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Procedia
Available Computer
online Science 00 (2019) 000–000
at www.sciencedirect.com
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Procedia Computer Science 181 (2021) 503–510

CENTERIS - International Conference on ENTERprise Information Systems / ProjMAN -

CENTERIS
International - International
Conference Conference
on Project on ENTERprise
MANagement / HCist -Information Systems
International / ProjMAN
Conference -
on Health
International Conference on Care
and Social Project MANagement
Information / HCist
Systems and -Technologies
International 2020
Conference on Health
and Social Care Information Systems and Technologies 2020
Empathy of Project Management Students and Why It Matters
Empathy of Project Management Students and Why It Matters
Natalie Ewina* , Ritesh Chughb, Olav Muurlinkc, Jacqueline Jarvisd, Jo Lucke,
Natalie Ewina*, Ritesh Chughb, Olav Muurlinkc, Jacqueline Jarvisd, Jo Lucke,
a
Senior Lecturer, School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University, Brisbane 4017, Australia
ba
SeniorLecturer,
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b
Senior
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Lecturer,
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Professor, Engineering and Technology,
of Business Central
and Law, Central Queensland
Queensland University,
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Brisbane 3000,
4017, Australia
Australia
d c
Associate
Senior Professor,
Lecturer, School
School of of Business
Engineering and and Law, Central
Technology, Queensland
Central University,
Queensland Brisbane
University, 4017,
Brisbane Australia
4017, Australia
e d
Senior
Senior Lecturer,
Lecturer, School
School of of Engineering
Engineering and
and Technology,
Technology, Central
Central Queensland
Queensland University,
University, Brisbane 4017,
Rockhampton Australia
4701, Australia
e
Senior Lecturer, School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton 4701, Australia

Abstract
Abstract
Empathy’s role in developing relationships suggests its potential as a key skill for project managers leading teams and managing
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empathy and in ensuring resilienceincluding
four dimensions and wellbeing. The Davis
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used dimensions includinglevels
to measure empathy perspective taking Master
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Management personal
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in project levels of Australian
management. The empathyMasterscores
of Project
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as well Implications
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project managers project management
consider empathy incurriculum to tofocus
their practice improveon project
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manager skills, as well as possible
wellbeing.
considerations for project managers to consider empathy in their practice to improve project manager wellbeing.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
©© 2019
This2021
is anThe
The Authors.
Authors.
open Published
accessPublished by Elsevier
by
article under Elsevier B.V.
B.V.
the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
This
This is an open
is an open access
access article under the CC
article underofthethe BY-NC-ND
CCscientific
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility committee of the CENTERIS - International Conference on ENTERprise
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the CENTERIS - International Conference on ENTERprise
Peer-review
Information under
Systems responsibility
/ ProjMAN – of the scientific
International committee
Conference on of the MANagement
Project CENTERIS - / International Conference
HCist -- International
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Conference on Health
Health
Information Systems / ProjMAN - International Conference on Project MANagement / HCist Conference on
Information
and Social Systems
Care / ProjMAN
Information –
SystemsInternational
and Conference
Technologies
and Social Care Information Systems and Technologies 2020 on Project MANagement / HCist - International Conference on Health
and Social Care Information Systems and Technologies

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .
*
Corresponding
E-mail address:author. Tel.: +0-000-000-0000 ; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .
n.ewin@cqu.edu.au
E-mail address: n.ewin@cqu.edu.au
1877-0509 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
1877-0509 © 2019
This is an open Thearticle
access Authors. Published
under by Elsevier B.V.
the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
This is an open
Peer-review access
under article under
responsibility CC BY-NC-ND
of the scientific license
committee (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
of the CENTERIS - International Conference on ENTERprise Information Systems /
Peer-review under responsibility
ProjMAN – International of theonscientific
Conference committee of the
Project MANagement CENTERIS
/ HCist - International
- International Conference
Conference onand
on Health ENTERprise Information
Social Care Systems /
Information
ProjMAN
Systems and– International
TechnologiesConference on Project MANagement / HCist - International Conference on Health and Social Care Information
Systems and Technologies
1877-0509 © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the CENTERIS - International Conference on ENTERprise
Information Systems / ProjMAN - International Conference on Project MANagement / HCist - International Conference on
Health and Social Care Information Systems and Technologies 2020
10.1016/j.procs.2021.01.196
2504 Author name
Natalie / Procedia
Ewin et al. / Computer Science 00Science
Procedia Computer (2020)181
000–000
(2021) 503–510

