Community Based Approach To Flood Disast

COMMUNITY- BASED APPROACH TO FLOOD
DISASTER AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITY

ASSESMENT, THE CASE STUDY OF THE WEST
TARUM CANAL- INDONESIA
THESIS
By
Muzungu Ibrahim
2015851007
Supervisor
Pius Suratman Kartasamita Ph.D
MASTER DEGREE PROGRAMM OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMM
PARAHYANGAN CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY

BANDUNG
JUNE 2017
APPROVAL OF THESIS
COMMUNITY- BASED FLOOD DISASTER AND

SOCIAL VULNERABILITY ASSESMENT: THE CASE
STUDY OF THE WEST TARUM CANAL- INDONESIA
By
Muzungu Ibrahim
2015851007
Approved to submit the Thesis Defense
Date: 19th June 2017
Supervisor
Pius Suratman Kartasamita Ph.D.
MASTER DEGREE PROGRAM OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMM
PARAHYANGAN CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY
BANDUNG
June 2017
SHEET OF EXAMINERS
THE THESIS DEFENSE

Date: 19TH JUNE 2017
Supervisor:
Pius Suratman Kartasamita Ph.D.
Examiner I:
Dr. Pius Sugeng Prasetyo.
Examiner II:
Dr. Indraswari.
DECLARATION
I, Muzungu ibrahim do hereby declare that, this project paper with the title:
COMMUNITY- BASED APPROACH TO FLOOD DISASTER AND

SOCIAL VULNERABILITY ASSESMENT: THE CASE STUDY OF THE
WEST TARUM CANAL- INDONESIA
is the result of my own work, except for references, quotation and summaries which
have been duly acknowledged, this work is the result of my own research and that
it has neither in part nor whole been presented in this University or University
elsewhere for a degree. I also declare that I have been under supervision for this
report herein submitted.
If at a later date any violation is found in my work concerning education ethics, or

if there is formal or non-formal demand from other parties relating to the
authenticity of this paper, I am ready to bear all the risks, consequences, and/or
sanction imposed on me.
State : in Bandung
Date : June 2017
(timbre)
Muzungu Ibrahim


Muzungu Ibrahim (NPM: 2015851007)

Supervisor:Pius Suratman Kartasamita Ph.D.
Master of Social Sciences

Universitas Katolik Parahyangan
Bandung
March 2017
ABSTRACT
This study explored community-based flood disaster and social vulnerability assessment in
West Tarum Canal. The objectives of this study were: 1) to describe the intensity of flooding.
(2) To describe the level of social vulnerability along West Tarum Canal and 3) To develop a
suitable framework for reducing future community vulnerability in the context of flood disaster
management. This study used quantitative researcher method to achieve the above objective
were by secondary data was based on, information collected by government departments,
internet searches, libraries, published reports, surveys and observations. It based on pleasure
and release theory of (Blaikie et al. 1996), of measuring social vulnerability and CBDM were
considered in this study respectively. The data was analyzed using Statistical Packages for
Social Scientists (SPSS). The findings show the description of the intensity of flooding, level
of social vulnerability and the framework for reducing future community vulnerability in the
context of flood disaster management. This indicated that there exist significant relationships
amongst the key variables of the study relating to social vulnerability and disaster management.
The study recommends that pressure and release model (PAR) should be adapted to address
social vulnerability and flood disaster along West Tarum Canal.
Key words: community based disaster management, Flooding, Social vulnerability,

West Tarum Canal, Indonesia

Muzungu Ibrahim (NPM: 2015851007)

Supervisor:Pius Suratman Kartasamita Ph.D.
Magister Ilmu Sosial
Universitas Katolik Parahyangan

Bandung June 2017
ABSTRAK
Pendekatan dalam mengurangi kerentanan sosial melalui hubungan perencanaan dan
komunikasi (untuk meningkatkan kesadaran masyarakat dan memobilisasi tindakan),
aktivitas bottom-up (pengalaman, keterlibatan, dan penerapan) dan kemitraan manajemen
dataran banjir. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah: 1) Untuk mendeskripsikan intensitas banjir.
(2) Untuk menggambarkan tingkat kerentanan sosial di sepanjang Terusan Tarum Barat dan
3) Mengembangkan kerangka kerja yang sesuai untuk mengurangi kerentanan masyarakat di
masa depan dalam konteks pengelolaan bencana banjir.
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode peneliti kuantitatif untuk mencapai tujuan di atas yaitu
berdasarkan data sekunder, informasi yang dikumpulkan oleh departemen pemerintah,
penelusuran internet, perpustakaan, laporan, survei dan pengamatan yang dipublikasikan. Hal
ini didasarkan pada teori kesenangan dan rilis (Blaikie et al 1996), dalam pengukuran
kerentanan sosial dan CBDM sebagai pertimbangkan dalam penelitian ini masing-masing. Data
dianalisis dengan menggunakan Statistical Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS).
Temuan menunjukkan gambaran intensitas banjir, tingkat kerentanan sosial dan kerangka
kerja untuk mengurangi kerentanan masyarakat di masa depan dalam konteks pengelolaan
bencana banjir. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara variabel
utama studi yang berkaitan dengan kerentanan sosial dan manajemen bencana. Studi ini
merekomendasikan bahwa model tekanan dan pelepasan (PAR) harus disesuaikan untuk
mengatasi kerentanan sosial dan bencana banjir di sepanjang Terusan Tarum Barat.
Kata kunci: manajemen bencana berbasis masyarakat, Banjir, kerentanan sosial,
Terusan Tarum Barat, Indonesia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is customary that we recognize and be grateful to all those who provide significant
help towards accomplishment of something. Firstly, I thank the Creator, who is always
there, for all his provisions and I wish to place on record my sincere gratitude to my
supervisor, Dr. Pius Sutratman Kartasamita with whom I worked closely since 2016.
This thesis would have not been completed without his constructive and outstanding
knowledge in the field. I am grateful to have had the privilege of his excellent and
articulate academic guidance, motivation, support and encouragement. I thank him for
his patience and continuous support during difficult times when it seemed too difficult
on my side. I have learnt a lifetime lessons from his open critical comments and
discussion. My heartfelt thanks goes to my Examiners Dr. Pius Sugeng Prasetyo and
Dr. Indraswari for their valuable guidance and encouragement thought the research
process. For their critical observation and comments. I was able to learn a lot of things.
I am greatly indebted to Development Countries Partnerships of the government of
Indonesia (KNB) for sponsoring my master program for a period of three years.
I extend my appreciation to the head of department of master of social science, Dr.

Gandi and general management of Parahyangan Catholic University for providing me
with an enabling learning environment. I also pay tribute to my former lectures for their
outstanding commitment, zeal and enthusiasm in giving quality education.
I am indebted to my beloved mother Nangujja Mary,I doubt that I can have enough
words to express my appreciation to her for rising me. Lastly I would like to thank Dr.
Muwaga Musa and the entire Mpaata family especially Hajji Muhammad Mpaata, Prof.
Abdul K. Mpaata, Hajji Asuman Mpaata and Mr. Zaid Mpaata for all your moral and
financial support throughout all my Education process may the Almighty God reward
you all abundantly
i

ii

LIST OF ABREVATIONS
BAKORNASPB Badan Koordinasi Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana
Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (National Planning and
BAPPENAS Development Agency)
CAP Community Action Plan
CBDM Community-Based Disaster Risk Management
DM Disaster Management
NAP-DRR National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction
NGO Non Government Organization
PERDA Pemerintah Daerah (Military and Government / Local Government)
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
BNPB National Agency for Disaster Management (Badan Nasional
Penanggulangan Bencana) Regional Disaster Management Agency
BPBD Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah)
EOC Emergency Operations Centre
IDRL International Disaster Response Law, Rules and Principles
WTC West Tarum Canal
ICWRMIP Intergrated Citarum Water Resource Management &
Investment Program
HH household
Regional Water Utility Company) Bandung and Reservoir
PDAM Operator/Authority of Jatiluhur, Cirata and Saguling
ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Center
GOI Government of Indonesia
ii
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... I
LIST OF ABREVATIONS .................................................................................. II
CHAPTER 1: ....................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1
1.1. STUDY BACKGROUND ................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Community- Based Approaches to Disaster Management .......................... 4
1.1.2. Disaster management cycle ........................................................................ 6
1.1.3. Disaster Management in the West Tarum Canal ........................................ 8
1.1.4 Flooding in West Tarum Canal ................................................................... 9
1.1.5 Indonesian government Response to Flood and Floodplain policy ........... 13
1.1.6 Social Dimensions of Vulnerability in flood plain ..................................... 20
1.1.6.1 Indicator of social vulnerability in West Tarum Canal .......................... 21
1.2 RESEARCH STATEMENT ..................................................................................... 22
1.2.1. Research questions ................................................................................... 23
1.2.2. Research objective .................................................................................... 23
1.2.3. Conceptual contribution ........................................................................... 24
1.2.4 Organization of Thesis .............................................................................. 25
CHAPTER 2: ...................................................................................................... 27
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 27
2. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 27
2.2 THE NATURE OF CALAMITY .............................................................................. 28
2.2.1.1 The Influence of Causal Reasoning in Disaster Reduction .................... 33
2.2.1.2 Vulnerability and Exposure .................................................................... 34
2.2.1.3 The social Dimensions of Disaster ......................................................... 36
2.2.2 Disaster as a process ................................................................................. 37
2.2.2.1 Vulnerability Reduction, coping Capacity and Adaptation .................... 39
2.3 THE DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL VULNERABILITY .................................................. 43
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2.3.1 Social - economic, Cultural and Political Dimension ............................... 44

2.3.2. Communication and information dissemination ....................................... 48
2.3.3. Integrating the social Dimension of Vulnerability .................................. 49
2.4 RESILIENCE THINKING AND SUSTAINABLE HAZARD MITIGATION ...................... 51
2.4.1 Addressing Uncertainty and Conflict ........................................................ 55
2.4.1.1 Public Power: Broadening the Involvement Perspective ....................... 57
2.4.1.2 Community-Based Disaster Management .............................................. 59
2.4.1.3 Community Planning to Enhance Resilience .......................................... 62
2.6. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................. 63
CHAPTER 3: ...................................................................................................... 67
METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 67
3.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 67
3.2 Research design ...................................................................................... 67
3.3 Research Approach ................................................................................ 68
3.4 Sources of Data ...................................................................................... 68
3.5 Data Analysis ......................................................................................... 68
3.6 Reliability and Validity ........................................................................... 69
3.7 Research Population and Sample ........................................................... 69
3.8 Limitations of the study .......................................................................... 70
CHAPTER 4: ...................................................................................................... 72
CASE STUDY DESCRIPTION .......................................................................... 72
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 72
4.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WEST TARUM CANAL .............................. 73
4.3 HYDRO-CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS AND FLOODING ...................................... 75
4.3.1 Estimating the Causal Parameters of Flooding ........................................ 78
4.3.1.1 Flood Forecasting and Warning ............................................................ 79
4.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING EXPOSURE TO FLOODS IN THE CASE STUDY AREAS ........ 80
4.4.1 Social Dimensions ..................................................................................... 81
4.4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the WTC ................................................ 81
4.4.3 Religion of the sample population of people leaving along West Tarum
Canal .................................................................................................................. 82
4.4.4 Age of the sample population of resident along West Tarum Canal ......... 83
4.4.5. Education level of sample residents along West Tarum Canal ............... 84
4.4.6. Marital Status and Number of Dependents for the sample population of
residents along West Tarum Canal .................................................................... 85
4.4.7. Settlement and infrastructure status of the communities .......................... 87
4.4.8 Health and well- being of people along West Tarum Canal ...................... 90
4.4.9 Disabled house hold head along West Tarum Canal ................................ 92
4.4.10. Elderly house hold head (65 or more) along WTC ................................. 93
4.4.11 Female house hold head along WTC ....................................................... 94
4.4.12. Period of stay ......................................................................................... 96
4.4.13. Occupation and income of HH along WTC ............................................ 97
4.4.14 Total income of House hold along WTC .................................................. 97
4.5 HOUSEHOLD EXPOSURE INDEX ALONG WEST TARUM CANAL ........................... 98
CHAPTER 5: .................................................................................................... 104
ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS AND APLICATION OF THE THEORY ... 104
5.1. DEMOGRAPHY AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITY .................................................. 104
5.3 Social -economic status of HH along WTC ................................................ 106
5.3.1 Estimated loss of assets (structure, crops and trees) in Area along WTC
Canal ................................................................................................................ 106
5.3.1. HH losing more than 10% of their agricultural superficies ................... 108
5.4. People in disposal Area along WTC ....................................................... 109
5.4.1 HH to be relocated .................................................................................. 110
5.5. Poverty line in reference (BPS) per HH Along West Tarum Canal ........... 111
5.6. KNOWLEDGE AND AWARENESS ....................................................................... 112
5.6.1. Earlier experience .................................................................................. 113
5.6.2 Knowledge of impact severity .................................................................. 114
5.6.3. The role of social capital in the case study areas ................................... 116
5.7.1. Root causes ............................................................................................. 119
5.7.2. Dynamic pressures ................................................................................. 120
5.7.3. Unsafe Conditions .................................................................................. 121
5.8 Summary of chapter 5. ................................................................................ 122
CHAPTER 6: .................................................................................................... 123
COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK ......... 123
6.1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 123
6.2. COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK ........................... 123
6.2.1 The benefits of community based disaster management .......................... 125
6.3. FLOOD DISASTER REDUCTION STRATEGIES ALONG WEST TARUM CANAL ....... 126
6.3.1. Progression of safety model ................................................................... 127
6.3.2. Addressing the root cause ...................................................................... 129
6.3.3. Reducing the dynamic pressures ............................................................ 130
6.3.4. Achieving safe conditions ....................................................................... 131
6.3.5. Regional Capacity to Address Community Health and Risk .................. 134
6.3.6. Flood disaster reduction measures for communities along West Tarum
canal ................................................................................................................. 135
6.4 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR COMMUNITY-BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT 139
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6.4.1. Flood Management Measures in Normal Time ...................................... 141

6.4.1.2 Early Warning and Damage Control ................................................... 145
6.5. Summary of chapter 6 ................................................................................ 148
CHAPTER 7: .................................................................................................... 149
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................. 149
7.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 149
7.2 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 149
7.2.2 Contribution ............................................................................................ 152
7.3 Recommendations to Decrease Community Vulnerability to Floods ......... 153
REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 155
GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................... 165
ANENEX ........................................................................................................... 167
Disaster over view in Indonesia ....................................................................... 167
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Study Background
Flooding has been recognized as one of the worst disasters. It is one of the most
frequent and expensive natural disasters in the world. Hundreds of millions of people
around the world have been affected by floods. Floods lead to social and physical
losses and may have significant impact on the economic condition of a nation.
Indonesia is an equatorial, tropical country with around 17,000 islands. With a total
population of approximately 237 million people (Center for Excellence in Disaster
Management and Humanitarian Assistance 2015), (Nations et al. 2012) ,it is the
fourth most populous country in the world. Indonesia is frequently hit by natural
disasters. Almost regularly, Indonesia experiences floods, landslides, earthquakes,
tornados, cyclones, tidal bores, and droughts. In the last decade, Indonesia has faced
frequent, recurrent flooding every year in many parts of the country (Hapsari and
Zenurianto 2016) Compared with other countries, Indonesia is considerably more
vulnerable to flooding disasters It ranks third and seventh in the world in terms of
flood occurrence and the number of people affected, respectively. (Sutardi 2004).
Flood disaster management in Indonesia has not been as widely implemented as

expected, between 2004 to 2013, flood occurred annually and affected more than 12
million people (BNPB 2012), (Hapsari and Zenurianto 2016). Annual incidences of
flooding were worst in 2008 and 2009; however, these events only appeared as
“routine” mass media coverage. Environmental scientists believe that an increase in
population, exacerbated by the effects of climate change, have contributed to these
flooding catastrophes. Although much work has been done by the government of
Indonesia (GOI) to manage the flood problem, the complex issues, including budget
allocation issue, awareness issue, and the need for expertise, remain challenges in
achieving efficient flood risk management (Sutardi 2004).
West Tarum Canal (WTC), it has been operated since 1968 to supply water for
irrigation in the Bekasi, Karawang region and drinking water for the Jakarta city.
Recently, the WTC also began supplying the industrial area in Bekasi and Karawang.
WTC begins at Curug Weir and ends at the Ciliwung River to the east of Jakarta at
Curug Weir (BNPB 2012), Water from the Citarum River is pumped to the WTC using
17 hydraulic pumps with the capacity to lift water 1.5 m and pump it at a rate of 5.5
m³/s. Along the 70km of its total length, the WTC supplies water for an irrigation area
of 57,6-00 Ha (25.06 m³/s), three water treatment plants (16.1 m³/s), and other industry
and municipal areas (3.50 m³/s), while the people living alongside the canal pump the
water illegally for household or small industry purposes. WTC was designed with the
capacity of 82.5m/s but now the capacity is only 35m/s. the reeducation is being caused
by sedimentation processes which as occurred in the base of the channel during the last
20years (Besar and Citarum 2013), Due to the declaim in its capacity, it has caused
problem of flooding which affects the people around it almost annually.
Community-based approaches to disaster management have become increasingly

important in a society faced with complex and uncertain change. Grassroots action can
provide the local knowledge and social capital needed to identify the root causes of
human vulnerability and generate adaptive solutions to confront livelihood and
enhance resilience. Bottom-up activity can fill the gaps of previous top-down and
centralized forms of management and reduce our reliance on short-term technological
fixes and expert-driven solutions (Stewart 2007)
The absence of public involvement in institutional forms of disaster management for

example (the legislated roles and responsibilities of government in disaster reduction)
has allowed divergent disaster perceptions or disaster cultures to develop between

government representatives and the public who bear risk. lack of communication
(Stewart 2007) and mediation of past management conflicts has created an atmosphere
of distrust between governments and the public. Few opportunities exist to solve the
operational problem (Sandman 1993)
Communities themselves struggle to act, as they have had little opportunity or incentive
to be involved in the management cycle in the past. Communities have not developed
grassroots social learning networks related to disaster. Building and maintaining such
networks could help to unify public discourse (Dryzek 2005) and increase political
representation in the creation of legislation and regulation to engage communities
(Wagenet and Pfeffer 2007) Many communities do not have the extra resources or
professional skills to initiate planning or adaptive solutions, and many are simply
overwhelmed with existing development issues. A recent study on community-based
disaster preparedness (CBDP) concluded that the success of community-based
initiatives today is limited by (Clark 2007), Allen and Babus 2010).
1. Institutional procedures and funding arrangements of supporting organizations
that limit community empowerment.
2. Divergent worldviews of stakeholders that affect relative negotiating power.
3. Initiatives that do not match the socio-economic and political context of
community capacity.
Fostering resilient communities requires greater attention to understanding community
vulnerability and building the social capital needed to increase participation at the local
level. The social and political aspects of vulnerability deserve immediate attention if
communities are to be engaged and pro-actively access cross-scale support linkages
(Benson and Twigg 2009) and participate effectively in defining and reducing
vulnerability. There is a need to develop social learning opportunities, or initiatives in
the community that promote public involvement in observing, retaining and replicating
behavior that leads to greater vulnerability reduction and community health. Social
learning can also help to increase the public’s ability to act and represent local interests
in the decision-making process. New institutions can then develop that redefine
community-government partnerships and instill a new appreciation for grassroots
activity and knowledge about social, economic and environmental conditions at the
local level. Only then can risk sharing and knowledge transfer among stakeholders exist
to generate the diverse solutions needed to adapt in the context of an uncertain and
changing world
1.1.1 Community- Based Approaches to Disaster Management
In the context of disaster management (Ophiyandri 2015), define community as ‘a

group that may share one or more things in common such as living in the same
environment, experiencing similar disaster risk exposure, or having been affected by a
disaster’. Particularly for post-disaster reconstruction, People affected by a disaster are
not victims; they are the first responders during an emergency and the most critical
partners in reconstruction, undertaking the majority of work on their own recovery,
without governmental, humanitarian support. A good reconstruction strategy is one that
focuses on empowering communities, families, and individuals to rebuild their
housing, their lives, and their livelihoods. To make this work, community members
should be partners in policy making and leaders of local implementation (Damage and
Policy n.d.)
Community based in disaster management, generally, refers to the involvement of
people in projects to solve their own problems or to develop their socio-economic
conditions. They participate in setting goals, and preparing, implementing and
evaluating plans and programs according to Uphoff (1987 as cited by (Hossain 2014)
described participation as a process of involvement of a significant number of people
in situations and actions that enhance their wellbeing. Although those people and
communities are directly affected by the disaster are the first to engage with the
emergency, they are often perceived as being mere victims rather than the potential
critical driving force behind reconstruction (Wardak, Coffey, and Trigunarsyah 2013)
Local communities and the survivors of disasters play a crucial role in post-disaster
reconstruction and their participation ultimately determines project success. disaster
reconstruction is a complex and highly demanding process that involves a number of
different and well-coordinated courses of action. Therefore, it is vital that these
complex activities are well planned and subject to thorough consultation, and effective
collaboration with a wide range of community members (Anh et al. 2013) community
consultation is seen as a key component (Anh et al. 2013), communities affected by
climate change still require assistance from external stakeholders (governments,
agencies or experts) Very few texts underestimate the importance of community
participation or using participatory approaches to create an effective resilient to disaster
although the focus on sustainable reconstruction, community engagement/consultation
is also considered to be a key factor. However, how to consult with communities in
practice is still problematic
Communities play a vital role in rescuing human lives during the immediate post-
disaster emergency and humanitarian relief. One study of community participation in
the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami revealed the significant role that the
Aceh-Indonesia community played in disseminating information about the scale and
effect of the disaster to relief agencies, when many government units did not function
and could not provide this critical information. The information provided by local
communities in Aceh-Indonesia, expedited relief efforts and established the way
forward for planning of post-disaster reconstruction (Osti and Miyake 2009) Affected
communities in Aceh- Indonesia also played a key role in establishing the identities of
those individuals and families affected by the Tsunami, and their eligibility for
assistance
Thus, it is clear that community participation is important at all stages during and post-
disaster reconstruction, and since a community is composed of different groups of
people, suitable methods to include these groups proactively in the process of
reconstruction need to be devised (Lloyd 2006) Attention must be paid to ensure that
disadvantaged members of the affected communities, such as vulnerable women,
children, the elderly and persons with disabilities are properly included during and in
the reconstruction process, and that the design of post-disaster reconstruction projects
responds to their fundamental requirements). Effective participation must begin with,
and be promoted by, effective community empowerment (Wardak, Coffey, and
Trigunarsyah 2013) Therefore, the crux of community participation is the exercise of
‘voices and choices’ of the community and the development of human, organizational
and management capacity to solve problems as they arise in order to sustain the
improvements made over the time (Sandman 1993).
1.1.2. Disaster management cycle
Over the last few decades, there has been a continuous evolution in the practice of
disaster management. Disaster management revolves around the concept of the 4 R‟s;
Reduction, Readiness, Response and Recovery (figure1.1). The traditional focus has
been on the reduction and readiness phases of the cycle where governments have
implemented preparation strategies (e.g. CDEM plans) as well as operational capacities
(e.g. civil defence) for more timely and effective response to an impending event.
Disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid, the potential losses from hazards, assure
prompt and appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and
effective recovery (Carter 1991)..
Figure: 1.1 Disaster management cycle

DISASTER
RESPONSE
PREPAREDNESS
REHABILITATION
RECONSTRUCTION
PREVENTION
MITIGATION
There is no doubt that the role of relief assistance during the response phase of a disaster
will remain important. However, it is now more widely accepted that people should not
rely on emergency services and Civil Defence in the aftermath of a major event because
in reality the demand is likely to be so overwhelming for all agencies that it may take
days before anyone responds. Therefore, as a result, disaster management has changed
direction and now governments are trying to educate the public on the risks from the
environment and what can be done to survive a disaster
This initiative has been endorsed by local councils, a range of businesses and some of
the public who are – perhaps motivated at least partially by the frequency and severity
of natural disasters during the past decade – progressively recognizing the value of
sustained efforts to reduce the impacts of natural hazards. However, there are still many
people who don’t understand the risk from natural events particularly at a local level.
These people are either unaware of the risks or are ignorant of the likely effects (i.e.
they probably believe that an event of large magnitude won’t occur in their lifetime or
they will manage it when the time comes).
Risk awareness depends largely on the quantity and quality of available information
and on the difference in people’s perceptions of risk. Perceptions of risk differ between
individuals as it is generally influenced on past experiences and knowledge. People are
more vulnerable when they are not aware of the hazards that pose a threat to their lives
and property (Vulnerability 2010).
1.1.3. Disaster Management in the West Tarum Canal
Disaster management in the West Tarum Canal provides a contemporary case study to
explore the challenges that restrict community-based participation and grassroots
action in floodplain management. In addition to a history of catastrophic flooding, the
Disaster management in the West Tarum Canal faces emerging challenges (Ministry
of Public Works 2007) extreme hydro-climatic events (Abarquez and Murshed 2004)
and development-related issues in rural agricultural regions. The uncertain nature of
flood disaster at the local level and the presence of management conflict and poor
stakeholder communication (ECHO, UNESCAP, and ADPC 2008) underscore the
need to develop community-based approaches and to integrate these with the regional
floodplain management (i.e. promote cross-scale linkages). However provincial
arrangements in the floodplain have relied largely on engineered and command and
control approaches to disaster management and development in order to protect
communities from the catastrophic of flooding. Communities are encouraged to
participate in mitigating local risks but are not empowered in decision- making
processes. Social vulnerabilities have emerged that are marginalized from this
dominant view of flood and floodplain management. Social factors, however, have
implications for a community’s capacity to act and sustain a motivated effort to
participate in floodplain management
1.1.4 Flooding in West Tarum Canal
The West Tarum Canal (WTC) it has been operated since 1968 to supply water for
irrigation in the Bekasi region and drinking water for the Jakarta region. Recently, the
WTC also began supplying the industrial area in Bekasi. It begins at Curug Weir and
ends at the Ciliwung River to the east of Jakarta at Curug Weir, water from the Citarum
River is pumped to the WTC using 17 hydraulic pumps with the capacity to lift water
1.5 m and pump it at a rate of 5.5 m³/s. Along the 70km of its total length, the WTC
supplies water for an irrigation area of 57,6-00 Ha (25.06 m³/s), three water treatment
plants (16.1 m³/s), and other industry and municipal areas (3.50 m³/s), while the people
living alongside the canal pump the water illegally for household or small industry
purposes. WTC was designed with the capacity of 82.5m/s but now the capacity is only
35m/s. the reeducation is being caused by sedimentation processes which as occurred
in the base of the channel during the last 20years

