need specific attention, should a disaster Counter disaster management is about:
occur; and
Trying to prevent disasters by being aware of the
• implement drying procedures.
risks to collections and acting to minimise them.

Introduction Being prepared for the possibility of a disaster by

Everyone is familiar with the damage that can
result from fire, flood and earthquake. Every year,
collections all over the world are affected by such
disasters and, more commonly, by water from
leaking roofs, burst pipes and overflowing gutters.
No institution is immune.
In addition to the well-known natural disasters or
acts of God such as cyclones, earthquakes,
volcanoes and floods, there are those caused by
accident or by criminal acts, including vandalism,
arson and bomb attack. Some are caused by
carelessness—such as smoking in the building,
leaving doors or windows open, leaving taps on in
washrooms, kitchens and laboratories—and, finally,
there are those related to building maintenance or
maintaining:
• current contact numbers and addresses for
emergency services;
• lists of people you can call on in an
emergency;
• supplies of materials and equipment; and
• lists of suppliers for equipment and materials.
Knowing how to react to a disaster and knowing
how to recover from a disaster as soon as possible.
Advanced planning for potential disaster can
prevent damage to collections and make the
difference between temporary loss of service and

Counter-Disaster Planning 59
 catastrophe. A written counter-disaster plan is the
key to fast recovery because it provides the
organisation with an immediate response
mechanism. With proper planning, damaged
materials can be salvaged and treated successfully,
losses are dramatically reduced and service is
resumed in a timely matter.
Being prepared and implementing preventive
practices is an integral part of preservation.
Summary of important points
Advanced planning for potential disasters involves:
• hazard assessment;
• implementing preventive practices;
• developing and documenting a counter-
disaster plan; and
• being familiar with reaction and recovery
procedures.
Careful preparation will prevent or minimise
damage occurring or, if unavoidable, it will enable
damaged materials to be salvaged and treated
successfully, dramatically reducing losses and
getting services back into operation promptly.
The following points are worth remembering.
Disasters do happen. Many are predictable, and
therefore avoidable.
Some 95% of disasters result in water damage.
Fire will result in water damage from sprinklers or
fire hoses.
The most common causes of water damage are
burst or leaking pipes, leaking air-conditioning
systems, and blocked drains or gutters.
Disasters can be prevented by identifying hazards
and taking appropriate action.
The extent of a disaster can be minimised by
planning, regular rehearsals and the presence of
well-equipped counter-disaster bins.
The success of recovery rests on the preparation of
a recovery plan, and the organisation of the
recovery team.
60 Counter-Disaster Planning
The extent of damage should be documented, both
in writing and photographically.
Freezing prevents mould from growing; but not all
materials can be frozen safely.
It is important to stabilise the affected area before
returning dried books and objects to shelves.
Prevention
Prevention begins with a hazard assessment. It
involves listing all potential hazards in the
building itself and in the local environment, and
assessing whether the risk is high or low. When
you know what potential hazards and risks exist,
you can take steps to minimise the risks where
possible, and to protect your collections in the
event of a disaster.
As risks are identified, problem areas should be
marked on a map of the building; and where
possible, action should be taken to improve the
situation. The following list may help in hazard
reduction;
• effective building security;
• protective storage of flammable materials;
• selection of fire-resistant furnishings and
fixtures;
• storing items in boxes and containers;
• cleanliness and tidiness;
• smoking restrictions;
• installation of smoke and heat detectors;
• installation of sprinkler systems;
• regular servicing of electrical and air-
conditioning systems;
• liaison with the fire brigade;
• sensible work practices;
• unplugging electrical equipment when it is
not in use;
• training and awareness programs for staff,
volunteers and the local community;
• examining incoming collection materials for
mould or insect activity; and
• storing collection items at least 100mm off
the floor.
Once you have assessed the potential hazards, the
next step is to prepare.
Preparedness
While you can take action to minimise potential
hazards, it is practically impossible to prevent
disasters happening. So it is important to be
prepared—to minimise the extent of the damage.
Preparedness involves:
• preparation of a counter-disaster plan;
• purchase of materials and equipment for
dealing with the first stages of reaction and
recovery;
• establishing a team of people prepared to be
called on in an emergency; and
• training them so that they are familiar with
procedures for responding to a disaster.
Counter-disaster plan
The counter-disaster plan incorporates all the
information you may need if a disaster occurs,
including:
• day and night emergency contact numbers;
• names, addresses and contact numbers of
people available to help;
• addresses and contact numbers of suppliers of
equipment, materials and services that may
be needed;
• an inventory of holdings, including a list of
priorities for recovery;
• details of insurance policies;
• floor plans;
• initial response procedures;
• documentation procedures; and
• recovery procedures.
Materials and equipment
Once the counter-disaster plan is in place, the
next step is to purchase equipment and supplies
for use in disaster recovery. While a cupboard is a
suitable storage space, mobile disaster kits or bins
are commonly used. The purpose is to have ready
access to resources for dealing with minor water
damage.
Disaster stores are also commonly found in larger
organisations. These are usually rooms dedicated
to holding more extensive supplies for disaster
recovery, including stock to replenish the disaster
bins. The choice between bin or store, location and
number will vary according to your needs.
A practised team
The third step in preparedness is getting some
practice before the event, so that the procedures
you have developed become second nature.
All staff should be trained in the use of fire
extinguishers. All people likely to be available in
the event of a disaster should also be trained in
handling and treating different types of wet
material. Running a simulated disaster is an
effective way of checking how well prepared your
organisation is.
It is advisable to form a disaster response team: to
respond when a disaster is reported, to assess the
situation and plan the recovery phase. Many tasks
must be undertaken before and during the
recovery, so it will be important to assign team
members specific responsibilities.
In the event of damage to the collection, you need
to form recovery teams as well. These are often
made up of volunteers, led by a member of the
disaster response team. They undertake the
recovery procedures.
If you have only a few people to call on, or if
budgets for materials are very tight, regional networks
should be established with similar organisations—
so that you can pool scarce resources. Networks
should also be established with services to help in
the event of a disaster. These include the local fire
brigade, regional emergency services and companies
with freezing facilities, such as butchers or ice
works. You need to explain to them the emergency
procedures outlined in your counter-disaster plan.
Counter-Disaster Planning 61
 Reaction
When a disaster occurs, a number of steps must be
taken. In all circumstances, the safety of people
has priority over the collection.
CAUTION:
If you are unsure about whether it is safe to
enter the disaster site or not, evacuate all people
and ensure that no-one can enter until the
local fire brigade or emergency services centre
gives the clearance to enter.
A simple document outlining initial response
procedures should be included at the front of your
counter-disaster plan, and copies kept near your
phone. The following is one example of initial
response procedures when water is threatening or
has affected the collections:
Before entering the area
Contact the person responsible for security—
include—contact names and numbers.
Assess the situation by asking these questions:
Is it safe to enter the affected area?
Can the water be stopped or diverted?
Can the collection be protected where it is?
Can the collection be moved to a dry location? and,
Can a start be made on drying and cleaning up the
wet areas?
If the collection has been affected, contact a
recovery coordinator or a recovery specialist.
Documentation
It is essential to document all action taken before,
during, and after the recovery phase. Documenting
a disaster means having a written and photographic
record of the disaster. This is essential for:
• insurance records and claims;
• assisting in the recovery phase;
• evaluating the success and shortcomings of
the counter-disaster plan; and
62 Counter-Disaster Planning
• keeping track of the locations of the objects.
Documentation should include written details and
photographs of the:
• cause of the disaster;
• number and value of items damaged;
• number and value of items replaced;
• number and value of items repaired;
• cost of maintenance of the affected area;
• amount of staff time expended in the
recovery operation; and
• cost of disaster supplies.
Recovery plan
Before commencing the recovery phase, produce a
recovery plan. This documents the order in which
you are going to recover damaged items, and how
you propose to treat them. Options may vary from
simply moving items into a drying area, to packing
them for freezing. Unlike the counter-disaster
plan, the recovery plan cannot be prepared ahead
of time. It will vary, depending on the situation.
Having documented the recovery plan, it is time to
assemble the recovery work-teams and brief them
on the tasks to be done. In addition to clarifying
your expectations of them, it is important to cover
safety issues.
Recovery
Recovery includes:
• sorting: grouping materials by type after the
disaster. Materials are stored by the type of
damage, for example, water, fire; by the
extent of damage, for example, wet, damp;
and by the type of material, for example,
photographic, textiles;
• documenting: maintaining a written record of
the original location of items, where they are
moved, and what treatment they are to
undergo. The aim is to allow prompt retrieval
of an item, should it be requested, and to
keep a record for insurance purposes of all
materials disposed of;
• drying: air-drying wet material by removing
visible water, and placing items in an area
which has a good supply of clean, cold,
moving air. Fans are often used to stimulate
air movement;
• cleaning: removing mud, dust or dirt from the
surface of an item;
• rehousing: replacing damaged boxes and
folders;
• repairing: the application of treatments to
make a damaged item structurally sound; and
• relabelling damaged items: replacing damaged
or missing labels. Labels are often detached
during a disaster, and/or the inks run and
become difficult to read.
The recovery operation must be planned to suit the
needs of the particular situation and of the
damaged materials. The recovery operation is not
complete until all items are back in the storage
area and available for use.
Ideally, the recovery operation begins after the
disaster has been contained. However, where
particularly vulnerable items are damaged, or at
risk, it may be necessary to begin the recovery
operation before this point. Consider the following
situation. A water pipe has burst and water is
spraying over the part of the storage area in which
costumes are held. As the costumes are likely to
have soluble dyes, you may decide to move the
costumes which are in the vicinity of the water
before turning off the water. It depends on how
easy it is to turn off the water supply.
Recovery follows the preparation of a recovery plan.
Usually there is more than one type of salvage
procedure that can be employed, depending on the
nature and extent of the disaster. Recovery may
take a few days, or even months, before it is
complete, depending on the extent of the disaster.
In examples like the Florence floods of 1966, in
which vast numbers of rare and irreplaceable books
and manuscripts were affected, the recovery phase
has still not been completed. It is advisable to
seek advice from a recovery specialist when
recovering from a disaster.
Recovery priorities
Ensure that the disaster area is cordoned off to
prevent sightseers from getting underfoot, and to
secure the area from pilfering. Security must not
be overlooked, because there can be many people
other than staff in the building. It is very easy for
some unscrupulous person to walk out with items
from the collection. Make sure that a register is
set up to record the name and associated company
of every person who enters the building, and
secure unaffected areas so that people cannot
wander through them.
After preparing the work areas for sorting, packing
and drying, the different materials should be
treated in order of the priority lists set out in your
recovery plan, and depending on the extent of
damage and their sensitivity to water.
It is usual to consider the wettest material first,
and to look for items which may have water-soluble
media or which may suffer structural damage from
swelling—as is the case for canvas paintings and
furniture. With mixed collections such as those
often found in historical societies, it is important
to identify the items most sensitive to water. Seek
assistance from a recovery specialist on this matter,
because they will vary with each collection.
Recovery procedures for different materials
It should be noted that 95% of all disasters result
in water-damaged materials, and mould will
develop within two to three days in a warm, humid
environment. Fire will result in water damage from
sprinklers or fire hoses; earthquakes and tremors
often cause water pipes to crack and/or burst.
So the emphasis in this chapter is on recovery
procedures for water-damaged items. Tips on the
treatment of items affected by fire and smoke are
also included. The typical types of damage vary,
depending on the materials.
You should also note that water is usually not
clean, so there may be accompanying staining.
Water from sprinklers is usually rusty; and flood-
water may contain mud, oil and sewage.
Different types of materials have different drying
requirements. The recovery procedures for electronic
media, microforms, colour photographic materials,
black and white photographic materials, glass plate
negatives, and historical photographic materials
differ quite dramatically from those for paper-based
items such as documents, books, maps, plans and
posters. See Procedures for the recovery of
particular types of materials later in this chapter.
Counter-Disaster Planning 63
 Disasters in Australia’s climatic zones

Arid
This climate is generally very dry, however, in arid areas, it is often very hot during the day and very
cold at night. This wide fluctuation in temperature is matched by wide fluctuations in relative humidity.

It is important to note that:

• fast drying of wood and items made from mixed materials can cause splitting and warping;
• water affected items are at risk of mould growth; and
• mould growth can be controlled by reducing humidity and increasing air circulation.

Suppliers of humidifiers should be included in the counter-disaster plan under emergency contacts and
suppliers.

Temperate
A temperate climate is considered a moderate climate, however, temperate climates tend to have a
greater range of temperatures than tropical climates and may include extreme climatic variations.

When preparing for disasters in temperate zones it is important to note that routine building
maintenance, including clearing drains and gutters is necessary to prevent water entering the building
when it rains heavily.

Remember mould grows in temperate climates. If the collection does suffer water damage, the climatic
conditions will need to be considered. If the temperature is high, the collection will be at risk from
mould growth. If the relative humidity is high, the drying process will be slower, increasing the
likelihood of mould growth.

Tropical
These climates are characterised by heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures. Heavy rainfall
will put more strain on gutters and drainage so it is essential to ensure that they are checked and
cleaned regularly.

If the collection suffers water damage in tropical regions it is important to note that:
• mould thrives readily;
• metallic components are prone to corrasion;
• high humidity will slow the drying process; and
• air circulation is critical in preventing mould growth when the relative humidity is high.

Suppliers of dehumidifiers, fans and desiccants should be recorded in the counter disaster plan under
emergency contacts and suppliers.

Freezing can be used to control mould growth if large quantities of paper or textiles have been affected
by water. Note: Do not freeze photographic materials.

64 Counter-Disaster Planning
 MORE ABOUT breakage or in fire, so it could fall into either
category.
COUNTER-DISASTER PLANNING
In this case, the building is on a hill in an area
not known to flood; but the box guttering is
known to block up and cause leaks in heavy rain,
Hazard assessment if not cleared out regularly. So the probability of
flood from the overflowing gutters is quite high
Hazard assessment involves a survey of potential and, if not detected quickly, could result in
hazards, to identify possible risks or threats to the extensive damage to the collection.
building and its collections. It includes identifying
hazardous materials such as the chemicals stored Bombs, cyclones, tidal waves, earthquakes and
in cleaners’ storerooms and in photographic volcanic eruptions are not likely in this area; but
laboratories. the effects of any of these would cause
considerable damage to the building and
Hazard assessment model collection, if not total loss.

These hazards are charted according to their

Models like the following can be useful in hazard
assessment:
• the first step is to identify all potential
hazards;
• the next step is to assess the probability of
each hazard on the vertical scale, then chart
the possible effects to the organisation on
the horizontal scale; and
probability and the effect they will have on the
collection or the building.
Bushfires and vandalism are of most concern; but
it must be remembered that risks don’t remain
static—they vary as conditions change. For
example, the risk of fire is much greater when
building modifications are taking place, than
during normal operations.

• the final step is to bring this information
together, and plot it on a grid;
The example below illustrates this process for a
small country museum in Australia. The most likely
hazards in this example are bushfires and
vandalism.
Hazard analyses will produce different patterns for
different organisations. Factors such as geographic
location, building construction, the political
environment, the number of staff, the existence of
overcrowding and use patterns will all have a
bearing on the results of the analysis.
Using the hazard analysis, preventive measures can
be put in place to minimise the likelihood of some
disasters, or at least the probable effects. In the
example discussed above, knowing that the box
gutters are likely to cause a flood in the museum
could result in the following procedures:

1 2 • replacing the gutters with a more appropriate

vandalism style of guttering; or
probability

flood
• alternatively, cleaning out the gutters
regularly, perhaps even monthly, and checking
the building and the collection after every
bomb heavy rainfall;
4 cyclone 3
earthquake
tidal wave
volcanic erruption
Some causes of
damage in a disaster
low effect high
The following lists of possible hazards may help
Bushfires could wipe out both the collection and you in identifying hazards in your museum, gallery
the building, while vandalism could result in or library.

Counter-Disaster Planning 65
 Possible hazards Any spark may cause a fire. Most collections
contain highly flammable materials such as paper,
cotton and wood.
Water is a common cause of damage to collections
and may arise from:
Other hazards are:
• rain;
• dust, which may be transmitted through air-
• hail; conditioning and from any building work;

• leaks; • air-conditioning malfunction;

• rising damp; • structural damage caused by earthquake,

earth tremor, accident or inherent defect;
• burst pipes;
• building alterations or maintenance—the time
• open streams and rivers nearby; when buildings are most vulnerable and
special care should be taken;
• damaged fire hoses;

• sprinkler malfunctions; • insects and rodents;

• underground streams beneath the building(s); • bombs;

and
• vandalism;
• overflowing sinks in kitchens and washrooms.
• demonstrations or other disturbances;
Mould growth is evidence that water has entered
• alternative building uses—such as leasing out
the area or that humidity has been high. In addition
facilities for functions—which are potentially
to checking for potential sources of water, look for damaging; and
places where water may enter, including:
• restaurant, exhibition and other specialist
• access points to roofs and basements;
functions.
• windows;
Water
• skylights;

• basements; Flood, fire, leaking roofs and burst pipes are all
common causes of water damage. In many cases
• gutters; the water will be dirty, so that recovery involves
• down pipes; cleaning as well as drying. Floodwater usually
contains mud, oil and other impurities. Sprinkler
• drains; and water can be black, and water from pipes is often
rusty.
• roofs.
In addition to wetting and soiling, water damage
Fire is also a major threat. Fires can be caused by: introduces the risk of mould. The only materials
not at great risk from mould are glass and metal.
• electrical wiring and equipment
Because mould can grow within 48–72 hours under
• chemicals—for cleaning and photography; warm, damp conditions, drying should begin within
the first 48 hours after the objects become wet.
• fuel spillage;
Other forms of damage associated with water are
• gas leak;
staining, warping, splitting, rusting, and items
• arson; sticking together or falling apart because glues
have been reactivated by the moisture.
• lightning; and
Stains can be caused by water-soluble inks and dyes
• air-conditioning systems.
that might be part of the item or an adjacent item.

66 Counter-Disaster Planning
Water causes paper, canvas, textiles and wood to
swell. This contributes to the warping of book
covers, detachment of spines and covers, and the
splitting of wooden furniture.
Canvas and panel paintings will also swell if wet,
which puts stress on the paint layers. They must
be dried under controlled conditions to prevent the
wood panels from splitting and the paint from
cracking and flaking.
Coated and glossy papers and photographs will
stick together if not separated during drying; and
photographic emulsions may actually separate from
prints and negatives if they are left wet longer
than 48 hours.
Metals may begin to corrode or rust, if left wet or
left in a humid environment for too long.
These thick books
absorbed water
when the roof
leaked. Prompt
action to dry the
books prevented
mould growth and
distortion of the
book structure.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia
Wood can be badly damaged by water. Care must
be taken to control the drying of wood, to ensure
that it does not split or warp.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
Mould
Mould damage can result from exposure to water in
a disaster, or from high humidity levels—greater
than 65%RH—in the storage environment. Wet
material will begin to grow mould within 48–72
hours, perhaps earlier if the temperature is above
22ºC.
In addition to the visible damage in the form of
permanent stains on paper, cloth and leather,
mould will cause physical damage to the structure
of these materials. The affected area becomes
powdery, and will disintegrate if handled.
To prevent or minimise further mould growth, first
control the environment. The temperature and
relative humidity in the disaster area should be
stabilised; ideally, the area should be kept at 20°C
and 50%RH. You may need to install dehumidifiers
and fans—cold cycle only—to help circulate the
air. Recovery specialists should be contacted for
further advice.
Mould-damaged items should be removed from the
storage area as soon as they are identified. Every
effort must be made to minimise the chance of other
items becoming affected. There are several options
for the treatment of mould-affected material.
Mould-damaged materials have traditionally been
fumigated to kill the mould. But most fumigation
chemicals used in the past are either extremely
toxic or ineffective, and are no longer
recommended for use. Check with a recovery
specialist about the suitability of using specific
fumigants, because some can cause harm to
certain materials. It is critically important to
prevent mould from growing.
Freezing will not kill mould, but will prevent
further growth, giving you extra time to seek
further advice.
An alternative is simply to vacuum the material,
stabilise the humidity in the storage area and
continue to monitor it for further outbreaks.
Remember that mould growth is retarded by
reducing the humidity to 60%RH or less, and by
ensuring good air circulation.
Counter-Disaster Planning 67
 Fire- and smoke-damaged materials

Treatment of fire-damaged material

When moving fire-damaged materials, wear cotton

gloves, and be careful not to allow ash to mark
materials any more than it has already.

Wrap or interleave items as you remove them from

the shelves—they may be brittle and need
support.

Place materials on a trolley and move to the

Mould growth on the backing of a map. designated disaster-recovery work area.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales Charred material

Little can be done for badly burnt materials.

They should be handled very gently, because they

are very fragile.

Cotton gloves must be worn at all times when

handling charred materials. They prevent soot
being permanently absorbed by paper, leather and
textiles.

Charred items should be placed in boxes or

between sheets of cardboard, and wrapped in any
clean, unprinted paper for protection.

An outbreak of mould can be seen in If they are suffering from the effects of only
this flood-affected showcase. smoke and ash, restoration treatment could just
Photograph courtesy of the Australian Museum include soft brushing.

Regardless of which option you choose, mould- It is important to note that sooty residue can be
affected material must be cleaned before returning difficult to remove.
it to storage. Ensure that you protect yourself by
wearing a dust mask, gloves and protective Before attempting any other treatment, contact a
clothing. Work in an open area, and brush the recovery specialist for advice.
mould and dirt into a vacuum cleaner. The storage
area should also be thoroughly cleaned and Smoke-damaged materials
disinfected before materials are rehoused.
Should be placed in an area where there is a lot of
Your plan needs to set out clearly how you will rapidly moving air. This will dispel most lingering
deal with mould, and should list fumigation odours.
companies to contact in an emergency.
Placing small quantities of items in a refrigerator
For more information will also reduce the odour..
For a comprehensive guide to dealing with
mould, see Mold, by Lois Olcott Price.
For more information about moulds, please see
Biological Pests in Damage and Decay.

68 Counter-Disaster Planning
Large quantities of paper materials affected by
smoke have also been successfully treated in ozone
chambers. Despite reports that this treatment is
effective at removing odours, there are concerns
that it may be damaging to materials.
Fire can cause extensive damage to paper, as shown
in this photograph of fire-damaged musical scores.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
This photo illustrates the process by which soot can
be removed using chemically impregnated sponges.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
The counter-disaster plan
It is essential that every collecting organisation
has a comprehensive, well-documented counter-
disaster plan detailing procedures to be followed
in case a disaster occurs.
The counter-disaster plan might include:
• a list of hazards;
• an initial response procedures;
• disaster kits—list of contents and locations;
• the location and description of smoke
detection and fire-fighting equipment;
• day and night emergency contacts for staff
and specialists;
• the names and addresses of suppliers of
emergency equipment and materials, including
day and night telephone numbers;
• the emergency funding procedures;
• insurance details;
• the emergency contact for computer
problems;
• the contact numbers for the disaster response
team, together with notes on their roles and
responsibilities;
• an assessment checklist;
• a list of known leaks and problem areas;
• recovery procedures for types of damage—
wet/burnt and different formats;
• freezing facilities;
• procedures for dealing with mould;
• priority lists for recovery;
• documentation procedures;
• emergency evacuation procedures; and
• disaster reaction procedures.
Disaster kits
Disaster kits should contain the equipment and
materials you are likely to need to cope with minor
disasters. Disaster kits can be mobile or static.
Institutions around Australia have developed a
range of models, adapting wheelie bins, ordinary
bins, metal trunks and cupboards to suit their
needs. Some organisations also have disaster
stores.
When putting together a disaster kit, you should ask:
• why is the kit needed?
• what is the best kind of kit for the
organisation?
Counter-Disaster Planning 69
 • what size should it be?
• what should go in it?
• how many are required? and,
• where should they be located?
Advantages of disaster kits in wheelie bins:
• easy to move into affected areas;
• fit between shelves;
• can be used for removing items from the
disaster site; and
• can be easily identified.
Disadvantages of disaster kits in wheelie bins:
• they can be heavy;
• they are difficult to get up stairs, so you
need one on each floor unless you have lifts.
The lifts may not be operating after a
disaster;
• people still think of them as rubbish bins;
and
• it can be difficult to reach the contents at
the bottom of the bin.
Other alternatives:
• trolleys to remove large flat items and
artefacts; and
• vegetable trolleys.
Location of the disaster kit
• they must be accessible to all staff
members—but not to the public, and must be
able to be moved quickly and safely; and
• disaster kits should have the minimum
necessary material, to make them less
attractive to pilferers.
Contents of the disaster kit
The disaster kit might include:
• perforated paper towelling;
• clear polythene storage bags;
70 Counter-Disaster Planning
• pre-cut plastic sheeting;
• chalk;
• gloves—cotton and rubber;
• string;
• pens, paper, clipboards;
• foam sponges;
• masking tape;
• blue garbage bags for collecting objects;
• scissors;
• black garbage bag for wet rubbish;
• a bucket; and
• twist ties.
The following should also be included in the kit:
• a checklist of procedures or emergency
information sheets; and
• a list of emergency contacts.
Disaster kits need to contain only enough
resources to cope with minor water-damage. More
extensive supplies are kept in a disaster store.
Disaster stores
An in-house store—centrally located or at a
location known to staff and the disaster response
team—is useful. The locations of the keys to the
store and of the contact people should be
recorded.
It is also helpful to liaise with other local
institutions and local government bodies, to find
out whether they have equipment and supplies
which could be useful and, if so, to record after-
hours contact numbers.
Counter-disaster networks can be set up where
individual resources are minimal. By setting up
regular meetings, the group can pool resources and
information.
The following is a sample list of possible supplies.
You may not need all of these items.
 Contents of the disaster store • trestle tables;

• clean newsprint, blotter;

Protection
• paper towels—perforated, non-coloured;
• plastic sheeting;
• spray bottles/misters;
• Stanley knife;
• distilled water; and
• adhesive waterproof tape;
• Nylon net for shaping three-dimensional
• pins; objects such as garments and costumes during
drying.
• staple gun;
Humidity control equipment
• scissors;
• thermohygrographs or other monitoring
• ties (gardening twine); and
equipment;
• sandbags.
• dehumidifiers; and

• fans.

Communications

• radio;
An example of a
well-equipped • mobile telephones;
disaster store.
• whistles;
Photograph courtesy
of the State Library
of New South Wales • chalk;

• loud hailers;

• large sheets of paper;

• walkie-talkies; and

• thick waterproof pens.

Removal

• cardboard boxes; Plant and safety equipment

• milk and bread crates; • torches, batteries, globes;

• trolleys; • first aid kits;

• bins; • emergency lighting;

• blotting paper; • pumps; and

• plastic, Mylar; and • generators.

• plastic bags—2 colours. Protective clothing

Recovery • rubber boots;

• clothes lines; • gloves, rubber and cotton;

• safe storage; • plastic macintoshs or Tyvetc overalls

Counter-Disaster Planning 71
 • hard hats; whether they have been sent off-site for
freezing, discarded, or set aside for further
• dust masks; treatment; and

• respirators; • you need someone to assemble supplies and

equipment and obtain food and drinks for
• aprons; work breaks.

• sleeve protectors; and Record who is to be assigned the following

responsibilities:
• overalls.
• ensuring that administrative procedures are
Clean-up followed;
• sponge-type mops; • allocation of funds;
• brooms; • public relations, for example, media releases
and handling reporters;
• buckets; and
• damage assessment;
• sponges.
• training and supervision of recovery teams;
Documentation and
• paper, pens, chalk; • photographing the extent of the damage.
• disaster lists; In a small organisation, the disaster response team
• tags; and the recovery team may be one and the same.

• clipboards; and All members of the disaster response team should

be trained in the use of fire extinguishers; and
• disposable camera. some should have training in first aid.

Disaster response team Networks

The role of the disaster response team is to:
• respond when a disaster is reported;
• assess the situation; and
• plan the recovery phase.
The recovery procedures are then implemented by
the recovery team(s).
While a number of tasks need to be assigned to
people on the disaster response team, the critical
points are:
• there should be an overall Team Leader,
responsible for coordinating the recovery
operation;
• someone needs to be assigned responsibility
for maintaining records of damaged materials
and what happens to them, for example,
Counter-disaster planning and disaster recovery are
both labour-intensive and potentially stressful
exercises. Performed in isolation, they are a trial.
If shared, they can be challenging and rewarding.
Involve people from the community with relevant
expertise: the fire brigade and regional emergency
services, for example. It is important that they
know what you intend to do in the event of a
disaster, and that you have emergency and
counter-disaster procedures in place.
In the event of a fire or structural damage, you
will want to get into the building as quickly as
possible, to inspect the damage to the collection
and plan the recovery phase. Access will be
restricted by the fire brigade or emergency
services. Building a relationship with these
organisations beforehand can save vital time in
implementing the recovery phase.

