Disaster Readiness & Risk Reduction

Module 6: Other Related Geological Hazards

Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss the different geological hazards
2. Analyze the causes of geological hazards
3. Recognize signs of impending geological hazards
4. Interpret different geological maps
5. Apply mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and properties

Introduction
Geological hazards are natural phenomena that cause major problems all over the world.
The expansion and development of cities lead to an increase in impact and damage due to geological
hazards. In general, most of the geological hazards are related to natural conditions, although some
may be due to human activities. Aside from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which are the
common geological hazards causing massive devastation, there are other related hazards that may
also cause minor to major destruction to people and community.

Other Geological Hazards and their Causes

Discussed below are other geological hazards and their causes as defined by
the US Geological Science (USGS):

Rainfall-Induced Landslide
A landslide is a massive outward and downward movement of slope-forming
materials. The term landslide is restricted to movements of rocks and Soll masses. These
masses may range in size up to entire mountainsides. Their movements may vary in velocity.
A landslide is initiated when a section of a hill slope or sloping section of a sea bed is
rendered too weak to support Its own weight. This is generally triggered by other natural
hazards such as
prolonged, heavy rainfall
or by other sources of
water which increase the
water content of the slope
materials. Landslide as a
geological hazard is
caused by earthquake or
volcanic eruption.
Susceptibility of hill slope
to landslide is developed
as a result of denudation
of mountainsides which
removes the trees or
ground cover that holds
the soil, or alteration of
the surface of the ground
like grading for roads or
building constructions.
Causes of Landslide
Landslides occur when the slope changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A
change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, acting together or
alone. Natural causes of landslides include:
• groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope
• loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil
structure (e.g. after a wildfire)
• erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
• weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting, or
heavy rains earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope
• earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes
• volcanic eruptions

Landslides are also aggravated by human activities, such as:

• deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile
slopes.
• vibrations from machinery or
traffic
• blasting (e. g. as miners
normally do)
• earthwork which alters the
shape of a slope, or which
imposes new loads on an
existing slope
• in shallow soils, the removal of
deep-rooted vegetation that
binds colluvium to bedrock (e.
g. kaingin farming system)
• construction works,
agricultural or forestry
activities (e.g. logging) which change the amount of water infiltrating the soil.
 Effects of Landslides
Landslides cause property damage, injury and death and adversely affect a variety of
resources. For example, water supplies, fisheries, sewage disposal systems, forests, dams
and roadways can be affected for years after a slide event.
The negative economic effects of landslides include the cost to repair structures, loss
of property value, disruption of transportation routes, medical costs in the event of injury,
and indirect costs such as lost timber and lost fish stocks. Water availability, quantity and
quality can be affected by landslides. Geotechnical studies and engineering projects to
assess and stabilize potentially dangerous sites can be costly.

Sinkholes
Sinkholes are common where
the rock below the land surface is
limestone, carbonate rock, salt beds, or
rocks that can naturally be dissolved by
groundwater circulating through them.
As the rock dissolves, spaces and
caverns develop underground.
Sinkholes are dramatic because the
land usually stays intact for a while
until the underground spaces just get
too big. If there is not enough support
for the land above the spaces then a
sudden collapse of the land surface can
occur. These collapses can be small, or
they can be huge and can occur where
a house or road is on top.

Sinkholes can vary from a few feet to hundreds of acres and from less than 1 to more than
100 feet deep. Some are shaped like shallow bowls or saucers whereas others have vertical walls;
some hold water and form natural ponds.

