Lecture 3

WORD FORMATION IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN. AFFIXATION

Questions for discussion
1. The principal ways of word formation.
2. Affixation.
2.1. Suffixation.
2.2. Prefixation.
2.3. Combined affixal formation of words.

1. The principal ways of word formation

The principal ways of word formation in the contrasted languages are
isomorphic. They are the following: (1) morphological, (2) morphologico-
syntactic, (3) lexico-semantic, and (4) lexico-syntactic.
The most productive of them in English and Ukrainian is the morphological
way, which is realised with the help of the following means: affixation,
compounding, and non-affixal word formation.
The latter way should not be confused with the many words in both
languages being formed by means of zero affixes (without any affixes). This way
of word formation is very productive in English as well as in Ukrainian. Cf.: go,
come, boy, world, all, they, soon, four, five, he, she, wish; світ, річ, ви, ми, там,
тут, два, три, кінь, віл, піч, ніч, варт, жарт, кум – кума, онук – онука, etc.

2. Affixation

An affix is a morpheme (the smallest meaningful unit in grammar) that is

attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivational (like
English pre-, -ness, etc.) or inflectional (like English plural -s and past tense -ed,
etc.). The latter are bound (dependent) morphemes by definition, but prefixes and
suffixes may be separable affixes. Affixation is, thus, the linguistic process used to
form different words by adding morphemes (affixes) at the beginning
(prefixation), the middle (infixation and interfixation) or the end (suffixation) of
words.
Structurally, words appear to be divisible into morphemes.
From the semantic point of view, all morphemes are subdivided into two
large classes: (a) roots (radicals) and (b) affixes.
Derivational morphemes are word-building affixes (e.g., prehistoric, active,
майданчик), whereas inflectional morphemes are form-building affixes. In
English the latter are usually known as inflexions/inflections/endings or form-
building suffixes: e.g., boy → boys; I am reading. In Ukrainian the form-building
function is performed by both endings and form-building prefixes: e.g, ліс → ліси,
читати → дочитати, робити → зробити.
An infix is a morpheme that is placed within a word; these are rare, though,
for example, the English word cupful can be made plural as cupsful by inserting
the plural s as an infix. In Ukrainian: двохтомний, десятилітній, сорокарічний.
An infix appears as an empty (meaningless) morpheme: дв-і-чі, зна-й-уть, гра-в-
ець, бра-н-ка.
An interfix is a linking affix in some compounds. For example, in English,
when technical compound words are formed from non-technical roots, an -o-
interfix is sometimes used, as it has come to be seen as a connecting vowel (speed-
o-meter, mile-o-meter) by analogy to tacho-meter, odo-meter—compounds of
which the first part comes from an Ancient Greek noun whose stem includes o.
Examples from Ukrainian: ліс-о-степ, пар-о-плав, вод-о-грай, земл-е-мір.
In Ukrainian, there are also postfixes, which are added to the absolute end of
the word after the inflection and usually perform word-building function (e.g.,
битися, поглянь-но, ходімте, скажи-бо, хто-небудь, хтось, десь).
A confix (or circumfix) is an affix consisting of a prefix and a suffix affixed
simultaneously to the root: e.g., enlighten. The Ukrainian language has about 60
morphemes of this type. E.g., for nouns: ви-…-ок (вибалок, видолинок), о-...-ок
(одвірок), о-...-ець (окраєць), між-...-й (міжгір’я, міжбрів’я), etc.; for
adjectives: без-...-н (безбарвний, безбрівний), не-...-н (невтомний), під-...-н
(підручний, підголівний), etc.; for verbs: у-...-и(ти) (уподібнити, увиразнити),
роз-...-ува(ти) (розказувати, розписувати), о-...-і(ти) (остовпіти, озброїти),
etc.; for adverbs: по-...-ому (по-нашому), по-...-и (по-батьківськи), etc..
A stem is the part of the word consisting of a root and an affix; the stem is
the part of the word which remains unchangeable throughout the paradigm. In
English and in Ukrainian, stems and roots often coincide: work, port, book, праця,
порт, книга.