72 Counter-Disaster Planning
There are other services you can contact in
advance, to make sure that they can help in an
emergency. Companies which have large freezers
may be willing to let books and documents be
frozen until assistance arrives. Check with
butchers, ice works and chicken processors.
Drying areas may also be needed. What about the
town hall, school auditorium or any unused
warehouse? Call them and explain that you are
preparing a counter-disaster plan and need to list
some options for recovery areas. They may also be
prepared to lend a hand in an emergency, in
exchange for your assistance if they have problems.
Safety during a disaster
People will be under pressure to retrieve material.
Make sure that you take time to ensure that this is
done efficiently and with the least likelihood of
danger of injury to yourself and your staff. If the
building is structurally unsound you will not be
allowed to enter it, often the case if the building
has been affected by fire, even if the fire was in
an adjacent building. Use this time to plan the
recovery phase in as much detail as possible.
Assess the situation
Assess the level of risk. Note wet floors, poor
lighting, items on the floor and collapsed shelves.
Will mechanical aids like trolleys and steps be useful?
Will materials need to be carried up and down
stairs, and if so, how can this be done safely?
Ensure that equipment and supplies are placed in a
convenient location.
Safe handling methods
• Avoid excessive bending of the back.
• Keep loads close to the body and use leg
muscles to lift.
• Avoid twisting or side bending when lifting.
• Use kick-stools or step ladders to remove
materials from the top shelves.
• Vary the work, so that different muscles are
used. Don’t perform work using the same
muscles for longer than 30 minutes.
• Ensure that assistants take regular breaks.
During the recovery and post-recovery phases, it is
important to remember that people will react to
the situation in different ways. Disasters are
stressful events: some will cope well, others will
fall to pieces. Under such circumstances, people
who would normally work efficiently without
supervision may need special care and attention.
They need clear instructions, and may need
supervision.
Recovery plan
The recovery plan sets out exactly what you are
going to do, and in what order.
It starts with an assessment of the extent of
damage, which covers the quantity of material
affected and the categories of damage. For
example, some items may be very wet, some damp,
and others dry.
Start with wet organic material such as paper,
wood and textiles—these will be more prone to
mould growth than inorganic material such as
metal, glass or ceramic.
CAUTION
Dried botanic specimens may germinate, so they
should be placed high on the recovery priority list.
Use the priority lists from your counter-disaster
plan to document which items need immediate
attention, and which can wait.
Using this information, decide how many people
will be needed to assist in the recovery phase,
where the recovery will be undertaken, and what
resources are needed.
You may also need to decide which method to use
in order to recover damaged materials, or whether
to get a recovery specialist to assist. The choice of
recovery method will depend on the nature of the
materials themselves, and what resources are
available.
Consider the:
• rarity of material;
Counter-Disaster Planning 73
 • value of material;
• use of material;
• significance; and
• condition of the material.
The options for recovery after a disaster may
include:
• discarding replaceable damaged items—for
instance, a publication in print;
• copying damaged items;
• restoration; and
• accepting items in their damaged state, and
providing them with physical protection.
A major decision is whether to freeze water-
damaged materials. Remember that freezing only
buys time. Frozen materials must be dried out
later. Regardless of the drying technique chosen,
this will be a time-consuming and costly process.
It is advisable to include an assessment checklist
to prompt these actions.
Assessment checklist
This list includes questions to prompt information
for both the recovery plan and the documentation
for insurance and administrative purposes.
What caused the damage?
• fire?
• water?
• insects?
• rodents?
• vandals?
• dust?
• structural failure?
• other?
74 Counter-Disaster Planning
What is the impact of the damage?
Fire may cause smoke staining and charring, and
water damage which results from fighting the fire.
Water damage may be caused by clean or
contaminated water; mud or ash may be involved;
water may need to be extracted; dust particles may
be in the air.
• Is it safe to enter? What hazards are in the
area?
• What has been damaged, for example,
equipment or fixtures?
• What kinds of materials are affected?
• Will they be replaced or salvaged?
Replacement may be cheaper than
conservation or repair; but it may not be
possible. If decisions can be made about items
to be discarded, they should be made before
salvage operations begin. Then effort is not
wasted on items that are not worthwhile.
• What materials should be given priority?
Materials to be given priority for salvage may
be the same as those given priority for
freezing.
• How much material or equipment is affected?
Assess this in terms of metres of shelving, or
numbers of items.
• Will the tasks of salvaging mean closing the
building or office, or will business be able to
operate as usual, with salvage operations
going on behind the scenes?
• What areas can be used for sorting, cleaning,
packing and drying? Are they on-site or off-
site?
• What kind of special equipment and materials
are needed for the salvage operation?
• Will transport or freezing facilities be
required?
• How many people will be needed?
Recovery teams
Before starting the recovery phase, spend some
time documenting a recovery plan—so that the
recovery proceeds smoothly and efficiently.
The next step is to assemble recovery teams to
undertake the many aspects of recovery, including
packing, sorting, moving, cleaning, drying,
rehousing and relabelling. These activities often
involve volunteers led by a member of the disaster
response team.
Teams of four to five people are recommended.
Many people will turn up to help, even for a minor
disaster. The key to a successful recovery is to
organise these assistants so that the recovery
progresses in an orderly fashion. They will need to
be trained in safe handling methods, and be given
clear tasks and responsibilities. Include
demonstrations of their tasks—don’t rely on verbal
instructions alone.
Contacting disaster recovery specialists, or calling
for volunteers from the staff of other local
institutions who have disaster-recovery training,
should also be considered.
CAUTION
Asthmatics and people with other respiratory
conditions should not be exposed to mould
or heavy dust.
When teams have been formed and allocated
specific responsibilities, they must be briefed. The
following aspects should be covered:
• clearly identify the team leader, and explain
his or her role and responsibilities;
• explain the responsibilities of each team, and
demonstrate safe handling techniques and the
tasks to be performed;
• introduce members of the team, if they don’t
know each other;
• explain where the following facilities are:
— toilets
— first aid kit
— exits and entrances
— telephones
— areas allocated for specific tasks
— refreshment area;
• explain job rotation and breaks—these should
happen every hour. Refreshments and food
should be provided for the volunteers by the
host organisation; and
• establish communication channels and safety
signals for emergency evacuation, if
necessary.
For more information
For further information about occupational
safety issues, please see the chapter on Health
and Safety in Managing People.
Recovery specialists
These are people and organisations who offer
expertise in particular recovery procedures. Some
offer overall cleaning and drying of office and
storage areas; others offer cleaning, drying and
repair of specific items, such as books, paintings
or furniture. This last group includes conservators.
It is usual for conservators to be specialists in the
treatment of one type of material, such as
paintings. This is the way conservators are trained.
This point should be well understood, because a
variety of conservators may be needed if the
collection contains many different types of items.
Your counter-disaster plan should contain a list of
people to contact for advice and assistance.
The following list is a starting point only. Contact
your State museum, library or art gallery for a list
of their contacts, or your State division of the
Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural
Material, Inc. (AICCM). You can locate your State
division of AICCM by phoning the National
Secretary on (02) 6254 8695 or by writing to:
AICCM Secretariat
GPO Box 1638
CANBERRA ACT 2601
Recovery consultants and services:
planning, prevention, cleaning, drying,
repair and restoration
Artlab Australia
70 Kintore Avenue
Adelaide SA 5000
Phone: (08) 8207 7520
Fax: (08) 8207 7259
Counter-Disaster Planning 75
 Australasian Recovery Services Pty Ltd Moisture Control Services
Suite 4, 14 York Street PO Box 2
South Melbourne VIC 3205 Pinkenba QLD 4008
Phone: (03) 9690 1373 Phone: (07) 3868 2442
Fax: (07) 3868 1033
Conservation Access 24-hour Australia-wide service:
State Library of New South Wales, Free call: 1800 800 675
Macquarie St
Sydney NSW 2000 Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery
Phone: (02) 9230 1676 Rocherlea Annex
Fax: (02) 9233 3192 Wellington St
Specialists in the treatment of books, photographs, Launceston TAS 7250
documents and works of art on paper. Phone: (03) 6371 1296

International Conservation Services, Drying services

53 Victoria Avenue
Chatswood NSW 2067
Ayline Cleaning and Restoration System
Phone: (02) 9417 3311
Unit 22/28 Vore Street
Fax: (02) 9417 3102
Silverwater NSW 2142
Specialists in the treatment of furniture, textiles,
Phone: (02) 9748 4507
metals, paper, paintings and mixed media.
Fax: (02) 9748 4639
Keith Adkins Bookbinding and
Moisture Control Services
Conservation of Books
PO Box 2
66 Cameron St
Pinkenba QLD 4008
Launceston TAS 7250
Phone: (07) 3868 2442
Phone: (03) 6327 3549
Fax: (07) 3868 1033
Specialist in the treatment of books.
24-hour Australia-wide service:
Free call: 1800 800 675
Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery
Commercial Preservation Service
Munters Moisture Control Services:
Wellington St
Albury Head Office
Launceston TAS 7250
21 Union Road
Phone: (03) 6371 1296
North Albury NSW 2640
Specialists in treatment of books, photographs,
Phone: (02) 6025 6422
documents, works of art on paper, paintings,
Fax: (02) 6025 8266
textiles and objects.
Munters offers Australia and New Zealand-wide
services in structural drying, document restoration,
Freeze-drying services humidity control, disaster planning, and consulting.

Fischers Steamatic Restoration: office furnishings and equipment

PO Box 709
Braeside VIC 3195
Phone: (03) 9587 6945 Fischers Steamatic
24-hour hotline: (03) 9587 6333 PO Box 709
Fischers have a mobile freeze-drying chamber, Braeside VIC 3195
so offering services Australia-wide. Also known Phone: (03) 9587 6945
as BMS Catastrophe. 24-hour hotline: (03) 9587 6333
Fischers offers services Australia-wide.

Ayline Cleaning and Restoration System

Unit 22/28 Vore Street
Silverwater NSW 2142
Phone: (02) 9748 4507
Fax: (02) 9748 4639

76 Counter-Disaster Planning
 Restoration: computer systems Once the frozen material is to be treated, there are
several drying techniques to choose from. These
include freeze-drying, vacuum-drying and air-drying.
First State Computing
Level 7, Underwood House
CAUTION
37–49 Pitt Street
Sydney NSW 2000 Freezing unique and original materials is a last
Phone: (02) 9256 9999 resort, and should be used in only the worst
Fax: (02) 9256 9910 possible circumstances. Some materials should not
be frozen, including photographs of any type, and
Freezing electronic media. For advice on materials not
covered here, contact a recovery specialist.
Freezing has been used after many disasters to
minimise damage to books, documents and other Drying wet objects
items such as textiles and leather, before
rehabilitation can take place. If freezing space is
limited, priority should be given to materials in Air-drying
the following order:

• materials which have already developed mould; Air-drying is the most common drying method in
Australia suitable for most materials, because there
• materials printed on coated paper; are few facilities which can undertake vacuum- or
freeze-drying for large quantities of materials.
• artefacts with water-soluble components,
inks, watercolour, tempera, various dyes; and Air-drying requires an area with good air
circulation.
• leather and vellum-bound books.
Open windows and pedestal fans can assist air
Books should be packed spine down, in a single
circulation.
layer, in plastic crates or boxes. If there is time,
every second book should be wrapped loosely in
Drying surfaces should be covered with blotting
waxed paper or freezer paper to prevent the books
paper or other absorbent paper. This paper, and
sticking, and to stop colours running from one
any interleaving, is changed regularly to improve
item to the next.
drying.
Flat items should be supported between boards, or
Prompt removal of damp rubbish, such as replaced
inside a container. Heavy weights should not be
paper towel, wet mounts and boxes, can help keep
placed on top of frozen flat items. If putting more
the humidity down.
than one flat item between a set of boards,
interleave them with a material to allow them to
Shape three-dimensional objects such as historic
be easily separated: Reemay or freezer paper, for
costume and leather objects correctly while they
example.
dry, to minimise distortion. Nylon netting can be
used to pad out three-dimensional objects.
The materials should be frozen in the containers in
which they are packed. Blast-freezing is preferred,
Dehumidifiers can be installed to assist the drying
because the speed of this process minimises the
process. These are electrical machines that reduce
chance of ice crystals forming. The freezer should
humidity in the atmosphere. Some models have a
be maintained at minus 10°C or below. This
chamber where the condensed water collects. This
stabilises the materials in the condition in which
needs to be emptied regularly, often twice a day,
they were found, preventing further deterioration.
morning and afternoon. If not emptied, the
Freezing is not a drying method; nor will it kill
machine has a fail-safe mechanism to stop it
mould. Freezing provides time for priorities,
operating when the chamber is full, thus
treatment methods and disposal and replacement
preventing overflow. But the humidity increases
programs to be established.
when the machine is idle. Different models of
dehumidifiers have different capacities; you may

Counter-Disaster Planning 77
 need to check how many units are needed for the
room area. For example, two units would be
needed if using a portable refrigerant model like
the Oasis 2700 in a room of 50 square metres.
Freeze-drying
Freeze-drying is a process in which pre-frozen
materials are dried without the ice melting. This is
called sublimation. The frozen items are placed in
a freeze-dry chamber. Then the air is removed from
the chamber, creating a vacuum. Mild heat is
introduced to speed up the drying process; and the
ice crystals sublimate to water-vapour, which is
pumped out of the chamber. This has the
advantage that books and coated paper do not
stick together as a result of drying, and water-
soluble media like inks do not feather any more
than they have already.
It should be noted that if inks have already bled,
the stain will be set, and pages which have started
to block or stick together will not release as a
result of the drying process. Items will dry in the
shape they were in, which means that a book may
dry with a distorted or warped cover and cockled
or wrinkled paper.
Vacuum-drying
Vacuum-drying is used to dry wet—not frozen—
material, by evaporation. Wet materials are placed
in a vacuum chamber, and the air is removed to
create a vacuum. Heat can be used to speed up
the drying.
Freeze-drying and vacuum-drying are good options
when a large number of items is involved. Staining
and smoke odour are reduced. Coated paper has
been successfully salvaged using both these
methods.
CAUTION
Frozen material can be dried in a vacuum
chamber but the material will thaw, carrying the
risk of bleeding inks and blocking of coated paper.
Photographic materials should not be dried
by either of these methods.
78 Counter-Disaster Planning
Procedures for the
recovery of particular types
of materials
The following information can be used as a basic
guide to the recovery of different types of
materials; however, it is not advisable to rely
solely on this information. Disaster training will
greatly improve skills in this area. Handling wet
objects is very different from handling dry
objects—they are heavier, and behave differently.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island
collections
These collections can include a wide range of
materials, such as bark paintings, wooden
implements, masks and ceremonial adornment
made from wood, grasses, shells and feathers, and
stone implements.
The first thing to establish is whether the
collection contains any secret sacred material. If
so, the relevant community must be contacted to
undertake the recovery, or to give permission and
instructions regarding recovery operations.
Most items can be air-dried carefully, although
special attention is needed to prevent wood and
bark from splitting, and to ensure that grasses and
decorative elements retain their shape.
Bark paintings
Do not put any weight on the bark at this stage to
try to flatten it.
Air-dry on blotting paper with the painted surface
face-up.
Masks
Use rolls of tissue paper under grass elements to
assist it to dry in shape.
Air-dry on blotting paper with the face up.
Wooden implements
Air-dry on blotting paper, turning at intervals.
Stone implements
Blot dry using a soft absorbent cloth, and air-dry.
 Black and white photographic materials
Do not freeze.
Treat photographic prints first, because film is
more stable.
Water-damaged black and white prints can be pegged
on drying lines.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
Air-dry if this can be done immediately. Peg the
prints or film to drying lines, making sure that
they do not overlap; or lay them flat, emulsion-
side up, on clean, absorbent paper.
If air-drying can’t be done immediately, immerse
the wet prints or film in clean, cold water.
Immersion time must not exceed three days. They
can be air-dried as described above, or sent packed
in the clean cold water to a photographic
processing laboratory for treatment.
Books
Treat books in the following order:
• books with coated or glossy paper;
• weak and very wet books;
• weak and damp books;
• strong and wet books;
• strong and damp books.
If the books cannot be dried immediately, pack
them in plastic crates or boxes, spine down, and
send to a freezing facility. Do not pack the crates
too tightly—the books may swell. Do not attempt
to press wet or swollen books.
Alternatively, air-dry the books, using cold-air fans
to speed up the drying process and dehumidifiers
to reduce the humidity.
CAUTION:
Some humidifiers need to be emptied
regularly, as often as twice a day.
To air-dry, follow these steps:
• do not try to close open books;
• remove plastic covers where possible;
• interleave coated pages by placing paper
towel, Reemay or waxed paper between every
page pair, or freeze. If paper towel is used,
change it regularly;
• if the book is wet, interleave every 3–5 mm
with paper towelling, and stand it with the
wettest end up. If the book is too weak to
stand, lie it flat. You might need to open the
books, but do so only partially, to prevent
damaging the spine. Covers can be supported
with rolled paper or cardboard;
Lightweight books and pamphlets can be carefully
suspended to dry.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library of
New South Wales
• change interleaving regularly. Suspend
pamphlets, light volumes and magazines over
drying lines;
• for books with thick covers, place a sheet of
water-resistant film such as polyester inside
the front cover to prevent moisture migrating
to the text; and
Counter-Disaster Planning 79
 • do not hang heavy or sodden books,
newspapers or magazines.
Fan the covers open to help the books stand.
This method also allows maximum ventilation of the
wet pages.
Photograph courtesy of the State Library
of New South Wales
Colour photographic materials
Do not freeze.
If wet, immerse in clean cold water and send
packed in the clean cold water to a photographic
processing laboratory within 48 hours.
If your water-damaged film has completely dried,
it may still be salvageable. Set it aside in a clearly
marked location, and take it to a processing
laboratory for treatment.
Documents
These instructions cover documents, manuscripts
and files on paper. Please note that parchment
documents should be treated as for leather, vellum
and parchment.
Documents must be kept in their original order.
Leave files in suspension hangers in filing drawers,
and place them in front of a fan to air-dry. If the
file drawers are full, divide the contents into two
sections in order to assist the drying process.
For those items not in filing cabinets, follow these
steps:
80 Counter-Disaster Planning
Remove the items from boxes, envelopes and other
enclosures, recording all relevant information.
If inks are bleeding, interleave the pages, and
freeze them. If not, remove paperclips, ties and
wet covers.
Air-dry using one of the following methods:
• if space is limited, place the files in clean
paper folders, then into manila folders or
suspended file-holders and, finally, into open-
mesh plastic baskets or crates. These can be
placed in front of fans, to assist air-drying.
Use cool air only, no heat;
• suspend the files from drying lines;
• lay them flat on clean absorbent paper; or
• interleave them with clean blotting paper,
place a board on top, and weight it evenly.
Electronic media
Audio and video tapes
Do not freeze.
Dry within 24 hours.
If a back-up tape is available, it may be better to
discard the damaged copy and make a new one
from the back-up. If there is no back-up copy,
implement the following steps:
• remove it from the water;
• open the case;
• if there is condensation inside and no copies,
drain the water and send the tape to a
specialist for drying, cleaning and copying;
• check the returned copy for readability; label
it and discard the original; and
• do not attempt to play the originals, because
they can damage the equipment on which
they are being played.
Floppy disks
Do not freeze floppy disks.
Open the shell or jacket.
Remove the disk from its shell or jacket.
Do not touch the surface of the disk; do not bend,
fold or abrade it.
Clean it in a tray of distilled water.
Gently blot the disk dry using a soft, lint-free
cloth, or air-dry on a clean sheet of paper for 8
hours.
When it is dry, place the disk in a temporary shell
or jacket.
Copy the disk.
Check the copy for readable data, and label the disk.
Discard the original.
Do not attempt to play the damaged disks,
because they can damage the equipment on which
they are played.
CDs and LPs
Do not freeze CDs and LPs.
Handle them by the edges.
Remove each from its case or cover.
Wash off any dirt in distilled water.
Air-dry vertically, not flat.
Dry with a lint-free towel. Wipe perpendicular to
grooves, not in a circular motion.
Place them in clean covers or containers.
Furniture and wooden objects
Wet or waterlogged wood must be dried very
slowly. The process can take several months.
Remove the object from the water.
Call a recovery specialist.
Glass and ceramics
Remove these from the water.
Dry each object with a soft cloth.
If dirty, the non-porous objects such as china and
glass can be washed with a mild soap.
Glass-plate negatives
Do not freeze, freeze-dry or vacuum-dry any of these.
Air-dry them immediately, laying flat with the
emulsion side—the duller side—facing up, on
clean absorbent paper, or stand them upright in a
dish rack to dry.
Historic photographic materials
Historic photographic processes items such as
daguerreotypes, tintypes and ambrotypes need
special treatment. As for other photographic
materials, they should not be frozen.
Handle carefully, face-up at all times.
Remove the item from its case and air-dry it
immediately.
Call a recovery specialist.
Leather, vellum and parchment
Support these items using trays or boards when
handling, because wet leather, parchment and
vellum can be very fragile.
Call a recovery specialist immediately, especially if
you have wet parchment or vellum.
If you can’t contact a recovery specialist straight
away, interleave or wrap items and freeze them.
Maps, plans and posters
If the items are hand-coloured, or if inks appear to
be bleeding, interleave the items with freezer
paper, and freeze them immediately.
If the paper appears glossy, place sheets of
Reemay on either side to prevent the paper
sticking to the blotter; or you could allow the
paper to dry without any paper on top.
Alternatively, air-dry as follows:
• interleave individual items with sheets of
blotting paper. These need to be larger than
the items;
Counter-Disaster Planning 81
 • place a board on top of a pile of up to 10
maps or plans, and weight it evenly; and
• change the blotting paper regularly, at least
daily, if not more often.
Metal-based items
Remove these from their boxes or other enclosures.
Dry each with a lint-free cloth, unless the item has
surface coatings. Some items should be washed in
ethanol to prevent corrosion, or should stay
immersed until fast drying procedures can be
implemented. It is advisable to consult a recovery
specialist.
Where the item has surface coatings, position it so
the water drains off, and call a recovery specialist.
Microforms
Do not freeze.
If wet, immerse these in clean cold water, and
send them, packed in the water and within 48
hours, to a microfilm processing company for
reprocessing and drying.
Natural history collections
Natural history collections can include botanic
specimens, taxidermic specimens, and shells and
skeletal specimens. You will find both dry and wet
specimens in these collections.
Dried botanic/herbarium specimens
Information identifying the specimens must be
kept with the specimens.
If seeds are present, there is a risk that they may
germinate, so drying should be undertaken
promptly. Specimens may be frozen to prevent
germination, then transferred for freeze-drying.
They should be treated in much the same way as
documents, that is:
• remove the specimens from enclosures,
recording relevant information; and
• air-dry by laying the specimens out on
blotting paper.
82 Counter-Disaster Planning
Wet specimens
Because these are preserved in liquid, water
damage should not be a problem. If, however, the
bottles have broken placing affected specimens in
new jars with the relevant preserving fluid is a
high priority.
Taxidermic specimens
These should be frozen if very wet.
If they are only damp, air-dry them.
Shells and skeletal specimens
Gently dab the surface with a soft, absorbent cloth
to remove the water.
Then air-dry them.
Paintings
Call a recovery specialist immediately. Paintings
need professional care during the drying phase.
If the specialist(s) can’t get to you for a few days,
and the paintings are considerably wet, proceed as
follows.
Paintings on canvas
Handle each painting on canvas horizontally only,
with the image facing up.
Do not freeze the paintings.
Unframe the paintings, if possible.
Drain and air-dry them as follows:
• check for any surface damage;
• if the surface is damaged—that is if there is
any lifting, buckling or blistering of the
paint, air-dry the artwork face-up, and don’t
place anything on top of it;
• if the paint looks stable, place the work face-
down on a layer of blotter covered with
unwrinkled tissue paper, preferably Japanese
tissue. Unprinted newspaper will suffice if you
can’t find anything better. Note: if the tissue
sticks to the face of the painting when it
dries, contact a conservator. Do not try to
remove it yourself;
• cut a piece of thick blotting paper to fit over
the back of the painting inside the stretcher;
• cover this with a piece of Perspex cut to the
same size;
• put a thick filler material such as 7mm-thick
felt or board cut to the same size, on top of
the Perspex;
• place another piece of thick blotting paper
over the stretcher, so that it extends beyond
the edges of the work; and
• place another piece of Perspex, larger than
the stretcher, on top; then weight down the
stack evenly.
CAUTION
Too much weight could damage the painted
surface. Weights need to be only 500 grams.
Six of these weights would be sufficient for
an average-size work of art, about 80cm x 60cm.
Weights can be simply small bars of steel or
soft drink cans filled with lead shot.
Paintings on Masonite or artist board
Drain and dry as follows:
Check for any surface damage.
If the surface is damaged, that is, if there is any
lifting, buckling or blistering of the paint, air-dry
the item face-up, and do not place anything on
the surface.
If there is no surface damage, place the painting
face-up on a sheet of blotting paper.
Lightly smooth a sheet of tissue paper—preferably
Japanese tissue—over the surface, using your hand.
If possible, cover this with thick felt—7mm—then
with a piece of thick blotting paper. If you don’t
have felt, use additional layers of blotting paper
to cushion the peaks of impasto. The higher the
impasto, the thicker the padding needs to be.
Place a sheet of Perspex or Masonite on top. This
final layer should be larger than the object
underneath.
Weight the package, taking care to distribute the
weights evenly.
Textiles
Freeze wet textiles if they are stained, or the if
dyes are bleeding, or if drying can’t be done quickly.
Do not hang wet woollen or silk items.
Do not carry wet textiles without some sort of
support, because they are heavier when wet, and
can tear. Textiles can be placed on Nylon netting,
to be carried.
Lay objects out flat on polyester screens or
blotting paper to dry.
Place wads of bunched-up Nylon netting inside
garments. This improves air flow inside them, and
therefore aids drying. It also holds them in shape
and minimises the risk of distortion.
Set up cold air fans to assist drying.
Call a recovery specialist if any further treatment is
needed.
Works of art on paper
Carefully remove works from their frames.
If the medium is pastel or oil, place the work face-
up on a sheet of blotting paper, and allow it to
air-dry.
If the medium appears soluble, support the item
between Reemay and boards, then freeze.
Alternatively, place it between sheets of blotting
paper and dry it under a pressing board.
If you have a problem relating to hazard
assessment or other similar matters, contact a
conservator. Conservators can offer advice and
practical solutions.
For further reading
Anderson, H. & McIntyre J.E.1985, Planning
Manual for Disaster Control in Scottish Libraries
and Record Offices, National Library of Scotland,
Edinburgh.
Counter-Disaster Planning 83
 Borchardt, M.W. (ed.) 1988, Disaster in Libraries:
Preservation and Control, CAVAL Ltd, Melbourne.
Which of the following statements is false?
Doig, Judith 1997, Disaster Recovery for Archives,
Librariers and Records Management Systems in a)
Australia and New Zealand, Centre for
Information Studies, Wagga Wagga.
b)
Kahn, M. 1994a, First Steps for Handling and Drying
Water-Damaged Materials, MBK Consulting,
Columbus, Ohio. c)
1994b, Disaster Prevention and Response for
Computers and Data, MBK Consulting, d)
Columbus, Ohio.
Lawrence, P. O’Reilly 1992, Before Disaster Strikes:
Prevention, Planning and Recovery, The Historic
New Orleans Collection, New Orleans.
Question 2.
When conducting a hazard assessment you
should identify all potential hazards.
It is helpful to mark problem areas on a map
of the building.
Conducting a hazard assessment will stop
disasters happening.
When conducting a hazard assessment, you
can ignore such issues as geographic location,
building construction and political
environment.
Question 3.

Murray, Toby 1986, Basic Guidelines for Disaster Which of the following can help in hazard
Planning in Oklahoma, Tuba Disaster reduction?
Preparedness Committee, Oklahoma
Conservation Congress. a) Protective storage of flammable materials.

Price, Lois Olcott 1996, Mold: Managing a Mold b) Selection of fire-resistant furnishings and
Invasion—Guidelines for Disaster Response, fixtures.
Conservation Center for Art and Historic
Artefacts, Philadelphia. c) Storing items in boxes and containers.

d) Cleanliness and tidiness.

Sinclair, J. (ed.) 1992, State Library of New South
Wales Counter-Disaster Manual, State Library of e) Installation of smoke and heat detectors.
New South Wales, Sydney.
f) Installation of sprinkler systems.

Self-evaluation quiz g) Regular servicing of electrical and air-

conditioning systems.

h) Unplugging electrical equipment when not in

Question 1.
use.

What is the aim of counter-disaster management? i) Training and awareness programs for staff,
volunteers and the local community.
a) To prevent disasters by being aware of the
risks to the collection and acting to minimise j) All of the above.
them.
Question 4.
b) To be prepared for the possibility of a disaster
by preparing a counter-disaster plan.
Which of the following statements are true?
c) To be prepared for the possibility of a disaster
by stocking counter-disaster kits or stores and a) Preparedness involves waiting for a disaster
training teams. to happen.

d) To know how to react to a disaster and how b) Preparedness involves preparation of a

to recover from a disaster as soon as possible. counter-disaster plan.

e) All of the above. c) Preparedness involves buying equipment and

84 Counter-Disaster Planning
 materials that you can use to assist you in c) should start with an assessment of the extent
reacting to and recovering from a disaster. of damage, which covers the quantity of
materials affected;
d) Preparedness is irrelevant because you don’t
know if or when a disaster is going to d) should detail how you will treat damaged items.
happen.
Question 8.
Question 5.
Once you have assembled recovery teams, you
A counter-disaster plan: should:

a) incorporates all the information you may need a) make them work as hard and for as long as
if a disaster occurs; possible—after all, they may lose interest
before the job is done;
b) should include a list of the location and
contents of disaster bins; b) clearly identify team leaders;

c) should have the names and addresses of c) give each team well-defined responsibilities
suppliers of emergency equipment and and instruct them in safe handling
materials; techniques;

d) should include information on initial response d) establish communication channels and safety
procedures; signals for emergency evacuation if necessary;

e) should include floor plans of the building e) let them get on with the work—too much
with information on the fire-fighting and talk before the recovery task could waste
smoke detection equipment; precious time.

f) all of the above.

Question 9.
Question 6.
When assessing the impact of the damage:
Disaster kits should: a) always check to establish if it is safe to
enter;
a) contain a checklist of procedures or
emergency information sheets; b) determine what has been damaged, for
example, equipment and fixtures;
b) include extensive supplies of materials to be
used in a disaster; c) check what areas can be used for sorting,
cleaning, packing and drying;
c) have a list of emergency contacts;
d) determine what kind of special equipment and
d) be locked away to prevent theft; materials will be needed;
e) contain items such as perforated paper e) all of the above.
towelling, gloves, pens, paper, clipboards,
masking tape, bucket, scissors;
Question 10.
f) all of the above
What personal safety methods should you use?
Question 7.
a) Avoid twisting or side-bending when lifting.
A recovery plan: b) Ensure the same assistants perform the one
task all day so you do not have to train
a) sets out in the right order what you should do; others.
b) needs to be prepared before the disaster occurs; c) Avoid excessive bending of the back.