10

Figure: 1.2. Map showing West Tarum Canal and surrounded Area
Source adapted: BNPBD office visit 13th/04/2017

11

TABLE 1.1 FLOOD EVENTS IN KARAWANG AND BEKASI BETWEEN 2010S

DISTRICT VILAGE FLOOD IMPACT
Houses Rice field Refugees
Teluk Jambe 1215 4435
simbaya 287 935
Teluk Jambe Puseur 150 490
Timur Sukaharja
purwadana 394 1593
Sukamakmur 811 2517
Teluk Jambe Purug Sari 176 130ha 783
Barat Karang ligar 167 652
Ciampel 119ha
Kutapohaci 19 83
Mulyasari 17 80
Tegal Lega 45 149
Batu Jaya Teluk buyung 770 2936
32ha 350
Klari Anggadita 97 350
Jayakerta Medang Asem 825 4223
Kampung sawah 368 1567
Pakis Jaya Teluk buyung 770 1083
Teluk Jaya 283 382
Source: PUSDALOPS, 25 May 2010

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Historical hydro-climate data, combined with the observed flood record, has allowed
for an historical analysis of the West Tarum Canal that has shown flows of the canal to
be erratic and highly variable, This is because the West Tarum Canal lies within a
bioclimatic transition zone that is a divide between a sub-humid boreal forest region
and a humid, semi-arid parkland region. The basin is very sensitive to precipitation and
temperature variations that influence evapotranspiration rates and river runoff ratios.
Residents along the length of the West Tarum Canal have, therefore, had to deal with
floods and droughts from variable physical conditions in the basin. These natural
processes have been further complicated by intense urban and rural development that
poses a number of water concerns in addition to flooding ((Ministry of Public Works
2007)
Ø Decreasing wetlands and natural recharge potential from development;
Ø Development impacts (i.e. roads, urbanization) on water flow, tables

and aquifers;
Ø Cumulative drainage impacts that increase bank erosion;
Ø Sedimentation in the river;
Ø Excessively low water tables during drought years;
Ø Irrigation projects for increasing commercial farming needs; and,
Ø Water quality (industry sewage lagoons).
A renewed awareness of complex and uncertain water quantity and quality issues
such as these, and the highly variable nature of flooding in the West Tarum Canal, has
prompted the West Java government to prepare an integrated water strategy. A holistic
approach to long-term planning, sustainability, and the consideration of all key
components within a watershed are the foundations of this new vision. These insights

13

and policy directions will bring changes to the conventional roles and responsibilities
found in provincial floodplain management.
1.1.5 Indonesian government Response to Flood and Floodplain policy
The National Coordination for Natural Disaster body was the first national organization
for DRM in Indonesia, established in 1966. In 1979 it was revised by Presidential
Decree No. 28 and renamed the National Coordination Board for Natural Disaster
Management. In 1990 the need to include human-made disasters as subject matter for
Indonesian DRM prompted changes to the board based on Presidential Decree No. 43.
With those changes, the board changed its name to the National Coordination Board
for Disaster Management.
Before decentralization in Indonesian, Law No 11/1974, in the constitution gave all

power of flood control management activities to the Central government under the
Ministry of Public Works to plan and make strategic flood control management,
(Indonesia Constitution 2002), In section 3 of this law it stated that “the Ministry of
Public Works has the authority and responsibility to coordinate the macro planning,
technical planning, supervision, and implement water resource management related to
the flood control infrastructure development”.
In line with Law no. 11/l974, Government Regulation No. 22/1982 was issued.
according to this regulation, the development plan on Water Resources was provided
by the Ministry of Public Works in the country and had the authority to appoint,
establish institutions and organizations in national or regional level to perform certain
tasks related to water management such as flood control infrastructure development
and management. The Regional level authorities (provincial government and lower
level) were responsible to perform specific administrative task delegated by the central

14

government.
Basing on regulation No 22/1982, several institutions were established by the Ministry

of Public Works to perform several tasks related to flood control infrastructure
development and management (Bruns et al. 2001), The planning and constructing of
the flood control infrastructure for Citarum river Basin was under the Ministry of
Public Works supervision. The day to day management was delegated by the Ministry
to the Director General of Water Resources Development and Several sub departments
under the Director General of Water Resources Development were established to
conduct specific tasks related to water resources development and project.
The Directorate of Planning and Programming was in charge of the feasibility study of
the water resources development project and giving guidance to implementation
agencies in respect of program arrangement, determination of development
implementation priority and funding arrangement.
In 1999, after the fall of Suharto’s regime, Indonesia was transformed from
centralization to decentralization through the establishment of Law No.
22/1999.(1Presiden 1999), This law transferred functions, personnel’s and assets from
the central government to provinces, as well as the district and the municipal
governments (see, Indonesia Constitution 2002) and Indrayana 2008), This means that
additional powers and responsibilities were devolved to the regional level (provincial
and district governments) establishing a far more decentralized system compared to the
co-administrated systems of the past.
Further changes to the form of the DRM Board in Indonesia have occurred since then.
In 2001, the board changed name again to the National Coordinating Board for Disaster
Management and Internal Displaced People (Anonim 2001). This new board was based

15

on Presidential Decree No. 3. It sat under the Ministry of Social Welfare. Changes were
again made in response to the extraordinary scale of the impact of the 2004 Aceh
Tsunami. These changes were based on the ratification of the Government Rule No. 83
in 2005. The board was renamed the National Coordinating Board for Disaster
Management (2Presiden 1999) Even though there were changes to the form of DRM
organization in Indonesia from 1966 to 2005, the core characteristics of past
management patterns were reactive actions from government in response to a disaster.
A variety of different types of government organizations had similar functions in that
they reactively coordinated other ministries or other government agencies in
responding to disaster events. They were ad hoc governmental agencies for handling
disasters. The ad hoc nature meant that the agency had a role only in supporting other
government agencies for particular events. This arrangement at the national level also
became the pattern at the local levels (both provincial and municipal). Therefore, the
coordination placed a greater focus on the emergency response rather than an integrated
approach to disaster management.
Emergency response as a result of reactive actions proved to be an insufficient response

to disaster events in Indonesia particularly after the Aceh Tsunami in 2004. The
Indonesian Government then ratified Act No. 24 on Disaster Management in 2007. The
Act put in place a more comprehensive approach to disaster management that includes
the following three points:
1. Provide a legal basis for establishment of the new government boards with
more authority for disaster management. The boards will have the same level
of jurisdiction as other ministries at national level or other agencies at local
levels.

16

2. Integrate the stakeholders’ adaptations from the mitigation to recovery stages

of the DRM cycle. The Act requires that all disaster management boards
(national, provincial and municipal) have specific platforms and plans for
disaster management.
3. Integrate disaster management with other public policies at all the government
levels. The integration process aims to improve the effectiveness of disaster
management such as integration with the spatial planning system, building
codes, education systems, and in the infrastructure development.
At the provincial level, in relation to Act No. 24 on Disaster Management in 2007
(Agency and Management 2007) West Java Province had already established a
Regional Disaster Management Board (BPBD). The board is directly under the
provincial governor of West Java Province. The existence of the board indicates that
the provincial government has specific interests and concerns for DRM.
Regional government has more power to direct policy related to flood control
management. The legitimacy of a certain flood control infrastructure project inside the
province is not decided by the central government anymore. Regional government can
perform or formulate a project or policy related to flood control infrastructure without
need an approval from the central government. They also become more responsible to
respond to flood since their position is appointed by the citizen.
The autonomy and decentralization laws put a greater pressure on the Provincial
authorities in many aspects of flood control and management. The structure relation
between central government and provincial government or lower level is changed from
centralized and co-administration form to more centralized
The changes imply that the provincial authorities are now ultimately responsible for
flood control management and addressing flood damage in West Java province where
before the responsibility was handled by the central government.

17

Figure 1.3 describes the structures for an integrated approach to disaster management
in West Java Province by including the aspect of Mitigation and Preparedness,
Emergency and Logistics and Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
Figure 1.3. Disaster management in West Java Province
Governor of West Java

province
Chairperson of the
Board
Steering
Executive Head
committee
Executive
secretary
General and Program

Finance and
employment sub
sub section Reporting
section
sub section
Mitigation and Emergency Rehabilitation and

preparedness logistic reconstruction
Division division division
Source adapted from : (Wibowo, Surbakti, and Yunus 2013)

18

1.1.5.1. Key institution Involved in these arrangements
table 1.2 institution Involved

PJT II is a state-owned company which manages the water
resources for raw water supply in the areas of Citarum
river and The channel that supplies water to Jakarta is the
WTC with intake at Curug.
Disaster Ø To have effective disaster preparedness plans in

Management place for floods and mud flow events.
Ø To have appropriate works in place to minimize the
physical impacts of floods and mud flow events.
Disaster Management
Ø To have effective drought management plans in
place where available water falls seasonally below
design expectations.
Data and Ø To have a comprehensive database on land and

Information water resources in place and in a form that is
accessible to all that need it to facilitate sustainable
management of the basin’s water resources.
Ø To use community participatory methods where
ever applicable for data collection and verification.
Ø To have effective arrangements in place for
“custodianship” of the different water and
catchment related datasets.
Ø To have effective data sharing arrangements in
place among agencies within the basin and with
central agencies.

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Ø To have suitable models and decision support

tools developed and operational to assist rational
decision making about water resource
management. Data and Information
Ø To have research programs in place to fill gaps in
knowledge about water related processes and
scenarios.
Ø
Environmental Ø To have comprehensive land use plans in place,
Protection. and adhered to, in order to minimize the impacts
of human activities on the environment.
Ø To have forest protection measures in place and
have no further reduction in the existing forest
area.
Ø To have priority catchments improved through
reforestation and adoption of appropriate land use
and agricultural practices to minimize erosion.
Ø To maintain biodiversity, without further
degradation.
Ø To have minimal pollution from domestic,
industrial and agricultural sources entering the
waterways of the basin.
Ø To provide adequate water share for ecological
maintenance (environmental flows), for example,
minimum dry season flow to prevent salinity
intrusion, sedimentation and pollutant
accumulation near coastal areas.

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Community Ø To have a high level of awareness of local

Empowerment communities about conservation, utilization and
protection of natural resources (including their
rights and responsibilities) in the basin.
Ø Local communities to have the opportunity and
forum to participate meaningfully in the planning
and management of the water resources of the
basin. Community Empowerment
Ø To have the enabling conditions (institutional,
financial and capacity) in place for local
community involvement in provision of local water
supply and sanitation services, watershed
management and waste management
Source: (Participation, Water, and Management 2016)
1.1.6 Social Dimensions of Vulnerability in flood plain
The social dimensions of vulnerability to climate change have not been sufficiently
recognized in adaptation policy. A variety of personal, environmental and social factors
are involved in the conversion of external stresses into losses in well-being. Adaptation
policy often focuses on personal and environmental factors. With respect to flood,
personal conversion factors include biophysical sensitivities associated with age and
health. Environmental factors include the physical attributes of the neighbourhood,
such as the amount of green space, and characteristics of the housing such as the
elevations of residential buildings. However, while these are important, adaptation
policy needs also to address more clearly social factors, which are less often invoked
in discussion of climate policy. Specifically, social conversion factors will include

21

income inequalities, the existence of social networks and the social characteristics of
neighbourhoods (Lindley et al. 2011).
Most floodplain policies have traditionally focused on structural mitigation and

recovery compensation programs provided by provincial partnerships, there may be a
public reliance on centralized floodplain management. The influx of help and the
related dependency have created little incentive for communities to capitalize on their
own resources (including local knowledge and practices). Public aid has also created
dependencies at local level (Dekens 2007) Monitoring and providing gratuitous relief
for unpreventable natural calamities such as floods its not new. Thus the government
has created a relief mentality that fosters expectations and reliance on government aid
yet the national disaster relief and reconstruction funds have not kept up with the
growing demand, people affected by disasters play a crucial role in disaster
preparedness and mitigation, but their knowledge is often ignored by both international
aid agencies and by their national and regional governments. The failure of relief aid
following the 2004 tsunami, for example, is now being attributed to a general
misunderstanding of people’s needs and practices (Dekens 2007).
1.1.6.1 Indicator of social vulnerability in West Tarum Canal
According to (Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia 2013) the situation regarding poverty
and access to water supply and health facilities in the districts and municipalities that
lie along West Tarum Canal fully or partially in the Citarum river basin can be
summarized as follows
• A poverty headcount of 2.8 million or 9.7% of the basin population with
poverty levels of the total populations ranging from 1.5% to 4.8% in the
municipalities (which are totally urban) and 2.9% to 26.4% in the districts
(which have a mix of urban and rural populations). In some districts poverty is

22

more prevalent in the urban population compared to the rural population, in

other districts it is the reverse—there is no clear pattern.
• Access to clean water in the municipalities varies 77-97% of total population
(poor and non-poor), whereas in the districts it is lower and lies in the range 37-
87%; coverage is significantly lower amongst the poor in all areas except
Bekasi and Karawang where levels between poor and non-poor are similar.
• Coverage of households with toilets in the municipalities varies 94-100% of
total population, whereas in the districts it is 53-89%; in many areas coverage
is significantly lower amongst the poor, but in others (Bekasi, Karawang)
coverage is similar between poor and non poor.
• The comparison between poverty and coverage of households with clean water
and household with toilets shows that there is a general trend between low
poverty and high coverage of water and toilet facilities, and higher poverty and
lower coverage of facilities
1.2 Research Statement
According to (Methodology et al. 1998) they argue that the research process begins
with the recognition of a problem or opportunity. According to (Christie 2000) research
can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem
that requires a solution. This means that the first step identifies a problem and clarifies
the aims and objectives (research questions) of the study that the researcher intends to
achieve. The social and political dimensions of flooding have received attention in
Indonesia due to increased flood events in the West Tarum Canal. Community
participation has been encouraged in floodplain policy and through the establishment
of nongovernment organizations to link communities with decision-makers. However,
communities have not been engaged and active in floodplain management and
decision-making. Catastrophic floods continue to dominate disaster management

23

priorities and marginalize the root causes of vulnerability that threaten community
resilience. Ineffective public involvement in regional decision-making,
communication, information sharing and the public's acceptance of disaster; these are
essential for cross-scale collaboration. The aim of this study was to assess community-
based hazard and social vulnerability in relation to flood disaster management
strategies in response to residents of West Tarum Canal that are affected by floods
almost annually
1.2.1. Research questions
1. What is the level of intensity of flooding in West Tarum Canal?

2. What is the level of physical and social vulnerability to flood in study area?
3. How can vulnerability be incorporated into other public policies, particularly
in Indonesian planning systems, in order to enhance community resilience to
future flood disasters?
1.2.2. Research objective

1. To describe the intensity of flooding in the West Tarum Canal
2. To Describe the level social vulnerability in West Tarum Canal;
3. To develop a suitable framework for reducing future community vulnerability
in the context of flood disaster management.

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1.2.3. Conceptual contribution
The broad goal of the research was to make a contribution to flood disaster management
research in the context of floodplain ecosystems by developing a case study of the West
Tarum Canal. The research expands on a conceptual framework of social vulnerability
in the context of developed floodplain societies. Previous studies on social
vulnerability have given attention to socio-economic and political factors that impact
the most vulnerable populations in less developed and high-risk societies. Vulnerability
studies in more developed societies have focused on the identification of socio-
economic and demographic characteristics of populations susceptible to sudden flood
disaster in extremes in flood prone regions.
Recently, the climate change community has expanded on these studies by exploring
social vulnerability in the context of society’s capacity to cope with, and adapt to, long-
term global change and uncertainty. However, an integration of these approaches to
social vulnerability in the context of floodplain management, has not received adequate
attention. By applying a holistic understanding of social vulnerability in floodplain
management, can better encompass strategies to enhance coping capacity and
adaptation in the context of floodplain ecosystems.
The methodology contributes to participatory action research in floodplain

management by providing a role for communities and citizens of the West Tarum Canal
to be experts in defining local disaster and assessing vulnerability. The action research
encouraged citizen empowerment and the development of operational tools for
anticipatory disaster reduction and planning. The methodology integrated an
aggressive involvement and action planning strategy, with empirical knowledge, to
provide detail regarding floodplain hazards and other aspects of life in floodplain
communities. By integrating potential future disaster from climate change into flood
risk management, the methodology presented the opportunity to investigate how
residents, planners and decision-makers understand and cope with uncertainty.

25

The practical implications of the work draw from the conclusion that social
vulnerability exists in the West Tarum Canal, and has negative consequences for
conventional floodplain management. For community officials and decision-makers,
these implications mean that financial and human resources must be devoted to
improving communication linkages, raising public awareness, and mobilizing action to
address socio-political vulnerability at the local level. For policy, the research implies
the need to foster multi-stakeholder partnerships to address the current gaps in
floodplain management that are caused by social vulnerability.
1.2.4 Organization of Thesis
This study is presented in seven (7) chapters. Chapter One presents an introduction that
sets out the main purpose and focus of the study, thus to asses Community based flood
disaster and vulnerability in the West Tarum Canal. It outlines the research questions
and objectives and clarifies the terms and concepts as applied in the study. More
especially, it presents the study area and social problem that have necessitated this
research work. The Chapter Two, the literature review, discusses in detail international
and national data on natural disasters which are of relevance to the study. The
diagrammatical illustrations presented in the theoretical framework serves as a
structural “skeleton” for the entire work by providing a guide in the presentation and
analysis of the research findings.
The Chapter Three, methodology, explains and justifies the choice of research strategy.
This is discussed against the outstanding debate between qualitative and quantitative
research methods. The sampling techniques, tools for data collection, ethical issues and
the challenges encountered during the fieldwork are also discussed in this chapter.
The Chapter Four describes the findings, Chapter five gives the interpretation of data
in the light with the theoretical framework presented in the literature review and the

26

Chapter seven presents a summary of the key research findings in view of the study’s
objectives. It also discusses the implication of the key research findings to community
based flood disaster and social vulnerability assessment in West Tarum Canal. And
finally concludes the study by showing how the research findings relate to some
pertinent issues raised in the introduction of Chapter One.
CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2. INTRODUCTION
This chapter has three key sections, which outline the main schools of thought
supporting a transition to anticipatory forms of community-based risk management.
Section 2.2 demonstrates that an early industrial view of disasters as a product, or ‘Act
of God’, has led to a form of centralized risk management dominated by environmental
determinism and deductive reasoning. The influence of universal laws to limit disaster
impacts has resulted in government and expert systems that identify, predict and control
the impacts of physical hazards through an objective view of risk. Conventional forms
of citizen protection have, therefore, limited the role of the public in risk reduction and
threaten resilience. The section ends by drawing attention to social vulnerability
reduction as a key focus if decentralized forms of risk management are to begin to
conceptualize disaster as a process.
Section 2.3 discusses how disaster risk reduction studies have uncovered the social
dimensions of vulnerability and the awareness that humans are conscious actors who
influence disaster outcomes. Risk perceptions, communication, and socio-economic
and political factors influence individual and community capacity and limit the
response and behavior characteristics of at risk populations. These human factors
influence who in society is impacted and how severe the impacts may be on certain
populations over others. A truly integrative strategy to reduce risk and vulnerability in
society requires that these social dimensions, and the views of those at risk, become
the foundation of modern risk management priorities.

27
28

Finally, Section 2.4 concludes the chapter by drawing attention to the conflict that can
arise as populations and governing authorities become more involved in environmental
decision-making. The section particularly focuses on the benefits of community-based
participation and planning as a means to mediate conflict and address uncertainty. The
section draws parallels between decentralized conceptions of risk management and
public involvement in the implementation of sustainable development principles. The
chapter concludes with a focus on community-based risk management and planning
techniques that can be employed to overcome conflict and increase stakeholder
representation in decision-making.
2.2 The Nature of Calamity
It is not easy to explain the concept of disaster in a simple way because of its connection
with multifarious factors. Over a decade there has been a profound discussion on social
and economic issues related to disasters. During this period, some important concepts
and terms have been introduced that has led to what is now commonly understood as a
disaster.
Disaster are serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving

widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which
exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources
(UNISDR 2009). Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of: the
exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient
capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences.
Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on
human physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property,
destruction of assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption and
environmental degradation.

29

Vulnerability also refers to a set of prevailing and consequential conditions, which

adversely affect the ability of a person, group or community to prevent, mitigate, and
prepare for and respond to hazardous events (Alam and Bhatti 2012)It is related not
only to physical factors, but also to a range of social, economic, cultural and political
factors.
However, hazards might have their origin in nature but these turn into disasters through
societal process. For example, climatic hazards like floods, cyclones, droughts, tidal
waves etc. are part of a meteorological risk but these turn into disasters when the
structural and non-structural infrastructure of the affected area are too shabby to cope
with these risks (Alam and Bhatti 2012)Therefore, a disaster is an outcome of a hazard
impacting on vulnerable populations. In this situation, hazard by itself is not a disaster
unless there are vulnerable populations who don’t have the capability to combat it and
who are unable to cope with it. (Platform 2007) analyzes this issue more profoundly.
It defines disaster,
“As a function of the risk process. It results from the combination of hazards, conditions
of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential negative
consequences of risk. Natural hazards become disasters if they induce a serious
disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human,
material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected
community or society to cope using its own resources.”
According to Murphy and Dolan 2003:1 as cited by (Stewart 2007) also put stress on
capacity of the local community to cope with the catastrophic situation in defining
disasters. They assert that disasters may be defined as a risk-event that swamps the
capacity of a local community to combat the consequences of that event. On the other
hand, (Carter 1991) defines disasters as an event, natural or man-made, sudden or
progressive, which impacts with such severity that the affected community needs to
take exceptional measures to respond to such an event.

30

However, a disaster is the occurrence of an abnormal or infrequent hazard that impacts

on vulnerable communities or geographical areas, causing prolonged damage,
disruption and possible casualties and leaving the affected communities unable to
function normally and requiring outside assistance (Benson and Twigg 2009) Similar
views are found in the definitions of the Government of Indonesia (Agency and
Management 2007) and International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (Benson and
Twigg 2009)They define disaster as a serious disruption of the functioning of society,
causing widespread human, material or environmental losses that exceed the ability of
the affected society to cope with, using only its own resources. Therefore, flood has
been considered as a disaster in this study when it causes widespread losses of material
and non-material resources disrupts the livelihood process of the affected community,
and the affected people cannot cope with it using only their own resources.
2.2.1 Disaster as a product
Government efforts to reduce disaster impacts were “more likely to deal with the
concept of disaster rather than the concepts of hazard or mitigation” (Stewart 2007)
The reason why disasters happen is that it is not only natural events that cause them.
They are also the product of social, political and economic environments (as distinct
from the natural environment), because of the way these structure, the lives of different
groups of people There is a danger in treating disasters as something peculiar, as events
that deserve their own special focus. It is to risk separating ‘natural’ disasters from the
social frameworks that influence how hazards affect people, thereby putting too much
emphasis on the natural hazards themselves, and not nearly enough on the surrounding
social environment (Blaikie et al. 1996)
Many aspects of the social environment are easily recognized: people live in adverse
economic situations that oblige them to inhabit regions and places that are affected by

31

natural hazards, be they the flood plains of rivers, the slopes of volcanoes or earthquake
zones. However, there are many other less obvious political and economic factors that
underlie the impact of hazards. These involve the manner in which assets, income and
access to other resources, such as knowledge and information, are distributed between
different social groups, and various forms of discrimination that occur in the allocation
of welfare and social protection. It is these elements that link our analysis of disasters
that are supposedly caused mainly by natural hazards to broader patterns in society.
These two aspects – the natural and the social – cannot be separated from each other:
to do so invites a failure to understand the additional burden of natural hazards, and it
is unhelpful in both understanding disasters and doing something to prevent or mitigate
them (Blaikie et al. 1996)
Disaster as a product is far more compelling than disaster seen as a process, where the
essential problem is the social mechanism by which risk is constructed, particularly as
regards the increase in human vulnerability (Lavell 1998). Disaster is real, palpable and
visible and for ethical, moral, social and political reasons demand an immediate
response. Risk is latent, accumulative, obscure and, in many ways, unpredictable in
terms of when it will be “actualized” and transformed into a real disaster context. As
such, risk reduction is, in many cases, postponable or simply ignored as an option. This
is particularly so with what we have termed “compensatory” risk reduction or
management, for example, (Lavell 1998) , Hewitt (1997), as cited in (Stewart 2007)
illustrated that the dominant institutional view limited the conceptualization of disaster
to a product, with a dominant focus on:
1. Damaging agents: The dominant view of disaster can marginalize social
issues by placing the source of the disaster on external forces. External forces
can then be estimated and controlled using advanced science and technology
in a rational and logical manner. If internal accidents are found they are a
result of ‘a few bad apples’.