Keywords: education; empathy; project management; project manager

1. Introduction

Empathy has been recognised as a necessary competency in many professional sectors, including animal [1] and
health sciences [2]. It has been found to improve intergroup attitudes and relationships [3]. The identification of
empathy as an important dimension to the practice of project managers is relatively new, but empathy has been
previously widely seen as key to practice in health and teaching professions. This is despite wide recognition that
“roughly 80 per cent of a project manager’s job is communication [and] the development of empathic skills is critical.”
[4] For example, it has been found, that collective empathy of software development teams impacts their project
management effectiveness including team learning, the time-to-market their product, and project development costs
[5]. Here, collective empathy was defined as comprising of affective empathy, cognitive empathy and behavioural
factors. In areas where researchers and practitioners have identified a need for greater empathy (for example in medical
students), there have been concerted attempts to try to ‘teach’ or engender empathy in target groups [6].
Some researchers question whether empathy can be developed or whether it is an innate component of a person’s
makeup [7], whereas others suggest that empathy is developmental in nature similar to cognitive and moral
development [8].

1.1. What is empathy?

The term empathy has been reported to have derived from the German word Einfühlung, which meant ‘in-feeling’
translating to ‘empathy’ in Greek (‘empathiea’) [9]. The early theoretical development of the term occurred within
the frame of German aesthetics in the nineteenth and early twentieth century [10]. The modern definition however
arose when German and American psychologists started to describe people’s tendency to imitate others when
observing them as ‘Einfühlung’, a form of mirroring.
A century on, there is no agreed definition of empathy. One study identified forty-three different definitions[11]
and found that some included cognitive and affective empathy within the definition, whereas other definitions focused
on only one of these factors. Boorman [12] considered early definitions of empathy in differing fields such as that
described by Darwin in 1871 in evolutionary theory and Freud from Psychotherapy in 1905. Many researchers
differentiate sympathy from empathy, where sympathy has been defined as “concern for another based on the
apprehension or comprehension of the other’s emotional state or condition”[13]. Research highlights the differing
conceptualizations of empathy, including a focus on cognitive and emotional (also termed affective). This
multidimensional nature of empathy was expressed through the development of the Davis Interpersonal Reactivity
Index (IRI), a tool to measure empathy [14].
The IRI measures both cognitive and affective components of empathy across four dimensions. The cognitive
component includes the dimensions of perspective taking (PT) and fantasy scale (FS), with the affective component
including the dimensions of empathic concern (EC), personal distress (PD). Perspective taking measures a person’s
ability when in a real situation to step outside their own perspective and shift to the other’s perspective. The fantasy
scale measures the ability of a person to imagine themselves in a scene or situation being described in fictional works
such as such as reading or watching movies [14]. It indicates one’s ability to deeply imagine the perspective of others
through fictional mediums.
The affective component as described in the dimensions of empathic concern (EC) and personal distress (PD) focus
on the person’s emotional response to observing another’s emotions. Empathic concern dimension looks at the extent
to which the person feels ‘warmth, compassion and concern’[14] for the person they are observing. The second
affective dimension of personal distress relates to the distress response of an observer, such as their feelings of ‘fear,
apprehension and discomfort’, when observing another in a negative situation [14].
In contrast to Davis [14], Decety and Lamm [13] differentiate personal distress from empathy, defining it as “an
aversive, self-focused emotional reaction to the apprehension or comprehension of another’s emotional state or
condition”. Empathy in contrast to the definitions of sympathy and personal distress, is suggested to be explained by
 Natalie Ewin et al. / Procedia Computer Science 181 (2021) 503–510 505
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000 3