Counter-Disaster Planning 85
 d) Use your back when lifting, not your legs.
e) Keep loads close to your body.
Question 11.
If items are mould-damaged, you should:
a) first control the environment, to minimise
further growth;
b) stabilise the temperature and relative
humidity in the disaster area;
c) check whether the air needs to be circulated,
and if so, install dehumidifiers and fans;
d) remove damaged items from the storage area,
to minimise the risk to other items;
e) ensure you thoroughly clean the affected
material before returning it to storage.
f) all of the above.
Question 12.
Which of the following statements are true?
a) People’s safety has priority over the
collection.
b) Everybody who has been trained in disaster
response will be cool-headed and calm in the
aftermath of a disaster.
c) Some 95% of disasters result in water
damage.
d) The extent of damage should be documented
in writing and photographically.
e) Not all materials can be frozen safely.
f) All members of the disaster response team
should be trained in the use of fire
extinguishers, and some should have training
in first aid.
Question 13
When air-drying books:
a) do not attempt to press wet or swollen books;
b) do not hang heavy or sodden books,
newspapers or magazines;
86 Counter-Disaster Planning
c) interleave coated pages by placing paper
towels between every pair of pages;
d) change the interleaves regularly;
e) remove plastic covers where possible;
f) all of the above.
Answers to
self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
Answer: e).
Question 2.
Answer: c) and d) are false. Conducting a hazard
assessment will not stop disasters happening, but
if hazards are recognised steps can be taken to
minimise their impact and to protect the
collection, should a disaster occur. Issues such as
geographic location, building construction and
political environment should be considered
because they may be the source of potential
hazards.
Question 3.
Answer: j).
Question 4.
Answer: b) and c) are true. Other aspects of
preparedness are establishing a team of people
prepared to be called on in an emergency and
training them so that they are familiar with
procedures for responding to a disaster.
Question 5.
Answer: f).
Question 6.
Answer: a), c) and e). The kit should contain
enough resources to cope with minor water
damage. More extensive supplies are kept in a
disaster store. The disaster kit should be easily
accessible but should not be too public or too
attractive to pilferers.

Question 7.

Answer: a), c) and d). Unlike the counter-disaster

plan, the recovery plan cannot be prepared ahead
of time as it will vary depending on the situation.

Question 8.

Answer: b), c) and d). People get very tired

working in difficult conditions and can be quite
emotional after a disaster. Therefore it is important
to rotate jobs and have breaks from the work—
these should happen every hour. Refreshments and
food should be provided for the volunteers by the
host organisation. It is also important to brief
people properly before they commence the
recovery phase. They will need clear instructions
backed up by demonstrations of their tasks. This
can contribute greatly to their safety and to the
safety of the objects they are recovering.

Question 9.

Answer: e).

Question 10.

Answer: a), c) and e).

Question 11.

Answer: f).

Question 12.

Answer: a), c), d), e) and f) are true. b) is false.

People can react quite unpredictably to disasters.
People who are usually cool-headed and efficient
can become emotional and disoriented, even if
they have had disaster-response training.

Question 13.

Answer: f).

Counter-Disaster Planning 87
 Acknowledgments

Collection Management and Other

Conservation Working Party of the
Heritage Collections Council Stuart Anderson Simone Cordeauz
Sandra Flischer Michelle Koford
Margaret Anderson (Chair) Jacki Kossatz Linda Marlin
Ian Cook (Deputy Chair) Simon Prince Carly Romiero
Karen Coote Slade Smith Robyn Thomas
Tamara Lavrencic Di Virgil Guthrie Watson
Jan Lyall
Chris Tassell Prototype Development Consortium
Ian MacLeod Conservation Training Australia
Phil Gordon
Robyn Sloggett
Artlab Australia
John Stanton
History Trust of South Australia
Viv Szekeres
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
Ian Stephenson
State Library of New South Wales
University of Melbourne Conservation Service
Major Contributors Western Australian Museum

Karen Coote James Dexter Project Manager: Keith Fernandez

Keith Fernandez David Gilroy Technical Editor: Vicki Humphrey
Rosie Freemantle Ian Godfrey
Alan Howell Vicki Humphrey Field Trial Participants
Georgia Koronis Tamara Lavrencic
Ian MacLeod Joy Noble
Bob Alford Elizabeth Anya-Petrivna
Sarah-Jane Rennie Marion Roubos-Bennet
Denise Davis Luan Dunaan
Robyn Sloggett Michell Smith
Christine Ewings Jude Fraser
Geoff Speirs Greg Wallace
Ann Gibson Ken Hodge
Helen Weidenhofer Margie West
Jean Johnson Narayan Khadekar
Lindsay Knowles Heather Kriesl
Contributors Nicole Livermore Zoe McKenzie-Smith
John Reid Pauline Ross
Phil Alderslade Marie Boland Glen Smith
Peter Cahalan Glenn Cole
Sarah Feijen Fred Francisco Sunshine and District Historical Society
Helen Halley Charlotte Jenkin
Gillian Leahy Sophie Lussier Marketing Research
Holly McGowan-Jackson Elizabeth Murphy
Kristin Phillips Alex Roach
Environmetrics
Jennifer Ross Sue Valis
Sandra Yee
Editing and Publishing
Kimba and Gawler Ranges Historical Society
Migration Museum Communication Partners
National Motor Museum Cyranet
South Australian Telstra Historical Collection

Acknowledgments 89
reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia

MANAGING PEOPLE

Foreword page iii

A Note to Readers page iv

Introduction page v

Access to Collections page 1

Networking page 11

Assessing Skills and Training Needs page 21

Managing Volunteers page 39

Health and Safety page 51

Acknowledgments page 63
© Commonwealth of Australia 1998 on behalf of the Heritage Collections Council
ISBN 0 642 37384 1 (boxed set)
ISBN 0 642 37385 X (this volume)
Information presented in this book may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or
training purposes, subject to the inclusion of acknowledgment of source and provided no
commercial usage or sale of material occurs. Reproduction for purposes other than those
given above requires the written permission of the Heritage Collections Council. Requests
for permission should be sent to the HCC Secretariat at the address given below.
One copy of this publication is available to Australian institutions on application. Multiple
copies to Australian institutions, copies to overseas institutions and copies to individuals
will be charged at A$100 plus postage and handling. Copies may be obtained by writing to:
Heritage Collections Council Secretariat
GPO Box 2154
Canberra ACT 2601
Australia
Phone (02) 6271 1094
Fax (02) 6271 1079
Email hcc@dcita.gov.au
This publication will be available online at the Australian Museums On Line website—
http://amol.org.au
Produced by the Commonwealth Department of Communications, Information Technology
and the Arts.
Cover images (from left):
Detail of photograph courtesy of Museum of Western Australia.
Detail of bark painting, Lightning Snake Story, Douglas (Nawurapu) Wununmurra.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum.
Detail of photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia.
Detail of hand-coloured 19th century children’s book. Photograph courtesy of
Vicki Humphrey.
There are an estimated 41 million objects held in Australian museums, art galleries and historical collections.
Collectively they tell the story of our history and our country and contribute to our sense of identity and
national pride. Increasing the conservation skills of people who care for these collections is an important
factor in protecting this heritage, and is a key goal of the Heritage Collections Council.

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia has been developed with this goal in mind. This set
of practical guidebooks is designed by the Council for use principally by non-conservators who are working
with Australia’s cultural heritage. The guidebooks are also a teacher-friendly resource which can be used in
professional development workshops.

Many of Australia’s most experienced conservators have been involved in researching, writing and editing
reCollections, through the Conservation Training Australia consortium, led by Artlab Australia, which
first developed the package, and through the Collections Management and Conservation Working Party of
the Council.

The Heritage Collections Council’s mission is to promote excellence in the management, care and provision of
access to Australia’s heritage collections so that together, they reflect Australia’s cultural and natural
diversity. The Council is a collaboration between the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments and
the museums sector, and comprises people working in a wide range of cultural heritage institutions across
the breadth of urban and regional Australia. reCollections is an important component of the Council’s
National Conservation and Preservation Strategy for Australia’s Heritage Collections.

Rob Palfreyman
Chair
Heritage Collections Council

Heritage Collections Council

GPO Box 2154, Canberra ACT 2601, AUSTRALIA
Phone: (02) 6271 1094 Fax: (02) 6271 1079 Email: hcc@dcita.gov.au

Foreword iii
 A note to readers

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia

has been written by practicing conservators and is intended to provide
a sound guide for the preventive care of cultural items. Active
conservation treatment of cultural material should only be undertaken
by, or on the advice of, a trained conservator. Before relying on any of
the material in this guide, users should check its accuracy, currency,
completeness and relevance for their purposes and should obtain
appropriate professional advice.

If in doubt,
consult a
conservator
To obtain the names of accredited practicing conservators who are in a
position to meet your particular conservation requirements contact the
Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material (Inc.)
a national organisation for conservators and people interested in the
preservation of cultural material.

AICCM
GPO Box 1638
Canberra ACT 2601
National Secretary Phone: (02) 6254 8695
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~conserv/aiccmhc.htm

iv A note to readers
 Introduction to

reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia
Our heritage is represented by a vast array of cultural material, from established national icons holding
pride of place in major museums and galleries, to everyday items such as household appliances or
newspapers which carry meaning for local communities or families. Yet so often the links to our heritage
are tenuous because the objects which represent our culture are in danger of decay. However, there is
a lot we can do to protect valued objects and collections and so prolong the life of our cultural heritage.
reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia provides practical advice and guidance designed
to help the reader care for their heritage.

reCollections explains how to apply preventive conservation techniques to cultural objects and collections.
Preventive conservation optimises the environmental conditions in which objects and collections are housed.
Controlling light and ultraviolet radiation, humidity and temperature, biological pests, and dust and pollutants
helps to prevent damage and decay to cultural material. Preventive conservation also means ensuring that
good handling, transportation, storage and display techniques are used at all times. Applying preventive
methods to the care of cultural artefacts and collections can prolong and protect their life for current and
future generations of Australians.

While reCollections provides conservation information about the care of cultural objects and collections,
it is important to recognise that all except the simplest conservation treatments should be undertaken
by trained conservators. Active conservation treatment is a response to the damage of cultural artefacts,
a highly skilled field which often involves the use of chemicals and complicated technical procedures.
Unless performed with a thorough knowledge of appropriate techniques and with the right equipment and
materials, conservation treatments can do more harm than good to the objects being worked upon, and
can be hazardous to the people performing the work. Conservation treatments should only be conducted by,
or on the explicit advice of, a trained conservator.

To complement the preventive conservation advice contained in the volumes Damage and Decay and Handling,
Transportation, Storage and Display, reCollections supplies detailed information concerning the care of some
of the most common cultural materials. These range from the paper and other materials on which so much
of Australia’s cultural history may be seen, to special considerations in caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultural artefacts. In addition, modern practices concerning the management of collections and
of the people who look after those collections are outlined.

Introduction v
 Access To
Collections

Objectives page 3
Introduction page 3
Risks involved in handling objects page 3
Preventative action page 4
Theft page 6
Vandalism page 7
Accidental damage page 8
Access for researchers page 8
Publications, new technology page 8
Loans page 8
Self- evaluation quiz page 9
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 10
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• understand how to facilitate access to your
collections, while ensuring the safety of the
objects;
• be able to assess the risks to your collection
caused by public access;
• be familiar with a variety of display
techniques which can help minimise the risks
caused by public access;
• be able to explain to the public the need for
care when in your museum, gallery or library;
• be able to devise strategies to protect items
in your collections while they are being used
by researchers and readers;
• understand the risks involved in lending
works, and the need to agree on the lender’s
and borrower’s responsibilities; and
• devise simple security systems to minimise
the risk of theft and vandalism.
Introduction
Museums, galleries and libraries exist to collect
and care for objects which are deemed important
because of their natural, cultural, historic and
aesthetic significance; preserve material heritage
for future generations; and provide the general
public and individuals with access to those
collections.
Providing access to your collections presents you
with exciting opportunities for exhibition design,
historical and cultural research, educational
programs, publications and many other activities.
It also provides your visitors with a valuable
resource for recreation, exploration and the pursuit
of their interests.
Unfortunately, access to collections can also lead
to deterioration. However, the dangers posed by
allowing public access to the collections can be
minimised by a mixture of display, educational and
procedural techniques.
Regional museums, galleries and libraries do not
always have the resources to make major changes
to their display techniques and procedures, but
there are simple and inexpensive display
techniques that can help to lessen risks to
collections. It is also possible to raise public
awareness of their role in the preservation of
collections: by being careful when visiting the
museum, gallery or library; by cooperating with the
measures you have taken to protect the collection;
and by not handling the objects in the displays
unnecessarily.
This section makes some suggestions on how to
minimise handling problems in general, and
outlines preventive action you can take against
theft, vandalism and accidental damage. It also
provides guidelines for the safe use of collections
by researchers, donors, staff and other museums.
Risks involved in
handling objects
Many people believe that a museum experience
should involve a number of senses, not just sight.
Many visitors have an instinctive desire to touch
objects as well as look at them, so they can feel
their texture, density and weight. Indeed, some
exhibitions encourage the hands-on experience.
But handling objects over long periods does
present some risks.
Most items sustain some damage from handling.
Some are more vulnerable than others, for
example:
• objects with powdery painted surfaces, such
as Aboriginal bark paintings and decorated
sculptures;
• breakable objects such as glass or ceramic
items;
• fragile items such as paper and textiles; and
• items which are already damaged.
Even the cleanest hands have natural oils, salts
and acids which can attack the surface of many
materials, particularly metals.
Unintentional damage can be caused by the
inexperienced handling of fragile or vulnerable
objects.
If the public is allowed to handle parts of the
Access to Collections 3
 collection on display, there is an increased risk of
theft.
Unfortunately, many museum visitors are not aware
of these risks and can see no harm in handling
an everyday object—after all, it had been handled
for many years before coming to the museum.
The following suggestions for preventive action
will help you to balance providing access to your
collection with taking practical steps to protect
it from damage.
Preventive action
Get your message across by talking
to your visitors
Most damage to collections on display is
unintentional and occurs because the public are
unaware of the dangers that inappropriate
handling poses. Education and public relations are
powerful tools for making the public aware of the
damage that can result from inappropriate
handling.
Most museums, galleries and libraries have
attendants, custodians or volunteers who open up
the museum, greet visitors, take admission fees
and provide information. These people are also in
the perfect position to provide information about
care of the collections.
To be effective, this information must give the
reasons for your rules in a positive manner which
does not belittle or alienate the visitor. This is
particularly important with school groups, who are
often judged to be guilty before they enter the
museum.
Your attendants could weave the following
message into their greeting or introduction to the
museum, gallery or library:
We ask you not to touch the objects on display
because, even if you have just washed your
hands, you naturally have oils, acids and salts
in your skin which will attack the surface of the
objects you touch. Please help us take care of
our collections!
It is also important to point out that museums
intend their collections to last for many
generations.
4 Access to Collections
Get your message across using signs
and display labels
When it is not possible to greet all visitors,
signage becomes very important in raising visitor
awareness of the problems involved in touching
objects. The signs should be positive rather than
negative, and educative rather than threatening.
‘Keep off the grass!’ types of signs tend to be
counterproductive.
PLEASE DO NOT TOUCH
Even if you have just washed your hands you
naturally have oils, acids and salts in your skin
that will damage the surface of the objects or
artefacts that you touch.
An increasing number of visitors to museums in
Australia do not speak English or are from a non-
English speaking background. It is important to
consider translating your signs so that all visitors are
aware of your concern to preserve your collection.
You can discover, through surveys or through local
tourism associations, which countries your tourist
visitors come from, and then develop bilingual or
multilingual signage explaining how their behaviour
can assist you in caring for your collections.
Similarly, if your region or community has significant
numbers of non-English speaking residents,
translations can provide them with the same
information as that provided for all your other
visitors. This can lead to a greater sense of
ownership and involvement.
Translations of your signs are important, because
to date no accepted international symbol has been
developed for indicating a prohibition on touching
objects in museums, galleries and libraries. There are
commercial translating services in most metropolitan
areas or, if you are affiliated with the government,
you may be eligible to use the Commonwealth
Department of Immigration’s translating and
interpreting service. Check your telephone
directory for contact numbers for the appropriate
service near you. Be aware that even the
Commonwealth’s service charges for translations.
Let people know what can be
touched safely and what cannot
If you want to include a hands-on display in your
museum, gallery or library, it is important to
distinguish clearly—through signage and display
techniques—which items can be touched and
which cannot.

Items which can be touched could be marked with

appropriate signage, perhaps featuring hands or
‘touch me’ symbols. These objects should be easily
accessible to touching, in clear contrast to the rest
of the display.

Use your display furniture

to protect vulnerable items

Even with the best educational and public relations

A display case can be purchased or constructed.
strategies, it is still essential to develop displays
which discourage the over-curious from touching Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Gallery of the
objects, and which provide some protection Northern Territory
against malicious or criminal damage. There are
different ways of achieving this. Most involve
keeping the collections at arm’s length.

Display cases and cabinets are an ideal way of

showing valuable or vulnerable objects. Not only are
the objects protected from inappropriate handling
and casual theft, but they are also protected from
environmental hazards, especially dust.

Unfortunately display cases are usually expensive;

and regional and community museums have
often been dependent on hand-me-down cases
from major museums and government offices.
These are better than nothing, but if they are
not all of one design, your exhibitions can lack This simply constructed pole fence creates a barrier
a sense of unity. between museum visitor and the object on display.
Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Gallery of the
Funding for major items, such as sets of display Northern Territory
cases, can sometimes be provided through local
service clubs or through government grants.
One advantage of sponsorship is that the finished
product can look very attractive and a sponsor may
be proud to have his or her name associated with
the product. Remember also that you may have the
expertise within your local or regional community
to make display cases to suit your needs. It is not
always necessary to buy display furniture from the
major cities.

Contact your State or Territory regional museum

programs for advice about various sources of
funding, as well as for help writing applications for
funding. They may also be able to help you locate
display furniture no longer required by the State
museums and art galleries, furniture which you can Plinths can effectively isolate an object on display.
then acquire.
Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Gallery of the
Northern Territory

Access to Collections 5
 Plinths and barriers are much cheaper and easier to
make than display cases. They offer less protection
than display cases, but they can offer protection
to objects not easily displayed in cases.
Plinths, barriers and demarcation lines—often tape
on the floor—come in a variety of designs; but
care must be taken to ensure that they do not
become a hazard, particularly if the display area is
already congested. Plinths are low, raised bases
which surround a display stand. They can be a
particular problem for people with impaired vision
or bifocals, who may misjudge where the plinth is
or be unaware of it and trip and fall into the
display. This could cause injury to someone and
result in a public liability claim, as well as damage
to the collection. Consideration of traffic flow and
the placement of items away from narrow or high
traffic areas, is important when planning displays.
If you use plinths in your exhibition, be aware of
the items you display near the plinth. If you hang
small items or display labels which require close
scrutiny near or behind the plinths, people will be
tempted to move too close. This will make it more
likely that the plinth will be knocked, damaging
the object being displayed.
Use display design and layout
to protect collections
Ramps and walkways are an effective way of
allowing access to large but fragile or dangerous
machines or to sites which can easily be disturbed.
Ramps and walkways may seem ambitious, but are
not necessarily expensive and can be constructed
by local contractors.
This ramp provides viewers with a view of the exhibit,
which they could otherwise only get by climbing on it.
Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Gallery of the
Northern Territory
6 Access to Collections
The placement of objects in exhibitions can also
be used to protect them. Large objects which do
not require close scrutiny can be placed out of
reach of the public. This may mean that the
objects are hung high on the wall, or are placed
behind smaller items that do not obscure them but
block access to them.
Ensure that these objects and their labels can be
read properly and that the objects are not forgotten
when it comes to cleaning and conservation.
Items can be hung
out of reach by
using all your wall
space. Note also
that the breakable
objects are
protected in a
display case.
Photograph courtesy
of the Museum and
Gallery of the
Northern Territory
Use security equipment to warn you
that items are at risk
Electronic security beams are a relatively cheap
method of providing some security against people
touching objects. These, usually infrared, are
available commercially, and sound an alarm when
someone moves too close to the object and breaks
the beam.
Care must be taken to ensure that the beam is not
too easily broken, because numerous false alarms
cause frustration and embarrassment, and can lead
to a real threat being ignored.
Theft
Encouraging public access to collections inevitably
involves some risk of theft to some parts of those
collections. Thefts are generally of two types: the
planned break-in, in which works are stolen and
generally sold; and the impulse theft by a visitor.
 Preventive action suddenly, so an object that was not considered at
risk when first displayed may become at risk.
While the likelihood of a planned break-in can be
In some cases, you could be displaying items
reduced through properly securing the building,
which are culturally sensitive, for example, sacred
the chance of an impulse theft by a visitor can be
objects and some indigenous art. It is important
minimised by carefully considered display
to respect these cultural differences. These objects
techniques and visitor procedures.
should be removed from display and treated
according to the custom of the people who
No objects should be displayed unsecured.
produced the objects.
If it is not possible to have objects in lockable
Damage to objects generally requires an
display cases, then they should be secured to the
implement. If the Vatican attendants had
display with clamps or armatures. Care must be
demanded that Lazlo Toth place his hammer in the
taken to ensure that such devices do not damage
cloakroom, he would have had difficulty smashing
the object itself. Perspex clamps and armatures are
Michelangelo’s Pieta.
effective because they are relatively soft and non-
reactive, and do not intrude aesthetically.
Outdoor exhibits, sculpture and graves are very
much at risk from graffiti or malicious damage
It is common museum practice to ask visitors to
which is at times politically motivated. Such
cloak all bags bigger than a normal handbag, and
vandalism is very difficult to combat, though
all heavy coats or bulky objects. This is partly for
strategic placement of lighting can reduce the
the visitor’s convenience, but also minimises the
risk of vandalism.
risk of accidental damage or theft.
If riotous behaviour is known to occur in the local
Framed works are harder to steal if the frames are
community, again, assessment of when potential
screwed to the walls rather than hung on nails or
trouble may occur should be made and procedures
brackets. Mirror plates can be screwed to the backs adopted to counteract this danger.
of frames with the extended part of the plate
screwed to the wall and painted the same colour Secure the building. If there is a possibility that
as the wall. rioting may occur in the local community, the
museum should be made secure not just against
Vandalism burglary but against mass break-in. This may
require bars or arc mesh over all windows and
doors. Although not aesthetically pleasing, such
Vandalism is an ever-present threat to the precautions may prevent the destruction of
preservation of collections. Whatever the irreplaceable elements of the collection.
motivation, the damage to the collection is the
same.

Preventive action

Assess the risks. It is important to assess the

probability of vandalism. You do not want to turn
your museum, gallery or library into a fort
needlessly, nor do you want to be caught
unawares.

If you are mounting an exhibition which is

potentially controversial, you can expect a
reaction. However, if you use signs and labels to
explain the point of the exhibition, you may
diffuse some of the problems. You should also take Mesh over the glass helps prevent break-ins.
steps to protect objects which may be at risk. Photograph courtesy of the Museum and Gallery of the
Remember that issues can become controversial Northern Territory

Access to Collections 7
 Accidental damage
Unintentional damage to collections can be caused
by staff or the public accidentally knocking objects.
If your display areas are too cramped or poorly or
confusingly lit, or if there is no facility to cloak
bags, umbrellas and so on, then the risks of this
type of damage will be greater. Backpacks are a
particular problem, because the wearers are often
unaware of how close they are to the displays.
Preventive action
Good display design and good traffic flow will
minimise the chances of accidental damage.
This is particularly valid if the museum attracts
tourist buses.
Avoid creating narrow or congested spaces.
Ensure that people do not have to backtrack to
progress through or leave the museum, gallery or
library.
Do not position popular displays where they will
cause congestion.
Ensure that all large bags, umbrellas, overcoats
and backpacks are cloaked. Provide a secure space
for cloaking.
Access for researchers
Access to collection material may be requested by
researchers, donors, students, staff from other
museums and members of the public.
Prevention of damage
Museum collections will deteriorate more quickly if
they are handled often. Following the guidelines
below can help minimise the damage that may
occur through repeated access and handling.
Encourage people to search the catalogue,
photographic records and published material before
you allow access to collections. After a full
investigation, they may find they do not need
access to the original object.
Set up procedures that minimise handling of the
object. Museum staff should locate requested
8 Access to Collections
material prior to the visitor’s appointment, and
have it laid out on a cleared bench or table.
If visitors need to touch or move items as part of
their research, issue them with white cotton or
latex gloves, depending on the type of material to
be handled. The natural oils from hands can cause
deterioration of many materials, as well as transfer
dirt; so if gloves are inappropriate, the visitors
should wash and thoroughly dry their hands.
Visitors should be supervised by staff when
handling items from the collection; and you should
give them some basic instruction in handling items
gently, properly supporting them and keeping
movement to a minimum.
You can restrict access to very fragile material,
such as very old paper or textile items. These
should not be handled at all by visitors. Storage
supports which allow viewing can provide access.
Photographs can be made of fragile documents or
artworks, and these made available instead of the
original items.
Specify that researchers make notes in pencil, not
ballpoint or ink. Keep a supply of pencils for
researchers to use.
Publications, new technology
Making your collections available in published form
is a way of maximising access to the collection
without direct handling. Increasingly, major
institutions are also looking at electronic media
such as CD-ROM to provide wider access to material
from their collections.
Publications in printed form or in CD-ROM need
not be considered difficult or beyond your budget.
You may be able to get grant funding for this type
of project.
Loans
Access to collections may be sought by other
institutions in the form of loans. Collection items
are at risk each time they are moved, handled,
transported, subjected to changes of temperature
and humidity, or exposed to light for long periods.
Before agreeing to a loan, the following criteria
should be considered.
Is the item strong enough in structure or
composition to withstand travel?
Would the size and weight of the item create
packing and transport problems?
Can the borrowing institution provide appropriate
climatic and lighting conditions and an adequate
level of security?
may affect decisions on future loan requests,
because repeated exposure to transit and different
display conditions will adversely affect an item’s
condition.
If you have a problem relating to the access of
collections, contact a conservator. Conservators
can offer advice and practical solutions.

Will the item need conservation before it can

Self-evaluation quiz
travel, and can the borrower pay for this?

Before agreeing to the loan, you should also: Question 1.

• have the item valued for insurance purposes; If you do not want people to touch objects in your
and
museum you should:
• find out as much as possible about the
a) arrange your display in such a way that it
borrower’s storage and display conditions, so
discourages handling of objects;
that methods of minimising deterioration
through changes in temperature, humidity
b) put everything high on the walls, out of
and light can be devised.
reach;
A museum, gallery or library may decide that very c) use signage to explain why you don’t want
rare or fragile material should not be made available them to touch things;
for loan. If it is agreed that collection material may
be lent, the following guidelines apply. d) put everything behind security mesh.

You should prepare a condition report, including Question 2.

photographs if possible, of the items to be lent.
Any wear marks or damage should be recorded as
In order to protect your collection, it is advisable
accurately as possible. It is important to have a
to:
detailed record of the item before it is lent, so that
on the item’s return it can be checked against this a) deny access to backpackers;
report to find out if travel or display has caused
any additional damage or deterioration. b) provide a secure store for items such as
backpacks, bags, coats and umbrellas;
For more information
c) stop tour buses coming to your museum,
For more information on condition reports,
gallery or library;
please see the Collection Surveys and Condition
Reporting chapter in Managing Collections and d) design your exhibition with good traffic flow,
the Transportation chapter in Handling, also avoiding congestion.
transportation, storage and display.
Question 3.
A loan agreement setting out the conditions of the
loan and specifying the borrower’s responsibilities, Which of the following statements are false?
including insurance cover, should be signed by
both parties. a) All researchers must have unlimited access to
the collections when they require it.
Items for loan should be packed securely, so that
they are fully supported and protected during transit. b) If researchers examine all the supporting
material first, they may not need extended
access to original material.
Records of loans should be kept so that you know
how often particular items have been lent. This

Access to Collections 9
 c) Publications and CD-ROM productions are a Question 3.
means of providing access to your collections.

d) It is not polite to give people instructions on
how to handle the items that they are
consulting for research.
Question 4.
Which of the following statements are true?
a) Before you agree to a loan, you should check
on the display conditions at the borrowing
institution.
b) Items for loan should be packed securely.
c) Objects are placed at risk each time they are
moved, handled, transported, exposed to light
for long periods of time or subjected to
fluctuations in relative humidity.
Answer: a) and d) are false. It is important to
provide access to your collections; but if items are
particularly fragile or if they are undergoing
conservation treatment it is reasonable for you to
restrict access. Access to some culturally sensitive
material should always be restricted. People will
generally appreciate that you are concerned with
the care of your collections. If you give them
handling instructions in a positive, polite and
constructive way, they should not take offence.
Question 4.
Answer: e).

d) Records of loans should be kept so that you

can monitor the number of times each item is
lent.

e) All of the above.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: a) and c) are two of the methods you can

use to discourage people from touching items. b)
and d) will not provide good access to the
collection—measures will not allow people to see
things easily and will not provide a visitor-friendly
environment.

Question 2.

Answer: b) and d).