Types of sinkholes (Source: US Geological Services-USGS)

Dissolution sinkholes
Dissolution of the limestone or dolomite is most intensive where the water first
contacts the rock surface. Aggressive dissolution also occurs where flow I focused in
preexisting openings in the rock, such as along joints, fractures, and bedding planes, and in
the zone of water-table fluctuation where groundwater is in contact with the atmosphere.
(See illustration below)
 Cover-subsidence sinkholes
Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments
are permeable and contain sand. In areas where cover material is thicker or sediments
contain more clay, cover-subsidence sinkholes are relatively uncommon, are smaller, and
may go undetected for long periods. (See illustration below)

Cover-collapse sinkholes
Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of hours) and cause
catastrophic damages. They occur where the covering sediments contain a significant
amount of clay. Over time, surface drainage, erosion, and deposition of sinkhole develop
into a shallower bowl-shaped depression. (See illustration below)

Sinkholes can be human-induced

New sinkholes have been correlated to land-use practices, especially from groundwater
pumping and from construction and development practices. Sinkholes can also form when natural
water-drainage patterns are changed and new water- diversion systems are developed. Some
sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, such as when industrial and runoff-storage ponds
are created. The substantial weight of the new material can trigger an underground collapse of
supporting material, thus causing a sinkhole.

Signs of Impending Geological Hazards

The following are some of the observable signs that a landslide is possible to occur in a
particular area:
A. Landslide
1. Earlier Landslide as an indicator
Observing old landslides is a good indication that the area has unstable
geology, and that more landslides are likely in the future. Multiple landslide events
in the same place can be retrogressive, piecemeal, or reactivated. A reactivated
landslide is where something changed at an old, semi-stable landslide, triggering a
new failure at the same location. By looking around an area a whole lot of old
landslide scarps and deposits are seen, this is a pretty good indication that even if a
particular landslide doesn't reactivate, the underlying geology makes the whole
region unstable and susceptible to landslides.

2. Tension Cracks
Tension cracks are created by the stress of geological material pulling apart.
They often mark the eventual landslide scarp, the top edge of the failure zone. They
can be identified as road segments that constantly need long, thin patches, or out in
the wild as actual cracks in the ground. Tension cracks above an existing landslide
can hint at a future reactivation. However, if tension cracks are found on flat ground,
they're still being created by extensional stress, but are more likely related to a fault
than a landslide.

3. Things Moving
Observable movement and deformation of things are also indicators of an
impending landslide. The most common among these is that trees are bending up in
a J-curve as a sign that the ground slips out from under them.
A patch of angled forest on a slope or J-curved trees somewhere can be a
good indicator that the ground is less solid than it seems. While so far, the motion
has been slow, the slope could catastrophically collapse as a rapid landslide,
especially if you find tension cracks farther uphill.
Inside structures, signs of slow shifting can be floors tilting, doors no longer
closing property, or broken utilities. Creaking and cracking can also be warning signs.

4. Water Doing Something Different

Another warning sign for a landslide is changes in water flow. The sudden
arrival of water in a spring, seep, or wet ground somewhere that is usually dry
indicates that something changed, and this change is not to be trusted. The sudden
disappearance of water is just as ominous. Water levels in a creek suddenly dropping
can be due to an upstream obstruction like a landslide-dam that will break and send
a debris flow rushing downstream. A debris flow is a very wet, very mobile landslide,
where water is loaded with trees, mud, rock, and everything else caught in the
torrent. Low water level precedes the arrival of the debris flow surge.
This list doesn't cover every possible sign of an impending landslide, nor
does everything on this list immediately lead to a landslide. Listed are warning signs
to help people recognize when it's time to hire an expert to assess a slope's stability,
or to make people more aware that something is wrong.
Natural signs of impending natural hazards like earthquakes, tsunamis and
volcanic eruptions were already discussed in the preceding chapters.

B. Sinkholes
Sinkholes rarely strike without giving some warning in the surrounding environment
or in a nearby home. Here are some signs to watch for they may indicate a problem about
the present and imminent danger of sinkhole:
 • Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
• Foundations that slant
• New small ponds that appear after rain
• Cracks in the ground
• Sudden drainage of a pond
• Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
• Dips, depressions, slopes that appear in a yard
• Dead patches of grass or plants
• Sinkholes in the neighborhood
• Wilted vegetation in a limited area
• Well water that is discolored or contaminated with debris
• Cracking or buckling of home's concrete slab
• Presence of odd bugs like slugs and centipedes in the home
• Earthy odor in home after rain
• New or widening cracks
• Separation between walls and ceiling or floors
• Cracks in interior walls
• Cracks around door and window frames
• Cracked grout between tiles
• Cracked tiles
• Stair step cracks in blocks or bricks
• Uneven floors, warping of hardwood, bulging or sagging sections
• Doors or windows that don't open or close easily
• Cracks in sheetrock near doors or windows
All homes are subject to some settling characteristics. Any of these signs could
exist without the presence of a sinkhole. However, the presence of one or more of
these signs calls for further careful observation and an abundance of caution.