32

2. ‘Uncertainty’ principle: The dominant view of risk gives no societal role to

the cause of the disaster. Disasters are unscheduled, unanticipated or
unplanned. Risk is therefore an estimate of the probability of a hazard event
occurring and its subsequent impacts to a given population or infrastructure.
3. Extreme event principle: Disasters under the dominant view of risk are a
result of the characteristics of an extreme natural event or due to exceptional
forces and rare circumstances. Livelihood conditions are not a factor of the
vulnerability to the risk presented by natural phenomena.
4. Singularity principle: Disaster is an extraordinary and unstable state; the
focus of management is therefore to resist this unstable state in order to
effectively recover to a ‘normal’ state. This often results in programs that
rebuild impacted regions to previous conditions.
5. Inevitability principle: Disaster management avoids integrated and
livelihood influences of disaster and generalizes interpretations that invoke
presumed universal, impersonal conditions of ‘Nature’ or ‘Human Nature’
(e.g. ‘overpopulation’, ‘underdevelopment’, ‘scarcity’, ‘climate change’,
‘race’, ‘religion’, ‘civilizations’, ‘globalization’...’evil’).
(Alexander 2000). Environmental determinism characterized this effort and reflected
the larger societal debate about the human-environment relationship and disaster of the
time (Stewart 2007). The influence of determinism suggested that human free will was
an illusion and that every event that occurs in the universe is subject to natural laws
(Stewart 2007) Humans are part of these laws but we are subordinate agents to the
physical environment. Both academic and governance institutions in industrialized
nations embraced deterministic methods for their abilities to provide universal laws of
nature to predict and control environmental outcomes. The growth of industrialism, the
need for greater resource efficiency and a reliance on scientific innovation and

33

inductive reasoning further increased an environmentally deterministic rationale to

control human-environment interactions through causal reasoning (Franco et al. 2008).
2.2.1.1 The Influence of Causal Reasoning in Disaster Reduction
Causal reasoning in disaster reduction allowed for attention to focus solely on the
physical attributes of natural events that we have good reason to believe will occur (the
causes) and are systematically related to the events that result (the effects). The study
of environmental risk and hazards in the natural sciences applied causal relationships
to the study of physical phenomenon and hazardous events that trigger (Alexander
2000) Innovations in science and technology gave natural scientists (e.g. hydrologists,
meteorologists, geologists and geophysicists) the ability to quantify and understand the
parameters of natural events (i.e. floods, hurricanes, earthquakes) and to provide
advanced warnings and planning for a given event (cause) and its characteristics
The significant improvements in short-term forecasting and warnings (hours to days

ahead of a hazardous event) have dramatically reduced loss of life and injury (Group
1999). Yet, many specific communities lag in their ability to provide citizens with
effective warning messages. In this respect, to make local warning systems more
uniform, develop a comprehensive model for how they work and provide this
information to local communities along with technical assistance. Better decision-
making and local management is now more critical than most future advances in
technology.
It is also important to remember, short-term warning systems do not significantly limit

damage to the built environment, nor do they mitigate economic disruption from
disasters. Long-range forecasts that help define the risks to local communities, years to
decades ahead of potential hazards, could assist local decision-makers in designing
communities to endure them.

34

Wise land use planning that limits expansion into sensitive areas is essential to
sustainable hazard mitigation. Indeed, land use planning, hazard mitigation, and
sustainable communities are concepts with a shared vision in which people and
property are kept away from hazards, the mitigates qualities of the natural environment
are maintained, and development is resilient in the face of natural forces.
The ability of the built environment to withstand the impacts of natural forces plays a
direct role in determining the casualties and monetary costs of disasters. Disaster
resistant construction of buildings and infrastructure is an essential component of local
resiliency. Engineering codes, standards, and practices have been promulgated for
natural hazards. Traditionally, local governments have enacted building codes.
However, investigations after disasters have revealed shortcomings in construction
techniques, code enforcement, and the behaviour of structures under stress. Codes,
standards, and practices for all hazards must be re-evaluated in light of the goal for
sustainable mitigation. At the same time, communities must improve adherence to
them.
2.2.1.2 Vulnerability and Exposure
An early view of vulnerability in the context of disaster risk management was related
to the physical resistance of engineering structures (Tan et al. 2012) but more recent
views relate vulnerability to characteristics of social and environmental processes. It is
directly related, in the context of climate change, to the susceptibility, sensitivity, and
lack of resilience or capacities of the exposed system to cope with and adapt to
extremes and non-extremes. Some frameworks consider exposure to be a component
of vulnerability (Tan et al. 2012), and the largest body of knowledge on dimensions
refers to vulnerability rather than exposure, but the distinction between them is often
not made explicit.

35

In general sense, vulnerability can be defined as the inability of a system to withstand

against the perturbations of external stressors. It is a concept that has been used in
different research backgrounds (Adger 2006) ; (Smit and Wandel 2006) but there is no
consensus on its meaning and definitions (Paul Shitangsu Kumar 2013). Based on the
research interest, the term has been applied exclusively to the societal, ecological,
natural, or biophysical subsystem or to the socio-ecological system (Birkmann
2006)Therefore, practitioners from different disciplines use different meanings and
concepts of vulnerability, which ultimately led to diverse methods of defining and
measuring. The differences in concepts of vulnerability among the various disciplines
can be explained by their interest to focus on different components of risk, household
responses to risk and welfare outcomes.
Vulnerability is: multi-dimensional and differential – that is, it varies across physical
space and among and within social groups; scale-dependent with regard to space and
units of analysis such as individual, household, region, or system; and dynamic –
characteristics and driving forces of vulnerability change over time (Tan et al. 2012)
As vulnerability and exposure are not fixed, understanding the trends in vulnerability
and exposure is therefore an important aspect discuss in disaster management.
There is high confidence that for several disaster changes in exposure and in some cases
vulnerability are the main drivers behind observed trends in disaster losses, rather than
a change in hazard character, and will continue to be essential drivers of changes in
disaster patterns over the coming decades (Kundzewicz and Germany 2012). In
addition, there is high confidence that climate change will affect disaster risk not only
through changes in the frequency, intensity, and duration of some events (Tan et al.
2012), but also through indirect effects on vulnerability and exposure. In most cases, it
will do so not in isolation but as one of many sources of possible stress, for instance
through impacts on the number of people in poverty or suffering from food and water
insecurity, changing disease patterns and general health levels, and where people live.

36

In some cases, these changes may be positive, but in many cases, they will be negative,
especially for many groups and areas that are already among the most vulnerable.
Although trends in some of the determinants of vulnerability are apparent (for example,
accelerated urbanization), the extent to which these are altering levels of disaster and
vulnerability at a range of geographical and time scales is not always clear. While there
is high confidence that these connections exist, current knowledge often does not allow
us to provide specific quantifications with regional or global significance.
Vulnerability studies in the applied sciences also influenced non-structural approaches

to disaster reduction. Hazard identification and zoning using mapping techniques and
spatial analysis using geographic information systems (G.I.S.) (Alaghmand 2009) for
example, have defined vulnerability as the exposure of elements to risk from immediate
and secondary impacts of a given hazard event (Tapsell et al. 2010) Elements at risk
have been defined using interpretations of populations from statistical data, and
interpretations of the built environment from infrastructure data (Betty H Morrow
2009)The adoption of safety/security standards, urban planning and investment in pro-
active non-structural DM has improved disaster reduction by emphasizing the removal
of populations from high-risk regions, such as floodplains (Lincoln 2011).
2.2.1.3 The social Dimensions of Disaster
The social dimension is multi-faceted and crosscutting. It focuses primarily on aspects

of societal organization and collective aspects rather than individuals. However, some
assessments also use the ‘individual’ descriptor to clarify issues of scale and units of
analysis (Tan et al. 2012). Notions of the individual are also useful when considering
psychological trauma in and after disasters, including that related to family breakdown
and loss. The social dimension includes demography, migration, and displacement,
social groups, education, health, culture, institutions, and governance aspects.

37

Social scientists expanded the focus of disaster to include questions about the
characteristics of vulnerable populations that went beyond the infrastructural/locational
and behavioral aspects of exposure to certain catastrophic events. Are the objective risk
perceptions of geophysicists, hydrologists, engineers and planners who do not live in
hazard zones really representative of the subjective perceptions and capacities of
people, communities and decision-makers? How do socio- economic differences
among populations affect the ability to respond and recover from hazardous events?
These dimensions have rarely been addressed in institutional forms of disaster
reduction despite their potential impact on community coping capacity (Lindell 2013)
2.2.2 Disaster as a process
A conceptualization of disaster as a product neglects the understanding of disaster as a

process, and has implications for social vulnerability and the capacity to cope with
uncertain risk (e.g. climate change impacts; development issues). There is a need to re-
conceptualize what is meant by reducing disasters to include risk reduction as a broad
and regular activity in society (Stewart 2007) Reducing disasters evokes the idea of
reducing weight. That is to say, reducing something that already exists. In this case, a
disaster. If we place the emphasis on disaster reduction we are basically concerned with
ameliorating secondary negative aspects which may occur following initial disaster
impact, whether this be in the early response, rehabilitation or reconstruction phases.
On the other hand, if we look at the problem from the perspective of risk reduction or
risk management, the emphasis should be placed on the amelioration of determined
social (vulnerability) and physical (hazard) conditions which make a society propitious
to suffer disaster.
Lavell’s conceptualization of reducing vulnerability through long-term risk
management elicits a uniformitarian or gradualist (Stewart 2007) understanding of the
causes of disaster as opposed to a catastrophic view (Katz and Liebes 2007) (Lavell
1998) suggested that disaster reduction be re-conceptualized as a process through the

38

integration of four essential components; compensatory and prospective anticipatory

management efforts and preparedness and disaster response activities. These
components broaden disaster reduction to an activity that can occur before an event is
known (prevention and mitigation), and after the emergency response to a catastrophic
trigger event (preparedness and response):
Ø Prevention and Mitigation - activities that reduce the probability of primary
disaster impacts. These activities should be in the form of compensatory
measures to address unacceptable risk as well as ongoing risk reduction
measures to address emerging problems
Ø Preparedness and Response –strategies to reduce ‘secondary’ impacts and
pre- existing hazards and vulnerabilities not reduced by prevention and
mitigation. This phase is forward looking so that future disaster is less probable
and sustainable development is more probable
A broader risk management framework, from a focus on disaster reduction to a focus
on reducing the risk of disaster, would allow for an integrated conceptualization to
target both primary and secondary impacts. (Gilbert 1995) provided three principles
needed to shift to a broader approach to reducing disaster through an understanding of:
1. Disaster as the result of the impact of external forces as a result human communities
have been seen as organized bodies that have to react organically against aggression.
The external agent was found to was found to find the group,
2. Disaster as the result of social vulnerability, starting from an analysis of disaster seen
as a process tightly tied to social vulnerability, the new paradigm considers the causes
of disaster are to be explained on structural as well as contextual grounds. When social
risks explode. That are totally raised inward and not outward into community then there
is a disaster.
3.Disaster as a result of uncertainty, what has led to a significant shift from old
approaches to a renewed vision of disaster is the tendency to consider disaster as crises
the first step were uncertain with external factor still being used as an explanatory tool
and autonomy of crises being ascertained though clear distinction between accident. At

39

this stage, the suggestion has been made that accident could occur without any crisis
and that crisis could emerge without any accident.
In both (Lavell 1998) and (Gilbert 1995) principles of risk management, the concept of
reducing disaster involves a focus on the human condition (vulnerability and coping
capacity) and ensuring society’s ability to organize and absorb/resist external and
uncertain forces (adaptation and resilience). A dominant view of disaster as a product,
however, can only address the preparedness and response roles of Lavell’s risk
management principles, and the first of Gilbert’s principles pertaining to understanding
disaster as the result of external forces (i.e. disaster reduction). Social vulnerability and
managing uncertain risk are absent from the conventional approach to disaster
reduction.
The ability to address social vulnerability and uncertainty requires a form of
structuralism based on a conceptualization of disaster reduction where humans are an
agent of conscious action within a structure of social and ecological relationships
(Smith and Petley 2008)) emphasized the benefits of structuralism in disaster
management and promoted “a new paradigm and not just an elaboration of the [old]
structuralism, because it rests explicitly or implicitly on different notions of causal
effects, social change and possible responses to disaster vulnerability (Frerks, Warner,
and Weijs 2011) Structuralism provides a stepping-stone to an integrated view of
disaster that is grounded in an understanding of systematic risk, vulnerability and the
complexity of socio-ecological interactions ( Folke 2006 ) A structuralism approach
involves multiple stakeholders who share risk in order to apply local knowledge
systems to reducing disaster from the ground up (Klein, Nicholls, and Thomalla 2003)
2.2.2.1 Vulnerability Reduction, coping Capacity and Adaptation
Vulnerability is a currently very much debated term and concept respectively, amongst
others in the context of climate change and natural hazards, resulting in various

40

definitions and approaches to its operationalization (e.g. (Mercer et al. 2007) (Collins
2010) (Joakim 2011); Wisner et al., 2004) this paper argues that vulnerability reduction
should comprise the overarching framework driving disaster recovery efforts.
Historically, hazardous events were viewed as „acts of God‟ where affected
populations were seen as passive victims, although this view has been largely
discredited. More recent approaches to disaster management and mitigation have
focused on the socio-economic and political processes that differentially distribute
levels of vulnerability and impact the ability of individuals, groups and communities
to resist, respond and recover from disaster events (Blaikie et al. 1996) (Cutter et al.
2008), (Frerks, Warner, and Weijs 2011) (Kelman 2007) This approach recognizes
that it is the interaction of both the hazard and vulnerabilities shaped by society that
create disaster events (Cannon 2000)Through this focus on the socially constructed
nature of vulnerability, the larger-scale processes that are a reflection of the power
relations in a given society are emphasized (Cannon, Twigg, and Rowell 2003)From
this view, vulnerability is the key process affecting the level of impact of hazardous
events, and as such, should be addressed as a main component of recovery efforts.
The definition of vulnerability within the modern disaster community refers to the
characteristics and circumstance of community, system or assets that make it
susceptible to damaging effects of a hazard, (UNISDR 2009), There are many aspects
of vulnerability, arising from various physical, social, economic, and environmental
factors. Examples may include poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate
protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness, limited official
recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and disregard for wise environmental
management. Vulnerability varies significantly within a community and over time.
This definition identifies vulnerability as a characteristic of the element of interest
(community, system or asset), which is independent of its exposure. However, in
common use the word is often used more broadly to include the element’s exposure.

41

The term coping capacity adds to the conceptualization of vulnerability from the
perspective of those who are exposed to hazardous regions, and their ability to cope
with a range of negative impacts. More specifically, Some general principles are now
apparent from community-based vulnerability assessments aiming to contribute to
practical adaptation initiative (Smit and Wandel 2006). One is that the researcher does
not presume to know the exposure and sensitivities that are pertinent to the community,
nor does the research specify a priori determinants of adaptive capacity in the
community. Rather, in this approach these are identified from the community itself.
The methods require the active involvement of stakeholders, considerable effort to
ensure legitimacy, information collection on community relevant phenomena and
processes, the integration of information from multiple sources, and the engagement of
decision-makers.
Variants of participatory, ‘‘bottom-up’’, experience based assessment of community
conditions have been employed in many fields including sociology, anthropology,
geography, ethnography, risk assessment, rural development, international
development and food security (Crain, Kroeker, and Halpern 2008) (Næss et al. 2006).
In the climate change adaptation and disaster management fields, analytical
frameworks very similar to these have been developed and some have been applied
(Smit and Wandel 2006) (Luers 2005)
Participatory vulnerability assessments allow for the recognition of multiple stimuli

beyond those related to climate, to include political, cultural, economic, institutional
and technological forces. Furthermore, the methodologies recognize the interaction of
various exposures, sensitivities and adaptive capacities over time. What is vulnerable
in one period is not necessarily vulnerable (or vulnerable in the same way) in the next,
and some exposures and sensitivities (e.g. those recognized as ‘‘creeping hazards’’ by
(Wisner et al. 2013) develop slowly over time. Finally, the approach recognizes that
sources of exposures, sensitivities and adaptive capacities function across scales, from

42

the individual to the national (e.g. Wisner et al., recognition of global scale ‘‘root
causes’’ to local ‘‘unsafe conditions’’)
Figure below presents a general summary of the participatory vulnerability assessment

approach, based on such work as
Figure. 2.1 (Smit and Wandel 2006)
COMMUNITY, STAKEHOLDER
ENGAGMENT THROUGHT
Current
Exposure and
sensitivity
Current
Adaptive
Strategies Expected
Adaptatio
n Change in

Needs, Natural and
Future
Options Social
Exposure and
Systems
Sensitivities
Future
Adaptation
Capacity
Conceptual framework for vulnerability assessment and mainstreaming, the system of

interest in this case is the community, but the analysis seeks to identify the broader
conditions and structures within which the community functions. The exercise requires
active involvement of community stakeholders. Researchers begin with an assessment
of current exposures, sensitivities and current adaptive capacity, employing
ethnographic in community methods (including such tools as semi-structured
interviews, participant observation and focus groups), as well as insights from local

43

and regional decision-makers, resource managers, scientists, published and

unpublished literature, and other available sources of information. The aim of this
analysis is to identify and document the conditions or risks (current and past exposures
and sensitivities) that people have to deal with, and how they deal with these, including
the factors and processes that constrain their choices (current and past adaptive
capacity).
2.3 The Dimensions of Social Vulnerability
The priorities of modern disaster reduction, sustainable development and climate

change adaptation intersect at the need to reduce social vulnerability through
anticipatory risk management (Schipper 2007), A number of vulnerability frameworks
have been used to understand psychosocial, socio-economic and political dimensions
of vulnerability to a range of hazards. These frameworks provide a foundation for a
broader re-conceptualization of risk reduction in the face of uncertainty. Rather than
characterizing or quantifying certain populations as vulnerable, however, these
methodologies seek to describe the pathways that lead to vulnerable conditions within
defined risk regions (Tapsell et al. 2010), A focus on describing vulnerable pathways
allows researchers to avoid biased assumptions about specific populations and
encourages communities in a region to identify and reduce vulnerable conditions that
exceed an acceptable tolerance range (Betty Hearn Morrow 1999). Intolerable risk
could be caused by extreme events or livelihood conditions based on the views of those
at risk. Vulnerability reduction ultimately depends on the preferences and capacity of
the community or individual who must bear the risk. The next section outlines a range
of research frameworks used to investigate the social dimensions of vulnerability and
affect community capacity to cope with risk.

44

2.3.1 Social - economic, Cultural and Political Dimension
A broadly accepted version of the concept of vulnerability includes that of a multi-

dimensional vulnerability, covering economic, social, physical and institutional
aspects. The equation: !"#$ = %&'&() * +,-./(&0"-"12, is another popular variant
of the risk equation, which captures the two opposing components under the Pressure
and Release (PAR) framework (Blaikie et al. 1996) Focusing on people, vulnerability
is defined in this framework as “the characteristics of a person or group in terms of
their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover from the impact of a natural
hazard” (Blaikie et al. 1996) In this conceptualization, it is evident that vulnerability
encompasses exposure. Worthy of note it that this definition captures what generally
are considered as components of resilience as defined by (UNISDR 2009) However,
despite this definition, the framework’s three levels of progression of vulnerability
trace the channels through which a disaster occurs when natural hazard affects the
vulnerable.
In disasters, a geophysical or biological event is implicated in some way as a trigger

event or a link in a chain of causes. Yet, even where such natural hazards appear to
be directly linked to loss of life and damage to property, there are social factors
involved that cause peoples’ vulnerability and can be traced back sometimes to quite
‘remote’ root and general causes. Social, economic and political processes that
influence how hazards affect people in varying ways and with differing intensities
generate vulnerability.
(Blaikie et al. 1996) in his book mainly focused on redressing the balance in
assessing the’ causes’ of such disasters away from the dominant view that natural
processes are the most significant. It also concerned about what happens even when

45

it is admitted that social and economic factors are the most crucial. There is often a
reluctance to deal with such factors because it is politically expedient (i.e. less
difficult for those in power) to address the technical factors that deal with natural
hazards. Changing social and economic factors usually means altering the way that
power operates in a society. Radical policies are often required, many facing powerful
political opposition. For example, such policies might include land reform,
enforcement of building codes and land- use restrictions, greater investment in public
health, provision of a clean water supply and improved transportation to isolated and
poor regions of a country. The relative contribution of geophysical and biological
processes on the one hand, and social, economic and political processes on the other,
varies from disaster to disaster. Furthermore, human activities can modify physical
and biological events, sometimes many miles away (e.g. deforestation contributing to
flooding downstream) or many years later (e.g. the introduction of a new seed or
animal, or the substitution of one form of architecture for another, less safe, one). The
time dimension is extremely important in another way. Social, economic and political
processes are themselves often modified by a disaster in ways that make some people
more vulnerable to an extreme event in the future.

46

Figure 2.2 The social causation of disasters
Natural environment 1
Spatially varied, with unequal

distribution of opportunities and
hazards
Opportunities, locations and

resources for human activities, Hazards
e.g. affecting human activities
Agricultural land, water, e.g. floods, drought,
minerals, energy sources, sites earthquakes, hurricanes,
for construction, places to live volcanic eruptions,
and work 3 diseases 4
Social processes determine unequal access to

opportunities, and unequal exposure to
hazards
Class – gender – ethnicity – age group –

disability – immigration status 6
Social systems and power relation 7
Political and economic systems at national and

international scales 8

47

Source (Blaikie et al. 1996)
The political and institutional relationships that influence vulnerable social conditions
are a key determinant of access in the model. The release of these root causes and
unsafe conditions in the model may occur through direct action or may relate to a shift
in policy or management procedures that leads to less vulnerable conditions in society.
Recommendations in the model pertain to increasing public and stakeholder inclusion,
improving social conditions and resource equity, and identifying and mitigating socio-
economic and political pressures that increase vulnerability.
According to Morrow 1999 as cited by (Stewart 2007), correlated the impacts of a
range of natural hazards to certain groups, such as those in poverty-stricken areas,
single mothers, the elderly and new residents of a community who may not have the
experience to cope with extreme events. By analyzing multiple social factors Morrow
was able to interpret vulnerability and social capacity using individual and household
data. Economic and material resources, human or personal resources, family and social
resources, and political resources were factors in the impact of a hazard, and had a
significant effect on vulnerability.
(Striley and Field-Springer 2016), the leading proponents of the cultural theory of risk,
contend that vulnerability and risk are embedded in culture (Hewitt 2017), further
emphasized that the most neglected yet primary influence of environmental adaptation
is cultural capacity. An individual’s lived experiences and local knowledge are perhaps
the most significant influences on coping capacity at the local level. Community coping
capacity is dependent on a combination of social variables including cultural
differences, the existence of and access to technology and information sources, as well
as the political influences of institutional arrangements and key decision-makers. In a
comparison of c community mitigation capacity and patterns of development (Gervacio
and Liong 2014), explored the factors of social capital in three floodplain communities.

48

The authors first measured the average level of physical and human capital
accumulation (i.e. income, productivity, education, life expectancy) as indicators of
community development and social capital. They found that ethnic patterns and the
level of community development among a range of communities in the West Tarum
Canal floodplain influenced the ability to respond and recover from flood events.
2.3.2. Communication and information dissemination
In post-disaster situations, it is imperative to establish a strong and reliable line of

communication and an information dissemination system. People’s awareness of the
existing opportunities for participation and their relevant importance for immediate
recovery is crucial (Wardak, Coffey, and Trigunarsyah 2013). In May 2000,
Roombeek, a city of Enshede in the Netherlands, was destroyed by the explosion of
fireworks stock being stored in a warehouse (Denters and Klok 2010). A case study of
the post-disaster reconstruction conducted by these authors (ibid. 2010) revealed that
in the aftermath of the explosion, the established information rules had been successful
in stimulating wider public participation in rebuilding Roombeek. These rules ensured
that the rebuilding process was transparent and that residents were well informed of the
participatory process and the available opportunities for participation. Chang et al.
(2011), based on their investigation of reconstruction resourcing after the 2008
Wenchuan earthquake in China, concluded that post-disaster environments are
complex and dynamic, necessitating a great degree of resources coordination and
communication among stakeholders. These authors suggest that well established and
successful resource coordination requires systematic data collection, information
systems, and communication and coordination mechanisms. In relation to the
significance of communication and information dissemination in post-disaster
reconstruction, El-Masri and Tipple (2002) argue that local authorities should promote
dissemination of knowledge about the cultural and social condition of the affected
communities amongst stakeholders.

