Keyboard technology

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This article is about the physical structure and electronic mechanisms of computer
keyboards. For layout and behaviour in software, see Keyboard layout. For keyboards
used in music, see Keyboard instrument.
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Keyboard construction, in four layers, of a typical notebook computer keyboard

The technology of computer keyboards includes many elements. Among the more

important of these is the switch technology that they use. Computer alphanumeric
keyboards typically have 80 to 110 durable switches, generally one for each key. The
choice of switch technology affects key response (the positive feedback that a key has
been pressed) and pre-travel (the distance needed to push the key to enter a character
reliably). Virtual keyboards on touch screens have no physical switches and provide
audio and haptic feedback instead. Some newer keyboard models use hybrids of
various technologies to achieve greater cost savings or better ergonomics.
The modern keyboard also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide
feedback to the user (and to the central processor) about what state the keyboard is
in. Plug and play technology means that its 'out of the box' layout can be notified to the
system, making the keyboard immediately ready to use without need for further
configuration unless the user so desires.

Contents
  1Types
o 1.1Membrane keyboard
o 1.2Dome-switch keyboard
o 1.3Scissor-switch keyboard
o 1.4Capacitive keyboard
o 1.5Mechanical-switch keyboard
o 1.6Hot-swappable keyboard
o 1.7Buckling-spring keyboard
o 1.8Hall-effect keyboard
o 1.9Laser projection keyboard
o 1.10Roll-up keyboard
o 1.11Optical keyboard technology
 2Debouncing
 3Keycaps
 4Other parts of the personal computer keyboard
 5Keyboard switch matrix
 6Alternative text-entering methods
 7Other issues
o 7.1Keystroke logging
o 7.2Physical injury
 8See also
 9References
 10External links

Types[edit]
Membrane keyboard[edit]
Main article: Membrane keyboard
There are two types of membrane-based keyboards, flat-panel membrane keyboards
and full-travel membrane keyboards:
Flat-panel membrane keyboards are most often found on appliances like microwave
ovens or photocopiers. A common design consists of three layers. The top layer has the
labels printed on its front and conductive stripes printed on the back. Under this it has a
spacer layer, which holds the front and back layer apart so that they do not normally
make electrical contact. The back layer has conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to
those of the front layer. When placed together, the stripes form a grid. When the user
pushes down at a particular position, their finger pushes the front layer down through
the spacer layer to close a circuit at one of the intersections of the grid. This indicates to
the computer or keyboard control processor that a particular button has been pressed.
Generally, flat-panel membrane keyboards do not produce a noticeable physical
feedback. Therefore, devices using these issue a beep or flash a light when the key is
pressed. They are often used in harsh environments where water- or leak-proofing is
desirable. Although used in the early days of the personal computer (on the Sinclair
ZX80, ZX81 and Atari 400), they have been supplanted by the more tactile dome and
mechanical switch keyboards.
Full-travel membrane-based keyboards are the most common computer keyboards
today. They have one-piece plastic keytop/switch plungers which press down on a
membrane to actuate a contact in an electrical switch matrix.
Dome-switch keyboard[edit]

How a dome-switch keyboard works: Finger depresses the dome to complete the circuit

Dome switches mesh with keys (keyboard is upside down in this image)

See also: Chiclet keyboard

Dome-switch keyboards are a hybrid of flat-panel membrane and mechanical-switch
keyboards. They bring two circuit board traces together under
a rubber or silicone keypad using either metal "dome" switches or polyurethane formed
domes. The metal dome switches are formed pieces of stainless steel that, when
compressed, give the user a crisp, positive tactile feedback. These metal types of dome
switches are very common, are usually reliable to over 5 million cycles, and can be
plated in either nickel, silver or gold. The rubber dome switches, most commonly
referred to as polydomes, are formed polyurethane domes where the inside bubble is
coated in graphite. While polydomes are typically cheaper than metal domes, they lack
the crisp snap of the metal domes, and usually have a lower life specification.
Polydomes are considered very quiet, but purists tend to find them "mushy" because
the collapsing dome does not provide as much positive response as metal domes. For
either metal or polydomes, when a key is pressed, it collapses the dome, which
connects the two circuit traces and completes the connection to enter the character.
The pattern on the PC board is often gold-plated.
Both are common switch technologies used in mass market keyboards today. This type
of switch technology happens to be most commonly used in handheld controllers,
mobile phones, automotive, consumer electronics and medical devices. Dome-switch
keyboards are also called direct-switch keyboards.
Scissor-switch keyboard[edit]
Scissor switch mechanism