the lack of confusion between self and others in the empathic dimension and a level of identification between self and
others present in the phenomenon of sympathy and personal distress. When a person experiences a negative emotional
state that is personally directed and drawn from some degree of understanding of another’s negative state, it is termed
as personal distress.
One issue remains that at certain educational levels students should be graded at the appropriate standard of the
capabilities they would graduate with. In Australia, the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) standards are
used. However, determining graduate attributes across programs whereby there are multiple AQF qualifications can
prove difficult if a proportion of student cohort are coming from backgrounds that may not have developed the
attributes at the lower levels. What does knowing the baseline of empathy scores mean for project managers? Crane
[4] suggests a definition of empathy that requires action, suggesting that a project manager who acknowledges
another’s emotions with no attempt to connect with the person they are speaking with, may be more representative of
sympathy than empathy.
This study builds on previous work comparing empathy levels of university students in different disciplines. For
example, Rasoal et al [15] compared 115 students in engineering programs against 365 students in health care
professions in Sweden, finding lower scores for engineering students than those in psychology and social work when
adjusted for gender. Furthermore, the engineering students in the applied physics program were found to have
significantly lower levels of empathy relative to all other groups except medical students. The empathy levels of
project management students, however, have not been previously reported. This study is designed to measure the
empathy of project management students and therefore, adds to the field by providing an insight into the empathy
levels project management students as measured by the Davis IRI.

1.2. Empathy in Project Management

Project management education has traditionally been largely focused on ‘technical skills’ and there has been a
recognition since the Global World Conference on Project Management in 1999 that their needs to be a greater focus
on (broadly defined) ‘soft skills’ [16, 17]. Researchers have called for examining the inclusion of soft skills into the
project management curriculum [18]. One of the challenges for such an agenda is the difficulty to add more into an
already cluttered curriculum. However, improvisation of curriculum is important to stay innovative and to meet
industry demands [19]. Empathy training may represent an efficient way to address this challenge as it underpins
many soft skills, and also underpins many hard skills, especially those that require input from others such as schedule
and risk management. By focusing on empathy, a project manager can ensure their mastery of multiple skills including
those highlighted in the Project Management Institutes Talent Triangle characterized under technical, business and
strategy and leadership capabilities.
Projects are by their nature high-pressured environments and the wellbeing of those working in these environments
needs to be carefully managed. For example, the high demands of research and development projects can lead to an
increased risk to the health and wellbeing of those working on the project [20]. Another study found that that the
mental wellbeing of construction project managers was lower than other groups [21]. The most frequently cited source
of stress among the participants was an “inadequacy/inconsistency of communication flow” [21]. A study found
depression and anxiety of construction managers to be comparable to normative male samples however found that the
stress levels were higher than the normative group [22]. In this study, work overload was the top stressor reported,
followed by staffing problems and then communication problems. Elsewhere, clinical and subclinical levels of
depression has been associated with a decrease in cognitive empathy [23]. Considering the high stress that can be
experienced by those in project management, there is a possibility that empathic abilities may be compromised during
the more stressful aspects of the project management lifecycle.

2. Method

This study looks to identify the empathy levels of project management students using the Davis IRI empathy
measurement tool. The results will then be compared to those of other disciplines found in the literature. The
comparison will be discussed both in terms of the implications for project management education and for project
managers practice.
506 Natalie Ewin et al. / Procedia Computer Science 181 (2021) 503–510
4 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2020) 000–000

Participants in this study were 149 students within the Master of Project Management from an Australian
University studying in their last term during a practicum unit. Data was collected over three terms in 2019 and
2020. The majority of students were male (82%) (refer Table 1) which is in line with the Australian gender
breakdown detailed in the Project Management Institutes Salary Survey [24] (PMI, 2020) which has the gender
proportion of the 787 respondents at 79% male to 21% female. The majority of the students in this cohort were
international students.