49

2.3.3. Integrating the social Dimension of Vulnerability
The psychosocial, cultural, socio-economic and political factors described in the

previous sections provided input in this study for the creation of a truly integrative
framework to address vulnerability as a process. In order to initiate risk reduction
strategies that are socially acceptable the integration of social factors through
community action provides a logical starting point (Hewitt 2017); Godshalk et al.,
1999; Mehta, 1995). The starting point is most effective from the local level where:
1. Risk can be identified and interpreted based on an understanding of diverse
local impacts and social conditions that influence perception and vulnerability
differently;
2. The dynamic social and physical processes of vulnerability are experienced on

a spatial and temporal scale (multi-hazard, long-term);
3. Resilience to local hazards is built by a common identity or perception of risk,
and local populations can better choose among strategies that are feasible (given
understandings of local capacity, and vulnerability conditions in the
community).
By incorporating local and regional disaster perceptions to uncover social factors of
vulnerability, disaster management can avoid treating the public as victims rather than
as a key part of socio-economic systems that allocate risk differently to various types
of people (Cannon, 2000). An interdisciplinary approach to risk analysis (Godschalk
2003)at the margins of science and social science may best assist local and regional
managers to identify the physical and social factors of vulnerability

50

Figure 2.3 Integrating the social Dimension of Vulnerability
source: (Bohle 2001)

The figure illustrates the Double Structure of Vulnerability and an interdisciplinary
approach to vulnerability reduction (Stewart 2007) The figure illustrates that
vulnerability is linked to external forces that affect the public’s exposure to hazards,
and internal factors that affect an individual’s or household’s ability to cope with risk.
Livelihood conditions may present internal factors of vulnerability that are largely a
function of an individual’s access to assets. External factors of vulnerability are related
to the entitlement properties of communities or individuals at risk within a socio-
political context or management regime. The double structure again demonstrates the
need to balance an external and internal perspective in vulnerability studies. External
forces require political and economic approaches to reduce the societal influences of
vulnerability within an understanding of human-environment relationships. The

51

internal side recognizes that individual capacity to cope with risk and the extent to
which people can adapt are products of local action and capacity building.
2.4 Resilience Thinking and Sustainable Hazard Mitigation
Resilience is important for flood disaster management to reduce risk to people and
property from flood and its effects. Flood resilience is not to avoid or to prevent the
floodwaters but to reduce damage caused by the floodwaters. Non-structural and
structural measures are both used in flood resilience. Structural measures include
construction of flood control infrastructures such as levees. Non-structural measures
include efforts to reduce the likelihood or consequence of risk such as policy and
warning systems.
Rather than applying command and control disaster reduction strategies, the public and
governments must act to address a range of uncertain risk and various risk perceptions.
Warner et al. (2002) calls the need for a decentralized approach in disaster reduction
and its associated forms of management a complexity paradigm below are Signals of a
Complexity Paradigm in Disaster Management
1. A shift to ‘living with the floods’ as a counterpoint to ‘flood control’,

for example. An emphasis on the interconnectedness, spatially and
through different knowledge systems, of all use(r)s of the common pool
resources, as well as the non-linearity, non-predictability and non-
proportionality of disaster responses (Mosse 1998)
2. A shift in focus from managing risk to living with uncertainty.
Uncertainty goes beyond risk, which was the constructed outcome of
vulnerability and hazard, and could be calculated within reasonable
boundaries.
3. Attention to risks created by control-oriented risk management regimes

52

(Cottle 1998) A shift from top-down interventionist forms of

governance to governance as a quality of interacting social-political
systems (i.e. communities, states or sectors) (Peters and Pierre 1998),
(Stoker 1998)
4. A shift to adaptive management. The interrelatedness of problems,
through competition over resources, high levels of uncertainty and a
diversity of competing values and decision stakes (Svendsen and Wester
2005) makes it unfeasible for problems to be solved by a single actor or
organization.
5. Adaptive management includes the integration of the multitude of users
and uses and needs to be based on a negotiated shared value system and
on different knowledge domains.
6. Recognition of different forms of disaster response as complementary,
without relying solely on science. Increasingly, disaster studies combine
the development of better tools to measure and mitigate disaster with
critical policy reviews, searching for new forms of governance, and the
support of social movements (Bankoff, Frerks, and Hilhorst 2004)
A benefit of the complexity paradigm illustrated in Table 2.1 is its emphasis on existing
forms of management integrating multiple stakeholders and applying a realist
interpretation of risk reduction (i.e. risk-sharing, risk-taking and empowerment). The
ability to provide opportunities to enhance adaptive capacity and examine socio-
ecological systems (Cash and Moser 2000)that influence vulnerability may be outside
the mandate and political accountability of centralized management structures.
(Keith 2008) also support the emergence of a complexity paradigm and conclude that
societies, not governments, must be active in the conceptualization of risk management
to foster a safety culture that integrates anticipatory management into every day life. A

53

safety culture would, therefore, best provide a realist view of risk and the available
capacity to reduce risk from a livelihood perspective.
Resilience thinking illustrates the sophistication, or multi-systems approach, that is

needed to address social vulnerability, coping and adaptation to uncertain risk.
Resilience evokes an organic or grassroots organization in society to reduce
vulnerability in its many forms and initiate adaptation to deal with the undesirable
instabilities in human-environment relationships. Ecological frameworks have
traditionally been used to explain stability and resilience in ecosystems. For example
(Béné et al. 2017) discussed resilience as a product of a complex web of life within a
diverse system of networks and interdependent relationships that maintain the ability
to absorb and recover from impacts or disturbances; or the capacity of the entire system
to absorb and adapt to changing conditions over time (Béné et al. 2017) added that
resilience reflected the ability to absorb shocks, self-organize to a desired state and
maintain sufficient capacity for adaptation to future environmental change. (Hewitt
2017)defined resilience within a natural hazards context as “a measure of recovery
from a stressful experience, reflecting social capacity to absorb and recover from the
occurrence of the hazard event”
(Brinkman et al. 2016), explored ecological resilience and social resilience in

observations of Inuvialuit Arctic communities’ responses to environmental change.
Local scale adjustments in Inuvialuit communities, such as changing land-use patterns,
are discussed as coping mechanisms that helped the community adjust to changing
environmental conditions. (Baker 2009) concluded that in resilient communities with
multi-scale interactions, concerns are better communicated to regional, national and
international levels of management as local networks develop. These findings provide
a starting point for sustainable hazards mitigation.
Sustainable hazards mitigation provides a term for the disaster community that focuses
on increasing local access to information and public involvement in decision- making

54

(Williams, Brower, and Klay 2016), Citizen empowerment encourages communities to

identify and make informed choices about long-term mitigation and vulnerability
reduction (Wu, Chang, and Tso 2016), Regional policies should provide a
decentralized management environment and an equitable distribution of resources,
options, and incentives that support local planning strategies (Stewart 2007)
characterizes the shift to sustainable hazards mitigation as a result of proactive efforts
at all scales of management.
Table 2.1
From To
Hazards Vulnerability
Reactive Proactive
Single Agency Partnerships
Science Driven Multidisciplinary Approach
Response Management Risk Management
Planning for Communities Planning with Communities
Communicating to Communities Communicating with Communities
Source: (Stewart 2007)
The inclusion of stakeholder knowledge, perceptions and values in the design and
implementation of mitigation goals and measures increases the public’s acceptance of
risk. Stakeholders are involved in risk-taking that is required for ongoing management
and problem solving of shared risk (Zinn and Fitzsimons n.d.)Generating an acceptable

55

level of risk provides a clear discourse among stakeholders and fosters an open
dialogue for effective risk communication (Sandman 1993) In general, this approach
will create a diverse and more meaningful management process than the one-way
communications and token involvement efforts common to centralized forms of
environmental and resource decision-making (Mitchell et al. 2004)
Particularly refreshing about these sustainable perspectives in risk and hazards

mitigation are the linkages that develop among environmental and social processes and
conditions, land-use planning, and the design of sustainable communities (Britton and
Clark 1999), Using a sustainable hazards mitigation framework, for example, does not
mean the non- use of areas at risk from hazards, rather, managing a balance of the
economic, environmental, social and cultural interests at play. Sustainable mitigation
should consider alternatives through the development of a knowledge base for elected
officials and citizens, the generation of political will across jurisdictional boundaries,
and the encouragement of public-private partnerships (Wachtendorf 2001),
2.4.1 Addressing Uncertainty and Conflict
The principles introduced in the sustainable development literature provide lessons and
cautions for a transition from disaster management to sustainable hazards mitigation.
The barriers experienced in the implementation of sustainable development towards
the end of the 20th Century provide guidance about the challenges of a sustainable
approach. Sustainable development was politically embraced by the international
community during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
of 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and again strongly supported at the World Summit
on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, (WSSD 2002) in
particular presented an international program of action aimed at new levels of
cooperation between stakeholders and the various scales of governance involved in
development and resource issues in (united nations 1992) as cited by (Nielsen 2005).

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The promotion of public involvement in resource and environmental management

through Agenda 21 has provided direction for the implementation of sustainability
principles and has been effective in addressing uncertainty and conflict that arises in
management. Public involvement is a key strategy towards building stakeholder trust
and capacity through local and regional partnerships (Brugnach, Craps, and Dewulf
2014), and is essential for the adoption of adaptive management strategies (Holling
1973) Public involvement provides a social learning process that fosters public
knowledge and diverse local capacity in the management of resource and
environmental problems (Dearden and Mitchell, 1998) cited by (Stewart
2007).Unfortunately, centralized and expert-driven management have in the past
struggled with achieving the inherent benefits of public involvement. Conventional
government approaches to public involvement have not been effective at integrating
diverse perceptions, values, knowledge, practices and beliefs into decision-making
(Dryzek 2005) Public involvement is often seen as a barrier to development and limited
involvement opportunities result in one-dimensional perspectives of the environment
and resource management (Kapoor 2001) The ineffectiveness of centralized
(technocratic) attempts to involve diverse interests and perspectives is evident in the
stakeholder conflict that occurs in environmental and resource decision-making (Carri
and Rose 2009) specified cognitive conflicts, value conflicts and behavioral conflicts
occur when multiple stakeholders are forced into pre-determined or unacceptable
management strategies. Cognitive conflicts arise from differences in understanding
(i.e. data/information; technical or scientific methods) (Smit and Wandel 2006)value
conflicts arise from differences in ideology, behavior and lifestyle (Krischke 2006) and
behavioral conflicts arise from variations in discourse and perceptions about the issue
at hand. Conflict in resource management has, therefore, been found to affect
stakeholder communication and degrade the flow of important information to managers
and the affected public (Dryzek 2005)

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2.4.1.1 Public Power: Broadening the Involvement Perspective
Public involvement can be defined as an organized, continuous, two-way

communication process or on a general level as a practice used by governmental
agencies, private-sector organizations or companies to consult and involve members of
the public in the planning, decision-making, management, monitoring and evaluation
process of an Impact Assessment (Rowe 2004) Thereby public understanding of
processes and mechanisms is conveyed and the public is kept fully informed about a
project or activity and its impacts. In addition, the public’s opinions, perceptions and
needs as well as their preferences regarding resource use and alternatives to a certain
project is actively inquired and taken into account (Zhou 2012)
In an influential article on citizen participation, (Arnstein 1969) proposed a ladder of

citizen participation that identifies eight types of participation and non-participation.
Figure below is an illustration of the eight rungs on the ladder of citizen participation.
The bottom rungs, Manipulation and Therapy, are types of non-participation where
citizens are included in program development to “educate” or “cure” them, not to
engage them in the planning process. On the Informing and Consulting rungs, citizens
may be present at discussions and have their views heard.
However, citizens “lack the power to insure that their views will be heeded by the
powerful”. Placation occurs when citizens advise, but have no role in the final decision-
making process. The top three rungs, Partner- ship, Delegated Power, and Citizen
Control, represented types of participation where citizens have increasing amounts of
decision-making power. Partnership occurs when negotiation between citizens and
public officials enables citizens share planning responsibilities and decision-making
power. Delegated Power is when citizens achieve “dominant decision-making
authority over a particular plan or program.”

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Finally, though not absolute control, Citizen Control occurs when citizens govern a
program with control of policy direction and management. Public officials negotiate
directly with citizens to influence policy changes. Though this ladder is a
simplification, it creates a framework for examining how citizens, specifically those
representing vulnerable populations, are deliberately included in the decision-making
processes and the extent to which their participation is valued and integrated into the
process (Arnstein 1969).
Figure: 2.4 (Arnstein 1969) ladder of citizen participation
Citizen Control
Degrees of citizen
Delegated Power
power
Partnership
Placation
Consultation Degrees of tokenism
Informing
Therapy
No power
Manipulation
source: adapted from (Arnstein 1969)

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2.4.1.2 Community-Based Disaster Management
Arnstein’s work on power and action in planning provided an early assessment of the
lack of public involvement within centralized government policy regarding the
environment. The framework encouraged researchers to enhance Arnstein’s top rung
in the ladder of citizen power to include co-management and the development of formal
opportunities for cross-scale interaction (Baker 2009) Community-based initiatives are
the foundation for co-management opportunities that empower the public as partners
in resource agreements and the utilization of local knowledge and practices in the
formulation of regional policy. Co-management encourages communities and
managers to use existing social capacity to link local and regional management needs
through equal partnerships. Such partnerships are designed to work towards
community ownership and resource rights that promote stewardship and involvement
(Folke 2006).
Pearce (2005) identified the capabilities of the Hazard, Impact, Risk and Vulnerability
(HIRV) model as a community-based process to integrate local and regional
governments and managers. The process draws on local knowledge and community
experts to identify vulnerability (i.e. neighborhood, district, region) and initiate long-
term mitigation strategies to address high risk and socially important hazards. The
participants in Pearce’s study ranged from policy makers, experts and public
representatives, and combined a number of stakeholders that would normally interact
in natural resource management. Figure 2.4.1 and Table 2.3 illustrate how participants
in the HIRV Model identified a range of social factors (e.g., population, economics,
and socio-political) that affect vulnerable conditions in a defined management unit. The
causes of impacts are linked to vulnerable social conditions, and participants evaluated
and assessed the need to address certain high-risk areas.

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The intention of the model is to identify community and regional information needs
and opportunities for information sharing. Community templates or profiles help local
and regional mangers characterize risk and vulnerability in the region.
TABLE 2.2: PHASES OF THE HIRV MODEL
Hazard
Identification Map known risk and hazards (utilize summary resource manual)
Risk Establish management units or districts and determine

Analysis probability and magnitude; assess equity issues
Vulnerability People (age, density, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic) Place

Analysis (buildings, critical facilities, ecological sites, economic sites and
sectors, historical and cultural, lifelines and infrastructural, non-
structural property, recreation) Preparedness (Capacity,
education (skills), existing mitigation) Time (time of year,
seasonal activity, time of day, week,)
Impact
Analysis Social, environmental economic and political factors that affect
the impact of hazards and the perception of risk
Disaster Community evaluation of risk, vulnerability and impact data.

Management Provide an output of high risk areas, highly vulnerable
populations or conditions, low risk, low vulnerability
(Source: Pearce, 2003)

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The final stage of the vulnerability assessment provides options to link regional hazards
mitigation with community planning and verifies how sustainable mitigation plans can
be integrated into existing community planning (i.e. strengths and weaknesses).
(Godschalk 2003) discussed a number of key questions that can be used by local and
regional stakeholders when assessing the feasibility of community and regional.
planning strategies:
1. What is the degree of cooperation?

2. Which local authority will take the lead role?
3. How will strategies affect current development as opposed to future
development?
4. What degree will hazards be controlled and affect human behavior?
5. What will be the emphasis on pre-disaster as opposed to post-disaster
activities?
6. To what degree will outside partners be involved?
It is important that community actions and government planning focus on

compatibility in order to integrate scales of management and facilitate synergistic risk
reduction. Once a level of cooperation and capacity to act is established, stakeholders
can then decide how to effectively develop and implement risk management priorities
within existing governance and community planning structures. Common planning
heuristics can help to structure risk management strategies in a format that can be
integrated with existing capacity and community decision-making formats.

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2.4.1.3 Community Planning to Enhance Resilience
A resilient community is one that takes intentional action to enhance the personal and
collective capacity of its citizens and institutions to respond to, and influence the cause
of social and economic change (Colussi 2000), proactive mitigation strategies have
proven to increase community resilience by enhancing self-determination and self-
efficacy at the local level (Becker, Johnston, and Paton 2015)A strong connection
between development, resource management and hazard mitigation builds on local
leadership and established management links, policies and ways of doing things in the
community (E. R. Reddy et al. 2000), Regional efforts focused on the development of
monitoring and compliance strategies can assist in recognizing local rights and
effectively involve local and regional stakeholders.
In an examination of community resilience to volcanic hazards in New Zealand,

(Jensen and Ohio 2014)and (Johnston 2007), encouraged communities to identify the
household and individual characteristics that help build resilience. Using experience
from the 1995 and 1996 Ruapehu volcanic eruptions, the authors discovered that self-
efficacy, problem- focused coping, sense of community, and population demographics
(i.e., age, gender, race, status) are key criteria for understanding the social effects of
volcanic activity on community resilience. A significant association between resilience
and public involvement in community activities and planning was noted in the study,
implying the need to integrate hazard and risk education within the community
development process. Additionally, planning was found to be most effective in
communities that used contingent methods that developed within the community rather
than prescriptive planning from outside sources, and by:
• Providing hazard scenarios at the local level (i.e. climate change

impacts).
• Re-defining the meaning of risk and hazard at the local level.

63

• Identifying resources and information needs to define the problem.

• Creating strategies that are sensitive to perceptions, beliefs, and needs.
• Enhancing self-efficacy and problem solving-skills at the individual,

household and community levels
(Allen and Babus 2010) used the term community-based disaster preparedness (CBDP)
as an approach to integrating vulnerability reduction and disaster management
strategies into community planning. CBDP has not only influenced the
conceptualization of risk and development at the local level, but resulted in policy
trends that value local knowledge and capacity. The case demonstrates that
community-based methods not only build capacity for adaptation but also act as a
vehicle for a greater representation of community conditions and characteristics in
regional planning forums. Because local people are often the first to experience the
impacts of practices that lead to vulnerability, they also provide an early warning
network that can offer solutions to address local issues. Grassroots community
involvement is particularly needed to address vulnerability in the context of climate
change (Berardi, 2002).
2.6. Theoretical Framework
This section discusses the most important theoretical findings in relation to some
assumptions and issues raised in this study. First, it is theorized that perception
influences behaviour and attitudes and local perception about the causes of floods will
perhaps explain local attitudes towards disaster preparedness and prevention (Bempah
2011) Within international and national literature, the known causes of floods are
climate change, deforestation, throwing of refuse in water bodies, building along water
ways and short term disaster response strategies. This known causes will be used to
identify local understanding and perception about the causes of flood in the West

64

Tarum Canal. The theory will also help determine the extent to which perceived causes
translate into attitudes towards disaster prevention and mitigation in the communities
under review.
The effects of flood disaster on livelihood are linked to loss of lives, properties and
displacement. Loss of lives will be determined by the total number of deaths as related
by flood victims and as recorded by (BPS Provinsi Jawa Barat 2016) loss of properties
will be determined by total hectares of productive farms and livestock lost in 2010 and
displacement will be measured by the total number of houses rendered uninhabitable
by the flood of 2010. Displacement will also be measured by the total number of people
rendered homeless by the floods of 2010. In the particular case of the West Tarum
Canal, this will be examined basing on available official data.
An assessment of Indonesian government will be done within the UNDP disaster risk
reduction programme and the Hygo Framework for Action (HFA). These support
Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM); an approach that places emphasis
on local participation and indigenous knowledge in disaster management. This
approach has been acclaimed as the most effective and sustainable in environmental
and developmental management.
This study attempts a descriptive comparison between natural disasters and social
vulnerability. A similar study was conducted by (Hossain 2014) in Bangladesh
concerning Gender issue in community based disaster management in Bangladesh
.This study will serve as the backbone in determining a similar relationship in the
particular case of the West Tarum Canal

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Figure 2.5 theoretical framework
FLOOD DISASTER
HAZARDS EXPOSURE VULNERABILITY CAPACITY

MEASURES
• Vulnerability • physical
• Physical planning.
v Structure
Probability • Social • social
v Population capacity
Severity v Economy • Economic
• environment • economic
capacity
The figure above is a flow chart that illustrates the theoretical framework adopted
from the reviewed literature. It also gives a visual impression of how the study will be
organized and the data analyze
2.7 Summary of chapter 2.
Literature pertinent to the present study related to the three areas described in this
chapter: 1) describe the intensity of flooding 2) studies on the social dimensions of
vulnerability; and, 3) studies on community-based framework for reducing future
community vulnerability in the context disaster management. The mainstream of
natural hazards research emphasized a shift away from the dominant and centralized
view of disaster management, to a view of disaster risk reduction as an ongoing process
of human-ecological relationships. Such works suggested that disasters are a result of
external impacts, social vulnerability and uncertainty that require integrated forms of
planning, prevention and mitigation in addition to the conventional preparedness and
response techniques (Alexander 2000)

66

The studies on community-based approaches to disaster planning discussed the need to

incorporate public participation and anticipatory planning to achieve integrated
approaches to hazards mitigation and social vulnerability reduction (J. N. Reddy 2000),
(Becker, Johnston, and Paton 2015), (Eichelberger 2012). However, there was a gap in
the community-based disaster planning literature regarding how to address conflict in
uncertainty, and the barriers to political representation in decision-making. The
literature from resource and environmental management provided lessons about public
representation, conflict mediation and participatory action in regard to environment
and resource decision-making (Stewart 2007)

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CHAPTER 3:
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
This chapter provides an outline about the methods employed in this study with
strength as well as logic of using some methods in accordance with the research
problem. Methodological approach of this study is inspired by (Silverman 2000)
observation: “methodology refers to the choices we make about cases to study, methods
of data gathering, forms of data analysis etc. in planning and executing a research
study.” But it is not possible to simply choose a method and adhere to it in research
study because of some limitations of a particular method. Therefore, this chapter
discusses the relationship between the various parts of the research project, the
implication of the choices made and the limitations of the methods chosen.

3.2 Research design
The main purpose of this study is to understand and analyze community based flood
disaster and social vulnerability embedded in the West Tarum Canal - Indonesia.
Moreover, emphasis have been put on identifying level of social vulnerability of the
people of WTC and examine the intensity of flooding. The study is inclined to explore
some social issues related to community-based disaster management, with special
reference to pre-disaster, disaster and post-disaster situation. Therefore, it followed
non- experimental research design. Although an experimental design was supposed to
be more appropriate for assessing/examining the cause effect relationship of education,
training, landownership on participation in community-based disaster management, the
study simply described the influence of these social indicators
67

68

3.3 Research Approach
Quantitative method approach was followed to pursue the research work. descriptive
survey research design was used to conduct this study. This was achieved by
observation, survey, literature review and obtaining the main secondary data The
quantitative approach was appropriate for this study because of its ability to investigate
a wider geographical area in a short period of time (Science et al. 2000), strongly argues
that an empirical study “addresses a real-life problem”. To resolve an empirical
question, we either had to collect data about World 1 or we had to analyze existing
data.
3.4 Sources of Data
The main secondary data used in this study was collected by (ICWRMIP - Sub.
Component 2-1 n.d.) Which was carried out in 2010 from selected samples 1322
respondents of Bekasi and Karawang in relation to Rehabilitation and resettlement of
people along West Tarum Canal through interview, focus group discussion and non-
participatory direct observation and was supported by more Secondary data gathered
from published and unpublished research reports, journals, books, as well as from
record and documents of the relevant agencies to meet my study purpose. The reason
for using multiple methods of data collection from different sources was to increase the
validity of data through (Njie and Asimiran 2014)
3.5 Data Analysis
Quantitative data analysis approaches were followed to analyze the collected data.
Descriptive statistics method was followed in coding, editing and processing numeric
data. Techniques of descriptive statistics (percentage and measures of central tendency)
were used in analyzing data. Data have also been presented in tabular form along with

69

developing bar chart. However, it should be noted that raw data collected by
(ICWRMIP) through using interview method were manipulated through a statistical
software SPSS for windows. Both bi-vitiate and multi-vitiate analysis were followed
and presented in cross-table. In some cases, chi-square test has been done to estimate
the significant difference between social vulnerability
3.6 Reliability and Validity
Reliability and validity are inextricably bound up with the credibility of a study as they
are central issues in measurement (Brown, Leslie Strega 2013), Trustworthiness of a
research report lies at the heart of these issues (Silverman 2000)). Reliability means
dependability and consistency. It suggests that the operation of a study can produce the
same result under the very similar conditions (Brown, L. and Strega 2005) and (Yin
2009) Reliability addresses how accurately one’s research methods and techniques
produce data. It refers to the degree of consistency with which instances are assigned
to the same category by different observers or by the same observer on different
occasions (Draft 2013), To maintain the consistency of quantitative data, representative
reliability measurement was followed in this study to obtain quantitative data such as
age, family size, income, land ownership etc. It is stated earlier that priority has been
given to qualitative approach; hence, emphasis was given to maintaining reliability of
the qualitative aspect.
3.7 Research Population and Sample
The main secondary data used in this was obtained from the survey conducted from
1320 household by Integrated Citarum Water Resource Management and Investment
Program – sub component 2-1 regarding West Tarum Canal rehabilitation in
connection with resettlement program.