10 Access to Collections
Networking

Objectives page 13
Introduction page 13
Regional networks page 13
Interest networks page 14
Professional networks page 14
Local networks page 15
What networks can do page 15
Self-evaluation quiz page 18
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 19
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should understand:
• what kinds of networks exist; and
• how particular networks can help you.
State History Conference delegates enjoy the Mine
Interpretation Centre at Kapunda, South Australia,
October 1995.
Photograph courtesy of K. Crilly
Introduction
No matter where you live, there is always someone
you can contact who has the skills you need to solve
a problem. Sometimes that person can be found in
the neighbourhood, or in a community of fellow
enthusiasts. At other times you may have to call on
someone with specialist knowledge and expertise.
In order to draw on this knowledge and expertise,
you have to know it exists, and whom to contact
to gain access to it. Networking provides this sort
of information exchange. Networking puts people
with similar interests, but perhaps different
backgrounds, in touch. It provides opportunities
for sharing and the exchange of knowledge,
expertise and resources.
Establishing good networks gives you access to a
pool of specialist people and services, which you
might not normally find in a small museum, gallery
or library. Networks enhance the effectiveness of
your museum by increasing your opportunities and
enriching your resource base. They can also be a
useful way of strengthening the ties between your
museum, gallery or library and your local
community.
Regional networks
There are museums, galleries, libraries, local history
collections and private collections in every region
of Australia. It is useful to know which of these are
in your region, how they can be contacted and
what sort of collections they hold. It is also helpful
to know what problems you have in common and
how others work to overcome these problems.
You may be able to help each other with new
ideas, buying materials cooperatively, swapping
skills and pooling resources.
Directories are useful for finding out about
collecting institutions and, therefore, are good
sources to consult when you are building your
networks of contacts. There are nation-wide as well
as State directories covering museums and
galleries, art institutions and libraries.
Australian Museums On Line (AMOL), the Internet
Web site devoted to museums and galleries,
contains the National Directory of Australian
Museums and Galleries. This directory provides
details for more than 800 museums and galleries
of all types and sizes, and expects to eventually
include all museums and galleries in Australia.
Entries are continually added to the Directory,
so it is always up to date. The Australia Council,
about every two years produces the publication
Ozarts, a directory of art institutions and people.
The Australian Library and Information Association
(ALIA) publishes the Directory of Australian Special
Libraries (now in its 9th edition) every two to
three years; and national directories of public
libraries and reference libraries are produced by
Auslib Press in Adelaide.
Museum directories.
Photograph courtesy of the History Trust of South
Australia
Networking 13
 Most States have, or are preparing, directories of
museums, grouped by region. Some have also
prepared directories of historical societies and
other collecting agencies. These directories are not
always updated regularly, so you should check for
the latest editions. If you wish to obtain copies of
these directories, simply contact the relevant State
branch of Museums Australia Inc. The branches will
either be able to supply you with a copy of their
directory or put you in touch with a supplier.

Libraries, too, have established very good networks

throughout the country. If you wish to know more
about library networks, contact your State branch
of ALIA.
There are a number of other regional networks
operating at both formal and informal levels. Some
State branches of Museums Australia have set up
regional chapters to assist those who are distant
from metropolitan centres. The Regional Galleries
Association has branches in New South Wales and
Queensland; and there is a Public Galleries
Association of Victoria. There are also branches of
the Royal Historical Society and the National Trust
in most States. The Australian Museums On Line
Internet site includes the Australian Museums
Forum, which acts as an electronic network. Users
can make contact with other museum workers,
share common problems and solutions, or discuss
issues of concern. To find out more about
Australian Museums On Line, contact the AMOL
Coordination Unit at the National Museum of
Australia in Canberra, or your State branch of
Museums Australia Inc.
Interest networks
Museum publications.
Photograph courtesy of the History Trust of
South Australia
specialist organisations you might be interested in
joining. Perhaps the easiest way of determining
which ones are most relevant to you would be to
make use of your local library or council. They
often maintain lists of local associations and
interest groups.
Professional networks
There are also professional networks you can turn
to for help. Professional networks are made up of,
and include:
• professional associations such as: Museums
Australia; the Australian Institute for the
Conservation of Cultural Material (AICCM); the
Australian Registrars Committee; the
Australian Library and Information Association
(ALIA); and the Art Libraries Society of
Australia/New Zealand (ARLIS ANZ). Most

Whatever you collect—art works, costume, dolls,

militaria, phonographs, porcelain, objects
associated generally with local history, sport,
medicine, transport and so on—other people and
institutions collect them as well. They have a
specialist interest in the subject and some will
have expert knowledge about the management and
conservation of these collections. Often a casual
conversation can save you many hours of work by
putting you in touch with just the person or
supplier you have been searching for.

Many groups of enthusiasts have already formed

associations, and meet regularly and hold functions Delegates mingle informally at the Museums Australia
and events, as well as exchange information and National Conference, Fremantle, Western Australia, 1994.
ideas through publications. There is a myriad of Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum

14 Networking
 professional associations have national
headquarters and representatives in various
States;

• State and Commonwealth collecting

institutions, such as museums, galleries and
libraries. Within these institutions you will
usually find curatorial, registration, design
and conservation expertise. While the staff of
these institutions may not be able to provide
extensive help, they can generally provide
basic advice, and point you in the right
direction to get further support and
assistance. Examples of such institutions are
the museums and art galleries of the Northern
Adelaide students enjoy a display on the exploration
Territory, the History Trust of South Australia, of South Australia at Old Parliament House, Adelaide,
the Western Australian Museum, and the State South Australia.
Library of New South Wales;
Photograph courtesy of Alexander Makeev

also other groups whose primary interest is not

museums, galleries or libraries and their
collections, but who are very interested in the role
your museum, gallery or library plays in the local
community and who want to make a contribution
to this. Some examples are:

• sister institutions, such as a local museum

and local history collection;

• local councils;

• schools, secondary and primary;

Delegates visiting the Fremantle Arts Centre during • local businesses which may be prepared to
the Museums Australia National Conference, Fremantle,
Western Australia, 1994.
promote museums, carry displays and provide
sponsorship;
Photograph courtesy of the Western Australian Museum
• churches, government agencies, sporting
• other government agencies, private companies associations, and allied groups such as field
and consultants who carry out specialised naturalists;
work on a fee-for-service basis. Usually you
have to pay for work to be done by these • service clubs such as Apex and Rotary; and
organisations; but you can generally get good
advice and they will point you in the right • correctional services institutions.
direction if they are unable to give you
further support and assistance. Examples of
such organisations are Artlab Australia; the
What networks can do
State Library of New South Wales Conservation
Access, and the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne. Sharing information

Local networks Some organisations make a point of publishing

Within every local community there are potential
networks for collecting institutions. These may well
overlap with the networks we have described as
regional networks and interest networks. There are
information, particularly on more complex matters.
For example, the Pichi Richi Railway Preservation
Society recently restored to operating condition
Car No. 90, a narrow-gauge, wooden-bodied
passenger car which once served on the northern
railway division in South Australia.

Networking 15

Restoration at Pichi Richi, South Australia—refitting
the roof to Car No. 90, after body repairs.
Photograph courtesy of Carl Cedarblad
Restoration at Pichi Richi, South Australia—Car No.90
substantially re-assembled and ready for internal
fitting out.
Photograph courtesy of Carl Cedarblad
The Society produced a detailed report of the
project, including photographs at every stage
showing the dismantling of the carriage, repairs to
the steel underframe, the replacing of structural
timbers and studwork, refitting the roof and external
cladding and painting and refitting the interior,
including specifications for matching timber.
This report now forms part of the Society’s
permanent records, and is available for loan to
other railway historical groups.
Within communities, it should also be possible to
build up information about local tradespeople and
the particular skills they can bring to conservation
projects. Local historical collections and local
museums could work out the areas in which each
will collect. They could then exchange objects,
where appropriate, and refer donations to the most
suitable of the organisations.
16 Networking
Sharing resources
By combining and pooling resources, collecting
institutions can achieve together what they could
not achieve individually. Below are some projects
which a network may well be able to achieve:
• sharing the cost of bringing a specialist
conservator to a region for a workshop, or for
visits to each participating institution;
• purchase of equipment for conservation, for
example, bulk-buying of acid-free tissue,
archival boxes, UV-treated acrylic or low-UV
fluorescent lights, polyethylene film, acid-free
mounting board, mannequins and leather
dressing, all cheaper when purchased in bulk;
• clubbing together to buy a large freezer for
fumigation purposes;
• thermohygrographs, UV light monitors and
light meters;
• constructing major capital facilities, such as a
large storage shed, which can be shared by
participating institutions; and
• sharing in the cost of items, such as the
purchase or leasing of photocopiers,
computers or drafting equipment.
Providing local expertise
Local expertise is particularly useful when
museums want more information about some of the
objects in their collections. Normally there are
people in any community who have personal
memories of many unidentified or poorly recorded
objects in museum collections. Interviews with
those people will quickly overcome this problem.
There are also people with useful trade and craft
skills such as masonry, carpentry, electrical work,
building maintenance or display construction work,
or more esoteric knowledge, for example, about
Victorian gardens, or local history generally.
Schoolteachers are often invaluable, not only for
their help in historical research but also in
scriptwriting, an essential skill not used to the full
in many local museums. Science teachers could
help identify chemical damage to objects.
Council staff may well have useful information on
early surveys, subdivisions and settlement of towns
and districts. They can also give practical advice
on such matters as stormwater disposal,
accounting and contract tendering. Further, they
can make museums aware of relevant planning
regulations, main street programs, funding sources
and potential donors to museum collections.
Providing voluntary labour
Over ninety per cent of local museums rely entirely
on voluntary labour. In the case of local history
museums, this labour is drawn predominantly from
the local community. Some of the tasks volunteers
may do:
• carry out research on the collections;
• plan and set up displays;
• develop a conservation plan and implement
it;
• restore objects in the collections, for
example, horse-drawn vehicles, farm
machinery, costumes or stationary engines;
and
• share the roster in the shop or on the front
desk.
Local museums could not function without this
volunteer support. All sections of the community
contribute, but statistics show that it is mainly
those in the 50-plus age-bracket.
In addition to voluntary labour, museums can
often gain access to unskilled labour through
Kristin Phillips, an Artlab Australia textiles
conservator, demonstrates the making of padded
coathangers for costumes at a regional workshop in
Melrose, South Australia, 1995.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Correctional Services programs. Under these
programs, people who are required to undertake a
prescribed number of community service hours
work for approved community groups.
Provided appropriate supervision can be found, this
can be an invaluable way of getting done those
difficult jobs that require extra assistance: shifting
heavy machinery and equipment, grounds
maintenance or some conservation work, for example.
School students also are often willing to provide
unskilled labour. Museums have developed useful links
with schools whereby students carry out restoration
work on, say, a selected piece of farm machinery.
This is a marvellous way of encouraging students
to develop interest and pride in their own
heritage, particularly when the finished exhibit is
placed on display with acknowledgment of the
people who restored it.
One museum which has established very strong
links with its school community is to be found at
Kimba, on the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia.
All Year Nine students undertake a local history
project, whether it be a biography of a local
person or business, oral history interviews,
recording a small collection of historical objects or
a family history project. When the project is
completed, the student makes a presentation, at
the museum, to the rest of the class and members
of the museum. The project is then marked and
handed to the museum for safekeeping.
This program has been a great success for the
museum and students alike.
Leigh Fitzgerald hands over a project to museum
secretary Molly Eatts at the Presentation Day, Kimba
Museum, South Australia, 30 June 1993.
Photograph courtesy of Gloria Norsworthy
Networking 17
 Providing facilities for displays Self evaluation quiz
Often local museums have very restricted space for
exhibitions. One solution has been for museums to Question 1.
set up temporary exhibitions in local businesses:
in restaurants, banks, post offices, dry cleaners, A regional museum network is useful because:
estate agent offices and the like.
a) it gives you information about all the
These displays can be marvellous conversation museums in your region and who the contact
pieces; they are good for business, as well as people are;
useful for promoting the museum within its own
community and serving to reinforce the notion b) it will help you cut down on the duplication
that history is part of the life of the community. of collections;

c) it will allow museums to club together to buy

Displays like these can also give messages to
customers about the role of history in their
everyday lives, and the importance for everyone of
conserving the things that matter to them.
conservation supplies or hire expertise;
d) it will help promote a regional identity as
well as a local identity;

It should be borne in mind when considering e) all of the above.

setting up such an exhibition that the
conservation and security risks should be assessed Question 2.
first. Light sources, fluctuations in relative
humidity, whether or not locked showcases would
be necessary and whether the objects are too What local institutions are there beside museums
fragile or valuable are all points to be considered. which could form part of a museum’s network?

Question 3.
Display at a
Commonwealth Bank
branch in Adelaide Yours is one of three museums in the same region
celebrating the which collect costume. You can each allocate
evolution of the
$1,000 towards improving the way they are cared
telephone for the
launching of phone for. What would be the best course of action for
banking. The you to take?
exhibition was
installed by the a) Each buy in supplies of acid-free tissue,
Curator of Dacron, boxes and shelving.
Technology for the
History Trust of b) Pool resources and buy the supplies in bulk.
South Australia.
Photograph courtesy c) Remove all objects from direct or reflected
of the History Trust sunlight.
of South Australia
d) Pool resources and hire a textiles conservator
to help each museum set conservation
priorities for its own costume collections.

If you have further problems relating to e) All of the above.

networking in a museum environment, contact a
conservator. Conservators can offer advice and
practical solutions.

18 Networking
 Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.

Answer: e). It is important to know what other

museums exist in any region and who runs them.
It will provide better knowledge about each other’s
collections and provide opportunities for
economies of scale and joint ventures. Regional
networks can also broaden the way we view
community history, which can be seen in a
regional context as well as a local one.

Question 2.

Answer: Some examples include local councils,

schools, local businesses churches and service
clubs. All of these can provide people and
resources useful to local museums. For example,
councils may be prepared to meet some of the
museum’s administrative costs, on the grounds
that they are providing an important community
service. Schoolteachers have valuable skills, as do
service clubs.

Question 3.

Answer: d). All these steps would improve the

situation, but networking provides an opportunity
to obtain expert advice on site. Museums acting
individually are less likely to be in a position to
do this.

Networking 19
 Assessing Skills
and Training Needs

Objectives page 23
Introduction page 23
Why assess skills? page 23
A simple process to assess skills page 24
Summary of results page 35
In conclusion page 36
Self-evaluation quiz page 37
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 37
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• understand how the skills of the people who
work with your collections can best be used
to help the organisation meet its objectives;
• be able to assess the skills of your people in
a simple and supportive way; and
• be able to match the skills of your people
with the requirements of your organisation,
and identify any training needs.
Introduction
People are an organisation’s most valuable
resource. They are the source of creativity and
inspiration that keep your organisation alive. It is,
therefore, essential that museums, galleries and
libraries understand how to bring out the best in
people and how to employ them to achieve the
collective aims of the organisation.
The people who work in museums, galleries and
libraries, whether in a paid or a voluntary capacity,
possess a diverse range of skills and abilities. Many
of these skills can go unrecognised by the
organisation, because people may work in narrow
fields that do not fully use all their skills. Sometimes
even the person does not recognise all his or her
own skills; for example, someone who has raised
several children may have tremendous organisational
skills but not think of these skills as useful to the
organisation for which he or she works.
By carrying out a skills assessment, you will be
able to identify what skills you already have and
recognise where there are gaps that may need to
be filled by training, networking, or hiring people
with specific expertise.
Why assess skills?
Carrying out a skills assessment finds out what
skills people have. Then give them jobs, projects
or a series of tasks that more fully use their range
of skills. Assessing skills is about recognising the
talents you already have and putting them to good
use. The value for the people being assessed is
that they should end up with a more fulfilling role
in the organisation.
Before you undertake a skills assessment, it is
useful to have a plan for the organisation as a
whole. The plan should state the aims and
objectives of the organisation, and outline what
the organisation will do to meet these aims. With
this plan in place, it will become apparent what
skills are needed. If you then assess the skills of
the people working in your organisation, you can
match their skills with the skills that are needed.
Be aware that undertaking a skills assessment can
be a difficult process. It may be viewed by some
people as threatening—why do you have to check
up on me, aren’t I good enough? As the purpose of
skills assessment is to create a better organisation,
which will in turn benefit the people who work
there, the fear is unfounded. Nevertheless, it is
important to handle the process with a great deal
of care and consideration.
Some organisations undertake skills assessments
for all staff members, whether paid or voluntary,
when they join the organisation. This makes the
assessment process a normal part of the
introduction to the organisation; it ensures that
new staff are used to their fullest potential as
early as possible, and reduces the idea that an
assessment is making value judgements or
criticising the quality of one’s work.
If a skills assessment is carried out as a one-off
exercise, it is important to explain to all involved
what the assessment is, why it is important, and
how it will benefit both the museum and each
individual. Everyone should be aware of the
exercise, even if they do not take part, to avoid
those being assessed feeling that they have been
singled out. Keep the atmosphere informal and
relaxed. If possible, conduct the assessment away
from the person’s or group’s normal work area, so
that it is clearly seen as a special activity, and
people are encouraged to focus on thinking about
what skills they have to offer.
A skills assessment should be led by an assessor,
whose function is to draw out information from
those involved. The sample assessment provided
can be used as a guide to the types of questions
to be asked, and as a checklist for responses.
Although the sample records responses as a simple
yes or no, you should encourage those being
assessed to answer as fully as possible. Often a
short discussion or an explanation of an answer
reveals abilities which could be of value to your
organisation, and which their possessors had not
felt were important.
Assessing Skills and Training Needs 23
 A simple process • the ability to liaise with State and
Commonwealth museum support
to assess skills organisations;

• metal and woodworking skills;

A skills assessment can be done:
• as a one-to-one exercise, for example,
between a manager and staff member, or a
committee member and volunteer; or
• mechanical maintenance skills, particularly
mining equipment;
• financial planning skills;

• as a group exercise, where the team from a • basic display design skills;
particular area of the organisation does the
assessment together. • public speaking skills—being able to make
visitors feel comfortable while taking tours of
The approach you choose depends very much on the museum;
your organisation and what people feel most
comfortable with. The following process, based on • the ability to write engaging and informative
display labels;
a fictional organisation, Small Museum, can be
applied in either situation. It examines a fairly • building skills—being able to undertake some
typical small museum run by volunteers. Four of the building repairs, or to direct builders
stereotypes are used to illustrate the point that in these repairs;
everyone has useful skills to contribute to the
museum, even if these are not always obvious. • organisational skills—being able to
coordinate the redevelopment plan;
Small Museum is a small country museum with a
diverse collection of local social history material, • basic preventive conservation skills;
archival material, mining technology, an important
• documentation and record-keeping skills;
collection of early photographs, and unrelated
memorabilia donated by the town’s population. • skills related to mounting and framing
The museum is run by a dedicated group of photographs;
volunteers, and receives some financial support
from the district council and from visitors’ • negotiating skills—being able to trade with
donations. The museum is suffering from dwindling other museums so that the museum’s
visitor numbers, and the number of volunteers unwanted material could be swapped for more
is also starting to decline. Financial support is relevant material; and
not enough to look after the collection adequately,
• research skills—being able to research the
and the building needs urgent repairs.
provenance of items in the collection.
Given this situation, the museum’s management
If the museum had all these skills available to it,
committee has decided to turn it into a specialist
its management committee would be confident
mining museum, to reflect the rich history of
that it could redevelop the museum and increase
mining in the region and to increase visitor
visitor numbers.
numbers by attracting tourists. The museum will
divest itself of all material which does not fit the
The museum’s volunteers have vast experience in a
new collections policy.
diverse range of occupations, from farmers to cafe
owners, miners to teachers.
With this simple plan, the museum’s management
committee has identified the following skills as
A typical skills assessment for Small Museum might
essential to the redevelopment of the museum and
look like this:
to its continued survival:

• the ability to promote the museum to the

local tourist authority and to tourists directly;

• the ability to write grant funding

applications;

24 Assessing Skills and Training Needs

 The ability to promote the museum to the local tourist authority
and to tourists directly

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Have you had much to do with the no yes no no

local tourist authority?

Do you know Jo Bloggs who works there? yes yes yes yes

Do you know about the district Council’s no yes no yes

plans for attracting more tourists to the town?

Have you had much contact with tourists no yes yes no

who visit the town?

Have you done any promotional work, like no yes no yes

promoting the school fête or advertising in
the paper?

Do you feel comfortable talking to no yes yes yes

strangers about the museum’s activities?

Are you a member of Rotary, Lions, Apex, yes yes no no

CWA or any other clubs that have
connections with towns across the State?

Have you done any work with the tourist no yes no no

industry, or do you know how the tourist
industry works?

This group of people does have some of the skills necessary to promote the museum, particularly the cafe
owner. It would make sense to give this activity to the cafe owner, who has the greatest knowledge and
experience in this area.

The ability to write grant funding applications

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Are you comfortable filling out official forms? yes yes no yes

Have you ever successfully applied for a yes no no no

grant from a government agency?

Do you believe that you know enough about yes yes yes yes
the museum’s plans to be able to articulate
them in a grant application?

Do you know about what grants are no no no no

available to small museums in this State?

In this case the farmer has the most experience in grant applications and, with some additional knowledge
about what grants are available, could possibly take on this task.

Assessing Skills and Training Needs 25

 The ability to liaise with State and Commonwealth museum support organisations

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Do you think it would be beneficial for yes no yes yes
the museum to seek advice from other
museum professionals?
Do you know of organisations in this State no no no no
which the museum could contact for advice?
Do you believe that you know enough about yes yes yes yes
the museum’s plans to be able to work out
what advice it needs?
Are you comfortable talking to other museum yes no yes yes
professionals about what our museum needs?

The farmer, the miner or the teacher could each take on this activity. The cafe owner, who may have the
skills, does not think it would be beneficial to talk to other museum professionals, and so may not take this
activity seriously.

Metal and woodworking skills

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Are you good at working with your hands? yes no yes yes
Do you have much experience of working yes no yes no
with wood or metal?
Do you have trade qualifications in no no yes no
carpentry or metalwork?
Do you know how to operate power yes no yes no
tools for metal or woodworking?
Have you ever made simple wooden yes yes yes yes
furniture?
Are you good at using hand tools yes no yes no
such as chisels and saws?
Have you ever made high-quality wooden no no no no
objects such as furniture or sculpture?
Have you ever made precision metal yes no no no
objects such as mechanical parts?
Do you believe that you could make yes no yes no
good display cases for the museum?

The farmer and the miner both have good skills in this area, and both are confident they could make some of
the display cases the museum needs. They may well be able to take on a role where they contribute to the
construction of new display furniture and/or assist with the maintenance of the building and, with advice
from a conservator, some of the collection.

26 Assessing Skills and Training Needs

 Mechanical maintenance skills—especially mining equipment

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Are you good at working with your hands? yes no yes yes

Do you have much experience in working yes no yes no

with machinery?

Do you have trade qualifications in no no yes no

mechanical work?

Have you ever made precision metal yes no no no

objects such as mechanical parts?

Are you familiar with the museum’s yes yes yes yes
collection of mining equipment?

Do you understand the maintenance no no yes no

requirements for this collection?

Are you familiar with the museum’s yes yes no yes

conservation policy?

Do you understand how this policy restricts no yes no yes

the sort of maintenance work that can be
undertaken on the collection?

Do you feel that you could undertake some yes yes don’t no
of the maintenance tasks in accordance with know
the conservation policy?

The miner has the experience and knowledge to look after the mining collection, but does not understand
the conservation policy. The miner would be the most appropriate person to put in charge of the
maintenance of the mining collection; however, he needs further training in the museum’s conservation
policy so that he clearly understands what is acceptable maintenance from the museum’s point of view.
Remember that the mining collection is now a museum collection, not a collection of equipment used for
working in a mine.

Assessing Skills and Training Needs 27

 Financial planning skills

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Do you have much experience in budgeting? yes yes yes yes

Do you know much about the museum’s finances? no yes no yes

Do you have much experience in costing, yes yes yes yes

such as planning the costs for an event?

Have you ever costed any of the no yes no yes

museum’s projects?

Would you know how to set up no yes no yes

budgets for the museum?

Would you know how to monitor the no yes no no

museum’s performance against these budgets
in order to report back to the committee?

The cafe owner and the teacher should both be able to look after the museum’s financial planning; but the
teacher would need some further training in financial reporting to the committee.

Basic display design skills

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Have you had any experience in designing no yes no no

an exhibition, say in a shop window?

Have you ever worked in an area that no no no no

required the design of public exhibitions?

Have you any formal design training? no no no no

Have you ever worked with a museum no no no no

designer or had any training in museum
exhibition design?

Do you understand the purpose of exhibitions no no no no

and how the design of the exhibition influences
the message that the exhibition gives to viewers?

Do you know about the conservation issues no no no no

related to museum exhibitions?

Have you looked closely at the exhibitions no no no yes

in the State museums, and do you think you
understand some of the basic techniques they
use to get their message across?

The museum has a shortage of exhibition design skills. It should try to recruit someone who has these skills,
or else find training for one or more of these four. The teacher may have the basic understanding, and so
may be worth persuading to undertake some basic training.

28 Assessing Skills and Training Needs

 Public speaking skills—being able to make visitors feel comfortable
whilst taking tours of the museum

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Have you done much public speaking in no no no yes

the past, for example, to school groups or
local clubs?

Are you comfortable speaking to groups? yes no no yes

Do you believe that you are a good speaker? yes no no no

Do you think you could talk to visitors yes yes yes yes
and make them feel comfortable in the museum?

Do you think you could tell people about yes yes no yes
the museum’s collection and answer their
questions?

Do you enjoy talking about the yes yes no yes

museum to visitors?

Good public speakers must feel comfortable about talking to groups of people. Ideally, all museum staff
should be able to speak to visitors and tell them about the collection. Apart from the miner, the others
could play a role in conducting visitors through the museum.

Building skills—being able to undertake some of the building repairs

or direct builders in these repairs

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Have you ever done any building work yes no yes yes
such as home renovations?
Do you have any building trade qualifications? no no no no
Have you had any building work done for no no no yes
you recently where you were closely involved
with the work?
Have you ever planned a building project, yes no yes yes
for example, the family home?
Are you comfortable working with yes yes yes yes
building trades people?
Are you aware of what repairs are no no no no
needed for the museum building?
Do you know where to get advice on what yes yes yes yes
repairs the museum building needs?
Do you think you could plan these repairs yes no yes no
and supervise builders doing these repairs?

Assessing Skills and Training Needs 29

 Because none of the team understands what repairs the museum needs, it is difficult to assign this
responsibility to any of them. The farmer, the miner or the teacher could all take on the task; however, from
the answer to the last question, it seems that the farmer and the miner would be more comfortable with the
task.

Organisation skills—being able to coordinate the redevelopment plan

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Are you familiar with the museum’s yes yes yes yes
overall redevelopment plan?

Have you ever had responsibility for yes yes no no

organising people for a long project,
for example the town’s Main Street project,
or the local Scout group?

Are you comfortable coordinating no yes no yes

people to work to a plan?

The museum’s redevelopment will take a no yes no yes

long time and there will be many difficulties.
Do you think you know how to motivate
people over this time?

Do you feel comfortable in a leadership role? yes yes no yes

Do you believe that the museum is doing no no yes yes

the right thing with its redevelopment plan?

Do you think you could convince the more no no no yes

sceptical members of the museum that the
redevelopment plan is a good thing?

Coordinating the redevelopment plan is probably the most important responsibility of the museum committee.
While the committee as a whole should retain this responsibility, it should know who can play a leading role.
The teacher and cafe owner could take this role; but remember that the miner and farmer, who are much
more reluctant, should still be involved. The committee needs to do more to convince museum staff of the
importance of the plan.

30 Assessing Skills and Training Needs

 The ability to write engaging and informative display labels

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Do you have basic typing skills? no yes no yes

Have you any training in exhibition no no no no

display label writing?

Do you think our display labels could yes yes yes yes
be more engaging and more informative
to visitors?

Have you ever done any writing, no no no yes

such as short stories?

Do you think it is important for the don’t yes yes yes

museum’s display labels to tell a story know
rather than just identify the object?

Do you think you could write informative no no no yes

and engaging display labels for the museum?

The teacher would be most comfortable with this activity, but may need some simple training in museum
display labels.

Basic preventive conservation skills

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Are you familiar with the environmental no no no no
factors that affect the physical condition
of the collection?
Do you know how we could change our storage no no no no
and display practices to improve the overall
condition and survival rate of the collection?
Have you ever done any training in no no no no
preventive conservation techniques?
Do you know about the conservation no no no no
Code of Ethics and how it may apply
to our museum?
Do you know how to store and display the no no no no
museum’s photographic collection so that it
will last for several generations?
Do you know where to get information on no yes no yes
preventive conservation that we could apply
to the museum?
Do you think it is important that future yes yes yes yes
generations have the opportunity to see
the museum’s collection?
Do you know about the effects of yes yes no yes
sunlight on the collection?

Assessing Skills and Training Needs 31

 All these people need training in basic preventive conservation. Since preventive conservation is inexpensive
and can lead to major benefits in terms of preserving the museum’s collection, it would be worthwhile
having these people attend conservation training courses.

Documentation and record-keeping skills

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Do you have much experience in keeping no yes no no

official records, such as the records department
of a company, government agency or library?

Do you understand the importance of no yes yes yes

documentation in a museum?

Have you ever set up a filing system that no yes no no

allows a range of people to get easy access
to the information?

Have you ever set up forms or processes for yes yes no yes
documenting activities, for example,
stock control in a shop?

Are you aware of what types of information no no no no

the museum needs to document and record
in order to work well?

Would you be comfortable being responsible no no no no

for ensuring that the museum documentation
is of a high standard and that records are
made accessible?

Clearly the museum has a weakness in this area. The cafe owner has the most experience, but is not
comfortable taking on this responsibility. The museum should either try to recruit someone who is able and
willing to do this job or persuade one of the four to take some training and do the job.

32 Assessing Skills and Training Needs

 Skills related to mounting and framing photographs

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Do you know much about conservation no no no no
standards for storing and displaying
photographs?
Have you done much picture-framing work? no no no no
Are you aware of the extent and yes yes yes yes
importance of the museum’s photographic
collection?
Do you know how to make paper hinges or no no no yes
photo corners for mounting photographs?
Do you know about the effects of acidity, no no no no
relative humidity, adhesives, sunlight and
frequent handling on the condition
of photographs?
Do you know the difference between yes yes no yes
archival albums and non-archival albums?
Would you feel comfortable rehousing and no no no no
framing the photograph collection to
conservation standards?

Again, this set of questions highlights a need for training. The four people don’t know enough about
mounting and framing photographs, without additional training.