Stems that coincide with roots are called simple stems: e.g., boy, trees,
reads, etc. Stems that contain one or more affixes are derived stems: e.g.,
teacher’s, misfires, governments, undecipherable, etc. Binary stems comprising
two simple or derived stems are called compound stems: e.g., machine-gunner’s,
ex-film-star, gentlemanly, school-boyish, etc.
In the course of history, usually as a result of borrowing, there appear
synonymous (semantically identical/similar) affixes. For example, the suffixes -er,
-or, -ist, -ent, -ant, -eer, -ian, -man, -ee, -ess are synonymous morphemes in
English denoting “an agent, the doer of an action”. Having the meaning of
negation, the prefixes un-, in-, non-, dis-, mis- form a synonymic group of prefixes.
Synonymous affixes reveal different lexico-semantic groupings of words. For
example, Ukrainian terms of gardening contain synonymous suffixes -ок, -ик,
-ець: пилок, щиток, грибок, відсадок, вусик, живець, корінець, сіянець, etc.
Several morphemes are polysemic, i.e., a certain form, being a component of
words which belong to the same part of speech, can express different meanings:
cf., bluish (a.) :: Spanish (a.); baker (n.) :: boiler (n.); sculptor (n.) :: reactor (n.).
Homonymic morphemes have the same form and different meaning, being
components of words that belong to different parts of speech: cf., quickly (adv.) ::
lovely (a.); soften (v.) :: silken (a.).
One should distinguish between the homonymy of derivational affixes, on
the one hand, and the homonymy of such affixes and inflections, on the other: cf.,
worker (n.) :: longer (comp. d. of a.); golden (a.) :: taken (past part.).
 From the etymological point of view, affixes are classified according to
their origin into native (e.g., English -er, -nese, -ing, un-, mis-, etc.) and borrowed
(e.g., Romanic -tion, -ment, -ance, re-, sub-, ре-, суб-, etc.; Greek, e.g., -ist, -ism,
anti-, анти-, -іст, -ізм, etc.).
From the structural point of view, morphemes fall into three types:
(a) free morphemes, (b) bound morphemes, and (c) semi-free (semi-bound)
morphemes.
A free-morpheme is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-
form. A great many root-morphemes are free, i.e. their root morphemes coincide
with the stem of the word (e.g., friendship; синь, синій, синіти, синити, просинь,
синюватий, синьо-сірий).
A bound-morpheme exists only as a part of a word. Affixes are usually
considered to be bound-morphemes (-ness, -ize, -ship, dis-, de-), but many root-
morphemes, especially those of Greek or Romanic origin, are also bound
morphemes, e.g., conceive, theoretical. In Ukrainian: e.g., ви-мик-ати, уві-мк-
нути, за-мок, вул-иця, пал-иця.
Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes are those that can function both as an
affix and as a free morpheme (e.g., well and half in well-known, to feel well, half-
done, half an hour).
Morphemes (e.g., of Greek and Latin origin) may have a definite lexical
meaning though are not used as autonomous words, e.g., tele- , -scope, -graph, etc.
Such morphemes are usually called combining forms or bound root morphemes.
These are also known in Ukrainian as префіксоїди and суфіксоїди: e.g., -люб
(правдолюб, працелюб), -роб (хлібороб), -хід (стравохід), само- (самозахист),
пів- (півхліба), напів- (напівглухий), and also одно-, двох-, рідко-, густо-,
багато-, мало- (numerical meaning), довго-, коротко- (temporal meaning); the
borrowed elements are -оїд: Gr. “similar to…”: вербоїд, суфіксоїд; -ом: Gr.
“tumor”: глаукома, міома, остеома; and also гідро-, термо-, аква-, граф-.
Positional variants of a morpheme are known as allomorphs. Thus, the
prefix in- (intransitive, involuntary) can be represented by allomorph il- (illegal,
illiteracy), im- (immortal, impatience), and ir- (irregular, irresolute). In Ukrainian:
e.g., книга – книжковий, ніжність – ніжності.
Affixes can also be classified into productive (e.g., -er, -ness, -able, -y, -ize,
un-, re-, ви-, до-, най-, пре-, без-, за-, по-, -ан-/-ян-, -ува-, etc.) and non-
productive (e.g., -th, -hood, -en, -ous, па-, пра-, су-, уз-/вз-, -ець, -ит, -ва-, etc.).
There are also partially productive affixes: e.g., be-, mis-, dis-, co-, -lin, -ese,
-ster, -ie, -let, etc.