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Table 3. 1 number of respondent

City / Regency Frequenc Percen Valid Cumulative
y t Percent Percent
Bekasi City 64 4.8 4.8 5.0
Bekasi Regency 718 54.3 54.3 59.3
karawang 538 40.7 40.7 100.0
Regency
Total 1320 100.0 100.0
Data source: (ICWRMIP - Sub. Component 2-1 n.d.)
since it fitted in very well with empirical studies Physical objects (matter), Human
beings (individuals and groups) , Human actions and historical events Social
interventions (programs or systems) , Social organizations and institutions (schools, or
companies). This was supported by (temperature and precipitation trend, government
documents, meteorological data, I got directly from office of (Badan Pusast Stastiststik
Provisi Jawa Barat (BPS) which means statics Centre for West Java Province and lastly
I personally obtained another data from (BPBD) which stands for disaster management
Centre for West Java province Indonesia confirmation latter attached in the appendix.
All this sources combined enabled the research scientific theories, the body of science
knowledge or literature to address this issue.
3.8 Limitations of the study
There were a number of limitations in this study but the key ones are: I had limited
time to conduct this research since it was a foreign country to me and my visa stay
permit in Indonesia was almost about to expire it couldn’t allow me to broadens the
topic by incorporate Environmental disaster impact but perhaps this is a motivation for
further studies in this area, language barrier with the locals living along West Tarum
Canal limited me to apply both qualitative and quantitative Method and only applied

71

quantitative approach and this is the main reason why I opted for secondary data which
was collected by (ICWRMIP - Sub. Component 2-1 n.d.) In connection with
rehabilitation and resettlement of people along West Tarum Canal in 2010
CHAPTER 4:
CASE STUDY DESCRIPTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of this chapter is to describe findings from the selected data. The
description of the research findings is done in line with the literature review presented
on disaster management and its inter-related issues. These findings are based on the
data which was gathered from the (1320) residents along West Tarum Canal by source:
(ICWRMIP - Sub. Component 2-1 n.d.) 2010 in relation to rehabilitation of WTC and
resettlement project through interviewees, key informants, officials from relief
agencies.
First, this chapter presents the demographic characteristics of the flood victims. Given
that most of the variables in this study are categorical or nominal variables, frequency
tables are used as diagrammatical aids to present the data. Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) was useful in generating the frequencies needed to analyze the
demographic characteristics of the respondents. Secondly, the findings are presented in
relation to the research questions and objectives, which were illustrated in the flowchart
in the theoretical framework of Chapter Two. Where necessary, sub-sections are
created to aid organization of the material presented. To recall, the research questions
were;
1. What is the level of intensity of flooding in West Tarum Canal?

2. What is the level of physical and social vulnerability to flood in study area?
3. How can vulnerability be incorporated into other public policies, particularly
in Indonesian planning systems, in order to enhance community resilience to
future flood disasters?

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4.2 Physical Characteristics of the West Tarum Canal
West Tarum Canal covers the areas of Bekasi and Karawang and it has its origin from
Citarum River which all are part of territory of West Java Province. The population in
2003 was 17.8 million, with 4.1 million households – 30% derived livelihood from
agriculture, 25% from industry, and 45% from services. The population in the program
area is projected to rise to 21.3 million by 2010. The dynamism of the region’s
economy is shown by 2003 data indicating West Java Province’s gross regional
domestic product (GRDP) growth rate (4.97%) outperforming that of Jakarta (4.39%).

74

Figure: 4.1 MAP SHOWING WEST TARUM CANAL AND DAMS
Source: (Ministry of Public Works 2007)

75

4.3 Hydro-Climatic Characteristics and Flooding
The climate of the West Tarum Canal area is characterized by two distinct seasons:
rainy season and dry season. The rainy season occurs during the months of November
to April, while the dry season occurs during the remaining months. January is the
wettest month, while August is the driest month. Naturally, runoff follows the same
seasonal pattern. The average annual rainfall varies from 1500 mm in the coastal areas
to 4000 mm There are 24 river gauging stations within the Citarum River basin. This
total runoff from the catchments is generally considered to be adequate to supply
demands for all uses well into the future. However, the spatial distribution of surface
water resources is not uniform, and shortages do occur from time to time in certain
areas. Monthly distribution of rainfall and runoff in the case study area are illustrated
and shown in Figure 4.3
Figure 4.2: Average Seasonal Rainfall and Runoff
Source: (Ministry of Public Works 2015)

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Groundwater occurs extensively across the canal basin, but is most intensively
exploited in the Bekasi, Kerrawang and Jakarta areas. The total number of bores there
is estimated to be well in excess of 5,000, with depth between 60 m and 200 m below
ground level. Groundwater is the preferred source for domestic water supply in rural
and many urban areas and also for industrial purposes due to the easy accessibility,
relative inexpensive treatment and generally of good quality.
Flooding is a consequence mainly of changes in the canal flow regime, in turn caused
by changes in watershed conditions. As water retention capacity of the river catchments
is reduced by denudation and land conversion for urban development, flood peaks have
increased. As mentioned above, the ratio of wet season peak flows to dry season low
flows in the WTC has increased from 3.4 in 1992 to 7.3 in 2003(National Disaster
Manegement Authority (BNPB) 2014). The increased flood frequency and severity are
also invariably associated with destructive landslides and mud flows. Recent severe
flooding and mud flows occurred in February 2005 affected an area covering 2,000 ha.
The flooding submerged parts of the area for 7 days and up to 2 meters deep – 50,000
inhabitants had to be evacuated. Flooding around west Tarum has become more
frequent and severe. Here, however, there is no single cause (Koike et al. 2015), The
problem is due to a combination of: (i) land cover change, urban area development, (ii)
localized land subsidence due to groundwater over-pumping that impair drainage, and
(iv) clogging of drainage canals and streams by garbage along Flood-prone areas along
West Tarum Canal
Currently, measures to reduce or mitigate flooding problems in the WTC basin are
being undertaken through the Citarum Flood Control Project. Remediation measures
include re-greening/reforestation and introduction of structural erosion control
measures in the watershed, as well as improvement of the urban drainage system
around flood prone areas of Bekasi and karawang. At the lower basin (near Jakarta)
where the Cikeas and Cileungsi Rivers join to become the Bekasi River, converging

77

floodwaters from the two tributaries have caused perennial flooding in Bekasi City.
Already naturally prone to flooding due to the area’s location downstream of the
confluence of two rivers, the flooding problem is expected to worsen as more of Bekasi
upper catchment is subjected to land conversion for urban and industrial development.
Along the lower Citarum River levees and other flood control works built during the
Dutch period help confine flooding within the river’s meander zone and provide
protection to the surrounding settlements. However, large areas of the flood zone within
the levees have been planted with crops and fruit trees that have the effect of retarding
flood flow, contributing to high water levels. In addition, a long term effect of the river
embankments has been to raise the river bed due to sediment accumulation, since the
levees prevent the spilling of sediments onto the surrounding plain. Consequently,
floodwater levels inside the levees have risen above the level of the surrounding land,
putting the population at risk in case of levee failure. At the Citarum River mouth, the
build-up of deposited sediments has created sand dunes that impede floodwater
discharge. Combined with the effect of high tides, the constricted river outlet causes
perennial inundation of the lower basin near the delta as the water is forced to back up
into the alluvial plain. The extent of areas affected by flooding and related landslides
and mudflows is shown in Figure

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Figure:4.3 Flooding and Related Problems the Basin
Source:(Citarum 2013)
4.3.1 Estimating the Causal Parameters of Flooding

Hydrological data is usually collected, digitized, stored in the database and analyzed
on demand and used during compilation of water resources reports among other uses.
Every month a copy of regional database is transmitted to the national database for
archiving and future retrieval. Data available include surface water, water quality,
groundwater and water use. Further, the data is analyzed to guide decision-making.
The data available at different functional levels:

1. Sub regional office
• Groundwater – Water levels,
• Surface Water – River Water levels, Rainfall, Evaporation & Point effluent
discharges,
• Water Quality and Pollution – in-situ water quality measurements,

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• Water use – Abstractions, authorization and permit data

2. Regional office
• Groundwater – water levels, aquifer maps, hydro- geological reports, special
studies reports
• Surface Water – River water level, rainfall, evaporation, point/daily effluent
discharges, special studies reports
• Water Quality and Pollution – in-situ measurements, laboratory analytical results,
pollution surveys reports, status of water quality, special studies reports
• Water use – abstraction survey data, authorizations and permit data,
Provincial flood forecasters rely on understanding of the cumulative effects of heavy

autumn rains, changing temperature patterns, high soil moisture content and runoff
rates and timing in the tributaries of Citarum River to forecast runoff, stream flow and
river stage as monsoon floods advance. Furthermore, by examining the frequency and
magnitude characteristics of the causal parameters involved in monsoon flooding,
observed hydrometric data and the historical hydro-climate data provide forecasters
with the information needed to calculate flood probability statistics. This approach
provides an advanced warning tool for emergency management and a prediction tool
for risk mitigation priorities.
4.3.1.1 Flood Forecasting and Warning
According to (Beverton 1972) for any flood estimation problem it is necessary to

specify the return period or the probability of the desired flood, To estimate river
discharge characteristics for the monsoon, flood forecasters with the Provincial
Citarum River basin management use the Antecedent Precipitation Index (API). This
index is used in an integrated model that considers the statistical relationships between
runoff and the causal parameters involved in large floods in the Citarum River basin.
The relationship between runoff and the causal parameters is then compared to the

80

period of record to estimate the monsoon flood potential (D’Arrigo et al. 2011). The
causal parameters involved in runoff forecasting are:
• Soil Moisture (weighted monthly precipitation values)
• Effective Monsoon Rain (precipitation and weather forecasting)
• Timing Factor (discharge levels at tributaries)
• Citarum river (discharge throughout basin)
4.4 Factors influencing exposure to floods in the case study areas
This section presents multiple dimensions of exposure and vulnerability to hazards,

disasters, climate change, and extreme events. Some frameworks consider exposure to
be a component of vulnerability (Turner et al., 2003a), and the largest body of
knowledge on dimensions refers to vulnerability rather than exposure, but the
distinction between them is often not made explicit. Vulnerability is: multi-dimensional
and differential – that is, it varies across physical space and among and within social
groups; scale-dependent with regard to space and units of analysis such as individual,
household, region, or system; and dynamic – characteristics and driving forces of
vulnerability change over time (Vogel and O’Brien, 2004). As vulnerability and
exposure are not fixed, understanding the trends in vulnerability and exposure is
therefore an important aspect of the discussion.
There is high confidence that for several hazards, changes in exposure and in some
cases vulnerability are the main drivers behind observed
trends in disaster losses, rather than a change in hazard character, and will continue to
be essential drivers of changes in risk patterns over the coming decades (Bouwer et al.,
2007; Pielke Jr. and Landsea, 1998; UNISDR, 2009a). In addition, there is high
confidence that climate change will affect disaster risk not only through changes in the
frequency, intensity, and duration of some events, but also through indirect effects on

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vulnerability and exposure. In most cases, it will do so not in isolation but as one of
many sources of possible stress, for instance through impacts on the number of people
in poverty or suffering from food and water insecurity, changing disease patterns and
general health levels, and where people live. In some cases, these changes may be
positive, but in many cases, they will be negative, especially for many groups and areas
that are already among the most vulnerable.
4.4.1 Social Dimensions
Social vulnerability refers to the socioeconomic and demographic factors that affect
the resilience of communities (Flanagan et al. 2011). Several studies have shown that
during and after disaster events the socially vulnerable are more likely to be adversely
affected, i.e. they are less likely to recover and more likely to die. Effectively
addressing social vulnerability decreases both human suffering and the economic loss
related to providing social services and public assistance after a disaster. According to
Adger and Kelly, 1999; K. O’Brien et al., 2008 as cited in (Tan et al. 2012) social
dimension is multi-faceted and cross-cutting. It focuses primarily on aspects of societal
organization and collective aspects rather than individuals. However, some
assessments also use the ‘individual’ descriptor to clarify issues of scale and units of
analysis. The social dimension includes demography, migration, and displacement,
social groups, education, health and well-being, culture, institutions, and governance
aspects.
4.4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the WTC
In any research work, sufficient personal information of respondents is necessary to

inform readers of the sort of people from whom primary data was collected. The family
or household level is at the base of any socio-economic process undergoing at a region;
therefore, outlining the demographic characteristics of the population covered is a

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prerequisite to understand the processes occurring there. Exposure is largely dependent

upon the dynamic relationship between the population characteristics and their
endurance thresholds. These include the age, sex, education, occupation, marital status,
the number of dependents, the years of residence in the communities under study and
the religious affiliation.
4.4.3 Religion of the sample population of people leaving along West Tarum Canal
Religion is a set of “beliefs concerning the cause, nature and purpose of the
universe...usually involving devotional and ritual observances and often containing a
moral code governing the conduct of human affairs” (Dow 2007). The Indonesian
Constitution of 1945 and the first principle of the Five Philosophical Principles
administer religious life and belief in the one Supreme God. Social behavior in any
activity has been developed to improve religious life. The purpose of development in
Religious sector is for welfare society (BPS Jawa Barat 2015). According to
information got from respondent it shows 80.3% are Muslims, 1.8% Catholics and
0.1% protestant which is not surprise because Indonesia is the biggest Muslim country
refer to (U.S Department of State 2012), An assessment of the religious belief system
of the flood victims is necessary to gain an insight into how a person’s religious beliefs
can influence his\her understanding of the causes of the perennial flood situation.

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TABLE 4.1 SHOWING RELIGION OF PEOPLE ALONG WEST TARUM CANAL

Religion Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
protestants 235 17.8 17.8 17.8
catholic 24 1.8 1.8 19.6
Islam 1061 80.3 80.3 99.9
Total 1320 100.0 100.0
4.4.4 Age of the sample population of resident along West Tarum Canal

Age can be an important indicator of vulnerability, particularly in the more isolated and
rural regions of the floodplain where social capacity is limited (Buckle et al., 2000).
Being too young and too old in a hazard-prone region can affect the ability and capacity
of an individual to respond and recover (Cannon, 2000). Age as an indicator of
vulnerability in the West Tarum Canal is uncertain, however, as older residents have a
long experience on the land and have survived many flood events. residents may not
have the same knowledge and experience but may have enhanced physical capacity to
respond and recover from hazards than is the case with older people. However, new
residents who have recently moved to the floodplain environment or those in the
process of building financial security and social capacity may not have the household
and community foundation to cope in the floodplain.

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Figure 4.4 age of sample population
4.4.5. Education level of sample residents along West Tarum Canal

Assessing the educational background of the flood victims was necessary to determine
the kind of interpretation the flood victims could give to the social phenomenon under
consideration. It is interesting to note that (591) of the flood victims are in the bracket
of elementary level of education (Didn`t finish, Finished and still in elementary level
12.0%, 32.2%and 0.5% which makes the total number of people in this bracket to
44.7% and the second highest percentage of 16% shows flood victims who have never
been to school, the third high number was of those who finished and still in junior high
school which makes 13.8 % all together and those who finished and still High school
were 6.7and 0.8% respectively which makes 7.5% and the list were graduates which
represents 1.3%

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Table: 4.2. Showing education back ground of resident along WTC

Education back ground Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Didn`t finish 158 12.0 12.0 28.7
elementary level
Finished Elementary 426 32.2 32.2 60.9
Level
Finished Junior High 174 13.2 13.2 74.1
Sch
Graduate 17 1.3 1.3 75.3
Never been to School 212 16.0 16.0 91.4
Senior High Sch 89 6.7 6.7 98.1
Still in Elementary 7 .5 .5 98.6
Level
Still in High School 10 .8 .8 99.4
Still in Junior High 8 .6 .6 100.0
School
Total 1320 100.0 100.0
4.4.6. Marital Status and Number of Dependents for the sample population of
residents along West Tarum Canal
Household size can influence vulnerability and the capacity to cope with risk and
hazardous events (Moser and McIlwaine, 1997; Buckle et al., 2000). For example, too
many individuals in a household can affect emergency response to a hazard event and
can stress a household’s capacity to reduce loss and recover after impacts have incurred
(King and MacGregor, 2000). Single member households on the other hand may

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respond more quickly if well informed of emerging risk. However, single member
households may have reduced kin and community networks, and lower capacity to
mitigate local- level risk (Berry, 2003). In the case study area the biggest percentage of
74.3% among the residents are married, 4.3 widows, 2.1 widower and only 1.5 were
single see table 4.3.
Table 4.3. Marital status

MARITAL Frequen Percent Valid Cumulative Percent
STATUS cy Percent
235 17.8 17.8 17.8
Married 982 74.3 74.3 92.1
Single 20 1.5 1.5 93.6
Widow 57 4.3 4.3 97.9
Widower 28 2.1 2.1 100.0
Total 1320 100.0 100.0
Large families with young or elderly dependents also have a limited ability to respond
and recover, and rely more heavily on household income (Berry, 2003). Large
household sizes may be advantageous to the response and recovery efforts, for
example, when a higher number of individuals within the working age (17-65 years of
age) are contributing to household income and capacity (Glavic et al., 2003). Large
families with (more than 6 persons) were not common in the sample and represented
only 10.4% of households. Single member households represented 11.5% of
households in the sample. The majority of respondents in the sample lived in medium-
sized households composed of two to four people (61.1%) with a substantial percentage
representing households with 5 people (16. 8%).see table 4.4

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Table 4.4. Family members

No. Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative Percent
FAMILY Percent
MEMEBERS
1.0 152 11.5 11.5 11.5
2.0 201 15.2 15.2 26.7
3.0 294 22.2 22.3 49.0
4.0 313 23.7 23.7 72.7
5.0 222 16.8 16.8 89.5
6.0 91 6.9 6.9 96.4
7.0 29 2.2 2.2 98.6
8.0 7 .5 .5 99.2
9.0 11 .8 .8 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0
4.4.7. Settlement and infrastructure status of the communities
Settlement status is an important factor to be considered when talking about physical

exposures to flood in the study area. There is a direct relation between the settlement
status and the provided level of infrastructure. The type of houses and materials used
for construction along West Tarum Canal vary from one neighborhood to another,
According to secondary data obtained from (ICWRMIP - Sub. Component 2-1 n.d.)
only 2.7% of the residents have permanent houses, This structural type is not vulnerable
to water, which has a strong ceramic floor and a solid concrete wall, 20.2% have semi-
permanent, This structural type also is not so vulnerable to water. However, the brick
wall is prone to damage when the mud leaving the mark on the brick wall can not be

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cleaned. When the structural type is located in the area that is prone to water with high
velocity like inside the dike, cracks will occur on the brick wall and lastly 20.4% have
temporary out of total population and most of them are living in informal settings with
limited infrastructural facilities like sanitary facilities, This type is very prone to floods
because they are mostly made out of Plywood and bamboo sheet, wall material absorb
the water easily. When they dry the materials change their composition or shape like
to splitting, warping, swelling or getting rotten. This structural type starts getting
damage when it exposes to water. Subsequently, when floods occurs, the materials of
structural type are totally damaged see table.
Table: 4.5. House Type

House Type Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Permanent 641 48.5 48.5 48.5
Semi 403 20.2 22.9 68.7
Permanent
Emergency 108 8.2 8.2 79.6
Temporary 270 20.4 20.4 100.0

Total 1320 100.0 100.0
The value of vulnerability for structural type of household building is expressed on

scale between 0 (no loss at all) and 1(total loss) in order to quantify the expected
damage reduction for several categories of elements at risk. This concept is established
based on the definition of vulnerability from UNDRO (1991), Zein 2010), explain
several factors influenced flood damage such as water depth, contamination, flood
duration, flow velocity and resistance factors like types of building, preventive
measures, preparedness and warning. This research considers water depth and velocity

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(related to the location of the structure as the damage factors. It is important to derive
a vulnerability factor from the most important vulnerability indicators contributing
impact on the degree of damage produced during the flood event (Messner and Meyer,
2004), below are pictures showing house types along West Tarum Canal.
Figure: 4.5 House type.

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Figure: 4.5.1
Based on above above analysis of the building structure, it can be concluded that
Temporary houses are the most vulnerable among all buildings along WTC and
comprises of the highest percentage followed by semi- permeant.
4.4.8 Health and well- being of people along West Tarum Canal
The health dimension of vulnerability includes differential physical, physiological,

and mental health effects of extreme events in different regions and on different
social groups (McMichael et al., 2003;

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4.4.8.1 Domestic water source

From this situation, the existing water supply does not guarantee quality water supply
in the area and portable water shortages, which may be due to water pollution and
damage to water supply following flood events hence the residents are at greater risk
of contracting acute water borne diseases. The state of waste disposal in the study areas
is generally poor. Over 80 percent dispose their refuse indiscriminately, some in open
spaces (35.3 percent), some into irrigation dam (20.5 percent) within residential
environment thereby causing air pollution while disposes theirs at canal bank
Table :4.6. Domestic water source

Water Source Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Percent Percent
Safe public 227 17.2 17.2 17.2
water
irrigation Dam 393 29.7 29.7 47.0
PAM( National 61 4.6 4.6 51.7
water
distribution)
Well 639 48.2 48.4 100.0
Total 1320 100.0 100.0
4.4.8.2 Toilet status
The multiple environmental consequences of flooding can directly affect the public's
health. For example, water sources can become contaminated with fecal material or
toxic chemicals, water or sewer systems can be disrupted, dangerous substances can be
released (e.g., propane from damaged storage tanks), and solid-waste collection and

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disposal can be disrupted. In addition, flooding can result in vector-associated

problems, including increases in mosquito populations that, under certain
circumstances, increase the risk for some mosquito borne infectious diseases (e.g., viral
encephalitis)
Table: 4.7. Toilet status

Toilets Stats Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Family Toilet 624 47.2 47.2 64.4
Open Land/ 351 26.6 26.6 91.1
Irrigation
Public Toilet 112 8.5 8.5 99.5
Neighborhood 6300 17.7 17.7 100.0
Total 1320 100.0 100.0
4.4.9 Disabled house hold head along West Tarum Canal
In case of flood disaster in West Tarum Canal disabled people may be

disproportionately disadvantaged by depletion of both physical infrastructure and
human services. During emergencies, the disabled have many of the same needs as the
general population. However, there are a number of situations requiring a different
approach by emergency managers. People with age-related or physical disabilities have
different needs at different points in the disaster cycle. Emergency planning should
identify the following individuals who require special attention like visually, Mentally,
hearing impaired, People who use wheelchairs, who need training and constant
reinforcement to learn steps to save themselves these are essential post-disaster needs
which must be met over an extended period of time Meeting these needs does not have
to be costly, some can be solved by education, others by modest investments but they

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should be addressed in a structured manner. Scarcity of resources after a disaster can

intensify discriminatory attitudes and behaviour within families and communities,
leading to further exclusion. Disabled children, including those with newly acquired
impairments, may be excluded from education. The Interagency Network for
Education in Emergencies argues that recovery interventions need to address negative
cultural perceptions of disability, to ‘ensure that schools are prepared, and that facilities
are accessible’ and that teachers are ‘well versed in principles of social justice, diversity
and inclusion’ (Priestley, M. & Hemingway 2007), Amongst the concerns they raise.
In these communities of Bekasi and Karawang, the total number of disabled house hold
head from the sample were 20 out of 1322 respondent which represents 1.5%. refer to
table 6 below. Although the number is not so high but it makes us to conclude that this
group is the most vulnerable group to flood disaster in this place.
Table 4.8. showing Disabled HH head along WTC

Disabled HH Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
head Percent Percent
.0 1300 98.3 98.5 98.5
1.0 20 1.5 1.5 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0
4.4.10. Elderly house hold head (65 or more) along WTC
In terms of mobility and physical capacity, this may reduce their capacity to access
information or to appreciate the urgency of certain situations. the table shows 11% of
the residence of this study area are elderly who need special care in case of any disaster
event

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Table 4.9. showing Elderly HH head (65 or more) along WTC

Elderly HH Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
head (65 or Percent Percent
more
.0 1175 88.9 89.0 89.0
1.0 145 11.0 11.0 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0
4.4.11 Female house hold head along WTC
Disasters affect every member of a community in different ways. But women bear the
brunt of these effects. There are several factors that go into this assertion. Today,
majority of the world’s poor are women. Poverty, more than just the lack of income,
has implications for housing, health, education and human rights. As a result, poor
women are more likely to be malnourished and less educated, factors that only
exacerbate their vulnerability in a disaster.
There is also the role of social constructs, where a woman’s role in her community
could even spell the difference between life or death. For example, a 1993 study of the
effects of an earthquake in India found that more women died during the disaster
because they were inside their homes and consequently crushed by falling debris, while
men were working in the fields. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was no different,
where the ratio of female to male deaths was 3 to 1. It was found that women did not
know how to swim or got their hair tangled in debris.
A woman’s vulnerability is not diminished, even if she survives. Women who have less
influence or no voice in a community may lack access to resources after a disaster.
Access to resources, information and support are key to survival, but not always a