Negotiating skills—being able to trade with other museums so that the

museum’s unwanted material could be swapped for more relevant material

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Have you any experience in trading, yes yes no no
bartering or selling?
Do you think the museum should trade no no yes yes
objects with other museums in order to
acquire more relevant objects and get rid
of less relevant objects?
Are you familiar enough with the collection no no yes yes
to understand which parts are essential to
the museum and which parts are not essential?
Would you feel comfortable trading no no yes no
with other museums?
Do you know of other museums which might no no yes no
be interested in trading with our museum?
Do you think the museum should keep yes yes no no
objects which it cannot look after properly?
Are you aware of any objects that the museum yes yes yes yes
could try to acquire, that would enhance

Assessing Skills and Training Needs 33

 The miner, who may have a personal interest in seeing the museum specialise in the mining history of the
region, is keen to take on this activity. Because the miner is also aware of some of the trading possibilities,
it would make sense to assign this activity to that person.

Research skills—being able to research the provenance of items in the collection

Questions Farmer Cafe Owner Miner Teacher

Have you ever undertaken any historical no no no yes

research such as a family genealogy?

Do you know what historical research resources no no no yes

are available to assist in research into the
museum’s collection?

Do you think it is important to have yes yes yes yes

information about the provenance of
the objects in the museum’s collection?

Are you comfortable researching the collection? no yes yes yes

Do you have much knowledge of the yes no yes yes

history of the town and region?

Do you like historical research? no don’t don’t yes

know know

Do you know of any organisations that no no no no

might assist the museum in its research?

The miner and the teacher would make a good team to undertake this activity, with perhaps the teacher
taking a somewhat larger role. Researching the collection, so that visitors can be better informed and so that
the history of the region can be better documented, will be a major function of the museum.

34 Assessing Skills and Training Needs

 Summary of results
The ability to promote the museum
to the local tourist authority and to
tourists directly
This group of people does have some of the skills
necessary to promote the museum, especially the
cafe owner. It would make sense to give this
activity to the cafe owner, who has the greatest
knowledge and experience in this area.
The ability to write grant
funding applications
In this case the farmer has the most experience in
grant applications and, with some additional
knowledge about what grants are available, he
could possibly take on the task.
The ability to liaise with State
and Commonwealth museum
support organisations
The farmer, the miner or the teacher could each
take on this activity. The cafe owner, who may
have the skills, does not think it would be
beneficial to talk to other museum professionals,
and so may not take this activity seriously.
Metal and woodworking skills
The farmer and the miner both have good skills in
this area, and are both confident they could make
some of the display cases the museum needs. They
may well be able to take on a role where they
contribute to the construction of new display
furniture and/or assist with the maintenance of
the building and, with advice from a conservator,
some of the collection.
Mechanical maintenance skills—
especially mining equipment
The miner has the experience and knowledge to
look after the mining collection, but does not
understand the conservation policy. The miner
would be the most appropriate person to put in
charge of the maintenance of the mining
collection. However, he needs further training in
the museum’s conservation policy so that he clearly
understands what is acceptable maintenance from
the museum’s point of view. The mining collection
is now a museum collection, not a collection of
equipment used for working in a mine.
Financial planning skills
The cafe owner and the teacher should both be
able to look after the museum’s financial planning,
but the teacher would need further training in
financial reporting to the committee.
Basic display design skills
The museum has a shortage of exhibition design
skills. It should try to recruit someone who has
these skills, or find training for one or more of
these four. The teacher may have the basic
understanding, and so may be worth persuading to
undertake basic training.
Public speaking skills—being able to
make visitors feel comfortable whilst
taking tours of the museum
Good public speakers must feel comfortable about
talking to groups of people. Ideally, all museum
staff should be able to speak to visitors and tell
them about the collection. Apart from the miner,
who seems not to want to participate in this
activity, all the others could play a role in
conducting visitors through the museum.
Building skills—being able to undertake
some of the building repairs or direct
builders in these repairs
Because none of the team understands what
repairs the museum needs, it is difficult to assign
this responsibility to any of them. The farmer, the
miner or the teacher could take on the task;
however, from the answer to the last question, it
seems that the farmer and the miner could be
more comfortable with the task.
Organisation skills—being able to
coordinate the redevelopment plan
Coordinating the redevelopment plan is probably
the most important responsibility of the museum
committee. While the committee as a whole should
Assessing Skills and Training Needs 35
 retain this responsibility, it should know who can
play a leading role. The teacher and cafe owner can
play this role. But the miner and farmer, who are
much more reluctant, should still be involved.
The committee must do more to convince museum
staff of the importance of the plan.
The ability to write engaging and
informative display labels
The teacher would be most comfortable with this
activity, but may need simple training in museum
display labels.
Basic preventive conservation skills
All these people need some training in basic
preventive conservation. Because preventive
conservation is inexpensive and can lead to major
benefits in terms of preserving the museum’s
collection, it would be worthwhile having these
people attend conservation training courses.
Documentation and record-keeping skills
Clearly the museum has a weakness in this area.
The cafe owner has the most experience but is
not comfortable taking on this responsibility.
The museum should try to recruit someone able
and willing to do this job—perhaps the local
librarian—or persuade one of the four to receive
training and do the job.
Skills related to mounting and
framing photographs
Again, this set of questions highlights a need for
training. The four people do not know enough
about mounting and framing photographs, without
additional training.
Negotiating skills—being able to trade with
other museums so that the museum’s
unwanted material could be swapped for
more relevant material
The miner, who may have a personal interest in
seeing the museum specialise in the mining
history of the region, is keen to take on this
activity. Because the miner is also aware of some
of the trading possibilities, it would make sense to
assign the activity to this person.
36 Assessing Skills and Training Needs
Research skills—being able to research the
provenance of items in the collection
The miner and the teacher would make a good
team to undertake this activity, with perhaps the
teacher taking a somewhat larger role. Researching
the collection so that visitors can be better
informed, and so that the history of the region can
be better documented, will be a major function of
the museum.
In conclusion
The summary of the results of the skills assessment
gives you a fairly clear indication of who is best
suited for each area of activity within the museum.
It also indicates the areas where training is needed.
This example has been simplified greatly in order
to demonstrate the principles and benefits of skills
assessment. In practice, the questions will not have
simple yes or no answers, and some interpretation
will be needed. There are also cases where
information about people’s skills has to be coaxed
out of them, usually because they are unaware of,
or underrate, their skills.
The example is also unclear as to whether the
process was undertaken in a group situation or in
one-to-one interviews. Either could have taken place;
the actual method depends on what individuals feel
comfortable with. But be careful—don’t just hand
out questionnaires for people to fill out. The benefits
of this process will come only through talking.
In summary, a skills assessment process can be
used to build a strong sense of teamwork and
commitment, while at the same time organising
people to take on important tasks.
Before you undertake a skills assessment of the
organisation, it is critical that you have a clear
idea of what skills the organisation needs. Once
you have this list of skills, it is a fairly simple
matter of writing a series of questions for each
skill. These will help to draw out of people
information about their experience, knowledge and
abilities relevant to that skill.
If you have a problem relating to the skills and
experience of individuals in storing, handling or
displaying important artefacts, contact an
experienced and respected conservator or speak
with your local personnel officer. He/she can
offer advice and practical solutions.
 Self-evaluation quiz Question 4.

Before carrying out a skills assessment you should:

Question 1.
a) have a plan for the development of the
organisation;
By carrying out a skills assessment you can:
b) know what skills are needed by the
a) help people to recognise the skills they organisation;
already have;
c) discuss the purpose of the skills assessment
b) work out what training programs you may need; with the staff so that they understand why it
is important;
c) find out what skills are available in your
organisation; d) all of the above.
d) match people with tasks that need to be done;
Answers to
e) all of the above.
self-evaluation quiz
Question 2.
Question 1.
When carrying out a skills assessment you should:

a) create an atmosphere to keep people on their Answer: e).

toes;
Question 2.
b) have a plan for the organisation so that you
know what skills you need;
Answer: b) and d). A skills assessment should be
c) be quick, to save as much time as possible; something that benefits the organisation by
matching what you have with what you need. By
d) handle the process with care and consideration. approaching this with sensitivity, you are more
likely to get the information you need and create a
Question 3. feeling of goodwill. A little time spent at this
stage could save time later.
Which statements below are false?
Question 3.
a) People are an organisation’s most valuable
resource.
Answer: b) and c) are false. Many people underrate
b) Everyone knows what their skills are. their skills. If they do something every day, they
often don’t recognise it as a skill. Everyone has
c) You can get the skills you need only by hiring skills, and you can often find just what you need
experts. within your organisation.

d) A skills assessment should be carried out Question 4.

face-to-face because the benefits come from
talking together.
Answer: d). It is important that everyone
understands what the organisation is trying to do,
what skills the organisation needs in order to
achieve its objectives, and that each can play a
more meaningful role as a result of the skills
assessment.

Assessing Skills and Training Needs 37

 Managing
Volunteers
Objectives page 41
Introduction page 41
Aims of volunteer management page 41
Definition of volunteering page 41
Roles, involvement and profile of volunteers page 41
Prerequisites for success page 43
Recruitment and selection page 44
A team approach page 45
Supervision, support and review page 46
Other entitlements page 46
Resources to tap page 46
Checklist to assess your organisation’s
management of its volunteer program page 47
In conclusion page 48
For further reading page 48
Self-evaluation quiz page 48
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 48
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should know:
• why people volunteer;
• the importance of effective volunteer
management;
• the importance of a team approach, using
volunteers and paid staff;
• the need for clear, common goals for paid
staff and volunteers; and
• the potential advantages of having volunteers
in your organisation.
Introduction
The assets of cultural organisations are not only
the buildings and the collections, but also the
people who work in them, both paid staff and
volunteers.
In museums, galleries and libraries, volunteers
form a significant part of the work force. The
volunteer component of organisations varies, from
a small number, to the entire staff. Effective
management is essential if the full potential of
both voluntary and paid staff is to be realised.
How this is done will, to an extent, depend on the
composition and size of the organisation.
The subject of volunteer management is of crucial
importance, whether you are:
• a member of the board or executive;
• a volunteer;
• a volunteer or a paid worker responsible for
supervising or managing volunteers; or
• a paid member of staff working alongside
volunteers.
Each of you will have a different but essential
contribution to make. Each of you will benefit
from:
• targets being achieved;
• a harmonious and productive environment;
and
• a stable and contented work force.
Aims of volunteer
management
The aims of volunteer management are to:
• recognise and fully utilise the time, skills,
experience and commitment of volunteers;
• adopt a management style which is effective,
simple and open, and retains spontaneity;
• develop policies and practices based on a
good understanding of volunteering and
related issues;
• encourage cooperative working relationships
that facilitate mutual trust and enjoyment
between volunteers, paid staff and
management; and
• ensure achievements match the agreed targets
of the organisation.
Definition of volunteering
While definitions vary slightly, any definition
needs to contain three essential elements.
Volunteering is done by choice, without monetary
reward, and for the benefit of the community.
Without monetary reward does not exclude the
payment of out-of-pocket expenses, which are a
reimbursement for actual costs incurred rather than
a reward.
Roles, involvement and
profile of volunteers
Volunteers working within museums, art galleries
and libraries perform a huge range of duties,
including:
• policy formation and management, for
example, serving on boards and committees;
• practical tasks—renovating buildings or
artefacts, arranging displays, collecting items
of historic interest;
• interaction with the public—reception,
guides, public speaking;
• administration—cataloguing, recording,
bookkeeping;
Managing Volunteers 41
 • publications—newsletters; and
• fundraising—special events, trading tables.
In country areas and in small metropolitan
organisations, the majority of workers is likely to
be volunteers. The extent to which large city
museums, galleries and libraries involve volunteers
varies from place to place, although the majority
of staff are likely to be paid workers. Both large
and small organisations frequently include
volunteers on their boards and committees.
While no definitive across-the-board survey has been
conducted, indications are that many of the
volunteers are women in the older age-bracket.
However, this profile does appear to be changing,
with more men and young people becoming involved.
Attitudes to volunteering
Volunteering is, of course, not new. What is new is:
• increased attention to the concept and
practice of volunteering;
• recognition of the contribution of volunteers;
• acknowledgment of the advantages of
developing joint partnerships between paid
and voluntary workers;
• the fact that volunteers are generally more
selective about where they volunteer and
what they do, so that their own interests are
being met while doing something worthwhile;
• an acceptance of the fact that effective
management is essential if the knowledge,
skills and experience of volunteers are to be
put to the best use; and
• some museums and galleries do not
discriminate between paid and non-paid staff
and refer to all staff as workers.
Benefits of volunteer involvement
Volunteer involvement benefits an organisation as it:
• encourages community participation;
• initiates, enhances and extends services; and
• provides a cost-effective service.
42 Managing Volunteers
Benefits for the individual volunteer include
opportunities to:
• get with the action and become involved in
new areas;
• advocate change and seek more say in
decisions;
• improve and extend services;
• pursue a long-term or new interest;
• maintain existing skills or develop new skills;
and
• increase social contacts.
Effective volunteer management brings benefit to:
• the project;
• the organisation, including the paid workers;
• the volunteer; and
• the community at large.
Dangers of volunteer involvement
Whatever the activity, exploitation can occur.
Volunteers can be exploited if:
• they are allocated inappropriate tasks;
• they are allocated a task which is not done of
one’s own free will—an occurrence in some
organisations;
• the program is inadequately planned or poorly
managed and resourced; and
• attention to the task at hand is so rigid that
volunteers are prevented from putting forward
their own ideas.
Paid workers can be exploited if:
• they are expected to work alongside, and
perhaps supervise, volunteers without account
being taken of the additional time and skills
involved; and
• they are replaced by volunteers to save
money when, in fact, the job requires the
services of paid workers.
When funding sources are cut, both paid staff and
volunteers are faced with the dilemma of deciding
which is the best way forward. Not only are paid
workers in danger of losing their jobs, volunteers
may be expected to perform tasks and roles which
they do not choose to do and which have been
deemed to be the province of paid workers.
The risk of conflict between paid and voluntary
workers increases when volunteers are thought of
as angels and paid workers are thought of as
interested only in the wage package.
Costs of volunteer involvement
Volunteer involvement is not free. Direct monetary
costs to the organisation include:
• reimbursement of volunteers’ out-of-pocket
expenses;
• public liability and personal accident
insurance;
• supervision and/or management by paid staff;
• training costs;
• facilities; and
• miscellaneous costs, for example, newsletters,
catering for special events.
Direct monetary costs for the volunteer include:
• travel to and from the work-site; and
• expenses incurred in the conduct of the job.
While not all volunteers will wish to claim out-of-
pocket expenses, some people are precluded from
volunteering if reimbursement is not offered.
Prerequisites for success
• Identify your goals, that is, what you want to
achieve.
• Think through how these goals can be
achieved.
• Develop policies to guide practice.
• Examine the situation as it stands at present.
• Establish structures which ensure the flow of
information and enhance decision-making.
• Institute strategies and establish who is
responsible for what, to be done by whom,
and when.
Identify your goals
Whether you are considering your organisation as a
whole or just a project within it, everyone
involved will want to know where they are
heading, that is, what outcomes you are all hoping
to achieve from your efforts.
These outcomes can sometimes be measured
quantitatively, for example, 1,000 visitors viewed
the exhibition; or qualitatively: visitors were
spread across all ages and ethnic groupings.
The clearer your goals, the easier it is to plan and
review progress. Any proper review or evaluation is
possible only when results can be placed alongside
goals.
Of course goals can change as your ideas,
experiences and situations change, so a regular
review of goals keeps an organisation on track.
Develop policies to guide practice
Whether your organisation is large or small, staffed
by a combination of paid and voluntary staff or
entirely by volunteers, development of a policy
document will clarify the ground rules. These
ground rules will guide your practice.
The policy document could include why volunteer
involvement is welcomed, for example, to involve
the community, to enhance or extend services; and
a commitment to:
• providing volunteers with a clear idea of their
duties;
• ensuring volunteers are given the necessary
facilities, orientation and training to enable
them to perform their duties adequately;
• developing a team approach, with all
volunteer and paid staff aware of each other’s
particular contribution;
• providing reimbursement of out-of-pocket
expenses, insurance cover, and safe working
conditions;
• providing opportunities for information
exchange and involvement in decision-making
processes and review;
Managing Volunteers 43
 • providing adequate support and supervision;
and
• identifying the person responsible for
coordinating or managing the volunteers.
Understand the work environment
It is necessary to have a clear understanding of:
• the fact that effective volunteering is a
reciprocal arrangement, with the volunteer
both giving and receiving;
• available resources;
• facilities and funds;
• staff, both voluntary and paid—numbers,
attitudes, skills, attributes and availability;
• political factors;
• the need for accountability; and
• the community served by the organisation,
for example, its make-up, interest in your
project, attitudes to volunteering.
Organisational structures
Structures should incorporate:
• the provision of relevant, up-to-date
information and the opportunity for feedback
and review;
• mutual knowledge and respect for the
different roles undertaken by various staff
members;
• a close relationship between management and
the staff team;
• involvement in decision-making processes
that affect the volunteer’s job and work
environment;
• acceptance that everyone, management and
staff, paid and voluntary, is working toward a
common, overall goal; and
• integration of paid workers and volunteers
into the one staff team.
44 Managing Volunteers
Strategies
Planning strategies will be much easier once:
• goals have been identified;
• volunteer policies are in place;
• the environment within which the
organisation operates is clear; and
• structures that facilitate communication have
been established.
Strategies are needed for:
• recruitment and selection;
• orientation;
• training—initial and ongoing;
• a team approach; and
• supervision, support and review.
Recruitment and selection
Before recruitment begins, thought should be
given to the profile of the volunteer team. Are you
seeking a cross-section of ages and backgrounds,
and both male and female volunteers, so that the
team is representative of the general community;
or is this immaterial?
Clear job descriptions must be in place before
recruitment begins. Each job description should
include the overall job as well as detailed tasks, for
example, a receptionist who will greet visitors,
answer queries made personally and by phone, and
operate the word processor. The person to whom the
volunteer will be responsible should also be named.
Thought should also be given to:
• required skills, current or to be acquired;
• personal attributes; and
• time commitments.
Potential volunteers should be informed of:
• the organisation’s expectations of them, for
example, attendance at a training course for
museum guides; and
• what the volunteer can expect from the
organisation, for example, out-of-pocket
expenses and insurance cover.
As in the case of paid staff, haphazard selection
will assist neither the organisation nor the person
recruited.
Successful selection involves matching both:
• the volunteer’s skills, attributes and time
availability with the job description; and
• the needs and expectations of the volunteer
with the needs and expectations of the
organisation.
Orientation
If recruitment and selection procedures have been
well devised, orientation will have begun before
the volunteers begin work. New volunteer staff will
know and accept the purpose of the organisation
and the job expected of them. After recruitment,
they will want further details about the
organisation: about the management and service
personnel, organisational structures and further
details of their particular job.
Areas which could be included during orientation are:
• introductory reading material about the
organisation;
• a tour of the organisation, its services,
programs and facilities;
• an introduction to staff—paid and voluntary;
• personnel matters;
• the organisation’s systems of operation,
including communication channels;
• details of the job for which the volunteer has
been recruited; and
• occupational health and safety, and
evacuation procedures.
A staff handbook can facilitate the orientation
process. If the handbook covers the needs of both
paid and voluntary staff, then a team approach is
encouraged from the outset.
Training
While orientation to the organisation and the job
is a must for all volunteers, training will depend
on the job to be done and the current level of
knowledge and skills of the volunteer. Often
volunteers are recruited because they already have
the experience and skills to do the job: a retired
shipwright could take on the job of refurbishing
a sailing vessel, for example. On the other hand,
volunteers may not have the necessary skills.
The important thing for both the organisation and
the volunteer is to ensure volunteers are prepared,
so that they can adequately perform their work.
Remember that there are many ways of learning
and of training people. Look to options such as a
buddy system, mentoring, modelling good practice,
and guided reading.
Further training may be necessary if the volunteer
wishes to take on additional or different jobs, or
the organisation introduces a new program.
A team approach
Good teamwork and a feeling of mutual trust and
respect rely on:
• a firm commitment by management and paid
staff to volunteer involvement;
• particular roles, expectations and
responsibilities of all parties being clearly
defined;
• recognition and appreciation of each other’s
different but valuable contributions;
• a willingness to accept and work within the
advantages and constraints posed by
volunteer involvement; and
• all parties seeing themselves as working
toward a common goal.
The understanding, approval and involvement of
paid staff at all levels is crucial to effective
teamwork. If this is missing, further consultation
and discussion will be necessary. Any problems
must be dealt with as they arise, and appropriate
action taken.
Managing Volunteers 45

Teams are built as volunteer and paid staff work
together from the planning stage through to the
review of achievements.
Supervision, support
and review
Supervision, support and review strategies are as
necessary for volunteers as they are for paid staff.
Provision must be made for the dissemination of
adequate information, an appropriate place in
which to work, necessary equipment, and the
establishment of clear communication channels
and supervision between those doing the work and
the person ultimately responsible.
Support does not preclude constructive advice or
criticism. At times and in certain circumstances,
constructive criticism may be the most valuable
form of support.
Regular reviews of how individual volunteers, and
the staff as a whole, are feeling and operating are
a must. They will provide the opportunity for the
necessary adjustments to ensure satisfaction with
job performance and a happy and dynamic team.
Other entitlements
Volunteers do not expect a monetary reward for
their efforts but, in addition to an enjoyable and
worthwhile experience, they do expect:
• recognition of, and feedback about, their
performance;
• satisfactory and safe working conditions;
• the right to claim out-of-pocket expenses;
and
• public liability and personal accident
insurance cover.
46 Managing Volunteers
If the organisation has decided not to offer out-of-
pocket expenses, or not to take out insurance
cover, volunteers should be made aware of these
facts before they begin work.
Resources to tap
Over the last few years, every state and territory in
Australia has established a state/territory
volunteer centre. Regional centres have also been
established in some country areas.
Ring the centre closest to you for advice or
information about:
• training opportunities—one option is a
nationally accredited course in volunteer
management, available both on-site and
through distance learning;
• conferences; and
• publications—books, newsletters, videotapes,
the Australian Journal on Volunteering, the
Australian Bureau of Statistic’s surveys on
volunteering.
Information and assistance is at hand.
Please use it!
Australian Volunteer Centres
Volunteer Centre of SA Inc.
1st Floor, 155 Pirie Street
Adelaide SA 5000
Phone (08) 8232 0199, Fax (08) 8232 5161
ACT Volunteer Association Inc.
30 Storey Street
Curtin ACT 2605
Phone (02) 6281 6669, Fax (02) 6282 2200
Northern Territory Council for Volunteering Inc.
Shop 1, 1st Floor Paspalis Centrepoint
Smith Street Mall, Darwin
PO Box 36531, Winnellie NT 0821
Phone (08) 8981 3405, Fax (08) 8941 0279
Volunteer Centre of New South Wales Inc.
2nd Floor, 105 Pitt Street
Sydney NSW 2000
Phone (02) 9231 4000, Fax (02) 9221 1596
 Checklist to assess your organisation’s
management of its volunteer program

Rating Scale 1–10 Action Plan for Improvement

1 = lowest
10 = highest

Organisation has a good understanding

of volunteering and related issues.

Management and paid staff are strongly

behind volunteer involvement.

The volunteer selection profile is in

place and is being implemented.

Planning and review of progress is a joint

effort between paid and volunteer staff.

All parties are clear about why volunteers

are involved, and their respective roles.

Both volunteers and paid staff see

themselves working toward a common goal.

There is an overall acceptable turnover of

volunteers, with a stable core group.

Channels of communication are clear and

open to both paid and volunteer staff.

Volunteers are receiving adequate

training and supervision.

Volunteer staff feel they are

valued by paid staff.

Paid staff feel they are

valued by volunteers.

Staff are enthusiastic

and creative.

Add any other points which are

relevant to your organisation.

Managing Volunteers 47
 Volunteer Centre of Queensland Inc.
Room 415, 4th Floor Renney’s Building
155 Adelaide Street
Brisbane QLD 4000
GPO Box 623, Brisbane QLD 4001
Phone (07) 3229 9700, Fax (07) 3229 2392
Volunteer Centre of Tasmania Inc.
167 Campbell Street
Hobart TAS 7000
Phone (03) 6231 5550, Fax (03) 6234 4113
Volunteer Centre of Victoria Inc.
2nd Floor Ross House
247-251 Flinders Lane
Melbourne VIC 3000
Phone (03) 9650 5541, Fax (03) 9650 4175
For further reading
Kupke, Diana, 1991, Volunteering: how to run a
successful volunteer program with happy
volunteers and how to get more satisfaction out
of being a volunteer, Elepahs Books, Perth.
Millar, Sue, 1991, Volunteers in museums and
heritage organisations: policy, planning, and
management, Office of Arts and Libraries,
London.
Noble, Joy and Rogers, Louise, 1998, Volunteer
Management: An Essential Guide, Volunteering
South Australia, Adelaide.

Volunteer Centre of Western Australia Inc.

Self-evaluation quiz
79 Stirling Street
Perth WA 6000 Question 1.
Phone (08) 9220 0676, Fax (08) 9220 0617
or 9220 0625
Should every person who seeks a voluntary job be
accepted?
In conclusion
Question 2.
Volunteers represent a huge human resource, which
in the past has been largely hidden and
Name three strategies which will help meld long-
undervalued. This situation is now changing. Along
serving volunteers with new recruits, and
with the increased recognition of volunteers, the
volunteers with paid staff.
importance of effective management is also being
acknowledged.
Question 3.
Effective management is the key to ensuring that
the time, skills, experience and commitment of In order to be successful, does every volunteer
volunteers are put to the best possible use, that program have to be managed in exactly the
organisational goals are achieved and that same way?
everyone enjoys the experience.

Meeting this challenge requires a joint effort by:

Answers to
• the management of the organisation;
self-evaluation quiz
• the person appointed to manage or
coordinate the volunteers; Question 1.

• paid staff who work alongside the volunteers;

and
• the volunteers themselves.
If you have a problem relating to adequate
skills in conservation, contact a conservator.
Conservators can offer advice and practical
solutions.
Answer: No. If both the organisation and the
volunteer are to benefit, then a double match is
necessary. An inappropriate match is a liability to
the organisation and is likely to destroy the
volunteer’s enthusiasm. It may be possible to refer
the potential volunteer to an area more in keeping
with his or her skills or interests. If the person is
obviously not ready to volunteer, for example,

48 Managing Volunteers
recovering from trauma or illness, referral to a
social or support service may be appropriate.

Question 2.

Answer: Possible strategies include:

• involving a volunteer and paid staff in the

planning, recruitment and selection of new
volunteers and in the orientation process;

• asking a long-serving volunteer to buddy a

new volunteer for the first few months;

• when reviewing progress, involving the whole

staff team;

• seeking perspectives and suggestions from

long standing and new volunteers as well as
paid staff.

Question 3.

Answer: No. The size of the organisation, its

function, the make-up of staff—paid and voluntary
or entirely voluntary—its location and geographical
spread will all have an influence on the manner in
which the program is managed. However, every
program needs to establish its goals, as well as
structures and strategies, to achieve those goals.