Precautionary Measures
Sinkhole formation cannot really be predicted, but there are things people can watch out for
and precautions that can be taken.
1. Watch for signs of water disappearing from the surface (for example, the sudden loss of a
steam or retention pond).
2. If a sinkhole occurs in an area of traffic, barricade it to prevent motorists or pedestrians from
getting t0o close to it. Remember that the size can continue to increase, so barricade it with
ample room to spare.
3. Check fields before undertaking machine-related activities, such as having or harvesting.
4. Keep tractors and heavy machinery far enough away from the sinkhole, since the ground
near the edge can easily give way. It is recommended that machinery stay at least as far
from the edge as the hole is deep.
5. Sinkholes will be more prevalent during times of increased and rapid rainfall, such as with
the type of rains occurring during a hurricane.
6. Call emergency hotlines and advise them of the sinkhole and of the hole which is near utility
lines or in a roadway.
7. Restrict access to the hole.
8. Don't get too close to or go down into the hole.
9. Do not allow unauthorized or inexperienced persons to investigate the sinkhole.
Mitigation Strategies to Prevent Loss of Lives and Properties in Case of Landslide
➢ What to do before a landslide
1. It's good to secure clearance from the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) on
status of possible landslides.
2. Help prepare the members of the family for evacuation upon the direction of proper
authorities.
3. Maintain a list of contact numbers during emergencies.
4. Participate in planting grasses to cover slopes or in building riprap to prevent soil
erosion.
5. Participate in regular drills on evacuation procedures.
6. Help promote public awareness and involvement on landslide mitigation.
7. Help develop family preparedness and evacuation plan.

➢ What to do during a landslide

1. Evacuate immediately if warned of an impending landslide or mudflow.
2. Stay away from the path of landslide debris or seek refuge behind a sturdy tree or
boulder.
3. Get out of house as soon as possible when rumbling sounds are heard from
upstream or the trembling of the ground is felt, indicating a possible mudflow.
4. Run across a slope, not downwards.

➢ What to do after a landslide

1. Examine thoroughly the damaged parts and utilities of the house before re-
occupying it.
2. Stay away from the landslide area. There may be danger of additional landslides.
3. Help check with caution injured and trapped persons within the landslide area and
direct rescuers to their locations.
4. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
5. Help in seeking the advice of a geotechnical expert to evaluate landslide hazards or
design corrective measures to reduce landslide risk.

Geological Hazard Map

The following are examples of Geological Hazard Maps. Learn how to interpret these maps.
as part of preparation and precautionary measures to avoid or mitigate the effects these different
hazards may cause.
1. Earthquake-triggered
Landslide Susceptibility Map
Summary
Aside from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which are the most common geological
hazards, there are other related hazards that may also bring destruction to life and property. These
are the following: landslides. avalanches, sinkholes, flashfloods, mudflows and erosions.
Most of these hazards are sudden phenomena, which mean, that it is hard for an ordinary
person and having no technical knowledge, to predict their occurrence. However, after some studies
and technical observations, experts were able to observe some signs, specifically for an impending
landslide or signs that an area is a potential sinkhole. Recognizing these signs will give a person or a
group great advantage as to how the risk of a landslide or sinkhole could be reduced or mitigated.

Assessment Tasks
Answer the following questions:
1. Discuss briefly the two geological hazards presented in this Chapter.

2. Explain the causes of each geological hazard.

3. Check out your own house and go around your place and try to look for signs that indicate
whether it is prone to landslide or not. Report your observation to the class.

4. Try also to look for observable signs if your area is a potential sinkhole or not. Record your
observation and report it to class.

5. Prepare your own Family Emergency Plan in case of a landslide and present it to the class.
Once approved and finalized discuss it with your family and start conducting drills.