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simple matter for women. Then, there is gender-based violence. After a disaster,
women become vulnerable to rape, trafficking, forced marriage and domestic violence
due to the breakdown of societal mechanisms, distress and lawlessness.
Women can also take on more roles and responsibilities in the wake of a disaster. The
notion of women as “careers” essentially means that they are more likely to be the
primary careers of the children, elderly and disabled in their families. After a disaster,
this role could be expanded to care for injured family members or others in their
community. In this study in the three communities of Bekasi city, Bekasi and Karawang
regencies 99 head of household were found to be women which represents 7.5 percent
out of 1322 sample population which were interviewed see table 8 below. If serious
measure is not put in place to mitigated the increased flood disaster situation along
West Tarum Canal it will not only add on psychosocial stress and make it more difficult
for them access aid but the fact is women this study area leave below poverty line based
on field data in reference to Centre for statistics for Indonesia as many of them don’t
even have permanent income generating job which make them being particularly
vulnerable to exploitation as they try to obtain food and safety for their families in a
disaster community with none.
Table 4.10 HH head by female along WTC

HH headed by Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
Female Percent Percent
.0 1221 92.4 92.5 92.5
1.0 99 7.5 7.5 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0

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4.4.12. Period of stay
Exposure to flood for a prolonged period of time is bound to bring about environmental
degradation/pollution and eventually show its effect in various forms of health impacts.
Thereby, the period of stay in the area is an important indicator for analyzing the level
of household exposure to the effects of flood. The informal settlements surveyed had
existed there for decades, therefore
Table 4.11 period of stay

Residences Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Mobile 254 19.2 19.2 19.4
permanent 1066 80.6 80.6 100.0
residence
Total 1320 100.0 100.0
Living in unsafe conditions which is frequently prone to flood means the inhabitants
are undoubtedly directly and indirectly exposed to its effects through contamination of
facilities like drinking water sources as well as direct physical contact with continuous
standing water. In the context of the present study, permanent resident in this study
area were taken to be exposed to the flood conditions for a prolonged time and have
somehow learn how to deal with the disaster, therefore they were classed under least
exposed, while the new comers or mobile in the location residing for shorter time were
considered to be more exposed

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4.4.13. Occupation and income of HH along WTC

Almost 40% of the respondents work as laborers with minimum income such as
industry workers, construction workers, etc. About 26 percent of the respondents work
as a retailer and 15 percent is the other consisted of shoe maker, tailor, home industry
see (figure 5.2.1.1). The remainder work as a housewife, transporter, civil servant,
entrepreneur and retired. The livelihood considers the ability of people to deal with the
impact of the hazards to which they are exposed. During the flood in the late December
2010 the people whose houses were struck by flood did not go to work
4.4.14 Total income of House hold along WTC

The poor are less likely to have the income or assets needed to prepare for a possible
disaster or to recover after a disaster (Morrow 1999; Cutter et al. 2003). Although the
monetary value of their property may be less than that of other households, it likely
represents a larger proportion of total household assets, 72% of residents of this place
fellow under poverty line because they earn less than RP 944700 which is considered
as per capita income basing on (BPS) For these households, the low income levels in
these communities contribute to increasing the vulnerability of the people to
environmental hazards including floods. This can be observed from table below which

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indicates that most of the head of households belong to the low income level with
regards to the classification of income levels of households.
4.5 Household Exposure Index Along West Tarum Canal.
In the context of the present study household exposure assessment aims at

systematically evaluating the exposure dimension of vulnerability at household level.
The Household Exposure Index is a composite of various parameters towards
indication of the level of household’s exposure to flood. It is based on the similar
approach used in the development of Human Development Index, where various
elements measured in different units are aggregated together (UNDP, 1997). This
method of constructing an index involving normalization of indicators had been
successfully used in numerous earlier studies too (Nsorfon 2014). Unlike the Human
Development Index, all the indicators in this case are given the same importance by
assigning equal weights. The household exposure index is calculated with specific
focus on the relationship between social vulnerability of the target households and
flood implications faced due to direct exposure.
The construction of the Household Exposure Index is based on the idea that a

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combination of different advantageous and disadvantageous factors would help in

determining the overall level of household exposure to flood implications. Therefore,
the selection of multiple indicators was necessary for identifying which household is
at greater exposure risk and where. It would further be helpful in tracing the causes for
exposure and simultaneously can be used to identify preventive options and structural
alternatives to enhance chances of protection against flood hazards. Moreover, it can
also be helpful for planners and decision makers to identify areas of interventions, give
them scope for reviewing prior actions and policies as well as make necessary
rectifications.
The indicators to flood exposure were derived from the factors that cause an
individual/household to be at greater flood exposure risks as discussed in the preceding
section, though it must be mentioned here that the selection of the indicators was based
on personal judgment of the author on the grounds of knowledge and understanding of
the problems gained during the course of intensive survey and observation in the study
area. The selected indicators represent aspects of demographic and living conditions,
area status, and house types etc. that are representative for the whole study area. As
mentioned earlier, these indicators were categorized under three heads. Firstly,
demographic characteristics of the surveyed population including information about
age and family size. Secondly, settlement status, which highlights information about
the type of house and the period of stay and thirdly, a set of indicators on physical
exposure to flood, gauging proximity to open drainage or canal and frequency of drains
overflowing. On the basis of these five selected indicators (Age, family size, period of
stay, type of house and proximity to canal disposal, canal/drainage), a Household
Exposure Index (HEI) was developed. Each indicator has been rated on a 7 scale score
ranging between 1 and 7, where a lower score indicates a larger contribution to
exposure and higher score indicates less contribution to exposure, thereby following an
inverse relationship between the score and level of exposure. Therefore, the HEI is
defined as an average aggregate of all the indicator scores, which can be quantified as:
Total score
HEI=
Total number of indicators

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The main aim of developing such an index is to compare the surveyed households on
the basis of their exposure levels to floods with one aggregate value. It also shows who
is more exposed to flood and is potentially at higher risk and where. These set of
indicators reflect the core determinants of flood exposure which is the external
dimension of vulnerability. Since the indicators are substitutable, it can only give a
general picture of household exposure and therefore the result needs to be interpreted
carefully. This index would later be analyzed with the coping capabilities of households
and together with people’s perception and impact dimensions to assess the overall
social vulnerability of the surveyed population in Bekasi city, Bekasi and Karawang
regency

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Table:4.12. HH vulnerability exposure
score
1-4 5-7
Indicators
1. age More in age group 17-25 and Less than 60 years

above 60
2. Family size More than 6 with household head 1-4 persons

above 60 years
3. Period of stay Less than 2 years 10 years and more
4. infrastructure House type, flood protection House type , flood protection
5 Disposal Less 200m More than 200m
6 Toilet status Without toilets With toilets
7 Drinking water Not safe source Safe source

source
Exposure Index= Total score/Number of Indicator (7) Most Less

Exposed exposed
Index value ranges between minimum (1) to maximum 7)
1.0 -4.0 = high Exposure
5-7 = less Exposure
Household Exposure Index was calculated for all the 1320 surveyed households. A
combination of scores earned by individual households on the basis of their security
and vulnerability to flood related exposure risks categorized them to highly expose and
less expose households. Based on this classification made from the household exposure

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index, a comparison was made between these group of households to see which factors
contribute more to highly exposed households and which contribute for least exposed
households.
Table 4.13. percentage of HH vulnerability exposure
Highly Exposed Household Less Exposed
Indicators characteristic percentage Characteristics Percentage
Age More in group 17-25 38 More in age group 60

and above 60 of less than 60
years
Family size More than 6 with 27.2 1-4 persons 61.1

household above 60
years
Period of Less than 2 years 19.2 10 years and more 80.6

stay
House type Semi-permanent 48.8 Permanent houses 2.7

Temporary
Emergency
Disposal Less than 200m 27.1 More than 200m 61.2
Toilet status With out toilets 35.8 With toilets 47.2
Drinking Not safe source 37 Safe source 45.8

water source
The seven parameters including age, disposal, toilets status, drinking water source,
period of stay, size of family, and housing status have been weighted to generate social
vulnerability of the households in WTC. The combination of these factors in estimating

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and identifying the most vulnerable household in the study area. It was found that most
households have high vulnerability, few of households have moderate and low
vulnerability.
It is likely that most of households have high vulnerability on one parameter, while
the other households have low vulnerability on one parameter. It can be summarized
that why people still live in this areas (flood prone areas) because the reason is not only
because some own properties like land, cheap house, and better access to economic
activity since Karawang and Bekasi are industrial centers for Indonesia and near the
capital city and also their capabilities such as organizations and local traditions make
them stay in this place
CHAPTER 5:
ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS AND APLICATION OF
THE THEORY
5.1. Demography and social vulnerability

First the key demographic characteristics age, sex and household composition are
analyzed with regard to poverty and risk of social exclusion. Both the youngest adults
and the oldest people are most exposed to income precariousness, and women and
female-headed households are more vulnerable than men. One-person households and
one-parent families are more at risk than other household types. These basic results are
followed by a combined analysis of the key characteristics.
Elderly households and their social disadvantages, Welfare regimes are important for
reducing the risks of poverty and social vulnerability of the elderly people. Despite
needs-based transfers, the proportions living in precarious income remain high along
WTC. Dual income elderly couples are better off than those with only one income.
Elderly are over-represented in terms of poor non-material means and bad health.
Women are poorer, in worse health and less satisfied than men at all ages. The social
vulnerability of sub-groups of elderly has to do with the life courses and can be
expected to decrease as new generations move into retirement age.
5.1.1 Single households and their social disadvantages.
Most of the persistent disadvantages experienced by one-person households are

associated with age. The risk of income precariousness is increased at young ages when
unemployment or availability of only casual jobs is high, and in the late phase of
working age when unemployment increases. For elderly people living alone, the

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overlapping disadvantages of low income, high dependence on public support, high

unemployment and bad health peak for people living alone at ages 40 to 55 years.
One-parent households and their social disadvantages: They face a higher than average
risk of poverty and are more than average dependent on public support for their
livelihood. Not participating in the labour force is high among lone parents/ mothers.
One-parent families are the worst-off household type, and they are also the least
satisfied. In terms of demographic behaviour lone parents start their family career
somewhat earlier than couples with children. Also the proportions of never married and
of divorced women are high. Lone parents report persistently worse health than couples
with children,
Two-parent households with children and their social disadvantages: Two parent
families are less exposed to poverty and less dependent on public support. The presence
of children, however, influences both the income situation and the general satisfaction
(couples without co-residing children are the best off). Despite growing female labour
force participation almost one out of every three two-parent families has one income
only. One-income two parent families are at considerably higher risk of deprivation
with one quarter living in income precarious conditions. Social protection benefits
transferred to low-earning couples with children do make a positive difference and
reduce risks of income poverty for large numbers of parents. The highest risk for
couples with children is unemployment of the father or of both parents simultaneously.
While poor means is not so widespread, almost one of four two-parent families is not
satisfied with their work, financial situation and housing. Large families (which have
high proportions of fathers and mothers with low educational attainment) are clearly
exposed to multiple deprivations more often than couples with one or two children.
The higher the number of children in the household the lower is the equalized income.
Of all couples with children, parents with many children are the least satisfied with
their income and their leisure time. Under the prevailing welfare regimes, they appear
not well protected from risks of poverty.

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5.3 Social -economic status of HH along WTC
According to (Anh et al. 2013) social capital such as mutual help among neighbours in
response and recovery after disasters is an essential component of the climate resilience
of low-income households. The people in this community are prone than others to
damage, loss and suffering due to flood depending on their characteristics which are
class, caste, ethnicity, gender, disability, age, or seniority disaster (Flanagan et al.
2011), add such as sexual orientation, parenthood, location, mobility, and renters where
they are associated with poverty, powerlessness, weakness, limited capacity and lack
of resources of the people. In this research, the elements at risk in socio-economy of
the study area emphasis was on age, gender, occupation, income, educational level,
period of stay, housing status, ownership of household building, and size of family.
The other factors are ignored because of limited time and lack of data.
5.3.1 Estimated loss of assets (structure, crops and trees) in Area along WTC
Canal
The emotional toll, and impacts to farming and the house structure were the most
frequent impacts among the respondents on the based on data of household along West
Tarum Canal. However, impacts to wages or employment and personal belongings
were also common, and it is clear that a range of short-term and long-term impacts
occur when flooding is viewed from a livelihood perspective. Almost half of the
respondents had been impacted by floodwaters inside of their home. Basing on the data
around IDR 68830898.4 is the estimated loss shown in figure (5.1), table (5.2) shows
35.2% of households loss 10% of their business superficies and table (5.3) shows
28.6% loss their agricultural superficies during floods disaster see figure and table
below respectively. Lost properties are proportionately more expensive to replace,
especially without homeowner’s or renter’s insurance (Tierney 2006). Moreover,

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unemployed persons do not have employee benefits plans that provide income and
health cost assistance in the event of personal injury or death. These diverse impacts
indicate that flood risk is a combination of unique factors at the local level, and a focus
on catastrophic flood impacts alone neglects livelihood risk in the floodplain
Figure: 5.1. Estimated loss of assets (structure, crops and trees)

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Table: 5.1. HH Along West Tarum Canal losing more than 10% of their
business superficies
HH losing more than Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
10% of their business Percent Percent
superficies
.0 856 64.8 64.8 64.8
1.0 464 35.1 35.2 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0
Data source:(ICWRMIP - Sub. Component 2-1 n.d.)
5.3.1. HH losing more than 10% of their agricultural superficies
Agriculture sector is very important to realize the objective of national development; it

increases the food production, stabilization of food prices, protection and
empowerment of the farmer’s welfare. Karawang and Bekasi are popularly known to
be among the highest rice producer in Indonesia so flood impacts to the agriculture
sector caused by the over flow of West Tarum Canal would threaten the ability to
sustain the region and attract people in the sector. Financial and environmental stress
on farms would affect the ability of farmers to recover from hazards and create a
dependence on government financial assistance. 28.6% of the farmers are affected by
multi-crop damage almost every year due to increase in monsoon floods and extreme
rainfall that causes soil erosion see table below.

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Table 5.2. HH Along WTC losing more than 10% of their agricultural
superficies
HH losing more than 10% Frequenc Percent Valid Cumulativ
of their agricultural y Percent e Percent
superficies
.0 942 71.3 71.4 71.4
1.0 378 28.6 28.6 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0
According to (BPS Jawa Barat 2015), in 2014 the harvest area of paddy and
production decreased slightly compared to 2013 basing on this research this could be
attributed to cutaneous flood impact to farmers.
5.4. People in disposal Area along WTC

Tables below displays flood frequency and impact characteristics of the respondents.
The survey included a high percentage of respondents who experienced frequent flood
events and who had incurred impacts to their household and other property. 27.1% of
the residents are in disposal area to floods, 42.1% of the residence have to be relocated,
54.4% of the residents don’t own house outside espoused area see table below
Table 5.3. People in disposal Area along WTC
Disposal Area Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
155 11.7 11.7 11.7
Disposal Area 358 27.1 27.1 38.8
Non 809 61.2 61.2 100.0
Total 1320 100.0 100.0

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Table 5.4. Showing HH without land or house owned outside COI

HH without land or house Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
owned outside COI Percent Percent
.0 600 45.4 45.5 45.5
1.0 720 54.5 54.5 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0
Data source:(ICWRMIP - Sub. Component 2-1 n.d.)
5.4.1 HH to be relocated
According to (ICWRMIP - Sub. Component 2-1 n.d.) 2010 they identified 556 houses
which make 42.1% of the residents in study area to be relocated but It is a complex
processes, many factors need to be taken into account, including the degree of changes
in landscapes, conditions of damages of buildings and the willingness of the victims. It
involves several stages, including the selection of a building site, the obtainment of
building land, the design of buildings, the distribution of housing, the planning of
environment and the development of livelihood. Removing a group of people from
the place they have been familiar with to another place might cause cultural and
environment crisis, which could lead to a new disaster. People along West Tarum Canal
have a strong connection with their land. For them, relocation means a total change of
interpersonal relationship and social identity. In addition, relocation will force them to
change their livelihood as many of them rely on agricultural, industrial labour and
fishing for living.
According to (Fu, Lin, and Shieh 2013) they argue that a successful relocation means
the new community can rely on its own resources and has the capacity for self-reliance.
They also stress the importance of the residents’ willingness to take the new place as
their permanent home and to start investing resources in the new place, also emphases
that collective relocation for disaster victims is more than accommodating of affected

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people. The competent party should also look into the long-term adaptation and
community development of people being removed. However, when homes and
landscapes are destroyed by nature disaster and are no longer safe for habitat, collective
relocation becomes the sole option. Below figure shows houses to relocated.
Table: 5.6. Showing HH to relocated

HH to be Frequenc Percen Valid Percent Cumulative
relocated y t Percent
.0 764 57.8 57.9 57.9
1.0 556 42.1 42.1 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0
5.5. Poverty line in reference (BPS) per HH Along West Tarum Canal
To measure poverty (BPS Provinsi Jawa Barat 2016) uses the concept of basic need
approach . Therefore, poverty is viewed as economic inability to fulfill food and non
food basic needs which are measured by consumption/ expenditure, that’s the method
that they use to calculate poverty line which consist of two components that are food
poverty line (FPL) and Non food poverty line. A person is whose expenditure per
month is below is considered to be poor. Basing on that all people below per capita RP
9.447.000 are poor, in the the below 72.7% of the residents along West Tarum Canal
lay under poverty line because the earn between RP 22841.0 -913604.0 which is below
per capita income RP.9.447.00 (BPS Provinsi Jawa Barat 2016) see table below.

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Table: 5.7Poverty line in reference (BPS) per HH Along West Tarum Canal
Poverty line Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
reference Percent Percent
(BPS) per HH
228401.0 152 11.5 11.5 11.5
456802.0 201 15.2 15.2 26.7
685203.0 294 22.2 22.3 49.0
913604.0 313 23.7 23.7 72.7
1142005.0 222 16.8 16.8 89.5
1370406.0 91 6.9 6.9 96.4
1598807.0 29 2.2 2.2 98.6
1827208.0 7 .5 .5 99.2
2055609.0 11 .8 .8 100.0
Total 1320 99.8 100.0
Basing on the above analysis this concludes that majority of residents along West
Tarum Canal are in vulnerably conditions and when severe floods strakes them, are
bond to safe because few rich ones can manage to recover quickly because they have
the financial muscle
5.6. Knowledge and awareness
The way a person forms his or her opinion about the risk and its possible consequences
depends upon the direct experience of the person involved and experience of others in
near surroundings (De Graaf 2016).The internal capacity of individuals to cope with or
face stress to a great extent also gets influenced by prior knowledge and awareness.
The extent of preparedness of a community speaks not only of their adaptability but
also of their knowledge and awareness of risk (Nsorfon 2014).This recalls the ideas

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about future impacts as well as lessons learnt from prior experiences which depend
upon household or community’s knowledge about the nature of risk, its impact severity
and available mitigation options. Each of these factors is individually explained below.
5.6.1. Earlier experience
People have a variety of modes of understanding risks and such perceptions will change
considering the experience of the individual and the social and cultural setting in which
these understandings are formed (Philip 2003). In this sense it should be recognized
that risk perception and assessment are grounded in the cultural norms and values that
govern a society and are embedded in the relationship that social communities have
with their physical and social environment (McLaughlin and Dietz 2008). The study
revealed that understanding the pattern of flood risk and finding means to prevent its
next occurrence is to a large extent influenced by the individual’s earlier encounter
with the same or learning process by other’s experience.
The study also revealed that prevention of an unexpected flood disaster is not
constrained solely by imperfect information but also by risk denial by a household
community. Residents along WTC acknowledge the frequent nature of flood related
risks and their potential consequences, but often place the responsibility of the threat
to a higher authority such as the government and other civic agencies.
Nonetheless, the study confirmed the fact that experiences of earlier implications
strengthen coping and adaptation through learning from the same and modifying
measures accordingly. This is highly supported by the fact that households which are
in good setting for inter- and intra-community interaction, share knowledge about the
problem and learn from experiences of each other. This increases their awareness,
facilitates their timely response and strengthens their management capabilities.

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5.6.2 Knowledge of impact severity
There always remains a considerable degree of uncertainty about the occurrence of

serious floods; therefore, knowing the nature of risk and problem goes a long way in
preparing for its prevention, thereby strengthening management capabilities. People’s
idea about the nature of risk influences their perception towards it and moulds their
choice of prevention and coping strategies. Basing on the findings from the study
revealed that the degree of perceived risk of flood threats was significantly higher
among the residents living in Karawang and Bekasi Regencies compared with those in
Bekasi city. The demonstrated difference in perceptions is undoubtedly attributable to
the level of awareness of risk and the degree of exposure to flood hazards. A similar
perception of flooding has been described by (Nyakundi et al. 2010) The memorability
of past floods also leads to heightened perceptions of risk which implies that the
respondents perceived risks from flooding only to the extent or magnitude that they
had previously experienced. Similarly, (Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein 1982)
concluded that the memorability of past events played an important role in the
determination of how individuals perceive and react to future flood events, thus leaving
themselves vulnerable in the event of a larger flood.

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Table: 5.8 severity impact
N Low High
o. Score
Indicator
1 Poverty Below IDR 944700 IDR 944700 a abnd ove
level
2 Agricultur Losing more than 10% Not Less than 10%
e
3 Business Losing 10% Not Less than! 0%
4 Settlement Need to be reallocated Not yet to be realocated
Low High
severity severity
Despite of the persistant occurance of floods in WTC, community along it are not are
not willingly permanently to vacate their flood prone land due to the fact that severity
flood level is not very high only 0.7% experience high severity, 32.2% mediam and
largest segement of the community 39.3% experience low this indicated that for this
community, the advantages of living close to the Tarum canal far outweighed the health
risks associated with flooding. Although flooding was viewed as a recurring problem,
see table 5.9

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Table: 5.9. percentage of severity impact

Indicator HH with low Severity HH With Low Severity level
Level
Indicator characteristic percentage percentage percentage
Income Above 944700 27.2 Below 944700 72.7%

Agriculture Losing more than 71.3 Not Less than 28.6
10% 10%
Business Losing 10% 64.8 Not Less than 35.1
10%
Settlement Need to be 57.9 not yet to be 42.1
impact reallocated reallocated
5.6.3. The role of social capital in the case study areas
The role and effectiveness of social capital in coping and adapting with the flood related
risk as observed in chapter four, 982(74.3%) were married and living with their
spouses. A further 57(4.3%) were widowed, 20 (1.5%) were single, while 28(2.1%)
were widower. Female-headed households, widows/widowers and their children were
generally perceived to be more vulnerable to floods as compared to households with
both spouses. This could be explained by the fact that households with both spouses
are better placed both financially and psychologically. They are therefore able to
respond to flood risks in a better mental and emotional state than their single
counterparts(Nyakundi et al. 2010) but this could not be necessarily true because
recovery from flood impacts both demand financial reserves that can buffer the
household from negative flood impacts with their areas varied across socio economic,
cultural and religious status. In the succeeding section, existence of people’s group,
effectiveness of social networking and constrains to community participation is
analyzed to understand its importance in strengthening capabilities for management of
flood risks.