Managing Volunteers 49
Health and
Safety

Objectives page 53
Introduction page 53
Responsibility page 53
Legal issues page 53
Danger! How to recognise it, how to avoid it page 54
Dust masks and respirators page 55
Chemicals and solvents page 56
First aid training page 59
Emergency procedures page 59
Signposting for safety page 60
Contacts for State and Commonwealth authorities page 60
For further reading page 61
Self-evaluation quiz page 61
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 61
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should be:
• aware of the range of health and safety issues;
• aware of your responsibilities in relation to
health and safety issues;
• familiar with the types of legislation, standards
and guidelines dealing with health and safety;
• aware of the risks involved in caring for
collections;
• familiar with strategies for providing a safe
environment; and
• familiar with ways to develop a better
understanding of the issues, including ways of
seeking assistance.
Introduction
Cultural material is not usually considered dangerous.
However, there are potential dangers in almost all
activities associated with caring for cultural material,
for example, lifting heavy objects in storage areas,
using a Stanley knife to make boxes, or eradicating
insect pests.
Health and safety issues are complex; and it is
important that everyone is aware of their
responsibility to others and to themselves. If your
collection is on public view, you must consider public
safety. Where you have staff or volunteers working
within your organisation, occupational health and
safety issues must be understood by all. Even if you
are looking after your own private collections, there
is much you need to know to ensure your own and
other people’s health and safety.
Responsibility
Health and safety issues are complex and this
section is provided only as a guide. You should
become familiar with all health and safety issues
that may affect you. If you have a collection that
is open to the public, or if you have staff or
volunteers working with the collection, you are
subject to State and Commonwealth statutes and
laws. It is critical that you understand your
responsibilities and liabilities in relation to them.
The welfare of paid and volunteer staff is a joint
responsibility. Each staff member should be aware
of the correct ways of handling material and
protecting themselves from hazards in the
workplace. Management has a responsibility to
provide a safe working environment for staff, as
well as to provide information and training to
enable staff to act in a safe and responsible way.
You should, therefore, become familiar with any
Workcare or similar schemes in place in your State,
as well as legal requirements for the purchase,
storage and disposal of chemicals and solvents you
may need to use, any requirements for signposting,
and other areas of legal responsibility.
Consideration must be given to providing health
and safety training to staff and volunteers, and to
the preparation of a disaster preparedness plan.
You should also assess the building and the
storage of the collection, giving thought to
emergency access and similar issues.
For more information
For more information on counter disaster
planning, please see Managing Collections.
Legal issues
The types of regulations and guidelines which may
relate to you include Occupational Health and
Safety Acts and Regulations, Dangerous Goods
Acts, Codes of Practice and Australian Standards.
Occupational Health and Safety Acts
and regulations
Occupational Health and Safety Acts and Regulations
govern the use of machinery, solvents and sprays.
Dangerous Goods Acts
Dangerous Goods Acts govern the use of pesticides
or other poisons.
Environmental Protection Acts
Environmental Protection Acts govern:
• the handling of dangerous goods and
substances, especially in public places; and
• the disposal of wastes in laboratories and
other work sites.
Health and Safety 53
 Codes of practice
These are issued under state and national
legislation. They encompass first aid, labelling of
workplace substances and determining and
classifying hazardous substances.
CAUTION:
Know your responsibilities under the law.
Ignorance is not recognised as
an excuse by the law!
An example of a
Code of Practice
manual.
Photograph
courtesy of the
Ian Potter Art
Conservation
Service, University
of Melbourne
Australian standards
These set out standards for specific areas such as
1319-1983 Safety Signs for the Occupational
Environment; 1470-1986 Health and Safety at Work;
1940-1988 SAA Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Code; 2444-1990 Portable Fire Extinguishers; 2466-
1981 Guide to the Design of Microform Workstations;
2865-1986 Safe Working in Confined Space;
3590-1990 Screen-based Workstations Part 1-3.
Sources of help
You can get copies of acts, regulations and other
publications from the following sources:
• State and Territory government bookshops—
for State acts, regulations and codes of
practice under your State or Territory
Occupational Health and Safety Acts;
• Australian Government bookshops—for
Worksafe Australia publications; and
• Australian Standards, Clunies Ross House, 191
Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052—for copies
of Australian Standards.
54 Health and Safety
Danger! How to recognise it,
how to avoid it
Although there are potential dangers in most
activities associated with collections, we can
become very blasé, especially when doing
something we do often. The following notes are
guides to good practice, and should also act as
reminders that we must take care and act
responsibly, even when under pressure.
Manual handling
Lifting, carrying, moving, relocating, hanging
exhibitions—people who work with collections are
constantly involved in handling objects. In some
cases these objects are heavy, in other cases simply
awkward. The kinds of problems that can occur
when undertaking these tasks are obvious.
Nevertheless, they are common. Back problems,
pulled and strained muscles, torn ligaments, bruises,
cuts and similar injuries can all result from
inappropriate handling techniques. Lifting loads
that are too heavy is only one aspect of this story.
Injury also occurs when the body is stressed—when
it twists, bends or reaches in an inappropriate
manner.
To ensure that you do not have these problems,
check the following points.
Be prepared. When you move an object, know
where it is going and have that area prepared. Also
have the path between where you are and where
you are going clear of obstructions.
Seek assistance. An object may not look heavy or
awkward but, after you have held it for a short
time, you may find it is increasingly difficult to
hold. Awkward objects may not be heavy, but may
cause you to twist or turn inappropriately. You are
better off not moving an object than moving it
without proper assistance. Not only can you hurt
yourself, you may also damage the object.
Check the object. Is it secure and stable, or are
there sections which may detach or loosen as you
carry it? Can you grip it securely? Are there sharp
edges? Is it top-heavy?
Plan before you start. If you are going to hang the
object, make sure you have padding on the floor
so that you can rest it and position yourself
properly before lifting it. Check that the hanging
system is appropriate and that you have a third
person to help position the object, if necessary.
Work out what else you need to assist you. Will
you need gloves to protect either you or the
object? Do you need to have padded surfaces
ready? Will you need equipment, such as trolleys,
to assist you? Do you need to make ramps so that
you don’t have to lift an object?
Correct handling to protect the artwork and the carrier.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
For more information
For more information about handling objects,
please see the chapter on Handling in
Handling, transportation, storage and display.
Dust masks and respirators
There are a plethora of substances that can
threaten health through inhalation. Such threats
may be short or long term and can result in mild
aggravation to, for example, the respiratory tracts
or be life threatening.
Airborne substances include dust and particulates
—organic and inorganic—vapours and gases.
A broad range of safety equipment is available for
protection against these substances including dusk
masks which cover mouth and nose for protection
from particulates, respirators with filters for dust
and specific groups of solvents and full face masks
which may be fitted with their own air supply.
Before undertaking any activity which may cause
or use potentially harmful substances including
paints, varnishes, corrosion inhibitors and
pesticides, seek appropriate technical advice from
a qualified bureau or government agency.
Protecting your hearing
In working with a collection, you may use, or may
be near people who are using, noisy machinery.
Floor polishers, drills, saws, grinders are all
examples of machinery that produce noise levels
that can damage hearing. If a noise is loud
enough to be irritating, it is worth protecting
yourself by wearing ear plugs or ear muffs. Such
protection should be provided for staff and
volunteers as well.
Some equipment in conservation laboratories has
no audible sound but can be potentially damaging
to your hearing. Ultrasonic welders, for example,
can be a problem. Ear muffs should be provided
and the equipment should be well-maintained.
Protecting hearing with ear muffs.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
Eye protection
There are many ways in which eyesight can be
damaged. Splintering glass, dust, sprays, solvents
and mould spores can all enter the eyes and cause
damage. In cases where there is likely to be
material which could enter the eyes, safety glasses
should be worn.
In some situations UV lights are used for
examining objects. These lights can cause
irreparable damage if not used properly or used
without the appropriate eye protection.
Health and Safety 55

Protecting eyes with goggles.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne.
Protective gloves
Some tasks require you to use solvents, pesticides
or other chemicals. If you are handling any
substance which you think may be harmful, wear
protective gloves. There are many different types
of gloves, from those that provide a physical
barrier to those that provide complete solvent-
protection. Chemical suppliers will be able to give
you advice about the best types of protection.
A variety of gloves is available for protecting your skin.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
Protective footwear
In some instances, problems can be caused by
inappropriate footwear. Injuries can be caused by
slipping, by dropping heavy or sharp objects, by
corrosive chemicals or hot water, or by stepping on
sharp objects.
56 Health and Safety
Where possible, footwear should be solid, closed at
the toe, and cover the whole foot; and if you are
working with electrical tools, it should have non-
conductive soles.
Dangers associated with tools and machines
In any operation using tools, it is possible to
cause or sustain serious injury. Even seemingly
harmless tasks such as mount cutting, drilling,
screwing and hammering are potentially dangerous.
To avoid injury and accident, make sure you know
how to use the tools properly, and that anyone
else who uses the tools also knows how to use
them properly.
Don’t allow a person to undertake any task unless
you are confident that they have the skill,
experience and understanding to tackle it safely.
Provide people with training where necessary.
Make sure tools are in good condition. If you have
electrical tools, undertake regular safety checks of
cords, plugs and switches. It is worthwhile
considering having an earth leakage circuit breaker
or other safety switches installed. A qualified
electrician should be able to advise on your
requirements.
Check your first aid knowledge, so that you feel
confident to deal with an emergency. Refer to
section on first aid training later in this chapter.
Chemicals and solvents
Chemicals and solvents are dangerous on several
levels. They may be carcinogenic or genotoxic,
flammable or poisonous. Most states and territories
have acts and regulations that define dangerous
goods and outline their correct storage and
handling.
CAUTION:
If you have chemicals and solvents, you must be
familiar with the relevant acts and regulations,
particularly if you have amounts stored for use.
You may be legally liable if you do not conform
with the appropriate acts and regulations.
Chemical companies also provide safety data
sheets. These should be filed and made available
to people who will be using the chemicals. In
some states, you are required to have material
safety data sheets available for staff to read.
You should check your legal obligations with
regard to safety information. Be aware also that
you need a special licence to be able to purchase
and use some chemicals.
Chemicals can affect the human body in many
ways.
They can locally irritate the skin.
They can enter the body through the skin, eyes
or lungs, or be ingested through the mouth, enter
the bloodstream and damage internal organs.
They can have immediate effects, or they may have
no immediate effects yet cause problems some
time after the initial contact.
At low exposure levels they may produce no
problems, but their effect may be cumulative,
resulting in major damage that may be life-
threatening.
Once you are sensitive to one chemical, you
become more susceptible to allergic reactions to
others.
Solvents can dissolve the oily barrier in the skin,
allowing open sites for entry of bacteria, leading
to possible infection.
In some cases one person may have no reaction,
yet another may have a severe reaction to the
same chemical.
CAUTION:
When handling chemicals, including pesticides,
solvents and glues, ensure that you are properly
protected with necessary protective clothing,
including, if appropriate, solvent-proof gloves,
goggles, a solvent-vapour or particulate-matter
respirator, depending on the chemical, and
appropriate shoes and clothing.
You should always check the labels for special
instructions about the use of chemicals and
solvents. Check their flammability and toxicity.
Make sure you understand how to read the label
and that, if you direct someone else to use the
chemical, they also understand how to read it.
Be aware that there is health and safety information
on solvent bottles.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne
The do’s and don’ts of using chemicals
In order to avoid problems with chemicals, the
following commonsense rules should be observed.
• Become familiar with the chemicals you use
and find out the potential dangers. Keep
safety data sheets in a file readily available
to anyone who may need the information.
• Don’t use a chemical unless you have checked
the health and safety data relating to it.
• There are rules for the storage and disposal of
chemicals. Some of these are legal
requirements. Ensure that you are familiar with
these rules and that you can abide by them.
• Proper labelling is critical. Make sure that all
chemicals are properly labelled and that the
label is as informative as possible.
• Never decant chemicals into containers that
can be mistaken for food or drink containers.
• Make sure you understand the particular
hazards of the chemicals you are using.
For example, if you are using solvents,
ensure you are working in a well-ventilated
area with an extraction unit, if necessary.
You may also need to use a respirator.
• Remember that chemicals can work through
the skin, so ensure you cannot inadvertently
come into contact with the chemicals.
• Food and chemicals should never be near
each other. If you have been using chemicals,
always wash your hands before eating.
Health and Safety 57
 • In particular cases and for certain amounts of
chemicals, you are required to provide special
storage. Check with the relevant authorities,
including local councils, regarding
requirements in your area.

• If you are having an area sprayed for pests,

check the health and safety data on the
chemical. If necessary, clear the area of
people while the spraying is done, and for the
appropriate time afterwards.

• Display a notice or notices prominently

warning the public and staff of any work
being carried out that may present a danger
or hazard.
Packing and display material
Properly dressed to handle mouldy items.
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne

Where possible, you should contact a conservator

Packing and display material may contain irritants
or chemicals that are dangerous. Plywood and
masonite, for example, contain chemicals which
can be irritating and dangerous if they are inhaled
or ingested into the body, as they can when you
are sawing or sanding them. Glues and resins can
also be dangerous; for instance, epoxies may be
carcinogenic.
to either undertake the treatment for you or to
provide advice on how to deal with the mould.
For more information
For more information about moulds, please see the
Biological Pests chapter in Damage and Decay.
Hazardous items in your collections

Collections, particularly museum collections, may

contain objects that are dangerous or unstable, or
which have been treated in such a way that they
pose human-health risks. There are many examples
of this type of material. These few give an idea of
the types of hazards:

• asbestos, common in domestic items of the

early 20th century;

• old ammunition, which may be unstable;

• animal and bird specimens treated with

Examples of glues and solvents with health warnings. arsenic or formalin as part of the original
taxidermy process;
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne • cellulose nitrate film, which can
spontaneously combust;
Moulds
• poison darts;

Often individual items or whole collections are • allergen products in natural history
subject to mould attack. Mould can be dangerous collections;
and precautions should be taken when dealing
with it. Ensure that you have proper protective • lead items; and
clothing, including eye protection and a
• some mineral specimens.
respiratory mask, and that you are wearing gloves.

58 Health and Safety

If you are in any doubt as to the stability or
safety of items in your collection, consult a
conservator. Specialists at relevant state
institutions will be able to provide initial advice.
Also bear in mind that if you want to deaccession
material that is a human-health threat, such as old
X-ray equipment, you may be subject to health and
safety laws relating to the disposal of such items.
Hazards of office equipment
Often cataloguing and condition reporting require
the use of computer and photocopy equipment.
Prolonged use of such equipment can have serious
health ramifications. For example, photocopiers
produce ozone; and inappropriately set-up computer
workstations can lead to muscle, back and eye strain.
Many publications relate to the safe use of such
equipment, for example, Australian Standard 3590-
1990 Screen-based Workstations Part 1-13. The
relevant State and Territory occupational health and
safety departments will be able to provide advice.
First aid training
The St John Ambulance Association provides
various first aid courses, and awards certificates
indicating successful completion. A first aid course
is a useful way of ensuring workers are prepared to
deal with potential problems.
There are also sheets available that outline first
aid procedures. It is best to check with the St
John Ambulance Association or your local doctor
or hospital that these sheets are correct and up to
date before you use them or make them available
to others to use.
An example of
a first aid kit.
Photograph courtesy
of the Ian Potter
Art Conservation
Service, University
of Melbourne
It is useful to have first aid guidelines on file or
on display, providing these have been approved by
a relevant expert.
You should also have a first aid kit. A basic first
aid kit should include:
• bandaids;
• sterile eye pads;
• sterile covering for serious wounds;
• triangular bandages;
• safety pins;
• disinfectant or antiseptic;
• adhesive tape;
• crepe bandage;
• scissors;
• disposable gloves;
• eye module;
• burns module;
• a fire blanket;
• extra bandages and dressings; and
• dressings suitable for small and large wounds.
Emergency procedures
All museums, galleries and libraries should have a
clear set of emergency procedures known to all
staff and volunteers. These procedures should be
printed clearly and displayed, so they can be
referred to when necessary.
As part of your emergency procedures, ensure that
you have a list of names, addresses and telephone
numbers of the nearest doctor and hospital, and
emergency services including police and fire
stations. This list should be kept close to the
telephone in a highly visible position.
Your disaster preparedness plan should cover
evacuation procedures in the event of an emergency,
including fire, gas leaks, dangerous chemical spill
and similar situations. Once you have drawn up
your plan, it is worthwhile having it checked by
your local hospital, police and fire departments.
Health and Safety 59
 For more information NT
Work Health Authority
For more information on disaster plans,
Minerals House, 66 The Esplanade, Darwin, NT 0800
please see Counter Disaster Planning GPO Box 2010, Darwin, NT 0801
in Managing Collections. Phone: (08) 8989 5010
Fax: (08) 8989 5141
Signposting for safety QLD
Dept of Employment, Vocational Education,
There are regulations governing signposting in Training and Industrial Relations Workplace
public places. These ensure that in the event of an Health and Safety
emergency the public can move quickly away from 2nd Floor, Forbes House,
the danger. If you manage an area with public 30 Makerston Street, Brisbane, QLD 4000
access, it is important you understand the GPO Box 69, Brisbane, QLD 4001
requirements of these regulations. Phone: (07) 3227 4728
Fax: (07) 3220 0143

SA
Workcover Occupational Health and Safety Division
1st Floor, 100 Waymouth Street, Adelaide, SA 5000
GPO Box 2668, Adelaide, SA 5000
Phone: (08) 8226 3215
Fax: (08) 8212 1864

TAS
Tasmanian Development and Resources
2nd Floor, Reece House,
46 Mount Street, Burnie, TAS 7320
GPO Box 287, Burnie, TAS 7320
Phone: (03) 64346 378
An example of clear standard signage. Fax: (03) 64311 606
Photograph courtesy of the Ian Potter Art Conservation
Service, University of Melbourne VIC
Health and Safety Organisation
World Trade Centre, Building B, Ground Floor,
Contacts for State and Cnr Flinders and Spencer Streets, Melbourne, VIC 3005
Commonwealth authorities Phone: (03) 9628 8188
Fax: (03) 9628 8397
ACT WA
ACT Occupational Health & Safety Office Dept of Occupational, Health, Safety and
1st Floor, North Building, Welfare of Western Australia
London Circuit, Canberra, ACT 2601 West Centre, 1260 Hay Street, West Perth, WA 6005
PO Box 224, Civic Square, ACT 2608 PO Box 294, West Perth, WA 6005
Phone: (02) 6205 0736 Phone: (08) 9327 8700
Fax: (02) 6205 0797 Fax: (08) 9321 2148
NSW
NSW Worker Authority If you have a problem relating to health and
Level 4, 400 Kent Street, Sydney, NSW 2000 safety when storing, transporting or displaying
Locked Bag 10, Clarence Street, Sydney, NSW 2000 objects, contact a conservator. Conservators can
Phone: (02) 9370 5303 offer advice and practical solutions.
Fax: (02) 9370 6107

60 Health and Safety

 For further reading Question 2.

Department of Labour, Victoria 1988, Occupational What kinds of legal issues can affect you?
Health and Safety (Manual Handling)
Regulations and Code of Practice 1988, Question 3.
Department of Labour Victoria, Melbourne.
Where can I find out what health and safety issues
Hall, Bob, 1993, Chemicals and the Artist, A health affect me?
and safety handbook for students, teachers and
artworkers, 3rd edn, Bob Hall, Ballarat VIC
3350, Phone: (03) 5336 2891. Question 4.

McCann, Michael, 1979, Artist Beware, Watson- There are a number of potential dangers in working
Guptill Publications, New York. 2nd ed. 1992, with collections of cultural material. Name three.
Lyons & Burford, New York.
Question 5.
Safety data sheets, available from companies
which supply the chemicals.
The St John Ambulance Association provides:
The Merck Index, Merck & Co. Inc., Rahway, New a) safety data sheets;
Jersey, U.S.A. New editions appear regularly.
b) gloves and goggles;
There are a number of other regulations and codes
of practice in this series. Although they relate to c) proper first aid training;
the Victorian Occupational Health and Safety Act
1985, they provide some useful hints and d) earth leakage circuit breakers.
guidelines. Similar publications may be available in
other States and Territories. Contact your State Question 6.
Department of Labour or Department of Industrial
Relations for information about health and safety As part of your first aid emergency procedures,
publications. what should you have?

a) A first aid kit.

Self-evaluation quiz
b) A disaster preparedness plan.
Question 1. c) Evacuation procedures.

It is important that you are aware of health and d) Contact numbers for local emergency services
safety issues because: next to the phone.

a) they help to ensure that accidents do not e) All of the above.

happen;

b) there are many instances where you are Answers to

responsible in a legal sense for health and
safety issues; self-evaluation quiz
c) many tasks and materials with which you are
involved in collections, care and management Question 1.
are potentially dangerous;

d) you need to be aware of potential dangers, Answer: e).

and of your legal responsibilities;

e) all of the above.

Health and Safety 61

 Question 2.

Answer: Issues relating to the purchase, storage

and disposal of chemicals and solvents,
signposting for safety, and work involving manual
and mechanical practices are all dealt with under
relevant acts and regulations, and Australian
Standards and Codes of Practice. Ignorance is no
excuse under the law.

Question 3.

Answer: You can contact the relevant department

in your State or Territory. Government bookshops
provide copies of State and Territory Acts and
Regulations. Australian Standards are available
from Australian Standards, Clunies Ross House,
191 Royal Parade, Parkville VIC 3052.

Question 4.

Answer: Answers include:

• mechanical operations, particularly with sharp

tools or electrical tools;

• danger to eyes through contact with harmful

materials or rays;

• high noise levels;

• fire;

• long-term health problems such as the

development of allergies or cancers through
contact with dangerous substances;

• immediate damage to the skin or organs

through contact with dangerous substances;

• manual handling, particularly lifting; and

• health problems resulting from contact with

moulds.

Question 5.

Answer: c).

Question 6.

Answer: e).

62 Health and Safety

 Acknowledgments

Collection Management and Other

Conservation Working Party of the
Heritage Collections Council Stuart Anderson Simone Cordeauz
Sandra Flischer Michelle Koford
Margaret Anderson (Chair) Jacki Kossatz Linda Marlin
Ian Cook (Deputy Chair) Simon Prince Carly Romiero
Karen Coote Slade Smith Robyn Thomas
Tamara Lavrencic Di Virgil Guthrie Watson
Jan Lyall
Chris Tassell Prototype Development Consortium
Ian MacLeod Conservation Training Australia
Phil Gordon
Robyn Sloggett
Artlab Australia
John Stanton
History Trust of South Australia
Viv Szekeres
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
Ian Stephenson
State Library of New South Wales
University of Melbourne Conservation Service
Major Contributors Western Australian Museum

Karen Coote James Dexter Project Manager: Keith Fernandez

Keith Fernandez David Gilroy Technical Editor: Vicki Humphrey
Rosie Freemantle Ian Godfrey
Alan Howell Vicki Humphrey Field Trial Participants
Georgia Koronis Tamara Lavrencic
Ian MacLeod Joy Noble
Sarah-Jane Rennie Marion Roubos-Bennet Bob Alford Elizabeth Anya-Petrivna
Robyn Sloggett Michell Smith Denise Davis Luan Dunaan
Geoff Speirs Greg Wallace Christine Ewings Jude Fraser
Helen Weidenhofer Margie West Ann Gibson Ken Hodge
Jean Johnson Narayan Khadekar
Lindsay Knowles Heather Kriesl
Contributors
Nicole Livermore Zoe McKenzie-Smith
John Reid Pauline Ross
Phil Alderslade Marie Boland Glen Smith
Peter Cahalan Glenn Cole
Sarah Feijen Fred Francisco Sunshine and District Historical Society
Helen Halley Charlotte Jenkin
Gillian Leahy Sophie Lussier Marketing Research
Holly McGowan-Jackson Elizabeth Murphy
Kristin Phillips Alex Roach
Jennifer Ross Sue Valis Environmetrics
Sandra Yee
Editing and Publishing
Kimba and Gawler Ranges Historical Society
Migration Museum Communication Partners
National Motor Museum Cyranet
South Australian Telstra Historical Collection

Acknowledgments 63
reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia

HANDLING,TRANSPORTATION,
STORAGE AND DISPLAY

Foreword page iii

A Note to Readers page iv

Introduction page v

Handling page 1

Transportation page 15

Storage and Display page 29

Acknowledgments page 35
© Commonwealth of Australia 1998 on behalf of the Heritage Collections Council
ISBN 0 642 37384 1 (boxed set)
ISBN 0 642 37385 X (this volume)
Information presented in this book may be reproduced in whole or in part for study or
training purposes, subject to the inclusion of acknowledgment of source and provided no
commercial usage or sale of material occurs. Reproduction for purposes other than those
given above requires the written permission of the Heritage Collections Council. Requests
for permission should be sent to the HCC Secretariat at the address given below.
One copy of this publication is available to Australian institutions on application. Multiple
copies to Australian institutions, copies to overseas institutions and copies to individuals
will be charged at A$100 plus postage and handling. Copies may be obtained by writing to:
Heritage Collections Council Secretariat
GPO Box 2154
Canberra ACT 2601
Australia
Phone (02) 6271 1094
Fax (02) 6271 1079
Email hcc@dcita.gov.au
This publication will be available online at the Australian Museums On Line website—
http://amol.org.au
Produced by the Commonwealth Department of Communications, Information Technology
and the Arts.
Cover images (from left):
Detail of photograph courtesy of Museum of Western Australia.
Detail of bark painting, Lightning Snake Story, Douglas (Nawurapu) Wununmurra.
Photograph courtesy of Karen Coote, Australian Museum.
Detail of photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia.
Detail of hand-coloured 19th century children’s book. Photograph courtesy of
Vicki Humphrey.
There are an estimated 41 million objects held in Australian museums, art galleries and historical collections.
Collectively they tell the story of our history and our country and contribute to our sense of identity and
national pride. Increasing the conservation skills of people who care for these collections is an important
factor in protecting this heritage, and is a key goal of the Heritage Collections Council.

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia has been developed with this goal in mind. This set
of practical guidebooks is designed by the Council for use principally by non-conservators who are working
with Australia’s cultural heritage. The guidebooks are also a teacher-friendly resource which can be used in
professional development workshops.

Many of Australia’s most experienced conservators have been involved in researching, writing and editing
reCollections, through the Conservation Training Australia consortium, led by Artlab Australia, which
first developed the package, and through the Collections Management and Conservation Working Party of
the Council.

The Heritage Collections Council’s mission is to promote excellence in the management, care and provision of
access to Australia’s heritage collections so that together, they reflect Australia’s cultural and natural
diversity. The Council is a collaboration between the Commonwealth, State and Territory governments and
the museums sector, and comprises people working in a wide range of cultural heritage institutions across
the breadth of urban and regional Australia. reCollections is an important component of the Council’s
National Conservation and Preservation Strategy for Australia’s Heritage Collections.

Rob Palfreyman
Chair
Heritage Collections Council

Heritage Collections Council

GPO Box 2154, Canberra ACT 2601, AUSTRALIA
Phone: (02) 6271 1094 Fax: (02) 6271 1079 Email: hcc@dcita.gov.au

Foreword iii
 A note to readers

reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia

has been written by practicing conservators and is intended to provide
a sound guide for the preventive care of cultural items. Active
conservation treatment of cultural material should only be undertaken
by, or on the advice of, a trained conservator. Before relying on any of
the material in this guide, users should check its accuracy, currency,
completeness and relevance for their purposes and should obtain
appropriate professional advice.

If in doubt,
consult a
conservator
To obtain the names of accredited practicing conservators who are in a
position to meet your particular conservation requirements contact the
Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material (Inc.)
a national organisation for conservators and people interested in the
preservation of cultural material.

AICCM
GPO Box 1638
Canberra ACT 2601
National Secretary Phone: (02) 6254 8695
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~conserv/aiccmhc.htm

iv A note to readers
 Introduction to

reCollections
Caring for Collections Across Australia
Our heritage is represented by a vast array of cultural material, from established national icons holding
pride of place in major museums and galleries, to everyday items such as household appliances or
newspapers which carry meaning for local communities or families. Yet so often the links to our heritage
are tenuous because the objects which represent our culture are in danger of decay. However, there is
a lot we can do to protect valued objects and collections and so prolong the life of our cultural heritage.
reCollections: Caring for Collections Across Australia provides practical advice and guidance designed
to help the reader care for their heritage.

reCollections explains how to apply preventive conservation techniques to cultural objects and collections.
Preventive conservation optimises the environmental conditions in which objects and collections are housed.
Controlling light and ultraviolet radiation, humidity and temperature, biological pests, and dust and pollutants
helps to prevent damage and decay to cultural material. Preventive conservation also means ensuring that
good handling, transportation, storage and display techniques are used at all times. Applying preventive
methods to the care of cultural artefacts and collections can prolong and protect their life for current and
future generations of Australians.

While reCollections provides conservation information about the care of cultural objects and collections,
it is important to recognise that all except the simplest conservation treatments should be undertaken
by trained conservators. Active conservation treatment is a response to the damage of cultural artefacts,
a highly skilled field which often involves the use of chemicals and complicated technical procedures.
Unless performed with a thorough knowledge of appropriate techniques and with the right equipment and
materials, conservation treatments can do more harm than good to the objects being worked upon, and
can be hazardous to the people performing the work. Conservation treatments should only be conducted by,
or on the explicit advice of, a trained conservator.

To complement the preventive conservation advice contained in the volumes Damage and Decay and Handling,
Transportation, Storage and Display, reCollections supplies detailed information concerning the care of some
of the most common cultural materials. These range from the paper and other materials on which so much
of Australia’s cultural history may be seen, to special considerations in caring for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultural artefacts. In addition, modern practices concerning the management of collections and
of the people who look after those collections are outlined.

Introduction v
Handling

Objectives page 3
Introduction page 3
General rules for handling objects page 3
Handling art on paper and documents page 6
Handling books page 7
Handling photographs page 7
Handling stretched paintings and framed works page 8
Handling unstretched paintings page 9
Handling electronic media page 10
Handling textiles page 11
Handling ethnographic or composite objects page 11
Handling metal objects page 11
Handling outdoor sculpture and machinery page 12
Handling furniture page 12
Handling ceramics, glass and enamelware page 13
Self-evaluation quiz page 13
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 14
 Objectives Don’t rush

At the end of this chapter you should: Never rush when handling objects—even when
you’re under pressure or working to a deadline.
• be aware of how vulnerable objects are when
they are being handled; and Accidents are more likely to happen when you’re
hurrying.
• have an appreciation of the need for careful
handling.

Introduction
Objects are most vulnerable to damage when they
are being moved—even over short distances.

Although it seems unlikely that damage could

occur when an object is being moved only a short
distance, there are many examples of it happening.
Try carrying a single sheet of paper from one room
to another. If you hold it by one corner, it can
very easily crease while you are walking. This
irreversible damage may be acceptable on a sheet Always:
of blank paper, but would be disastrous on a
valuable print or watercolour. Think about what • use both hands when carrying an object, so
can happen if someone rushes out of a door right that you can properly support it; and
into your path while you are carrying a glass bowl.
• make sure you have enough people to lift
Accidents do occur so it is important to: your object safely. If you don’t have enough
people, get help or wait until help is
• handle objects with care; available.

• provide adequate support to objects; Don’t:

• plan your movements;
• ensure the route is clear; and
• ensure there is a space to place the items
when you arrive.
Planning and care minimises risk and reduces the
chance of accidents happening.
This section summarises the do’s and don’ts of
handling for a range of objects.
• try to carry too many things at a time. You
won’t be able to support each object properly
and you might drop things and hurt yourself;
• try to save time by overloading trolleys or by
stacking things on top of each other once
you have moved them; or
• speed with trolleys, trucks and boxes. Always
avoid abrupt stops and jerks.

General rules for

handling objects
Objects are most likely to be damaged when they
are being handled or moved—no matter what the
distance.

Handling 3
 Be organised and plan ahead For more information
For more information on some simple examination
Eliminate unnecessary movement of objects. Be techniques, please see the chapter on
organised and know where you’re going to put Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting
each object before you pick it up. Reducing the
in Managing Collections.
number of movements reduces the risk of damage.

Plan coordinated action in advance. Make sure you Note any damage that occurs
have enough people to lift your object safely. during the move
When more than one person is needed, for
example, when moving a large piece of machinery,
Remember, no matter how small a broken or rough
appoint someone to coordinate the activity.
edge is, it may be sharp enough to damage an
item nearby.
Make sure you have the equipment you need to do
the job properly.
All accidents should be recorded. When reporting a
damage, describe it briefly, noting the nature,
Plan your route and think ahead when you are
location and severity of the damage and record the
moving an object. If you do this you are less likely
date of your report. A sample report form follows.
to have accidents or encounter obstructions.
Remember that fine arts insurance policies do not
If you are moving items on a trolley, plan your route
cover loss or damage caused by unskilled handling.
to avoid uneven floor surfaces. In this way you can
Don’t ask volunteers to handle valuable objects
avoid shock and vibration damaging the object.
without first giving them some instructions. They
need to read this information, and be helped and
Provide support and protection supervised.
to your objects
You can’t replace a unique object, even if your
insurance claim is successful.
Examine the object you’re going to handle or
move, and note its weakness or any damage; then
ensure that you support it so that handling and
movement don’t make the object weaker.