2.1. Suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of words by adding a suffix to the stem. Affixal
morphemes in the contrasted languages are used to form the same/common parts of
speech. Thus, suffixal morphemes help to form nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals,
and adverbs. These word-forming suffixes also belong to the same semantic
groups. Among the noun-forming suffixes there are distinguished the following
typologically common classes of them in English and Ukrainian:
 (1) Agent suffixes (суфікси, що означають діяча): -ist/-icт, -ист: analyst,
motorist, journalist, пацифіст, журналіст, артист, тракторист; -ant, -ent (-
ант/-ент): irritant, servant, student, solvent, комерсант, лаборант,
кореспондент, студент; -аг (-ар/-яр): burglar, scholar, байкар, володар,
муляр, дояр, зброяр; -er/-or (-ер/-ор): teacher, farmer, singer, actor, director,
inspector, інженер, міліціонер, актор, директор, конструктор, вчитель, etc.
It should be added that nouns formed with the help of the suffix -er often
have meanings other than that of denoting “performer of an action.” They may
denote (a) process: blabber, roarer, whisperer, (b) psychological state: admirer,
boaster, adorer, (c) physical perception: heaver, thinker, watcher, (d) instrument:
fanner, rectifier, (e) banknotes: fiver – п’ятірка, tenner – десятка, (f) time of
activity: fourter, fifter – чотирикурсник, п’ятикурсник.
The suffix -er is also used to form jargonisms like crammer, kisser, peeper,
etc. No less different meanings are also expressed by nouns formed with the help
of other suffixes of this class, as for example: -ier/-yer corresponding to the
Ukrainian suffix -ир: cashier, employer, lawyer, бригадир, командир, проводир;
-eer (-ep/-ip): auctioneer, profiteer, аукціонер, колекціонер, землемір; -ard/-art
corresponding to Ukrainian -ак/-як, -т-юх, -ак(а), -як(а): drunkard, sluggard,
braggart, жебрак, пияк, лінтюх, гуляка, задавака, забіяка, гультіпака.
(2) The English suffix -ee forms nouns denoting reception of action:
contestee, dedicatee, devotee, devorcee, employee, examinee, evacuee, nominee,
trustee, refugee and some others. The meaning of this suffix in Ukrainian can be
conveyed via the suffix -ець as in the nouns вигнанець, бранець, вихованець,
висуванець, переселенець and others. Besides, the meaning of patience can be
expressed in Ukrainian by the suffixes -н-, -т-, as in the substantivised nouns of
masculine and feminine gender: вражений, ображений, вражена, ображена,
поранений, зображений, забитий, залучена, забута, etc.
(3) Suffixes denoting numerous abstract notions: -ing (-н/-а/-я): clothing,
meeting, wedding; вбрання, зібрання, одруження; -ism (-ізм): Americanism,
barbarism, despotism, feudalism, colloquialism, американізм, колоквіалізм,
феодалізм, варваризм, деспотизм; -ness (-т/-a): darkness, goodness, темнота,
доброта, сліпота; -tion (-ац/-ія): corruption, errection, generation, protection;
генерація, корупція, протекція, сигналізація; -dom (ств/-о/, -цтв/-о/):
beggardom, butlerdom, officialdom, newspaperdom; жіноцтво, сусідство,
учительство, газетярство; -hood (ств/-о/): citizenhood, brotherhood,
widowhood; громадянство, братство, вдівство.
(4) Both contrasted languages have also other suffixes. Namely, evaluative
suffixes (оцінні суфікси) which are of two types: (a) diminutive and
(b) augmentative (збільшувальні), which are not available in English.
English diminutive suffixes are: -et/-ette: booklet, eaglet, kitchenette; -let:
kinglet, ringlet; -y/-ie, -ey: dolly, grannie, sissy; -ling: duckling, princeling; -kin:
ladikin, lordkin; -el/-le: corpuscle, morsel; -icle, -cule: monticle, monticule; -een:
velveteen; -ock: hillock, -ing: lording, princeling; -ee: bootee, and some others.