Table 1. Participant profiles

Participant number. Gender Age

2019 Term 1 57 Male:52 18-24: 21
Female: 5 25-34: 32
35-44: 4
2019 Term 2 30 Male: 25 18-24: 15
Female: 5 25-34: 15
2020 Term 1 62 Male:45 <18: 1
Female: 17 18-24: 20
25-34: 40
35-44: 1
Participants completed surveys which consisted of several questions, including a quantitative scale to measure the
empathy levels of the participants. The Davis Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) was used to measure the empathy
of project management students. The IRI is a multidimensional measures empathy across four dimensions, perspective
taking (PT), empathic concern (EC), personal distress (PD) and fantasy Scale (FS) and uses twenty-eight questions
(seven questions for each dimension) where participants self-report against a Likert scale [14].
This was then compared to the findings of the empathy levels measured using Davis IRI survey method, of other
student groups from other disciplines, including criminal justice [25], animal and pre-veterinary science [1] and health
professions, including medicine [26], nursing and midwifery[27] as found in the literature.

3. Results

The empathy levels of students were measured across the three terms as shown in Table 2. These were then
combined to provide an overall representation of the empathy levels of the project management cohort, which can be
seen in Figure 1a.

Table 2: Empathy Levels of Master of Project Management Students

Perspective Taking Empathic Concern Personal Distress Fantasy Scale

Term 1 2019 17.91 17.72 14.09 16.64
Term 2 2019 17.66 16.47 13.04 16.30
Term 1 2020 17.4 18.26 13.39 16.56

The overall empathy scores of project management students were compared, to empathy scores of students from
other disciplines reported in the literature including health professions of medical, nursing and midwifery, animal
science, and criminal justice students, as seen in Figure 1b. The comparative data in Table 3 shows that project
management students score lowest in all dimension of empathy except for perspective taking where they are second
lowest to the medical students [26].
 Natalie Ewin et al. / Procedia Computer Science 181 (2021) 503–510 507
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000 5

(a) (b)

Fig. 1. (a) Empathy Levels of Master of Project Management Students; (b) Empathy Levels Comparison by discipline

Table 3: Student Empathy comparison by discipline

Empathic Perspective Personal Fantasy
Concern Taking Distress Scale
Animal Science [1] 25.6 23.2
Criminal Justice [25] 19.28
Nursing [27] 20.55 19.76 16.41 19.34
Midwifery [27] 20.91 19.36 17.57 18.06
Medical [26] 16.5 20.3 14.9
Project Management 17.69 17.65 13.44 16.54

4. Discussion

This study is relatively small and focuses on a sample that may not be representative of the broader project
management student body, either in Australia or internationally. However, it hints at an interesting difference between
empathy levels in project management students that is worthy of closer analysis. Project managers need to understand
their stakeholders’ perspectives very quickly in the project domain. Their role requires a more rapid understanding of,
and building of, relationships at work than (for example) a traditional manager. The lower levels of empathy of project
management students highlight the need to strengthen their empathic profile to engage stakeholders and develop
relationships effectively and relatively rapidly.
Where a project manager understands empathy and is armed with their baseline empathy scoring, they can then
unpack how the subscales relate to their perceptions of the world and how others may interact with them. Paired with
the technical knowledge and experience of the project management lifecycle, they can make informed decisions about
human resources and role allocation throughout the project. For example, a project manager who has a high
perspective taking score may want to ensure they are able to engage directly with a wider range of stakeholders on the
project including ensuring they are able to be at reference committee and focus group meetings. In contrast, a project
manager with a lower perspective taking score would benefit greatly by ensuring a highly experienced change manager
joins the team in the early stages of the project to assist in ensuring all stakeholder needs are accurately gathered,
understood and that the project board understand the risks associated with requirement prioritisation decisions.
Emotional intelligence and empathy were found to be related with the project manager’s competencies of teamwork,
attentiveness, and conflict management [28]. Collective empathy has also been found to affect team learning, speed-
to-market and is predictive of lowered project development costs [5]. An example of where this may occur could be
for example, when a project manager does not have this understanding of empathy and self-awareness of their
empathy, they may underestimate the value of change managers on the team. This can lead to failure to include change
mangers in the budget or including them only at the end of the project, erroneously believing their value relates only
to the finalisation of the project where the end-product is transitioned to the user.
508 Natalie Ewin et al. / Procedia Computer Science 181 (2021) 503–510
6 Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2020) 000–000