Never put both light-weight and heavy objects in

the same carrying-box or container. The heavy
object could fall over and severely damage the
lighter ones.

Always use separation battens, foam padding or

some kind of cushioning material between pieces
when you have more than one object in a single
box. All padding must be resilient and capable of
absorbing and dissipating shock.

When you have finished the move, never discard

any packing material until it has been thoroughly
searched. It would be awful to throw away a small
item or part of an item which was caught up in
the packing.

4 Handling
 Report on damaged object

Item: _________________________________________________________________________________

Title: _________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________Accession No: ___________________

Artist/Manufacturer: _____________________________________________________________________

Brief Description of Damage: ______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Location of Damage: ____________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

How did the damage occur? _______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________

Does the damage require urgent attention? Yes ❑ No ❑

If yes, remember that you will need to seek permission from the owner before proceeding with any treatment.

Signature:____________________________________________________ Date:_____________________

Please return a copy of this form with the object.

Handling 5
 Handling art on paper
and documents
Handle paper as little as possible because it is highly
susceptible to physical damage such as creasing and
tearing. When you have to handle paper, make sure
your hands are clean. Wearing gloves provides added
protection. Cotton gloves are often recommended,
but they are not always appropriate because they can
make it much harder to pick up individual sheets of
paper. Clean, close-fitting, surgical gloves are a good
alternative to cotton gloves.
Use commonsense when handling fragile paper.
Remember that old paper can be very brittle, and
all paper is vulnerable to damage. So it is
important to provide proper support.
If you have to pick up paper to examine it closely,
it is better to place it on a rigid support, like a
piece of cardboard, and lift the board. Holding it
in your hand increases the risk of damage.
If you must carry paper over any distance, it should
be carried horizontally on a rigid support, and with
a covering material to stop the paper being picked
up by the breeze. Sandwiching paper between two
pieces of acid-free board will protect it well.
Even if your documents or works of art are mounted
already, don’t tuck them under your arm to carry
them. They should be supported as described above.
Placing them in folders, Mylar pockets, Copysafe sleeves
or polyethylene bags provides extra protection—with
the exception of pastels and chalks, (see below).
Remember, the safest way to carry prints,
drawings, watercolours and documents over long
distances is in specially designed portfolios or
Solander boxes.
If you’re handling more than one paper item,
separate each one with a sheet of tissue paper or
good-quality paper—preferably acid-free.
If chalks, pastels, watercolours or pencil are
abraded or smudged, the damage is permanent.
Never allow rough paper or board to come into
contact with these media. Do not place plastics
such as Mylar, polyethylene or Perspex near chalks
or pastels as the static attracts the loosely bound
pigment. Don’t allow anything to rub them. It is
6 Handling
best not to stack these types of works.
Never allow newsprint, wrapping paper or any
printed matter to come into contact with prints,
drawings, watercolours or documents. The inks may
off-set onto your valued object.
Remember that mounts on works are visible when
the works are on display, so take steps to avoid
soiling the mounts. Direct handling of mounts can
lead to soiling, so it is advisable to wear clean,
cotton gloves when handling mounted works.
Don’t mend paper using self-adhesive ‘sticky’ tapes
of any kind. These tapes go through a number of
stages when they deteriorate:
• firstly, the adhesive becomes very sticky and
will be easily absorbed into the paper; and
• in the next stage, the adhesive changes
chemically and begins to yellow and
eventually turns a dark orange. At this stage
the adhesive is almost totally insoluble and,
therefore, the stains cannot be removed.
Never use rubber cement or wood glue with works
on paper. These adhesives can discolour badly as
they age.
Large works which require two people to carry
them should be placed between two pieces of
mount board. The route to be followed should be
cleared of obstacles; and if there are doors that
need to be opened, make sure there is a third
person available to open them.
Don’t use ink or markers near works on paper and
documents—use pencil only.
Paper clips, even plastic ones, can damage fragile
paper. Avoid them.
Rolled plans and works on paper should not be
secured with rubber bands, because these will
perish over time. Use cotton tape.
If you are rolling large paper items, roll them onto
a tube to support them—rather than placing them
inside the tube—this way you avoid damage by
creasing.
For more information
For more information about caring for paper,
please see the chapter on Paper in
Caring for Cultural Material 1.
 Handling books
When removing a book from the shelf don’t pull it
by the top of the spine, because you can cause a
great deal of damage this way. Pulling a book from
a shelf by the top of the spine will eventually
break the spine at the joint. This can lead to the
joint splitting along the full length of the spine.
The correct way to take a book from a shelf is to
push the books on either side of it further into the
shelf and hold the book firmly with your hand
around the spine and your fingers on one cover
and your thumb on the other.
For this reason, it is wise to leave some space
between your books and the back of the shelf
when you first set them up on a shelf.
When you have to handle books, make sure your
hands are clean, otherwise you can leave dirty
marks on the bindings and the pages. You can
wear gloves for added protection—cotton gloves
are often recommended, but they are not always
appropriate because they can make it much harder
to turn the pages. Close-fitting surgical gloves are
a good alternative to cotton gloves. But cotton
gloves should be worn when handling books with
gold leaf decorations on the covers or on the
foredge of the textblock.
Books should be opened gently: the spine and the
sewing can be broken if the book is forced open.
If you’re using a book which cannot open flat,
give it some support so that you don’t strain its
structure.
When opening new or newly bound books, don’t
open them from the centre. Start from the front
and then the back, and open them gradually,
section by section, until you reach the middle.
This gradually eases them open and flexes the new
structure gently. Opening them at the middle and
forcing them to open flat can break the structure.
It is always best to turn pages slowly and with
care. It is very easy to tear the paper if you are
flicking through the pages quickly.
Don’t lick your fingers to turn the pages: the
moisture can set dirt into the paper. You can also
transfer dirt and germs from the paper to your
mouth. If the book has been fumigated against
insects or mould, you may be putting yourself at risk.
If you are carrying valuable books, put them in a
sturdy box. Don’t try to carry lots of books at
once. You could hurt yourself, and if you drop the
books you will damage them.
The covers of books can be severely disfigured by
abrasion and scratching. This is especially
noticeable with very smooth, calf-leather bindings.
Don’t stack valuable or delicate books, or carry them
in such a way that they will rub against each other.
If books do get damaged, be aware that some
repairs can cause further damage. For this reason
it is recommended that you do not use sticky
tapes of any kind.
These tapes go through a number of stages when
they deteriorate. Firstly, the adhesive becomes very
sticky and will be easily absorbed into paper,
bookcloths and leather. In the next stage, the
adhesive changes chemically and begins to yellow
and eventually turns a dark orange. At this stage,
the adhesive is almost totally insoluble and,
therefore, the stains cannot be removed. Once the
adhesive become insoluble, the tape usually falls
away: so the repair has failed and you still have the
damage. In addition to the original damage, the
paper is now badly stained as well.
Paper clips, even plastic ones, can damage and
distort paper. They should not be used for
attaching labels or marking your place. Metal paper
clips rust over time and stain paper.
For more information
For more information on caring for books,
please see the chapter on Books in
Caring for Cultural Materials 1.
Handling photographs
Because photographs are highly susceptible to
physical damage from improper and frequent handling
they should be handled as little as possible.
When you must handle them, make sure your hands
are clean. You can wear gloves for added
protection—cotton gloves are often recommended,
but they are not always appropriate because they
can make it much harder to pick up individual
photographs. Clean, close-fitting surgical gloves are
a good alternative to cotton gloves.
Handling 7
 Old photographs can be very brittle, particularly if
they already have tears and creases. So it is
important to support them properly when you
handle them. New photographs also need support,
so that they are not damaged.
If you must pick up a photograph to examine it
closely, it is better to place it on a rigid support,
like a piece of cardboard, and lift the board.
Holding it in your hand may cause it to curl and
increases the risk of damage.
If photographs are carried over any distance, carry
them horizontally and supported on a rigid
support, like a piece of cardboard. Place a board
over the top of the photograph to prevent it being
picked up by the breeze.
Even if photographs are mounted on cardboard
already, don’t tuck them under your arm to carry
them. They should be supported as described above.
Many old photographs were mounted on board which
becomes very brittle over time. If these boards break,
the photographs attached will break as well. Placing
them in folders, Mylar pockets, Copysafe sleeves or
polyethylene bags provides extra protection.
Photographic emulsions are easily scratched
and need to be protected when you are handling
more than one photograph at a time. You can
protect them by separating them or interleaving
them—ideally with archival materials such as
photographic storage paper, Mylar or acid-free
glassine. For short-term interleaving, silicon
release paper or other papers with a very smooth
surface can be used.
Don’t mend photographs using self-adhesive sticky
tapes of any kind. These tapes go through a
number of stages when they deteriorate.
• Firstly, the adhesive becomes very sticky and
will be absorbed easily into paper and
emulsions.
• In the next stage, the adhesive changes
chemically, and begins to yellow and
eventually turns a dark orange. At this stage
the adhesive is almost totally insoluble and
the stains cannot be removed.
If you have a damaged photograph, place it in a
protective sleeve or wrapper to prevent further
damage until you can get advice from a conservator.
For more information
For more information on caring for photographs,
please see the chapter on Photographs in
Caring for Cultural Materials 1.
Handling stretched
paintings and framed works
To properly support and protect your paintings, it
is better to never carry more than one painting at
a time.
Before moving any painting, make sure that there is
no flaking paint and that the work is secure in its
frame. If there is flaking paint on the painting, leave
it face-up while making sure that there are no loose
pieces on the frame, and consult a conservator.

CAUTION
Papers which are very opaque, white and with a
very smooth almost shiny surface are not suitable
for interleaving. These papers are called ‘coated
papers’ and have a finely ground mineral coating.
When they are wet they become very sticky.

Photographs which are used frequently should be

photographically copied. The copy prints can be used
as the working records, instead of the originals.

Paper clips, even plastic ones, damage and distort
photographs. They should not be used for attaching
labels, even temporary ones, to photographs. If
you need to place a temporary label with a
photograph, write it in pencil on a piece of paper
large enough to fold around the whole photograph.
Paintings can range in size from quite small to
extremely large. Whether large or small, paintings need
to be given adequate support when they are being
handled and moved.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
with permission of the Art Gallery of South Australia

8 Handling
If you have to move it yourself, carry it flat and
face-up, so that you don’t lose any paint while you
are moving. Don’t touch the canvas or the paint
surface directly.
If your canvas painting does not have a backboard,
check that the stretcher wedges are secured: they
can do a lot of damage if they fall between the
canvas and the stretcher.
It is advisable to wear white, cotton gloves while
handling paintings and frames, particularly when
handling gilded frames. Perspiration and skin oils
can leave permanent marks on gilt surfaces.
Always hold paintings at points where the frame is
strong. Ornate frames are especially vulnerable to
damage. Never grip them by any of the ornate
areas of the frame, because they may not be very
strong and could break.
Never carry a painting by the top of its frame or
stretcher—carry it with one hand underneath and
one hand at the side, or if small, one hand on
each side.
If the work is unframed, it is better to move it
using handling straps or a travelling frame. Both of
these allow you to carry paintings without
touching the paint surface. If neither of these are
available, then carry unframed, stretched paintings
on the outer edges without touching either the
front or back of the canvas. Never allow fingers to
touch the paint surface.
For more information
For more information about handling straps,
please see the chapter on Paintings in
Caring for Cultural Material 1.
Don’t put your fingers around the stretcher bars, or
between the stretcher and the canvas because you
could cause the paint to crack and flake in that area.
Remember to carry wrapped paintings with extra
care, because you cannot see what you are
touching.
Before putting a painting down on the floor, ensure
that there are padded, wooden blocks or foam blocks
in place. These blocks provide a softer surface than
the floor, and keep paintings off the ground.
When you put the painting down, don’t set it down
on one corner—always set it down along one
complete edge.
A large painting must be moved by two people,
regardless of the weight involved. Never attempt
to move a large painting alone.
If you are moving paintings on a trolley, it is wise
to have two people to accompany the loaded
trolley. With two people, one can hold the paintings
in place, while the other can open doors. Accidents
are more likely if one person tries to do everything.
Trolleys should be padded to prevent damage to
frames.
If any damage does occur during the move, carefully
collect and save any pieces, no matter how small—
even tiny paint flakes—and document the damage.
Glazed artworks should be carried with care. Acrylic
glazing such as Perspex is easily scratched, and
glass can break if dropped or knocked.
If you are transporting paintings which are glazed
with glass, tape the glass with masking tape. This
will hold the pieces of glass together if it breaks,
reducing the risk of damage to the work.
Make sure that you put tape on the glass only. If
it gets onto the frame it can damage paint or
finishes when it is removed.
For small frames, one strip of tape vertically in the
centre of the glass, one horizontal strip and one
strip on each diagonal will be sufficient. Larger
frames will need more.
If you fold the tape back on itself at one end of
each strip, it will be easier to remove. Remove the
tape as soon as possible after the move. Pull the
tape off at a very low angle and pull gently.
There is no need to tape Perspex or Plexiglas, and
the tape can be difficult to remove—so don’t tape
these glazing materials.
Handling unstretched paintings
Unstretched paintings can be difficult to handle. If
they are allowed to flop or move too much, the
paint can begin to come away from the surface of
the canvas. It is very important that unstretched
paintings are well supported.
If the paintings are small enough to be moved
flat, put a rigid support under them so that they
Handling 9
 can be handled easily without flopping and
distorting. A sheet of Foam-Cor or a strong mount
board would be suitable.
Larger unstretched paintings may need to be rolled
to be carried.
The roller should be as large in diameter as
possible, preferably at least 200mm. The larger the
painting, the larger the diameter of the roller
should be.
Rollers can be specially made of light-weight
materials, such as:
• Ribloc—ask the manufacturer to make the
roller with the ribs on the inside, if possible;
• PVC pipe, a 300mm diameter pipe is a good
size for most works.
Rollers should be covered with a layer of padding,
either polyethylene foam, such as Plastazote, or
Dacron wadding covered with clean, white, cotton
fabric, to compensate for any irregularities in the
painting’s thickness.
It is very important that paintings are rolled the
right way, painted-side out, and that they are
properly interleaved and the roller properly
padded. If the paint layer is on the inside when
the painting is rolled, the paint will become
compressed and will develop creases that will
remain in the painting after it has been unrolled.
It is best to roll the painting with an interleaving
layer of Tyvek to prevent any transfer of pigment.
The Tyvek should be larger in length and width
than the painting.
When rolled, the painting should be tied firmly,
but not tightly, with cotton tape in several places
along the roll.
If more than one painting is to be rolled on a
roller, the paintings should be laid out flat and
interleaved with Protecta Foam, as for flat storage.
Once this is done, the paintings should be rolled
onto the roller all at the same time. Remember, all
the paintings should be painted-side out.
For more information
For more information about caring for paintings,
please refer see the chapter on Paintings in
Caring for Cultural Material 1.
10 Handling
Handling
electronic media
Audio-recordings, video-recordings, floppy disks
and CD-ROMs need to be handled carefully to avoid
physical damage and contamination.
Even when your hands appear clean, traces of
sweat and oil are present. If these are deposited
on a recording they can attract dust or promote
mould growth. To keep electronic media in
the best working condition, it is recommended
that you:
• handle magnetic and digital media carefully,
avoiding skin-contact with magnetic or
optical surfaces. Handle only the cassette
of audio and video recordings, and only the
edges of floppy disks and CD-ROMs;
• prohibit eating, drinking and smoking in all
areas where magnetic and/or digital media
are used or stored;
• carry reel-to-reel tapes by the hub or centre;
• don’t carry your video camera or video tapes
in a bag with liquids or food that could
damage the video materials;
• secure digital media in storage boxes so that
they cannot flex; and
• put digital media away as soon as it has been
used.
If the materials are being used outside the
museum, gallery or library, give users the above
instructions.
For more information
For more information on caring for
electronic media, please see the chapter on
Electronic Information and Media in
Caring for Cultural Material 1.
 Handling textiles
The most important rule for handling textiles is: do
not handle textiles unless you must. Always keep
handling to a minimum.
Whenever possible wear clean, cotton gloves when
handling textiles. Sometimes this is not practical,
so make sure your hands are clean. Always wash
them before handling a textile. This will prevent
the transfer of body-oil and dirt to the textiles.
Keeping your hands clean is particularly important
with textiles incorporating metal thread, because the
metal will tarnish in reaction to acids from the skin.
It is important to remove jewellery such as rings,
bracelets and necklaces when handling textiles.
They might catch on the textiles and pull threads
or tear the textiles.
When you do handle textiles, they should always
be properly supported. Textiles that appear strong
may, in fact, have areas of weakness which are not
immediately visible. As a rule, all historic textiles
should be regarded as fragile.
When handling flat textiles:
• never pick them up by one corner. Always
support the weight of the textile evenly;
• small textiles should be carried either on a
tray, in a box or on a board;
• larger textiles should be rolled, and carried on
the roller. Hold onto the part of the roller
extending beyond the textile; and
• never try to move a textile by yourself, if the
size and weight of the textile indicate that
you need two people. Carrying large textiles
incorrectly can damage them, and the person
carrying them could be injured.
When handling costumes, remember:
• costumes should never be picked up by the
shoulders;
• always slide your arms under the costume and
then lift;
• ideally costumes should be moved in boxes or
on a board; and
• don’t carry items on a hanger without using
your arms for additional support.
When handling accessories:
• generally accessories should be transported
on boards or in boxes. However, there are
exceptions to this rule. Use your
commonsense to decide the most appropriate
way to handle them; and
• remember, accessories should always be evenly
supported. For example, don’t pick up a bag
by its handle: use two hands to support it.
For more information
For more information about caring for textiles
and costumes, please see the chapter on Textiles
in Caring for Cultural Material 2.
Handling ethnographic
or composite objects
Handle ethnographic material as little as possible.
If the object is made up of different materials,
examine it carefully to find the strongest, most
stable part, so that you can handle it there.
Do NOT wear cotton gloves for objects with flaking
or powdery pigment surfaces, for example,
Aboriginal bark paintings. The cotton gloves can
pick up the pigment. If you must touch pigmented
areas, wear disposable surgical gloves.
Remember that feathers are fragile and, if
possible, should not be handled. If you must pick
up single feathers, handle them at the rachis, that
is, the vein portion.
For more information
For more information on caring for ethnographic
materials, please see the chapter on
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage
Cultural Material in Caring for Cultural Material 2.
Handling metal objects
The most important point to remember when
you are handling metal items—from silverware to
iron tools—is to wear clean, cotton gloves.
This is essential, because perspiration from hands
contains chlorides and other salts which corrode
metal objects.
Handling 11
 Always weigh a metal object before trying to lift
it. You may need two people or the use of a trolley
for the move. It is better to find this out before
you lift the object. Problems arise when you lift an
object that is too heavy or too awkward to carry.
Never lift or carry objects by the handles, rims or
any projecting part. Often handles and rims are
damaged and can be weak or partially detached.
Although handles may have been originally
designed for carrying, no museum object should be
carried by its handles.
Be careful of sharp corners and edges—they could
damage other objects or hurt you.
Secure and support any moving parts on an
object before you attempt to move it. This way,
you minimise the risk of damage to the object
and to other objects; and reduce the risk of
injuring yourself.
For more information
For more information about caring for metal
objects, please see the chapter on
Metals in Caring for Cultural Material 2.
Handling outdoor
sculpture and machinery
Always devise an action plan before moving large
outdoor objects; the plan should outline the steps
of the move, the equipment needed and the
number of people required.
When planning a move, it is important to consider
the size, weight and shape of the object, and to
make sure that the object can be moved without
damage and without injury to people.
If it is a valuable or significant object, you may
need to get advice from a conservator on how best
to move the item. This is particularly important
with items of sculpture that may have parts which
cannot bear the weight of the whole.
Check the load-bearing capacities of all the
equipment to be used, and the floor loadings if
relevant, and make sure equipment is in good
working order.
12 Handling
For more information
For more information about caring for outdoor
sculpture, please see the chapter on Outdoor
Collections in Caring for Cultural Material 2.
Handling furniture
Carefully examine each piece of furniture before
moving it. The feet and bases of cabinets, legs of
tables, and legs and arms of chairs generally
cannot withstand strain.
Only move one piece of furniture at a time,
otherwise you put yourself and the item at risk.
Never slide furniture along the floor—all furniture
must be carried.
Never lift a piece of furniture by any projecting part.
The decorative parts of furniture were not intended
to bear the entire weight of the whole piece.
Never lift a chair by the arms or the back. Chairs
should always be lifted by the seat rails.
Don’t lift a table by its top. Tables should be lifted
by their legs if at all possible: this supports the
top from below and avoids straining the joints.
Never turn a piece of furniture with its top side
down, because only the legs or base were designed
to carry its weight.
Tie unlocked drawers and doors in place with
cotton tape, so they cannot open during the move.
Don’t use ropes as they can scratch the furniture.
Don’t touch the upholstered parts of the furniture
because the acids and sweat on your hands may
stain and degrade fragile or aged fabrics and
leathers. Wear gloves if you must handle
upholstery.
Always cover upholstered areas with clean cloth,
Tyvek, tissue or polyethylene sheet before moving
or storing.
Don’t wrap lacquered furniture with plastic.
Moisture can build up underneath plastic and this
can cause the lacquer to develop white blanching.
Tyvek can be used because it breathes.
Remove marble tops and protective glass from
tables and cabinets before moving them. These are
usually not fixed securely, and can fall off during
the move. Move them separately because they are
heavy and need support.
Don’t expose furniture to draughts and direct
sunlight—even for short periods of time.
Remember to be especially careful of decorative
and ornamental areas when handling and padding
them. These areas are particularly susceptible to
damage from applied pressure or impact.
Before moving a piece of furniture, take off any
turned finials or other removable parts. Turned
finials are usually fitted loose, and will fall off
easily. If they fall, they could be damaged or could
damage another part of the object.
Two people should always accompany furniture
loaded on a trolley. One person can steady the
items, while the other can open doors and press
elevator buttons. If you try to do everything by
yourself you might have problems.
Handling ceramics,
glass and enamelware
Never lift or carry fragile glass, ceramic or other
objects by the handles, rims or any projecting part.
Although handles were designed originally for
carrying, they have often been repaired or
restored, so no museum object should be carried
by its handles.
Wear gloves if you’re handling objects with glazed,
polished or highly finished surfaces. Cotton gloves
are often recommended, but they are not always
appropriate because they can make it harder to hold
onto slippery glass surfaces. Clean, close-fitting
surgical gloves are a good alternative to cotton
gloves.
Carry small objects with two hands. One hand
should support the bottom of the object, and the
other hand should be placed at the side or the top
to steady the object. Never carry more than one
object at a time.
Always move light, fragile objects in a carrying box.
Plastic cube crates are ideal for this. Separate each
piece within the box with a safe packing material.
This prevents abrasions, chipping and breakage.
Never allow a piece to project beyond the edges of
a carrying-box, trolley or storage area.
CAUTION:
There can be hazards involved with handling
objects. Some natural history and mineral
specimens can be toxic. You must be very
careful when handling mouldy items also.
Please see the Health and Safety chapter in
Managing People for information on avoiding
injury when you are lifting objects.
For more information
For more information on references about
handling cultural material, please see the
chapter on Transportation in this volume.
If you have questions about handling objects,
contact a conservator. They can offer advice and
practical solutions.
Self-evaluation quiz
Question 1.
When handling objects, you should:
a) give them adequate support;
b) protect them against the oils, acids and salts in
your skin;
c) think about what you are doing and plan ahead;
d) use commonsense and take steps to reduce the
risks of accidents;
e) all of the above.
Question 2.
Which of the following statements are true?
a) Accidents are more likely to happen when you
are hurrying.
b) You should keep one hand free when carrying
objects, so that you can open doors.
Handling 13
 c) Placing your fingers between the stretcher and
the canvas cannot damage the painting.
Answers to
d) A large painting should be moved by at least
self-evaluation quiz
two people.

Question 1.
Question 3.
Answer: e).
Paper:
Question 2.
a) is vulnerable to damage and so it needs to be
supported when it is being carried; Answer: a) and d). b) and c) are false. You cannot
safely and properly support an object with
b) is best carried by one corner and allowed to only one hand. If you place your fingers
move with the breeze; between the stretchers and the canvas you
could crack the paint.
c) is best repaired with sticky tape;

d) can be handled in Mylar or Copysafe sleeves for Question 3.

added protection.
Answer: a) and d).

Question 4. Question 4.

Which of the following statements are false? Answer: e).

a) The covers of books can be damaged by Question 5.

abrasion and scratching.
Answer: a), b) and c). Cotton gloves should not be
b) It is always best to turn pages slowly and worn when handling flaking and powdery
with care. pigment surfaces on ethnographic
material.
c) Books should be opened gently.

d) Sticky tape should not be used to repair books.

e) None of the above.

Question 5.

Cotton gloves can be worn when:

a) handling photographs, as they protect the

photographs from the dirt, oils and acids which
are on your hands;

b) handling textiles, particularly those with metals

threads;

c) handling metals objects because they are

particularly susceptible to corrosion caused by
chlorides—chlorides can be transferred from our
skin to the metal surface;

d) handling flaking and powdery pigment surfaces

on ethnographic material.