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5.7. Applying the adapted Pressure and release model
The figure demonstrates that, from the perspective of rural residents, a process of
vulnerability is at work in the floodplain where root causes and dynamic pressures
create unsafe conditions (columns pointing right) that affect the capacity to cope with
a range of hazardous events and environmental changes (column pointing left). The
first stage of the vulnerability process, according to the perspectives of rural residents,
begins at the left side of the diagram where root causes exist from social, economic and
political forces in the floodplain environment. For example, rural municipal managers
indicated that there are objective assessments of risk at the provincial level that do not
coincide with the subjective understandings of local risk. As a result, there are distinct
flood cultures emerging that threaten a shared understanding of what it means to live
in the floodplain, and the establishment of a mediated approach to risk management.
Politically, this affects the relationship between rural people and the government during
public involvement opportunities and in the formulation of resource and planning
policy.
NFigure:5.1. Modified Pressure and Release (PAR) MODEL TO ANALYZE VULNERABILITY TO

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FLOODS ALONG WEST TARUM CANAL ( BEKASI AND KARAWANG Communities)

The Progression of Vulnerability
1 2 3
Disaster
Root Dynamic Unsafe
These Magnified are the
Causes Pressures Conditions Hazard
focus problem along West
Tarum Canal

poor health

Poverty Inadequate
conditions House
unemployment access to Damage
Limited access to ü Local institutions as a result of
Disruption to
ü Power ü Education Un safe Business
ü Housing ü Training infrastructure Agriculture FLOODS
ü Appropriate Poor toilet Livelihood
ü Structures
status HEALTH
ü Resources skills Unsafe water
ü ü Press freedom Un safe water
Emotional
Ideologies Macro- forces for home use stress
ü Economic Un safe
ü Increase in
system drinking water
population
ü Social source
ü Environmental
cohesion Un safe
degradation
ü Migration settlement
ü Rapid
ü agriculture place
urbanization
Disruption of
livelihood
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5.7.1. Root causes
Root causes are defined as a deep-rooted set of factors within a particular community
that together form and maintain vulnerability (Twigg, 2007). Judging from the findings
of the community based hazard and vulnerability assessment. the people along WTC
have limited to poor, structures and resources. The characteristics above give a clear
picture of how vulnerable the people are. In most cases after floods, the people take a
fairly long time to recover. The flood impact becomes so big due to lack of
power/influence, with limited structures and financial resources to build their homes or
return to their livelihood activities, mostly of trading and informal employment.
Environmental health risks in areas along WTC (Bekasi and Karawang)

According to the findings, the following factors, or a combination of all, causes
environmental problems:
Ø rapid population growth;
Ø the wasteful use of resources with too little emphasis on population control and
waste reduction;
Ø the over-simplification and degradation of parts of the earth’s life-supporting
system;
Ø poverty, which can drive poor people to use resources for short-term survival
and expose them to poor health and other environmental risks; and
Ø The failure of economic and political systems to encourage sustaining forms of
economic development and to discourage earth-degrading economic growth.
Environmental sanitation is more problematic in areas along WTC; some often lack
public latrines and Lorries for rubbish collection. People living in areas of high
population density with inadequate services tend to take environmental issues for
granted resulting in problems. A large section of the community in informal settlements
come from villages without pipe-borne water or sanitary services and is struggling for
survival.
A lack of readily available drinking water, sewerage system connections, garbage

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collection and basic measures to prevent disease and provide health care ensure that
the informal settlements are disease-ridden. Many households who do not have
sewerage systems; rivers, streams and ditches are where most untreated human
excrement and household waste water are discharged. Most of these problems are
linked to the poorer type of household summarized in chapter 4, table 4.6
Ideologies: When people are poor, their capacity to read a political system and its
policies is very limited. They wait for the politicians to decide how they should live.
They leave to politicians to have a say on service delivery and other social amenities
such as provision of clean water, schools and hospitals.
5.7.2. Dynamic pressures,
in this phase there is a translating process that channels the effects of a negative cause
into unsafe conditions. This process may be due to lack of access to basic services,
provision or it may result from a series of macro-forces (Twigg et al. 2013) Shortage
or lack of local institutions means that there are no possibilities of institutionalizing
flood prevention and mitigation in the area. Training facilities are high desirable in this
area to educate, transfer skills and knowledge and train community members. Lack of
relevant skills and recourses in dealing with hazards is highly needed. For example,
community members should have skills in basic flood disaster rescue and first aid
courses. Secondary factors, which also influenced this decision, are the inadequate
provision of education and health services and the poor delivery of infrastructure and
essential services such as water, and sanitation.
The substantial increase in population means that the resources that are available will
be depleted and thus increases the vulnerability of residents along WTC community.
The absence of sanitation, refuse and waste removal and electricity (as a source of
energy) makes it difficult for this community, the cutting down of tree to create space
for agriculture has adverse effects on the environment (e.g. soil erosion) The

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inhabitants of the study area experience the effect of dynamic pressures as the residents
are now, because of rapid urbanization, forced to live in sub-standard conditions that
contribute to the lack of basic essential services, inadequate housing and education, a
lack of skills development opportunities as well as limited employment (job
opportunities) offered in the area. The rapid urban growth has a negative impact on the
environment, which again leads to the degradation of certain wetlands, river basins and
ground water resources along WTC. The causal factor of this degradation is pollution
caused by inadequate waste removal, poor sanitation and drainage systems. The above,
plus the inadequate provision of clean water, also contributed to human health
problems
5.7.3. Unsafe Conditions
This phase discusses the vulnerable context where people and property are exposed to
flood disaster. The fragile physical environment is the focal issue. The shelters are built
in such a way that they are closely to the canal and that becomes a high risk when flood
hazard occurs. Most communities are located in flood line areas and that increases their
vulnerability. The majority of the members of these communities in the case study live
under poverty line which make their livelihoods at risk. Some of the building,
infrastructures are poorly constructed and could consequently be vulnerable to floods
thus causing house damages, disruption to business, agriculture, livelihood, unsafe
water, emotional stress and Injury/ death

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5.8 Summary of chapter 5.
The results presented underline how some dimensions of social capital play a key role
in influencing vulnerability dynamics. A high level of community embedding, together
with the reliance on civil protection and support, considerably reduces residents’
vulnerability. The ways these relations among residents and between them and the
services are shaped and cultivated makes the difference in determining their level of
vulnerability to flood hazards, this also means that what residents can do, depends also
on what the services do, and on the reciprocal expectations in terms of actions and
responsibilities.
CHAPTER 6:
COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT
FRAMEWORK
6.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives the detailed insight discussion and background in the progression of
vulnerability and it also outlines the community approach framework. With the aid of
progression of safety model, control measures will be identified to address flood
hazards that make communities along WTC i.e. Bekasi and Karawang more
susceptible. Community-based disaster management provides a systematic process for
identifying, estimating, and ranking community risks (ADPC 2006)
6.2. Community based disaster management framework

This chapter gives the detailed insight discussion and background in the progression of
vulnerability and it also outlines the community approach framework. With the aid of
progression of safety model, control measures will be identified to address flood
hazards that make communities along WTC i.e. Bekasi and Karawang more
susceptible. Community-based disaster management provides a systematic process for
identifying, estimating, and ranking community risks (ADPC 2006)
The community should be involved in the process of assessment, planning and

implementation. There are more livelihoods in which problems will be addressed with
appropriate interventions, through this process. The CBDM process has seven
sequential stages, which can be executed before the occurrence of a disaster, or after
one has happened, to reduce future risks. Each stage grows out of the preceding stage
and leads to further action. Together, the sequence can build up a planning and
implementation system, which can become a powerful disaster risk management tool

123

124

(Zwi et al. 2013) This framework is summarized in Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1. Illustrates CBDM frame work
Establish the context

Define the problem
Establish emergency management plan
Develop risk evaluation criteria
Identify risks
Identify & describe hazards, community & environment
Scope vulnerability & describe risks
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION DECISIONS & ACTIONS
MONITOR & EVALUATE WITH COMMUNITY

Analyse risk
Determine likelihood & consequences
Evaluate risks
Compare risks against criteria
Set risk priorities
Accept Yes
risk?
No
Mitigate risks
Identify, evaluate, select, plan & implement risk mitigation
options
Assess residual risks
Treat residual risks

Develop preparedness treatments

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source: adopted from(Thinda 2009)
According to (Twigg et al. 2013) CBDM emerged as an alternative to top-down

approach during the 1980s and 1990s. Over the past two decades it has become
apparent that top-down approaches fail to address the needs of vulnerable communities,
often ignoring local capacities and resources. The top-down approach can increase
vulnerabilities and undermine the quality of life, security and resiliency (Twigg et al.
2013)
This framework aims at achieving community-based disaster reduction, sustainable

development and poverty reduction, people empowerment and equity within the
community. The CBDM is also envisioned as an integral component of sustainable
development, since it helps in avoiding the negative impacts of disasters on
development at the community level (ADPC 2004). Furthermore, the CBDM
framework will highlights the following principles: Views on CBDM, Understanding
the CBDM and Corrective actions towards community approach.
6.2.1 The benefits of community based disaster management
A wide range of innovative and do-able structural and non-structural preparedness and
mitigation measures are identified and implemented to reduce vulnerabilities by
building on and strengthening local coping strategies and capacities
v Involving the community members throughout the process of risk assessment
(hazard vulnerability capacity assessment) to disaster action planning (counter
disaster planning) leads to ownership, commitment, individual and collective
actions in disaster preparedness and mitigation
v Community members mobilize resources from within (mostly labor) and
outside the community so community disaster preparedness and mitigation in
cost effective

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v CBDM strengthens social cohesion and cooperation within the community and
society
v Community disaster preparedness and mitigation provides opportunities for
the integration of disaster management into the local development planning
processes and systems.
v CBDM builds confidence among individuals, households, communities in
undertaking disaster preparedness and mitigation as well other development-
related endeavors. This leads to self- and community empowerment
v Engaging the communities makes no distinctions among various groups and
types of personalities who offer to be involved. All people are welcomed,
regardless of their, age, race, prior community involvement, levels of education,
occupation, personal reputation, disabilities, religion, gender or any other
factor. Participating communities realize that past discrimination and other
factors can stop them from moving forward, and they, reach out actively to all
citizens to encourage their participation this strengthens social cohesion and
cooperation
6.3. Flood disaster reduction strategies along West Tarum Canal
The main category of the framework this author has developed in figure below involves
the Vulnerability reduction through defining root causes, identification of dynamic
pressures and creation of safe conditions, This section addresses the problems
identified in the progression of vulnerability through the safety model to assist in
rooting out the problems and root causes. The solutions/control measures are suggested
to reduce flood disaster along WTC. The implementation of this control measures will
help the community being put in safe conditions as well as building the resilience
through community participation by involving them in the activities concerning their
needs. The progression of safety model will be used to explain how to achieve safe

127

conditions for Bekasi and Karawang communities along WTC.
6.3.1. Progression of safety model
The basis for the PAR idea is that a disaster is the intersection of two opposing forces:
those processes generating vulnerability on one side, and the natural hazard event (or
sometimes a slowly unfolding natural process) on the other. The image resembles a
nutcracker, with increasing pressure on people arising from either side – from their
vulnerability and from the impact (and severity) of the hazard for those people. The
‘release’ idea is incorporated to conceptualize the reduction of disaster: to relieve the
pressure, vulnerability has to be reduced (Wisner 2003)
Despite some recognition of the human dimensions of disaster, there was a tendency
until the early-1990s to view hazards as exclusively natural phenomena, and hence to
take a predominantly scientific approach to disaster management. All these elements
are dynamic in that they are subject to constant change and hence their outcome is
unpredictable. According to the PAR model, the key to understanding the way people
cope with hazards is the livelihood strategies that people choose (Twigg et al. 2013).
Progression of Safety model that is illustrated in Figure 5.1 in chapter 5 is based on the
findings of the application of Progression of Vulnerability which is discussed in
Chapter(5), will address the following aspects:
• Addressing root causes: Addressed in a developmental manner, the negative

consequences caused by the legacy of the “Apartheid” regime. This to be
achieved through the application of national governmental programs, which
main focus areas should be poverty reduction and sustainable development.
• Achieving dynamic pressures: Focusing on developmental orientated
programs on the provincial sphere, which supports the national initiatives.
• Achieve safe conditions: Local community orientated programs that would
focus on the enhancement of a safer environment for all its inhabitants as well
as the establishment of resilient and safe communities.
• Hazard reduction: The application of a range of measures that would lead to
the reduction of hazards that could cause disasters along WTC.

128

Figure 6.2 proposed steps to reduce floods and social vulnerability in West Tarum
Canal

Step 4: Step 1:
Step 5: Step 3: Reduce Exposure
Reduce Pressures
Address Root Causes Achieve Safe Conditions
Increase
Access of
Protected
Vulnerable environment
Groups to
- Power safe locations
-structures
Resources Aim of
Development Hazard Controlled
-Rural resisting
of Local situation:
appraisal & Building and
. Education/
representation infrastructure
Training No loss of
. Scarce skills life
Effective Diversificatio No/few
Local
Public n of rural causalities
investment
Involvement: opportunities No/restrict
. Local markets
Risk ed
. Press freedom
management Resilient damage
Emergency. local Food
Macro forces Flood
Natural economy security
resources . improve Disaster
. Population Improved
Land-use livelihoods
Activities quality of
planning . increase
. life
Decentralize employment
Controlled
Risk
Urbanization Increase
Management public
Shared risk actions
. Carry out community
Anticipatory . Disaster
development resilience
planning .
process
preparedness
Challenge any . early
-ideologies warning
Economic
Step 2:
systems Maintain
-political Acceptable
systems Risk
Management
- increase
vulnerability

129

6.3.2. Addressing the root cause
The deep-rooted factors (poverty, unemployment, limited access to power, structures

and resources) are now changed with the aid of pressure and release model. Poverty
can be alleviated through application of government grants for qualifying members.
West Java provincial government should include communities along WTC in the
implementation of flood reduction projects identified in Municipal and Provincial
development, poverty reduction IDP’s programme and development projects, as well
as support existing community-LED (Local Economic Development) development
initiatives and in that way poverty can be eradicated. Development policies must
prioritize the growth of informal settlement areas, which have high percentages of
unemployed communities and little public infrastructure, by engaging communities in
creating necessary services and infrastructure.
The West java government should foster the creation of community-driven projects.
increase efforts to educate young people in community on responsible sexual lifestyles
and reproductive health practices as a public policy measure to effectively manage
population growth. Creating more jobs and transferring the job skills, experience and
knowledge can solve unemployment. Access to governance structures should be
increased to communities along WTC. Good governance is required to build active
participation of the people in the study area, this requires multi-sectoral participation
and stakeholder consultations in order to fully understand the range of hazards and
vulnerabilities priorities as well as the potential solutions coming from NGOs, CBO’S,
community-based enterprises, members of the community and the private sectors.
Water & Sanitation Infrastructure need to be improved.
Hygiene education awareness is also a critical component. Investments aimed at

increasing awareness and changing of hygiene behaviours of people along WTC, such
as construction of toilets away from the canal, maintenance of public toilets and take
safe water for drinking greatly will reduce mortality rates from water and hygiene-

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related diseases. In these areas of Bekasi and Karawang, this led to achievement of
environmental health impacts that are more immediate, cost-effective, and equitably
distributed than the adoption of water or sanitation infrastructure investments alone.
Without the necessary water and sanitation infrastructure and hygiene education, the
communities along WTC face high morbidity rates that will undermine their
productivity and profoundly affect their ability to pull themselves out of poverty.
6.3.3. Reducing the dynamic pressures
This process is addressed by providing essential basic services. There needs for local
institutions (schools, churches, mosques, clinics, etc.) so that there can be
institutionalization of flood prevention and mitigation in the area. Schools/training and
education facilities play a vital role to ensure that communities are provided with
relevant training and education to transfer skills, experience and knowledge of disaster
risk management. Medical facilities such as clinic are needed to help the locals in
administering medical assistance or emergency help. The community structures and
committees need to be established in order for the community to be able to deal with
the local hazards and disasters. Residents along WTC if fully sensitized and involved
can play the following roles and Responsibilities
Causal aspect, in which if several influential rules are implemented or obeyed by the
community they will significantly reduce magnitude of flood disaster, these are, not to
dump garbage/solid waste to canals and drainage system, not to build bridge and other
structures that will obstruct canal flows, not to settle in canal flood way, not to reclaim
low areas (for flood retaining areas) for other purposes, to stop deforestation on
catchment areas, to stop agricultural practices and other land use practices that against
soil and water conservation rules, and to control rate of population growth.

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Participatory aspect, in which participation or contribution of community will mitigate

impacts of flood disaster to community themselves, those are: to involve and active in
flood mitigation drill such as, disaster awareness campaign, preparedness and
evacuation drills, flood forecasting and warning etc. ii) to participate and actively join
in a flood- proofing houses program, iii) to participate in education of flood disaster
prevention, and iv) to participate in all step of public consultation meeting related to
flood control measures development and flood mitigation measures.
6.3.4. Achieving safe conditions
This is a practice that will protect the communities along WTC and their property from
being exposed to flood disaster. There is a variety of control measures that will enforce
safe practices there is a tremendous need to improve the physical infrastructure to
reduce vulnerability to floods
Land-use planning
Land-use planning at the local or municipal level can be a useful tool in reducing future
flood damages along WTC. Consideration should be given to ensuring that there are
conforming uses in flood-prone areas as part of master plans. The land closely to WTC
especially in Bekasi highly desirable for parks and recreational uses, as well as for
ecological reserves. Supportive infrastructure such as washrooms, picnic facilities and
changing rooms can be flood proofed. Private development of conforming uses such
as golf courses can also be considered. The important point here is to integrate the land-
use planning for flood prone lands into the broader plans for the urban and surrounding
area.
Zoning of flood-prone lands

The best way for west java government to reduce future flood damages is to prevent
development from occurring extremely close to WTC. Zoning of such lands is an

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effective approach, but generally should be coupled with the broader land-use planning
mentioned above so that the land has a defined use. Zoning can be used to reduce
damages from flooding and be flexible enough to recognize that other forms of land
use are compatible. An example is agricultural use of lands in flood-prone areas where
water velocities are low enough not to cause serious erosion. Flood-prone lands can
continue to be used for agricultural purposes, particularly in communities/ districts
where the amount of agricultural land is limited and to meet self-sufficiency in food
supply as one of the a national goal. It is important, however, to ensure that the
supporting infrastructure such as buildings and houses are located away from the flood-
prone area or are flood proofed. It is also important that livestock, machinery or stored
crops can be evacuated quickly from the area in the event of a flood. This underscores
the importance of a flood forecast, warning and response system. Zoning of flood-prone
lands as ecological reserves or protected wetlands can often help to meet broader
environmental or biodiversity goals. In addition, such lands often play an important
role in sustaining the fishery, and they can also act as temporary storage and infiltration
areas. Riparian buffer strips also reduce the movement of agricultural chemicals and
nutrients into the aquatic system.
Redevelopment of flood-prone areas

A major flood disaster is sometimes an opportunity to correct the planning errors of
the past. Removal of flood-prone development and conversion of the land to a
conforming use is an option to consider along WTC. It may be less expensive in the
long run to physically relocate flood-prone development, buy it out as part of a disaster
assistance programmes, or include its purchase in long term planning. The success of
the latter approach can be enhanced by measures such as prohibiting improvements not
required for health and safety, placing caveats on the land title, and by obtaining rights
of first refusal on resale.

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Compensation and incentives

Compensation as part of disaster assistance should always have as a goal the reduction
of future flood damages. Rather than simply paying for damages, the funds should be
focused on flood proofing, buyout, relocation and public education on the risks and
consequences of living on flood-prone lands.
In a similar manner, incentives can be developed that encourage flood proofing or

relocation, and these can be financed through cost-shared programmes. Here the cost
of flood proofing can be shared in proportion to the benefits to the various levels of
government of not having to compensate for future flood damages. Property owners
should also be expected to pay a reasonable share in view of the enhanced value of a
flood-proofed structure and the reduced inconvenience after a flood
Land exchange programmes can be used as an incentive to relocate from flood-prone

lands. In such cases a public entity makes alternate land available and disaster
assistance is generally used to pay for relocation or replacement of structures,
depending on the costs and benefits.
Incentives can also take the form of penalties. For example, if an individual is aware
of the risk of flooding through such programmes as flood plain delineation, or caveats
on land titles, and still decides to build on flood-prone land, then that person should
bear the consequences of his/her actions and not be eligible for disaster assistance.
However, this is difficult to enforce and is reliant on strong political will at the time of
announcing disaster assistance.
Insurance
For insurance schemes to be successful, there needs to be a clear definition of the risk,
as premiums should reflect the degree of risk at a given location. It is also desirable for

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governments to promote or, when possible, mandate universal insurance coverage and
guarantee funding when payouts exceed premiums. Such schemes should be designed
to be self-sustaining over the long term. An additional problem concerns the
information base, which is seldom sufficient to define the degree of risk adequately. It
is also difficult to effectively make insurance mandatory. Often those most at risk due
to flooding are the least able to pay, or they refuse to pay because of high premiums.
6.3.5. Regional Capacity to Address Community Health and Risk
Figure 6.3. illustrates the need to integrate sustainable initiatives and vulnerability
reduction within community goals and capacities to provide adaptive solutions in a
region. Providing a climate change context, or a multi-risk context to community
planning, provides an opportunity to expand risk perceptions beyond catastrophic risk
events, and to re-define risk management from a community health and development
perspective.
Vulnerability
Reduction
Strategies
Environmental Environmental
Health Risk
Social Regional Social

Health Capacity Risk
Economic Economic
Health Risk
Sustainable
Planning
Initiatives
Source: adopted from (Birkmann 2006)

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With a greater freedom to plan for a number of livelihood factors that are at the root of
community health and vulnerability, citizens are empowered to generate new
opportunities, social capital and resources for anticipatory planning. The short-term
and long-term needs of reducing vulnerability mean that risk mitigation is a continual
planning process that encourages vigilance in preparing for uncertainty. Addressing
socio-political dimensions of vulnerability in floodplain management, therefore,
requires that individuals and communities increase their representation in decision-
making.
Management themes based on mitigating and living with risk among residents along
WTC (Bekasi and Karawang) can be enhanced through an extended view of risk that
promotes a culture of community health and safety. Community health and safety is
not just about living with risk as it includes an assertive effort to tackle a broad range
of risks and hazards and ensure that the most vulnerable conditions in society are
addressed. Stakeholders that can contribute to community health and safety must unite
and persevere to understand what impacts them and to take common action. The
concept of culture, however, means that conflict and change are natural components of
risk and vulnerability reduction. Distinct consideration must be devoted to engaging
stakeholders, particularly the most vulnerable, in political representation to ensure that
they can access support during stressful times. Mediation and inclusion is a priority for
risk management to reach groups marginalized from the mainstream political-
economic systems and who are less likely to engage in learning and action.
6.3.6. Flood disaster reduction measures for communities along West Tarum
canal
flood disaster reduction is the “systematic development and application of policies,

strategies and practices to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout

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society, to avoid (prevent) or limit (mitigate and be prepared for) the adverse impact of
hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development” According to the
Yokohoma Strategy and Plan for Action for a Safer World (United Nations 1994)
“Preventive measures are most effective when they involve participation at all levels
from the local community through the regional level to the provincial and national
government”. According to (Twigg et al. 2013), preventive measures fail because the
role-players involved in long-terms sustainable development programmes work in
silos. The following are the recommended strategies for reducing the impact of flood
disasters (Twigg 2004) Raising structures above ground level using sand, wood or
stilts.
• Using metal sheeting or stand bags to divert or hold back water.

• Digging channels to draw water away from dwellings.
• Building away from the water body.
These measures show the importance of multi-sect oral flood disaster management in
informal settlements. For instance, although roads and storm water departments may
be primarily responsible for managing flood risks, environmental health workers/water
and sanitation also play an essential role in flood risk management by providing
accessible, dependable solid waste collection and disposal
• Vulnerability Assessment – this activity provides the disaster manager with

information regarding a particular community that is susceptible to the impacts
of sudden or slow-onset hazards.
• Planning – there is a need to have plans in place that are agreed upon, that are
implementable and for which commitment and resources are relatively assured.
• Institutional framework – this relates to the need for a decision-making
structure, inter-departmental committees to co-ordinate plans, focus groups
within each department that are responsible for the implementation of plans, as
well as regional and community structures to implement strategies at a local

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level.
• Information systems – the preparedness plan must have an information
network such as an early warning and monitoring system to facilitate disaster
prediction, warning and evacuation communication to the community.
• Resource base – the requirements to meet an emergency situation will clearly
depend upon the types of hazards the plan anticipates. Such requirements
should be made explicit, and should cover all aspects of disaster relief and
recovery implementation. Examples of resources are: shelter, medicines, food,
communications’ systems, relief workers, etc.
• Warning systems – by giving a vulnerable population adequate notice of an
impending disaster, such people can either escape the event or take precautions
to reduce the dangers.
• Response mechanisms – the staging of response is an essential factor in
designing a preparedness plan. It is therefore important that in the warning
process, various responses should be mobilized. This states that the National
Disaster Management Centre (NDMC) must initiate the development of
regulations for the implementation of a national standard response management
system which should, inter alia, make provision for the development of
partnerships between agencies involved in response and recovery and the
private sector, NGOs, traditional leaders, technical experts, communities and
volunteers for the purpose of enhancing capacity. The framework further adds
that each stakeholder identified in the response management system must
establish standard operating protocols or procedures (SOPs) for coordinating
response and recovery operations and for ensuring government/business
continuity. These SOPs must be consistent with the requirements of relevant
legislation, regulations and standards.
• Public education and training – public education and training is critical to
ensuring a change in behaviour and has to be afforded priority in all disaster

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management initiatives. Such education takes many forms, such as; o Public
education in schools for children and young adults, emphasizing what actions
should be taken in case of a disaster threat (for example, shack fires, floods,
etc.); o Special training courses designed for community, either specifically or
as an extra dimension of on going programmes such as First-Aid and Basic and
Fire Fighting courses.
• Raising awareness and training - raising awareness and training are vital in
disaster risk management for broad effect, quality and long-term strengthening
of capabilities at municipal level. Central here are: o Raising awareness of
hazards and vulnerabilities (above all through risk analyses); o Assessing costs
and benefits of disaster risk management for individuals and communities; o
Imparting know-how on specific disaster risk management measures, using the
bottom-up approach.
• Societal measures – the mitigation of disasters will only come about when
there is a consensus that this is desirable. Mitigation planning should therefore
aim to develop a disaster “safety culture”, one in which the general public is
fully aware of potential hazards, chooses to protect itself as fully as possible
and can readily support protective efforts made on its behalf.
In support of the above measures as outlined in the Indonesian disaster management

bill of 2006 identifies the basic elements and features of Community-Based Disaster
Risk Management as the following:
• People’s participation – community members are the main actors and

instigators; they also share directly in the benefits of disaster risk reduction and
development.
• Priority should be given the most vulnerable groups, families, and people in the

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community. In the urban areas, the vulnerable sectors are generally the urban
poor and informal sector, the elderly, the disabled, children and women.
• Risk reduction measures are community-specific and are identified after an
analysis of the community’s disaster risk (hazards, vulnerabilities, and
capacities and perceptions of disaster risk).
• Existing capacities and coping mechanisms are recognized – CBDM should
build upon and strengthen existing capacities and coping strategies.
• Links disaster risk-reduction with development – this implies that CBDM
should aim to address vulnerable conditions and causes of vulnerabilities.
• Outsiders have a supporting and facilitating role – local people should invest in
and own the CBDM process, with outsiders providing minimal facilitating and
expert support services.
The best way to instill in people the notion of prevention in dealing with natural
disasters and influence their behaviour in the long term, however, is to involve them as
far as possible in identifying disaster risk and its causes and then in planning and
implementing pre-emptive measures.
6.4 Legislative framework for community-based disaster management
In February 2005, the Masyarakat Penanggulangan Bencana Indonesia (Indonesian

Society for Disaster Management, or MPBI), along with other stakeholders from
government, NGOs, and the military, expressed support to the House of
Representatives of the Republic of Indonesia in drafting the academic paper for the
Disaster Management Bill that was later undertaken as a House Initiative by the 8th
Commission of the House of Representative and resulted to the formation of a House
Special Committee. The House of Representatives to the President then submitted the
DM Bill Draft on December 30, 2005 under letter no. RU.02/8793/DPR RI/2005. The
President then appointed three Ministers to represent the Government in the discussion
of the Bill Draft, based on letter no.R.11/Press/01/2005 on January 27, 2006. They were
the Ministers of Justice and Human Rights, Public Work, and Social Affairs.(ECHO,

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UNESCAP, and ADPC 2008)
After two years of discussion, the Indonesian Disaster Management Bill was eventually
enacted. Its enactment, however, is not the end of the advocacy work, but the start of
another effort requiring significant amount of energy and commitment to bring the
issue of disaster management to the local level. The DM Law recommended the
creation of a Government Regulation and a President Regulation. The Disaster
Management (DM) Law also posited the following paradigm shifts:
1. From emergency response to risk management. Disaster management

should no longer be regarded as a series of special and limited actions in
response to a catastrophic event. Rather, it should become a thorough risk
management, in which stakeholders can positively control, prevent, or
completely eliminate, certain identified hazards.
2. Protection for the people is the government’s responsibility, and one of the
basic rights of the people. Disaster management therefore shall become an
implementation of governmental function to protect the people from any risk
and hazard leading to catastrophe.
3. From the responsibility of the government to responsibility of all
community. Disaster management should also become part of the public
domain, knowledge and effort, and integrated with the government’s role in
planning and coordinating the efforts. In light of this idea, a Community-based
Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) should be exercised, involving various
stakeholders in each community. Some communities that have experienced
hazards and disasters in the past developed their own ways of risk management
strategies. These should become the basis for developing a more systematic
CBDRM program to make said communities less vulnerable and better
prepared for hazards and disasters.