A special case of the computer keyboard dome-switch is the scissor-switch. The keys
are attached to the keyboard via two plastic pieces that interlock in a "scissor"-like
fashion, and snap to the keyboard and the key. It still uses rubber domes, but a special
plastic 'scissors' mechanism links the keycap to a plunger that depresses the rubber
dome with a much shorter travel than the typical rubber dome keyboard. Typically
scissor-switch keyboards also employ 3-layer membranes as the electrical component
of the switch. They also usually have a shorter total key travel distance (2 mm instead of
3.5–4 mm for standard dome-switch keyswitches). This type of keyswitch is often found
on the built-in keyboards on laptops and keyboards marketed as 'low-profile'. These
keyboards are generally quiet and the keys require little force to press.
Scissor-switch keyboards are typically slightly more expensive. They are harder to clean
(due to the limited movement of the keys and their multiple attachment points) but also
less likely to get debris in them as the gaps between the keys are often smaller (as
there is no need for extra room to allow for the 'wiggle' in the key, as typically found on a
membrane keyboard).[1]
Capacitive keyboard[edit]
In this type of keyboard, pressing a key changes the capacitance of a pattern of
capacitor pads. The pattern consists of two D-shaped capacitor pads for each switch,
printed on a printed circuit board (PCB) and covered by a thin, insulating film
of soldermask which acts as a dielectric.
Despite the sophistication of the concept, the mechanism of capacitive switching is
physically simple. The movable part ends with a flat foam element about the size of
an aspirin tablet, finished with aluminum foil. Opposite the switch is a PCB with the
capacitor pads. When the key is pressed, the foil tightly clings to the surface of the PCB,
forming a daisy chain of two capacitors between contact pads and itself separated with
thin soldermask, and thus "shorting" the contact pads with an easily detectable drop
of capacitive reactance between them. Usually this permits a pulse or pulse train to be
sensed. Because the switch does not have an actual electrical contact, there is no
debouncing necessary. The keys do not need to be fully pressed to be actuated, which
enables some people to type faster. The sensor tells enough about the position of the
key to allow the user to adjust the actuation point (key sensitivity). This adjustment can
be done with the help of the bundled software and individually for each key, if so
implemented.[2]
The IBM Model F keyboard is mechanical-key design consisted of a buckling spring
over a capacitive PCB, similarly to the later Model M keyboard that used a membrane in
place of the PCB.
The most known company for their capacitive (electrostatic) switching technology is
Topre Corporation[3] from Japan. However, while their products are for sale
on eBay, Amazon, and other sites, they are generally less available in large parts of the
world. Topre's key switches use a spring below a rubber dome. The dome provides
most of the force that keeps the key from being pressed, similar to a membrane
keyboard, while the spring helps with the capacitive action. [4]
Mechanical-switch keyboard[edit]

Two Cherry MX Mechanical Keyboard Switches (disassembled on the right)

Every key on a mechanical-switch keyboard contains a complete switch underneath.

Each switch is composed of a housing, a spring, and a stem, and sometimes other parts
such as a separate tactile leaf or a clickbar. Switches come in three variants: "linear"
with consistent resistance, "tactile" with a non-audible bump, and "clicky" with both a
bump and an audible click.[5] Depending on the resistance of the spring, the key requires
different amounts of pressure to actuate and to bottom out. The shape of the stem as
well as the design of the switch housing varies the actuation distance and travel
distance of the switch. The sound can be altered by the plate, case, lubrication, and
even keycaps. Mechanical keyboards allow for the removal and replacement of
keycaps, but replacing them is more common with mechanical keyboards due to
common stem shape.
Mechanical keyboards typically have a longer lifespan than membrane or dome-switch
keyboards. Cherry MX switches, for example, have an expected lifespan of 50 million
clicks per switch,[6] while switches from Razer have a rated lifetime of 60 million clicks
per switch.[7]
The major current mechanical switch producer is Cherry. Alps Electric, a former major
producer, ended production in the early 2000s, [8] but Alps style switches continue to be
made by other companies such as Matias, Xiang Min (XM),[9] Tai-Hao (APC)[10] and Hua-
Jie (AK).[11] Other switch manufacturers include Gateron, [12] Kaihua (Kailh),[13] Gaote
(Outemu),[14] Greetech,[15] TTC,[16] JWK (Durock), and Omron.
Hot-swappable keyboard[edit]
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Hot-swappable keyboards are keyboards where switches can be pulled out and
replaced rather than requiring the typical solder connection. [citation needed] Hot-swappable
keyboards are typically mechanical or opto-mechanical. Instead of the switch being
soldered to the keyboard's PCB, hot-swap sockets are instead soldered on. They are
mostly used by keyboard enthusiasts that build custom keyboards, [citation needed] and have
recently begun being adopted by larger companies on production keyboards. [citation
needed]
 Hot-swap sockets typically cost anywhere from $10-25 USD to fill a complete board
and can allow users to try a variety of different switches without having the tools or
knowledge required to solder electronics.
Buckling-spring keyboard[edit]

Illustration from the original buckling spring U.S. Patent 4,118,611, issued to IBM in 1978

Many typists prefer buckling spring keyboards.[17] The buckling spring mechanism

(expired U.S. Patent 4,118,611) atop the switch is responsible for the tactile and aural
response of the keyboard. This mechanism controls a small hammer that strikes a
capacitive or membrane switch.[18]
In 1993, two years after spawning Lexmark, IBM transferred its keyboard operations to
the daughter company. New Model M keyboards continued to be manufactured for IBM
by Lexmark until 1996, when Unicomp was established and purchased the keyboard
patents and tooling equipment to continue their production.
IBM continued to make Model M's in their Scotland factory until 1999. [19]
Hall-effect keyboard[edit]
Hall effect keyboards use magnets and Hall effect sensors instead of switches with
mechanical contacts. When a key is depressed, it moves a magnet that is detected by a
solid-state sensor. Because they require no physical contact for actuation, Hall-effect
keyboards are extremely reliable and can accept millions of keystrokes before failing.
They are used for ultra-high reliability applications such as nuclear power plants, aircraft
cockpits, and critical industrial environments. They can easily be made totally
waterproof, and can resist large amounts of dust and contaminants. Because a magnet
and sensor are required for each key, as well as custom control electronics, they are
expensive to manufacture.