As empathy underpins other soft and hard skills, the impact of empathy on project management in areas less
obvious than the above needs to be considered. Literature has highlighted that empathy has an impact on individual
wellbeing [29, 30]. The wellbeing of project managers has been noted as a concern given the high-pressured
environments which are experienced regardless of industry [20, 21, 31]. In one study of 359 social work students,
reflective practice was shown to have a protective quality against empathic distress [32]. Lessons learnt and
retrospectives within project management are derived from reflective practice however, there is room for a greater
focus on individual reflective practice in project management. Reflective practice can be taught however, one barrier
that may be faced is large class size [33]. Similarly, empathic abilities can be enhanced in students at both
undergraduate and postgraduate educational levels [34]. The empathy levels of a cohort can inform how teaching staff
and trainers develop courseware and appropriate delivery options. If students have lower perspective taking, then
curriculum development should ensure an added emphasis on empathic questioning techniques, user experience story
development and human centred design principles generally.
One mechanism that may be considered is oral storytelling, which has been shown to improve empathy [35].
Another popular mechanism in education is the use of case study, enabling students to explore situations and test
understanding and theoretical application. There are mixed findings as to whether reading impacts one’s empathy
[36], with some studies showing an impact [37, 38] and others not [39]. Austin [40] highlights protentional issues of
assuming that reading can impact empathy, considering studies that found additional requirements for such impacts
such as familiarity or shared circumstances [41], and continued reading and multiple exposures [42]. Alternate
methods could be used to teach empathy, for example one study found that student empathy increased after using a
video game ‘That Dragon, Cancer’ where students interacted with the characters, moving beyond the theoretical
considerations required in more traditional teaching tools such as case studies [43].
Although Davis [14] specifically targets ‘fictional’ situations in the fantasy scale, it is reasonable to assume such
an ability would be transferable to non-fictional works about situations that the person did not directly experience
such as a biographies, case studies, news reports or documentaries. Many studies have dismissed the fantasy scale
from their data collection [1, 25, 44]. However, the fantasy scale may provide educators an insight of the ability of
their students to learn through such means as a case study. If students have a lower fantasy rating, they may not get
the desired learning outcomes from case studies whether written or in video format as those students that have higher
fantasy scores. High levels of personal distress within a cohort should prompt education design with content on self-
compassion and resilience training. Reflective practice is also likely important, and the project managers ability to
distinguish between self-rumination, which correlates with lower perspective taking and self-reflection which in
comparison correlates with higher levels of perspective taking and empathic concern [45]. Insomuch as, including
additional emphasis on decision making, prioritization processes and stakeholder expectation management should be
considered for cohorts found to have high levels of empathic concern.

5. Conclusion

Empathy assists with relationship building which project managers must do faster than operational managers who
have more time to build, cultivate and maintain relationships with stakeholders. Differing disciplines may attract
cohorts with certain empathy profiles. In this study, it was found that project management students have lower levels
of empathy dimensions than some other disciplines including health professionals. This highlights the need for a
greater focus on empathy-based skills in the curriculum, and also for project managers to consider their empathy when
reflecting on their practice. Understanding the differing dimensions of empathy and how they impact on the different
facets of how individuals view the world, situations they encounter and the perspectives of others, can assist both
educators and project managers alike. In all, if project management curriculum does not include an emphasis on
reflective practice, students will not develop the needed skills to be able to benefit from experiential learning.
Limitations of this study include the participants coming from one university and this may limit the ability to
generalize the finding across other project management students. Future research could focus on what mechanisms
could be used to study empathy both for project management students in higher education and for the individual
project manager in industry. Considering how empathy can be improved may assist project managers to counter the
effects of diverse workgroups. There is emerging literature looking at the malleability of empathy and interventions
designed to modify empathy levels to improve outcomes both for the individual targeted, and their employment
 Natalie Ewin et al. / Procedia Computer Science 181 (2021) 503–510 509
Author name / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2019) 000–000 7

context. As noted previously, empathy is correlated with self-awareness and educational interventions can enhance
empathy [46]. Empathy has also been found to be positively related to an individual’s wellbeing [29, 30] and increased
resilience [47]. This study suggests that future work to explore interventions to improve empathy in project
management students might have significant trailing impacts on the students as they enter the profession.

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