14 Handling
Transportation

Objectives page 17
Introduction page 17
Transporting objects page 17
Preparing objects for travel page 17
Transportation methods page 18
Crates page 21
Travel frames page 24
Rollers page 24
Packing instructions page 25
Labelling page 25
Soft-packing framed items page 25
For further reading page 26
Self-evaluation quiz page 26
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 27
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• be aware of how vulnerable objects are when
they are being transported;
• have an appreciation for providing support for
objects when they are travelling;
• have a basic knowledge of suitable materials
to be used for packing objects for travel;
• understand the need to protect objects from
fluctuations in environmental conditions when
moving them from one climatic zone to
another; and
• have some knowledge of the advantages and
disadvantages of different transport methods.
Introduction
The chapter on handling objects explained how
objects are most vulnerable to damage when being
moved—even over short distances.
The risk of damage increases when objects are
moved over long distances. Objects moved interstate
or overseas are susceptible to damage from:
• vibration;
• fluctuations and extremes of relative humidity
and temperature;
• repeated handling;
• vibration and impact during loading and
unloading from trucks and planes;
• light and UV radiation; and
• pollutants.
When moving objects over long distances, it is
important to provide adequate support for them
and to take steps to minimise the risk of damage.
This chapter outlines the steps that can be taken
to protect objects which are being transported.
For more information
For more information about adverse
environmental effects, please see
Damage and Decay.
Transporting objects
If you are going to transport objects, it is
important to provide:
• full support for each object;
• protection from vibration and impact;
• protection from environmental and climatic
extremes; and
• protection from light and UV radiation.
There are ways of protecting objects, whichever
way you’re transporting them—whether by truck
and forklift, plane, or in your car.
Preparing
objects for travel
Before an object travels, it is important to
determine whether it is fit to withstand the rigours
of the journey. Access to collections is a high
priority and it is sometimes difficult to turn down
requests for loans. But if an object is too fragile to
travel, it should not go. Remember, if it is
irreparably damaged, no-one will have access to it.
Once you have decided that the object can travel,
make sure you know:
• where it is going and when;
• who will take responsibility for it while it is
there;
• what the environmental conditions are like at
the destination/s: if your object is fragile and
likely to be damaged by adverse conditions,
specify that the borrower meets your
requirements;
• how it is travelling, which may affect the way
you pack it and the size of the crates or
packages;
• whether insurance has been arranged; and
• who is paying for packing, transport and
replacement if necessary.
Loan agreements are often drawn up between
lenders and borrowers, to cover these and other
issues.
Transportation 17
 For more information
For an example of a loan policy, please see
the chapters Purpose and Policies and
Aquisitions and Significance
in Managing Collections.
When you are happy with arrangements and the
object is being prepared for travel, it is strongly
recommended that you document its condition
before it leaves your care. No-one anticipates
a confrontation over responsibility for damage,
but it does occur and it is important to have
accurate records of the object’s existing condition,
including damages and repairs, before the item
leaves.
If the item is going to a number of venues, it is
wise to have condition reporting documents that
travel with it, and which are filled out on arrival
and departure from each venue.
For more information
For more information about documenting the
condition of objects, please see the chapter
Collection Surveys and Condition Reporting
in Managing Collections.
When objects must travel, it is important to
protect them from, among other things:
• fluctuations and extremes of temperature and
relative humidity;
• vibration and shock;
• impact;
• getting wet;
• theft; and
• getting lost.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects, please see the chapter on Humidity
and Temperature in Damage and Decay.
There are a number of ways of protecting objects
for travel and they will be outlined in the
following sections.
18 Transportation
The choice between the various methods will be
determined to a large degree by:
• the number of items travelling;
• their weight;
• how they are travelling;
• their uniformity of shape and size;
• your preferences for the protection of items
from your collection.
Transportation methods
There are four possible options for transport—air,
road, rail and sea.
Air, rail and sea will involve some road transport
as well, because the crates will have to travel to
and from the airport, railway station or sea port.
In Australia, sea transport is rarely a possibility
and is certainly not recommended for valued
works; it is very slow and it is difficult to protect
works from climatic fluctuations and from salt.
Rail transport is not recommended either. It is
difficult to supervise and generally involves items
travelling for longer periods and over longer
distances than road journeys between the same
towns.
The other two options, air and road, have
advantages and disadvantages that are important
to assess when arranging transport for your
collection.
If you are arranging to send objects overseas, it is
also important to develop a good working
relationship with a reputable international
freighting agent, preferably one with experience in
shipping museum objects and artworks.
Transporting your collection successfully requires
effective communication between all parties.
Always document all discussions—personal and
telephone. Also make sure that you confirm with
the company what was discussed, and any agreed
procedures and outcomes.
 Air transport
For items which have to travel interstate, air
transport is a viable option. The speed of air
transport makes it very convenient—a crate can be
loaded on an aircraft in Perth and unloaded in
Sydney on the same day. This greatly reduces many
risks—including security, vibration and changes in
humidity and temperature—provided safe handling
can be ensured.
The speed and convenience of air transport are
greatest between major cities. Air transport
between regional areas is not so easy, especially if
the area is serviced only by small aircraft.
If you are considering air transport, please note
the following points.
It is important that valuable objects travel in
pressurised compartments. This always happens on
domestic passenger flights and on freight flights.
Insist that the crate travels the right way up in
the aircraft. This can be difficult to ensure unless
you actually supervise the loading of the aircraft.
Crates for paintings should always travel in the
direction of flight to minimise vibration. If crates
are loaded so that the canvasses are perpendicular
to the direction of flight, the canvasses are likely
to flex considerably during take-off and landing.
Supervising the loading of valuable cargo is not
difficult to arrange at Australian airports,
especially if the cargo is to be accompanied by a
courier; but it can be very time-consuming. Most
cargo is loaded about 5 hours before flight
departure.
Air transport involves many levels of handling. The
crate has to be trucked to the air cargo depot, then
loaded onto a pallet or container, then loaded into
the aircraft. This is then repeated in reverse at the
destination. So much handling provides many
opportunities for accidents, especially if the crate
is so large that it requires a forklift.
It is difficult to control where the crate is stored
between connecting flights; so there is always the
possibility that your valued objects will be left on
the tarmac in the rain or the blazing sunshine for
several hours.
Airline schedules are always changing, especially
in the allocation of aircraft. You will need to keep
up-to-date with the schedule changes if your crate
will fit on only one type of aircraft.
International shipments
If international shipments were easy and safe,
there would be no need for couriers. If you are the
courier, you’re there to deal with the things that
go wrong, so don’t be surprised when they do.
The one overriding thought to keep in mind if you
are involved in arranging this sort of transport is
that something will go wrong: so expect it and
plan for it.
Good freighting agents invariably have good
relationships with airport staff and may be able to
achieve results that you can’t.
Make sure that the freighting agent understands
your requirements and that you know the full
details of how the shipment will be handled and
cleared through Customs.
Make sure your freighting agent knows when there
are public holidays in the countries through which
your shipment is travelling.
Road transport
Road transport is the most common form of
transport used in Australia.
The options available include:
• packing up your objects and putting them in
your car;
• placing a parcel with the local express courier
service; and
• arranging for a dedicated air-ride truck to
carry your freight door-to-door.
Remember that double-handling will occur if you
use a regular transport service. The items will be
collected by the freight company, then taken back
to their depot and placed in a larger vehicle with
other freight. This will happen even with specialised
art shipment companies, unless you make special
arrangements for a dedicated vehicle. Additional
unsupervised handling involves additional risks.
A dedicated vehicle is the best option for large
shipments, but this can be very expensive. A
dedicated vehicle will carry only your freight and
should travel directly from pick-up to set-down,
with no depot handling.
Transportation 19
 Most interstate road transport vehicles stop during
the trip for rest breaks. If your shipment is
particularly valuable, make sure that there is
adequate security during these breaks. Some
freight companies have arrangements with country
police stations for secure lock-up overnight.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
There are many different types of trucks in use for
freight handling. Make sure that the truck being
used is covered, even for local trips. If there is a
gust of wind, a sudden shower or you drive past a
garden sprinkler, your objects could be badly
damaged if they are on a flat-bed truck or in a ute.
If the objects or the packing are large or heavy, a
truck with a platform lift—sometimes called a tail
gate or tail lift—will be necessary. Alternatively, you
will need to arrange for a forklift and a qualified
driver to be available at both ends of the journey.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia
20 Transportation
Some freight companies, especially those that
handle artworks or computers regularly, have air-
ride vehicles. These trucks have special suspension
systems which greatly reduce vibration. Some
researchers suggest that transport in a dedicated
air-ride truck is safer than air transport. For large
touring exhibitions this is certainly true.
Valuable objects are sometimes transported locally
uncrated and unpacked or soft-packed.
This is recommended only when an experienced,
reputable, art-handling company is used, and only
for short journeys where there is no additional
handling or changing of vehicles.
When travelling like this, the objects should be
sitting on vibration-absorbing padding, and firmly
tied with padded straps to one wall of the truck.
The objects should be packaged so that nothing can
touch them directly. For the safety of your objects
and your driver, don’t travel with unsecured items,
such as trolleys, blankets or parcels, in the truck.
Sometimes it is possible to arrange last pick-up,
first set-down transport with a company. Accurate
crate dimensions have to be given to the freight
company. They load their semi-trailer for the trip,
then collect your crate last, before setting out.
This avoids the depot handling phase, but can be
hard to organise and, even if agreed to, may not
always happen.
Small objects travelling in your car
Even if you are transporting small items over small
distances in your car, it is important to protect
them. You need to provide:
• adequate support;
• protection against vibration and impact; and
• protection against climatic extremes and
fluctuations.
Pack the items well. When you place the packaged
items in your car, make sure they cannot move
around.
Three-dimensional objects, including framed works,
should be wrapped with protective packaging
material such as Cellaire foam padding.
Unmounted, small- to medium-sized paper items
should be sandwiched between acid-free boards
and then wrapped.
If packing more than one piece of paper,
interleave each one with acid-free paper or tissue.
If the items are different sizes, interleave them
with acid-free board cut larger than the largest
item. Large, flat items can be rolled.
Small, three-dimensional objects, once wrapped,
can be placed in a box.
Packing material should be placed around the
objects so they don’t move around. The packaging
materials will absorb some vibration.
Small, flat items and rolls can be placed on the
seat; but they should be held in place or secured
in some way, so that they can’t move around or
fall off the seat.
Ensure that there are no other things in the car
which can move around and damage your objects.
Don’t carry valuable items on flat-bed trucks or in
the back of utes.
For more information
For more information on rolling flat items,
please see the notes under the heading
Rollers in this chapter.
When transporting items to and from
different climatic zones:
• Provide them with adequate protection to
buffer them against the climatic change.
• It is important that they are not forced to
adjust to a different climate quickly.
• On arrival at their destination they should be
allowed to gradually condition to their new
environment. The crates should remain
unopened at the destination for a full 24
hours. This allows the local climate within the
crate to gradually adjust to outside
conditions.
• This should also be done on the return
journey.
• If the objects are travelling from one extreme
to the another, for example from a tropical
to an arid climate, it may be advisable to
allow more than 24 hours for conditioning
at each end.
Crates
The safest way to transport an object is in a
properly built and suitably padded crate.
There are many different crate designs and
numerous competent crate builders. It is generally
more cost-effective to use an established crate
builder than to build your own crates.
Packing crates for a travelling exhibition.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
When designing a crate, it is important to remember
that it has to travel. It is very easy to get carried
away designing a crate to fit, for example, all
fifteen paintings in an exhibition, and finish up
with a huge box which does not fit through any
doors and cannot be lifted except by crane.
Remember to take into account the size of the
doors at your museum, gallery or library and at the
destinations: you don’t want to have your precious
objects being loaded and unloaded on the
footpath or in the car park because they are too
large to get inside.
Transportation 21
 Do take into account the floor loading capacity
of the building if you need to use a forklift
or scaffold.
When calculating the capacity of the crates,
remember it is always easier to find two people
to lift a crate than three. Think about the final
weight of the crate. Building a crate which is just
a little too heavy for two people to carry safely
will place the people and the objects at risk.
If you need to air-freight the crate, there will be
additional limitations on the crate’s size—
sometimes these are surprisingly restrictive.
What makes a crate?
Most crates consist of:
• an outside shell of timber forming a box;
• a waterproof lining, which can be plastic
sheeting, tar-paper or a waterproof
insulation layer such as sisalation: the better
the insulating properties of the crate, the
better it is for the objects being
transported; and
• a lid which is well sealed—this seal is usually
a foam or rubber gasket;
The interior of this crate has been designed to take a
range of objects.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Painting the exterior of a crate is important
because it provides an additional waterproofing
layer. Also, if you paint it white, it will reflect
light and keep the interior cooler. White has a
curious psychological effect—people handling a
22 Transportation
white-painted crate consider it to be more fragile
and so handle it more carefully than other crates.
Crates usually open at the top if they are small, or
at one side or end if they are large. The lid can be
fixed with either screws or bolts set in threads.
Threaded bolts are better than screws, because
they can be opened and closed many times
without compromising the security of the fixing.
Once screws have been removed and replaced
several times, they become loose and can work
free during transport.
Don’t use nails to fix the lid—the objects in the
crate will suffer the vibration of hammering when
the lid is being fitted.
The interior of the crate will vary depending on
the nature of the items to be transported, but
must always contain foam padding to absorb
vibration. The padding is put in strategic positions
to ensure that maximum vibration absorption is
achieved. The best padding consists of foam blocks
made of layers of foam with different densities, so
that different levels of vibration are absorbed.
Small, three-dimensional objects packed ready for
travel. The items have been placed in drawers in the
crate. The objects are well padded for protection.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
Good-quality, dense foam forms the base of the
block, with softer, more compressible foams on
top. Using only low-density, soft foam will result
in small vibrations being absorbed, but not sudden
shocks such as when a crate is dropped.
Foams such as Plastazote and Evazote polyethylene
foams are good foams to use; they have good
densities and are relatively inert materials which
won’t deteriorate or give off harmful gases. They
are relatively expensive to buy by the sheet; but
remember that you don’t need to pad the whole
surface of your crate, only the strategic points.

A travel frame
slides into the
slots in the crate.
This allows the A bark painting being packed in its compartment in
paintings to travel preparation for travel.
vertically. Note
that the travel Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced
frame is clearly with permission of the South Australian Museum
labelled.
Photograph courtesy
of Artlab Australia When you are ready to pack

It is critical that crates are packed indoors if at

all possible, so that the objects are exposed to
minimal changes in temperature and humidity.

Crates must be labelled, either with stickers or

painted symbols on the crate, to indicate which
way up they are to travel. ‘Rain’ and ‘sun’
protection symbols and ‘fragile’ signs should
also be applied. There are standard international
symbols for these things: arrows, umbrella,
broken glass.

Sophisticated monitoring of artworks in transit is

Small, three-dimensional items are placed carefully in
the positions prepared for them in the foam padding.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia
It is important that paintings and framed works
on paper travel vertically. Crates for these types of
objects are generally designed to take several
works in slots made to fit the individual works.
The slots keep the works separate and minimise
movement.
possible. There are numerous digital recording
devices available which can be placed in the crate
to record temperature and humidity changes or
vibration extremes.
Simple stick-on devices called ‘Shockwatch’ can
also be used to record whether a shock above a
certain level has been sustained by the crate.
Sometimes simply labelling a crate stating that a
Shockwatch indicator is enclosed is enough to
encourage more careful handling.

Packing three-dimensional objects is a much more

complex procedure. Each object must be assessed
carefully to determine the appropriate crating
system and the type and amount of padding and
support that will be required.

Transportation 23
 Travel frames
Paintings which are unframed or have frames with
delicate gilded surfaces or ornate mouldings should
always travel in travel frames. This may seem like
an unnecessary expense, but in the long run it
provides many savings.
It is much easier to crate several works in the
same crate if they are in travel frames of similar
size. The travel frame can be much larger than the
painting, or you can put several small paintings on
one large travel frame.
A number of small paintings were transported together
on a large travel frame.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced with
permission of the Flinders University Art Museum
Travel frames make it much easier to pad the crate,
and greatly reduce the risk of damage to fragile or
gilded surfaces.
Unframed paintings can be handled easily once they
are attached to travel frames.
Photograph courtesy of Artlab Australia, reproduced with
permission of the South Australian Museum
24 Transportation
An unframed painting can also be stored in its
travel frame until it actually goes on the wall,
preventing damage from handling fragile edges.
Basically, the rule for travel frames is that you use
them whenever you don’t want any part of the
painting or frame to touch the crate.
When paintings are fitted in travel frames, special
fittings are used. These are either Ozclips or ‘doovers’,
both Australian inventions. Ozclips can also be used
to hang the painting on the wall in the exhibition.
Paintings fitted in travel frames should rest on
layered foam blocks, so that additional vibration
absorption is provided. When the painting is fitted
into the crate, the blocks of foam should be
slightly compressed.
Rollers
Very large, unstretched paintings, textiles and
large maps or works of art on paper should be
transported rolled. Some unmounted works on
paper are also transported rolled.
It is very important that paintings are rolled the
right way, painted side out, and that they are
properly interleaved and the roller properly
padded. If the paint layer is rolled inside, the
paint compresses and develops creases which
remain in the painting after it is unrolled.
The roller should be as large in diameter as
possible, because you want the item to uncurl
easily when it arrives at its destination. A very
large Aboriginal acrylic painting which travelled to
the USA in the South Australian Museum’s
Dreamings exhibition was rolled on a roller more
than one metre in diameter. This size roller is not
always possible or practical; but a good rule is to
make the roller as large as will fit in a crate of
reasonable size.
Rollers can be specially made of light-weight
materials, such as Ribloc, or you can buy PVC pipe. A
300mm diameter pipe is a good size for most works.
If you are using a cardboard tube as the roller, pad it
out to as large a diameter as possible.
Rollers should be covered with a layer of padding,
either polyethylene foam such as Plastazote or
Cellair, or Dacron wadding covered with clean,
white, cotton fabric, to compensate for any
irregularities in the painting’s thickness.
It is best to roll the object with an interleaving
layer of Tyvek for added protection, especially if
there is more than one item on the roller.
To transport works on paper using a cardboard
tube, roll the paper around the outside of the
tube. DO NOT roll the paper and place it inside the
tube. It is extremely difficult to remove from the
tube and the edges of the paper often get
damaged in the attempt.
Before rolling the paper around the tube, cover the
cardboard tube with acid-free paper. Another layer of
acid-free paper should be rolled onto the tube with
the work. Several protective layers of paper, padding
and Tyvek should be added to the outside of the roll.
When rolled, the object should be tied firmly, but
not tightly, with cotton tape in several places
along the roll.
Packing instructions
It is always important to include unpacking and
repacking instructions and an inventory in each
crate. If possible, these documents should also be
posted or faxed to the receiver before the crate
leaves your museum, gallery or library.
Even if the packing and unpacking seems obvious
to you, it is still worth spending the time writing
instructions and a contents list. The person
opening the crate at the other end may never have
seen a crate like yours.
Labelling
Labelling is critical whichever transport system is
selected. No matter how many forms have been
filled out, make sure that there are labels firmly
fixed to at least two sides of each crate, stating
the originating and destination addresses, as well
as contact names and telephone numbers.
Appropriate labels should be attached to indicate,
for example, that items are fragile and that they
need to be kept upright. If you don’t provide these
labels, the people handling the objects and crates
will not know that they have to be careful.
It is important to label individual parcels and
packages within crates as well. If many items are
arriving at the destination at the same time,
proper labelling makes it much easier to keep track
of individual objects.
Use strong, sturdy labels that are securely fixed.
Post-It notes are not good enough—they will
fall off.
Soft-packing framed items
Framed items can be shipped with a reasonable
degree of safety if they are packed well.
It is important to include a solid barrier on each
side of the work, to provide some protection
against impact. Various materials can be used,
including cardboard, Foam-cor, Gator Foam,
Masonite, Artcor and Perspex, depending on the
level of protection desired. These materials should
not be in direct contact with the work, because
some of them are acidic and/or could stain the
work. They have been selected for their resistance
to impact, not for their archival qualities.
Before shipping a framed work, exchange the glass
for Perspex or Plexiglas—except for chalks and
pastels because the static electricity generated by
plastics such as Perspex and Plexiglas attracts the
loosely bound pigment. Glass can break and damage
the item in the frame. If this is not possible, tape
the glass with masking tape, so that if it breaks it
does not fall into the work and cause damage.
The tape should be on the glass only. For small
frames, one strip of tape vertically in the centre of
the glass, one horizontal strip and one strip on
each diagonal will be sufficient. Larger frames will
need more.
Remove the screw-eyes and hanging wire from the
back of the frame, because they can damage other
items and prevent the packing materials from
being in contact with the frame.
Cut two panels of solid, barrier material equal to
the outside dimensions of the frame. Using a soft-
packing material such as Cellair, pad the area
above the glass or Perspex until it is flush with the
top of the frame.
Transportation 25
 Wrap the frame in brown paper to protect it from Self-evaluation quiz
abrasion. Place the frame between the two solid
panels.
Question 1.
Wrap Cellair around the frame and panels, and seal
the ends with masking tape. Cellair is a suitable
packing material—it absorbs shock and provides a Which of the following statements are true?
waterproof barrier. It should not be used for long- a) Sea transport is not a favoured option because
term storage as it can seal in moisture. it is slow and exposes objects to climatic
fluctuations and salts.
Wrap the whole package in brown paper and tape
the ends. Finally, seal the package securely with b) Air transport is quick and convenient for
masking tape and apply labels. everyone in Australia.

c) It is wise to check to see if aircraft schedules or

To protect ornate, fancy-cornered or fragile frames,
the allocation of aircraft have changed if your
place sponges or other soft packing materials on crate of objects will only fit one type of
solid areas of the frame. The top solid panel will aircraft.
rest on the sponges, rather than on the fragile or
ornate part of the frame. d) Valuable objects should travel in a pressurised
compartment.
CAUTION:
If you are using bubble wrap to pack your items, Question 2.
put the bubbles on the outside. Bubble wrap can
transfer a pattern to paint layers and gilding. When transporting objects by road:

a) put them in the back of the ute;

If you have questions about transporting b) provide them with support and protection from
objects, contact a conservator. They can offer vibration;
advice and practical solutions.
c) you must have a dedicated air-ride truck;

d) make sure there is enough security during the

For further reading driver’s work breaks.

Kelly, Sara, 1994, Travelling Exhibitions— Question 3.

A Practical Handbook for Non-State Metropolitan
and Regional Galleries and Museums, National
When transporting objects from one climatic extreme
Exhibitions Touring Support for Victoria,
to another:
Melbourne.
a) it is important to buffer them against rapid
Rennie, Sarah, 1997, ‘Concerning Works of Art’ in climate changes;
Australian Registrars Committee Newsletter,
Sept 1997, Australian Registrars Committee, b) you should get them out into the new
Canberra. conditions as soon as possible so they are ready
to display sooner;
Richard, Mervin, Mecklenburg, Marion F., Merrill,
c) they should be left in their crate for at least 24
Ross M. (eds.), 1991, Art in Transit—Handbook hours to gradually adjust to the new conditions;
for Packing and Transporting Paintings, National
Gallery of Art, Washington DC. d) check the condition of your object before
departure and on arrival.
Stolow, Nathan, 1987, Conservation and
Exhibitions: Packing, transport, storage and
environmental considerations, Butterworths,
London.

26 Transportation
 Question 4.

Which of the following statements are false?

a) Crates should be well sealed.

b) Crates should be waterproofed.

c) There is no need for a contents list or packing

instructions for crates because its usually
obvious what goes where.

d) Crates should be padded well to protect objects

from vibration and impact.

e) All of the above.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.
Answer: a), c) and d) are true. b) is false. Air
transport is quick and convenient if you
are situated in a major city or regional
centre. It is not convenient for everyone.

Question 2.
Answer: b) and d). Putting items in the back of
the ute is not a good idea because they
will not be protected from sudden
showers, garden sprinklers and wind gusts.
It is not absolutely necessary to have a
dedicated air-ride truck, especially if you
are transporting only a few items.

Question 3.
Answer: a), c) and d). If you follow b), you will
almost certainly cause damage.

Question 4.
Answer: c). A contents list and packing
instructions should be included in the
crate. The method of repacking the
crate is not always obvious.

Transportation 27
 Storage
and Display

Objectives page 31
Introduction page 31
Ideal conditions for storage and display page 31
Storage and display sites page 32
Storage systems page 32
The best materials for storage and display page 33
Supporting objects in storage and display page 33
Self-evaluation quiz page 33
Answers to self-evaluation quiz page 34
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter you should:
• know the ideal conditions for storing and
displaying mixed collections of objects;
• be aware of some basic principles that will
help you store and display your collections;
• be aware of the best materials to use for
storing and displaying mixed collections of
objects; and
• understand the need for adequate support of
objects in storage.
Introduction
Objects in collections are generally either in
storage or on display; and while they are in
storage or on display, they can deteriorate. The
rate at which they deteriorate and the extent of
the damage will depend greatly on the conditions
in the storage and display areas.
This section provides general information on
(i) the ideal conditions for storage and display;
(ii) storage guidelines; (iii) the best materials
for storage and display; (iv) the need to support
objects in storage and on display.
This information relates to mixed collections of
different types of objects, and should be used as
a guide only. Specific information relating to the
storage and display of particular types of items is
contained in the Caring for Cultural Material volumes.
Ideal conditions for
storage and display
The following conditions outline the best long-
term storage and display environment for most
materials; but please note carefully that if the
ideals for temperature and relative humidity
cannot be met, or are inappropriate, the emphasis
should be on providing a stable environment.
Ideally, mixed collections should be stored and
displayed in environments where:
• temperature is constant and moderate: in the
range 18–22ºC;
• relative humidity is constant and in the range
45–55%; and
• light is kept to the minimum necessary for
the activity.
Ideally, items should be stored in the dark.
Light is really necessary only when items are being
accessed, examined or displayed.
For display, it is necessary to have light. But the
lighting levels need to be appropriate for the
materials, as some materials are more light-sensitive
than others.
For more information
For more information about specific lighting
levels, please see the Light and Ultraviolet
Radiation chapter in Damage and Decay.
Objects which are not particularly sensitive to light
such as sculpture made from metals, earthenware
and ceramics should still be protected. Do not
expose them unnecessarily to very high lighting or
UV levels and never expose them to direct
sunlight. Remember also that many objects are
made from composite materials and may contain
small amounts of sensitive materials.
As light can be so damaging to many objects, it is
important to consider carefully the lighting of your
display. The following hints help to minimise
damage:
• tungsten incandescent bulbs are one of the
best lighting for display because they give
out very little UV radiation. But, if you are
using tungsten incandescent bulbs, make sure
they are not too close to your objects,
because they get very hot and can damage
the objects. Similarly, avoid placing tungsten
incandescent bulbs inside display cases,
because they will raise the temperature to
unacceptable levels unless the display cases
have air-conditioning or mechanical
ventilation;
• fluorescent tubes give out UV radiation and
should not be used unless you are using low
UV-emitting fluorescent tubes; and
• light-sensitive items should not be left on
display indefinitely. Remember to rotate your
exhibitions.
Steps should be taken to protect objects from
dust, pollutants, mould and insect attack.
Storage and Display 31
 Objects should be protected from direct handling,
excessive use and intentional damage.
For more information
For more information about adverse environmental
effects and the steps you can take to minimise
these effects, please see Damage and Decay.
Information on how to protect your
collections from direct handling and intentional
damage is given in the chapter Access to
Collections in Managing People.
Storage and display sites
Careful consideration should be given to storage
and display sites and systems. Ideal conditions,
including a good storage system in an appropriate
site, will give added protection to your collection.
If the available facilities or the local climate make
it difficult to achieve ideal conditions, then the
selection of the site and the maintenance of good
storage and display systems are even more critical
in preventing damage to the collections.
The following notes are guidelines for selecting
storage and display sites; they outline the principles
to be followed for protecting your collections.
Wherever possible the sites should be in a central
area of the building, where they are buffered from
the extremes of climatic fluctuations which can be
experienced near external walls or in basements
and attics. Basements should be avoided because
of the risk of flooding.
The sites should not contain any water, drain or
steam pipes, particularly at ceiling level. Heating
pipes can cause a lot of damage.
There should be reasonable ventilation. This helps
reduce the risk of insect and mould infestation.
Inspect and clean the storage and display areas
regularly. Thorough and regular cleaning and
vigilance will help greatly in the controlling of
insects and mould, and will allow you to take
action early if a problem arises.
In order to detect insect infestations early, check
objects regularly for signs of infestation: signs
such as holes and frass that is, wood powder left
by boring insects.
Don’t store items in sheds, or directly on the floor.
32 Storage and Display
Storage Systems
Provide layers of storage by wrapping objects in
tissue paper and/or putting them in boxes. This
approach gives maximum protection from:
• fluctuations in relative humidity and
temperature. This is especially important in
areas where ideal temperature and relative
humidity cannot be achieved. The multiple
layers of storage act as a buffer zone
between the objects and the extreme or
fluctuating conditions;
• dust, pollutants and insects; and
• the damaging effects of light.
Storage and housing systems should have their
contents labelled on the outside, so that items can
be located easily without searching through and
inspecting every similar item.
If stored objects are not in drawers, boxes or
wrappers, cover them with cotton or Tyvek
covers. These provide protection from dust and
unnecessary exposure to light. These covers also
provide some buffering against fluctuations in
environmental conditions.
Give all objects adequate support, and try to
reduce the physical stresses which can cause
damage.
Provide easy access. This contributes greatly to
the care of objects. Remember—difficult access
can often lead to awkward handling as people try
to lift too much weight at one time, risking injury
to themselves and damage to the objects.
Take care not to stack too many storage boxes on
top of each other—this can make access difficult,
and can damage collections and cause injury.
CAUTION:
Cleaning materials containing bleaches
or ammonia should not be used near
your objects. Nor should naphthalene,
insecticides and fungicides.
These are active chemicals which could
cause damage, especially in an enclosed
storage environment.
 The best materials for
storage and display
Objects that are placed within a sealed, secure
environment are at risk if that environment
contains active chemicals which can affect the
object.

Many objects can be affected by other materials in

their immediate environment. The following list of
good and bad materials—from a preservation
viewpoint—can help you choose your storage and
display furniture; or to choose the materials to use
when making them yourself.

GOOD BAD
enamelled metal chipboard, Customwood,
unsealed woods, especially
hardwoods
glass PVA glue
ceramic protein-based glues, for
example, animal glue
acrylic paints uncured paint Self-evaluation quiz
and varnishes
inorganic cellulose nitrate Question 1.
pigments
polystyrene, but polyurethanes Which of the following statements are true?
preferably not in
direct contact a) Ideally, items should be stored and displayed
with objects in an area where the temperature is constant
and in the range 25–30ºC.
polyester film PVC
cotton and linen wool and felt b) Ideally, items should be stored and displayed
in an area where the relative humidity is
constant and in the range 45–55%.

c) Ideally, items should stored in the dark.

Supporting objects in Question 2.

storage and on display
When choosing a storage site for your collections,
The following diagrams illustrate broad principles. you should look for:
For information on storage and display support
systems for specific types of objects and materials, a) a shed;
please refer to the Caring for Cultural Material
b) a basement with water, drain and steam pipes
volumes.
to ensure that objects do not dry out and
become brittle;

c) an area with good ventilation;

Storage and Display 33

 d) an area in a central area of the building,
where it would be buffered from the extremes
of climatic fluctuations which can be
experienced near external walls or in
basements and attics.

Question 3.

Of the following materials, which are good for use

in the construction of storage and display furniture
for books?
glass, uncured paint, PVA glue, enamelled
metal, protein-based glues—for example,
animal glue—inorganic pigments, chipboard,
ceramic, cellulose nitrate, wool, polyester
film, polystyrene, felt, polyurethanes, cotton,
linen, PVC, unsealed woods especially
hardwoods, acrylic polymers.

Answers to
self-evaluation quiz

Question 1.
Answer: b) and c) are true.

a) is false. Ideally, items should be

stored and displayed in an area where
the temperature is constant and in the
range 18–22ºC.

Question 2.
Answer: c) and d).

Question 3.
Answer: Glass, enamelled metal, inorganic
pigments, ceramic, polyester film,
polystyrene, cotton, linen, acrylic
polymers.

34 Storage and Display

 Acknowledgments

Collection Management and Other

Conservation Working Party of the
Heritage Collections Council Stuart Anderson Simone Cordeauz
Sandra Flischer Michelle Koford
Margaret Anderson (Chair) Jacki Kossatz Linda Marlin
Ian Cook (Deputy Chair) Simon Prince Carly Romiero
Karen Coote Slade Smith Robyn Thomas
Tamara Lavrencic Di Virgil Guthrie Watson
Jan Lyall
Chris Tassell Prototype Development Consortium
Ian MacLeod Conservation Training Australia
Phil Gordon
Robyn Sloggett
Artlab Australia
John Stanton
History Trust of South Australia
Viv Szekeres
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
Ian Stephenson
State Library of New South Wales
University of Melbourne Conservation Service
Major Contributors Western Australian Museum

Karen Coote James Dexter Project Manager: Keith Fernandez

Keith Fernandez David Gilroy Technical Editor: Vicki Humphrey
Rosie Freemantle Ian Godfrey
Alan Howell Vicki Humphrey Field Trial Participants
Georgia Koronis Tamara Lavrencic
Ian MacLeod Joy Noble
Sarah-Jane Rennie Marion Roubos-Bennet Bob Alford Elizabeth Anya-Petrivna
Robyn Sloggett Michell Smith Denise Davis Luan Dunaan
Geoff Speirs Greg Wallace Christine Ewings Jude Fraser
Helen Weidenhofer Margie West Ann Gibson Ken Hodge
Jean Johnson Narayan Khadekar
Lindsay Knowles Heather Kriesl
Contributors
Nicole Livermore Zoe McKenzie-Smith
John Reid Pauline Ross
Phil Alderslade Marie Boland Glen Smith
Peter Cahalan Glenn Cole
Sarah Feijen Fred Francisco Sunshine and District Historical Society
Helen Halley Charlotte Jenkin
Gillian Leahy Sophie Lussier Marketing Research
Holly McGowan-Jackson Elizabeth Murphy
Kristin Phillips Alex Roach
Jennifer Ross Sue Valis Environmetrics
Sandra Yee
Editing and Publishing
Kimba and Gawler Ranges Historical Society
Migration Museum Communication Partners
National Motor Museum Cyranet
South Australian Telstra Historical Collection

Acknowledgments 35