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The regulatory arrangement under the NAP-DRR is in consonance with the

National Mid-Term Development Plan, respective line-ministries, and local
government for annual planning and budgeting. The institutional arrangement
under the NAP-DRR is particularly
aimed at building networks among government institutions, local governments,

private sectors, civil society, and other stakeholders. Civil society groups are to be
involved in the institutional arrangement and disaster risk reduction mechanism at
all government levels.

6.4.1. Flood Management Measures in Normal Time
Task and role of inter-agencies disaster taskforce namely SATKORLAK (provincial

level) and SATLAK (district and or river basin level) during normal time (in Indonesia
during dry season), will be categorized in two measures, a) preventive measures which
are done yearly in repetitive way before floods occurred, and b) recovery measures of
socio-economic condition of community after floods occurred.
a) Measures before flood
v Establishment of a new or activate an existing Inter-Agency Working Group
(chaired by Provincial/District Water Resources Service) as part of
SATKORLAK and SATLAK to make observation, inspection, and “walking
through” on available structural (flood control structures) and non-structural
measures and define of role sharing among members.
v Recommend any required improvement to maintain function of flood control
structures.

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v Monitor and evaluate rainfall and floods data, report on inundated areas and
other information required to forecast floods and identification of affected
areas and flood prone areas.
v Preparation of flood prone area map with plotted evacuation routes, location of
temporary shelters, location of POSKOs, and location of flood discharge
measurement/observation stations.
v Checking and testing of available flood warning system and take necessary
measures to maintain them or establish them if there is not exist.
v Logistical planning and provision required funds, equipment’s and materials
for emergency funds, relief materials (food and water), equipment’s
(excavator, bulldozers, dump truck, movable pump, etc.), and materials for
flood fighting (sand bags, etc.) and others equipment for emergency measures
(boat, life jacket, etc.).
v Planning and preparation of a Standard Operation Procedure (SOP) for
emergency measures and flood fighting actions involving all member
SATKORLAK, SATLAK and POSKO such as identification of
affected/potentially flooded areas, identification of evacuation routes,
evacuation equipment’s (transportation measures such as trucks, boat, etc.),
identification and preparation of temporary shelter for displaced peoples,
identification of needs and provision of relief materials such as food, water,
mobile sanitation and medicine on each temporary shelter.
v Implementation of Flood System Information, by direct disseminations to
communities and issuance of press release and transmission of flood
information in cooperation with printed media and electronic media such as
TV and radio stations.
v Practicing evacuation drill to check preparedness of communities, Emergency
Task Force, and evacuation equipment’s, readiness of temporary shelters with
their emergency equipment’s.

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v Coordination meetings in BAKORNAS, SATKORLAK, SATLAK, Inter-

Agency Working Group and Emergency Task Force to determine various
Levels of Flood Risk with associated consequences and role sharing among
involved agencies, familiarization for all members SATKORLAK, SATLAK,
and POSKO on SOP during emergency and to agree on information flows and
reporting procedure and formats.
v Establishment of networks among involved government agencies and NGO
working on flood mitigation and printed media as well as electronic media for
public education, awareness campaign and transmission of flood information.
v Conduct public education on flood hazard mapping and its associated risks and
the use of device for flood-proofing houses.

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Figure 6.4. illustrates CBDM in Indonesia
Community-based Disaster Management in Indonesia
Relevant Departments
• Social department
PROVINCE
order • Red Cross

SATKORLAK PBP • Fire Fighting
department
Alert Inform & • Health department
Information request for • Flood disaster dpt

coordinatio
MUNICIPALITY
SATLAK PBP n Relevant Agencies

• Social agencies
Alert Inform & • Red Cross
Information request for • Fire Fighting
aids • Health agencies

-DISTRICT
SATGAS PBP Services

equipment’s
Alert Inform & Emergency supply
SUB
Information request for etc.

aids

KELURAHAN
SATLINAS PBP
-P3K -TANDU Relevant Community
-Evacuation -Emergency Kitchen organizations
-CARAKA -SAR • PKK
-PIONIR -PAM • KARANG TARUNA
Alert Inform & • Community Health
Information request for Service
aids • RTs & RWs
• BALAKAR others
Command Centers – RW Level
source: adapted from (ECHO, UNESCAP, and ADPC 2008)

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SATLINMAS PBP – Disaster and evacuation management unit at kelurahanlevel

P3K – First aid treatment unit (Community Health Center, PKK, Karang Taruna)
TANDU – Distribution of emergency supply unit
Evacuation – Evacuation unit
Emergency Kitchen
CARAKA – Information unit (Karang Taruna)
SAR – Search and Rescue unit
PIONIR – Pioneering unit
PAM – Security unit
SATGAS PBP – Disaster and evacuation management unit at sub-district level
6.4.1.2 Early Warning and Damage Control
Citarum river basin have emergency plans and early warning systems, concerning
operation of gates and alertness for extra protection with sand bags or evacuation in
case of critical heights recorded at strategic locations. Generally optimal use is made
of the limited possibilities, although it is inadequate to prevent floods, generally
speaking fatal casualties are minimal.
Fancy early warning systems based on telemetry nearly all have failed, because proper
maintenance is difficult with limited budgets and inadequate staff. But reading staff
gauges diligently during heavy rains, and communicating their progresses of increase
of water level by radio are adequate. Weakness of current early flood warning systems
is the link to flood affected communities at village level. Usually responsible agency
staff receives the information on time, but the communities are frequently alerted only
at the last moment. Preparation and distribution of a flood hazard map will make the
communities aware that they are living in the flood prone area. Flood forecasting and
flood warning system, linked to the flood hazard map and evacuation plan, should be
communicated to all communities at risk as precaution, and actual information should
be spread quickly through local radio stations or SMS.

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Another way to reduce damages is to arrange quick recovery after disasters. This could
be done by mobilizing the local communities and banks in providing easy access to
loans, and providing adequate budget for emergencies to the agencies, which can be
mobilized expediently.
Output of the emergency management component (Component E) of the flood
management policies will be that communities have assessed their situation and carried
out measures to reduce flood damage and ensure essential goods and services are
available during and after emergencies. Specific measures will depend on local
conditions but may include some of the following:
v Improved communications linkages for receiving early warning information
about flooding, including radio linkages and community dissemination of
warnings.
v Evacuation routes and refuge sites identified
v Improved availability of water supply and sanitation protected from floods
v Local drainage improved, through cleaning, removal of obstructions, ensuring
gates are operable, as well as prevention of new obstructions through river
guard (see component A) and better information to local authorities and public.
v Protection of public areas such as markets, schools etc, or vulnerable areas
such as locations where chemicals or oil is stored.
v Households more aware of ways to obtain information and to protect
themselves and property during floods.
v Enhanced community groups, making optimal use of existing groups, and
where necessary and feasible through establishment of new river users groups.
Another output will be inter-agency disaster task forces with updated and improved
plans for dealing with floods. They will have carried out training courses and
simulation exercises to strengthen their capacity provide emergency services. Trainers
will have been able to support community-based flood preparedness. Stocks of
emergency supplies and equipment will have been increased and refuge sites will have
been improved.

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The central activity in this component will be a participatory process through which
communities improve their capacity to cope with floods. Agencies supports this,
through developing capacity to facilitate community-based flood mitigation, and
through improving their own capacity to provide well-coordinated emergency services.
These measures should be included in the Flood Awareness guidelines. It is proposed
to start with a pilot area to implement the measures to improve the validity of the Flood
Awareness guidelines, and to show measures are working.
Flood Management will be more effective if it serves and is supported by Local
Governments and communities. Beneficiaries from flood management should actively
support implementation and maintenance, both by complying with the rules and
contributing labour and/or cash. In accordance with the new law on water resources,
both government agencies and communities should be represented in a coordinating
body, such as the Provincial Water Resources Council (Dewan SDA) or the optional
Basin Water Resources Coordination Body as well as inter-agencies disaster task force
SATKORLAK, SATLAK and POSKO for emergency measures envisaged in Water
Resources Law 7/04. If necessary, additional services should be provided to enhance
cooperation between the various interest groups, such as low-cost housing, water
supply, sanitation, and irrigation.
Indonesia’s national policies are aimed at improving the welfare of people. Floods are
threatening that, because it causes deaths, injuries and damages, prevents people to do
the normal work during the floods and its aftermath, and limits willingness to invest in
development and income generation. Poor people are most affected, because they
usually lack the savings to cover the losses during floods or start anew life at another
location.
The areas frequently affected by floods show a significant lower development of these
small industries than the neighbouring areas, and with each flood the area becomes less
attractive. This vicious circle has to be broken, which could be done through well-
targeted investments in flood management, as proposed in the flood management
policies. Potential for improved performance in flood management is based on

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v the value of existing infrastructure,

v the high levels of untapped skills at community levels and
v the relatively low levels of investment required for preventing or reducing a
large part of the annual damages from the floods
6.5. Summary of chapter 6

In summary key elements of community-based flood and vulnerability assessment for
achieving risk reduction measures were explored with reference to community based
disaster management as a theoretical framework (Chapter two). Community based
disaster management was chosen as a relevant theoretical framework for the study
because of the emphasis it places on community participation in matters relating to
outside intervention aimed at the uplifting of local communities, and most importantly,
to ensure local ownership and sustainability of disaster reduction
To successfully eliminate or reduce flood disaster in WTC, there needs collaboration

between different members/stakeholders of the community must exist. Bekasi and
Karawang communities along WTC are greatly exposed to floods which need special
attention in terms of employing preventive measures. Deduced from the research
survey, it is of vital importance that solutions be provided to reduce flood risks and
vulnerabilities along WTC communities especially karawang and Bekasi through the
use of these framework.
It is also importance for the researcher to identify the social cleavages within a
community in order to achieve risk reduction measures. The researcher points out that
the community must take certain measures that will help make them less vulnerable to
disasters, before and after they occur. The following are factors that were rooted-out
from the application of vulnerability as part of the root cause and the dynamic pressures
and found to be helpful in reducing the impact of disasters:

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CHAPTER 7:
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The researcher concludes the thesis through achieving the objectives of the study i.e.
1) to describe the intensity of flooding 2). Describe level of social vulnerability along
WTC and to develop community based flood disaster and vulnerability assessment
framework. Bringing community participation to flood disaster management is a
difficult task, and all actors in the field can recognize that it is so energy consuming.
However, patience and listening are often rewarded with great achievements, to which
all the examples described above can attest.
There is now a clear perception that flood disaster management cannot be treated in
isolation and implemented solely in cooperation with disaster management agencies.
Owing to the diverse factors contributing to disaster risk and the far-reaching impacts
of a natural disaster, community-based disaster risk management can only have a
sustainable impact as a multi- sectoral along WTC (Bekasi and karawang), comprising
a broad range of sectors, Disaster Management Services, Environmental management,
Water & Sanitation, , Housing, health and social development) at local and provincial
levels.
7.2 CONCLUSION
The findings show the description of the intensity of flooding, level of social
vulnerability and the framework for reducing future community vulnerability in the
context of flood disaster management. this indicated that there exist significant
relationships amongst the key variables such as income, livelihood, period of stay, size
of family, gender, age, educational level, domestic water source and housing status
have been weighted to generate social vulnerability of the households along West
Tarum Canal. The combination of these factors can be especially valuable for
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estimating and identifying the most vulnerable household in the study area. It was
found that only a few households have high vulnerability, most of households have
moderate and low vulnerability for social economy. It is likely that only a few
households have average moderate and high vulnerability on each parameter, while the
other households have a high vulnerability on one parameter. It can be summarized
that, the reason why the people still live in these areas (flood prone areas) is not only
because they Owen property, cheap house, and better access to economic activity but
also their combination of social vulnerability to flood hazard is not so high. But also
due to their capabilities such as organizations and local traditions attaché them to these
places
Vulnerability is a detector of susceptibility and capacities of any system. Social systems

in context to a hazard are determined by their physical location, temporal development,
their internal and external influences and exchanges. This place-based notion of
complex problems can be measured by the exposure of this system to external threats.
Place-based exposure however, only manifests as a problem, when certain negative and
positive, passive and active abilities and conditions coincide. Encompassing the
exposure, susceptibility and capacities of a system at risk provides a broad research
lens that helps to capture aspects that might have been neglected by traditional hazard
or risk analyses so far.
Areas along West Tarum Canal (karawang and Bekasi) are Metropolitan cities of
Jakarta the capital of Indonesia, so there is a growing trend of increasing social and
economic costs that include the under-development and lack of essential services,
population and economic growth, informal settlements, rapid and unplanned
urbanization, unpredictable climate change and environmental degradation. With the
increasing level of flood disaster risks and a growing percentage of residents that
occupy hazardous areas, these areas can become a breeding ground for diseases unless
placement and development of communities are done through design and development

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planning with the aims of altering the effects of such events.
For the West Java government to successfully reduce vulnerability of communities

along WTC to flood disasters and meet the sustainable development, approaches to
integrated development planning, spatial planning and community involvement in
decision making need to be implemented. Development planning is essential for
reducing the negative conditions that are found in the study areas. Structural poverty,
standardized infrastructure and housing, high population densities, the concentration of
economic assets and industrial activities can be reduced by either placing strict limits
on development in hazardous areas, building regulations that ensures structures that
can withstand flood disasters, land use practices and development that do not impact
deforestation or wetlands negatively. Educating the community about these limits can
contribute to the community being a flood disaster resilient community.
Flood risk reduction must become an important part of development programmes and
risk reduction efforts should not only be induced by good governance and partnerships
with multi-actor cooperation, but it should be integrated with poverty reduction,
development policies, plans and programmes. Flood disaster reduction involves
understanding and addressing the risks and vulnerabilities that people face and the
preparedness of the community to disasters. The vulnerability to future disaster risks
in this areas should be promoted in the following plans: Integrated Development Plan,
the region Development Strategy and Spatial Development Framework.
Governments can prepare baseline assessments on flood disaster reduction; monitor

and assess the physical, social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities as a means
to adjusting early warning systems; incorporate catastrophes into economic projects;
promote the integration of risk reduction into development planning strategies; and
involve the local community in all aspects of disaster risk reduction with the objective
of reducing flood disaster.

152

7.2.1 Challenges
This must be denoted for avoiding uncritical application and uncommented transfer of
the approach of this study. Data availability, spatial and temporal resolution of the data
are limitations for capturing certain social aspects like people’s perception about floods
and preparedness for the large research area. The hazard scenarios are limited to
inundation extent and full data coverage was not available.
Within the methodology, the challenges lie within an objective selection of the
variables and the weighting procedure, even when a comprehensive conceptual
framework guides the systematization. It is within the nature of indicators and
quantification that the actual phenomena are only indirectly measured and often
generalizations must be made. Therefore, the indicators are valid only for describing
average characteristics of the demographic composition of Karawang, Bekasi regency
and Bekasi city not for capturing the vulnerability of single households. As with every
analytical concept, many assumptions are made, and it must be encouraged to regard
this study results not as definite but rather as starting point for improvement and further
research.
The assessment of social vulnerability is not an end in itself and does not stop at the
description of potential demographic weaknesses and strengths. Social vulnerability is
one dimension of vulnerability besides the vulnerability of infrastructure, of the
environment or else. Social vulnerability is also one part of disaster risk assessments
and crucial information for supplementing hazard assessments.
7.2.2 Contribution

This study contributes to recent research activities around social vulnerability in two
respects. First, it increases information about social vulnerability in Indonesia
particularly West Java province. Second, it aligns with the research direction of

153

interdisciplinary science that is especially enhanced in the field of the human-

environment nexus. Vulnerability, resilience, climate change and sustainability are
high on the agenda of national policy and research. These are fields where advancement
in information depth and awareness are prerequisites for developing strategies for the
future in the light of population growth and environmental strain. Knowledge on
complex relationships translated into measurable indicators will be a key field for the
identification and valuation of future action priorities.
7.3 Recommendations to Decrease Community Vulnerability to Floods
Based on the key results presented above, I present six recommendations for policy-
making that follow from this research:
1. The use of decision support tools, including PAR models, is important for
assessing the effectiveness of adaptations both in current and future scenarios
and should be used to inform international and national policy for CBDM and
be made available at more regional and local scales for regions and
communities that are particularly vulnerable to disasters.
2. Promoting better, proactive, integrated adaptations which have been shown in
this research to be effective in reducing vulnerability will assist communities to
live more sustainably in the face of flood risk. This is particularly important
given the likely increase in flood risk under future climate change.
3. Focusing attention on reforestation will be a key to reducing community
vulnerability to floods in the case study presented.
4. Government involvement is still important in enhancing the resilience and
standard of living of low to middle income families. The model presented here
indicates that improving the quality of the municipal disaster unit, assisting low
income families with housing construction, insurance and cash payments are
likely to be the most effective forms of involvement.

154

5. Since villagers live below the poverty line, creating alternative economic
sources to stakeholders may increase villagers’ capacity to respond to future
floods. However, based on the model’s outputs, increases to income not only
increase the villagers’ savings but also raise the potential for damage/losses.
Therefore, the need for applying other proactive adaptations should follow up
enhancing villagers’ economic capacity described in points 3 and 4 to avoid
increases to damage/losses.
6. With some adjustments this model can be applied to other case studies or hazard
types with different types of proactive adaptations. Assessing other possible
proactive adaptations in a variety of cases will improve the concept and practice
of vulnerability assessment.
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Glossary
1. Acceptable risk The level of potential losses that a society or community
considers acceptable given existing social, economic, political, cultural,
technical and environmental conditions.
2. Adaptation The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual
or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits
beneficial opportunities.
3. Biological hazard Process or phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by
biological vectors, including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins
and bioactive substances that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other
health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage.
4. Building code, A set of ordinances or regulations and associated standards
intended to control aspects of the design, construction, materials, alteration and
occupancy of structures that are necessary to ensure human safety and welfare,
including resistance to collapse and damage.
5. Capacity The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources
available within a community, society or organization that can be used to
achieve agreed goals.
6. Capacity development The process by which people, organizations and
society systematically stimulate and develop their capacities over time to
achieve social and economic goals, including through improvement of
knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions.
7. Coping capacity, The ability of people, organizations and systems, using
available skills and resources, to face and manage adverse conditions,
emergencies or disasters.
8. Disaster risk management The systematic process of using administrative
directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities to implement
strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the
adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster.
9. Exposure People, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard zones
that are thereby subject to potential losses.
10. Environmental degradation The reduction of the capacity of the environment
to meet social and ecological objectives and needs.
11. Prevention The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters.
12. Public awareness The extent of common knowledge about disaster risks, the
factors that lead to disasters and the actions that can be taken individually and
collectively to reduce exposure and vulnerability to hazards.

165
166

13. Recovery The restoration, and improvement where appropriate, of facilities,

livelihoods and living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including
efforts to reduce disaster risk factors.
14. Response The provision of emergency services and public assistance during or
immediately after a disaster in order to save lives reduces health impacts, ensure
public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected.
15. Sustainable development. Development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
16. Risk assessment. A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by
analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability
that together could

167

ANENEX
Disaster over view in Indonesia
168

168

169

Field survey

170

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COMMUNITY- BASED APPROACH TO FLOOD

DISASTER AND SOCIAL VULNERABILITY

PARAHYANGAN CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY

COMMUNITY- BASED FLOOD DISASTER AND

THE THESIS DEFENSE

Pius Suratman Kartasamita Ph.D.

COMMUNITY- BASED APPROACH TO FLOOD DISASTER AND

If at a later date any violation is found in my work concerning education ethics, or

Date : June 2017

COMMUNITY- BASED APPROACH TO FLOOD DISASTER AND

Muzungu Ibrahim (NPM: 2015851007)

Master of Social Sciences

Key words: community based disaster management, Flooding, Social vulnerability,

COMMUNITY- BASED APPROACH TO FLOOD DISASTER AND

Muzungu Ibrahim (NPM: 2015851007)

Universitas Katolik Parahyangan

I extend my appreciation to the head of department of master of social science, Dr.

ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Center

GOI Government of Indonesia

2.3.1 Social - economic, Cultural and Political Dimension ............................... 44

6.4.1. Flood Management Measures in Normal Time ...................................... 141

1.1. Study Background

Flood disaster management in Indonesia has not been as widely implemented as

Community-based approaches to disaster management have become increasingly

The absence of public involvement in institutional forms of disaster management for

has allowed divergent disaster perceptions or disaster cultures to develop between

1.1.1 Community- Based Approaches to Disaster Management

In the context of disaster management (Ophiyandri 2015), define community as ‘a

1.1.2. Disaster management cycle

Figure: 1.1 Disaster management cycle

1.1.3. Disaster Management in the West Tarum Canal

1.1.4 Flooding in West Tarum Canal

Source adapted: BNPBD office visit 13th/04/2017

TABLE 1.1 FLOOD EVENTS IN KARAWANG AND BEKASI BETWEEN 2010S

Batu Jaya Teluk buyung 770 2936

Kampung sawah 368 1567

Pakis Jaya Teluk buyung 770 1083

Teluk Jaya 283 382

Source: PUSDALOPS, 25 May 2010

Ø Decreasing wetlands and natural recharge potential from development;

Ø Development impacts (i.e. roads, urbanization) on water flow, tables

1.1.5 Indonesian government Response to Flood and Floodplain policy

Before decentralization in Indonesian, Law No 11/1974, in the constitution gave all

Basing on regulation No 22/1982, several institutions were established by the Ministry

Emergency response as a result of reactive actions proved to be an insufficient response

2. Integrate the stakeholders’ adaptations from the mitigation to recovery stages

Figure 1.3. Disaster management in West Java Province

Governor of West Java

General and Program

Mitigation and Emergency Rehabilitation and

Source adapted from : (Wibowo, Surbakti, and Yunus 2013)

1.1.5.1. Key institution Involved in these arrangements

table 1.2 institution Involved

Disaster Ø To have effective disaster preparedness plans in

Data and Ø To have a comprehensive database on land and

Ø To have suitable models and decision support

Community Ø To have a high level of awareness of local

Source: (Participation, Water, and Management 2016)

1.1.6 Social Dimensions of Vulnerability in flood plain

Most floodplain policies have traditionally focused on structural mitigation and

1.1.6.1 Indicator of social vulnerability in West Tarum Canal

more prevalent in the urban population compared to the rural population, in

1.2 Research Statement