The number of diminutive only noun-forming suffixes in Ukrainian is as
many as 53, which goes in no comparison with the English 14 suffixes, not all of
which are productive. Besides, there exist adjective-, pronoun-, numeral-, adverb-,
verb- and even interjections-forming diminutive suffixes in Ukrainian. For
example, the noun-forming diminutive suffixes: -атк/-ятк: дівчатко, курчатко,
телятко, ягнятко; -ик: дубик, носик; -ок: дубок, синок, сучок, коток; -ечок:
батіжечок, пиріжечок, стіжечок; -ечка: качечка, свічечка, річечка, тичечка;
-ичка: сестричка, теличка, ягничка; -оньк/-а/: дівчинонька, хатинонька,
головонька/голівонька, and others.
It should be noted that all Ukrainian diminutive suffixes are productive,
whereas in English only -ie/-ey, -y, -ette, -let, -ling and -kin can be considered
productive.
The evaluative suffix -ard has no augmentative but only a negative meaning
in English, e.g.: bastard, drunkard, dullard. These nouns correspond lexically to
Ukrainian vituperative words байстрюк, п’яничка, тупак/ступа, etc.
The most productive augmentative suffixes in Ukrainian are: -ань:
бородань, мордань; -ач: бородач, носач; -ил: барило, чудило, здоровило; -юр:
бицюра, собацюра; -ищ: вовчище, ручище, собачище; -яр: носяра, мисяра, and
some others.
(5) Gender/sex expressing suffixes of person are clearly distinct in both
contrasted languages. They form in Ukrainian 3 groups:
(a) masculine gender/sex expressing suffixes of nouns like -ар/-яр (лікар,
токар, каменяр), -ист/-іст (бандурист, пацифіст), -їй (водій, носій), -ант/-
ент (музикант, студент), -тель (вихователь, мучитель), -ач/-яч (глядач,
діяч), -янин/-анин (селянин, киянин, галичанин, мирянин),
(b) feminine gender/sex expressing suffixes usually follow the masculine
gender/sex expressing suffixes, which are mostly followed by inflexions. Cf.: -к-/-
а/: артистка, журналістка, вчителька; -их-/-а/, -анк-, -янк-: ковалиха,
кравчиха, громадянин/громадянка, вінничанин/вінничанка, киянин/киянка,
-ник/-ця: письменник/письменниця, робітник/робітниця,
(c) neuter gender/sex expressing suffixes are numerous in Ukrainian. They
may form both abstract and concrete (life and lifeless) nouns, e.g.: -ств-о: -цтв-о:
братерство, козацтво, конярство; -атк-о, -чк-о/-ятк-о: дівчатко, курчатко,
яблучко, ягняточко; -к-о: вушко; -ячк-, -єчк-, -ечк-о: відеречко, листячко,
яєчко; -ц-е: болітце, сальце, сильце.
English “gender suffixes”, as they are sometimes called by grammarians, are
in reality only sex expressing, but not grammatical gender expressing, e.g.: actor –
actress, waiter – waitress, widow – widower, hero – heroine, lion – lioness, usher
– usheress.
The suffixes -er/-or, -ess, -o and -ine clearly identify the objective gender of
life nouns, i.e. their natural sex (cf. the young actor, the young actress, the actor
played/sang, the actress played/sang). It is not so in Ukrainian, where genders are
expressed by inflexions: молодий артист – молода артистка; артист грав –
артистка грала, дитя грало.
(6) International suffixes, which are mostly of common nature (origin) and
meaning in English and Ukrainian. For example, the suffixes -er: carter, bulldozer,
leader, картер, бульдозер, лідер; -or: conductor, dictator, rector, диктатор,
кондуктор, ректор; -ist: Anarchist, Socialist – анархіст, соціаліст; -ism:
alcoholism, heroism, feudalism, алкоголізм, героїзм, феодалізм; -аtion – -ці/я:
administration, sensation, адміністрація, організація, сенсація. Here also
belongs the suffix -аblе – -абельн: communicable, readable, читабельний,
комунікабельний, комунікабельність.
Suffixation-based word-building models. The derivative function of
suffixes finds its realisation in the existence of common word-building models.
The major word-forming models in English and Ukrainian are as follows:
N+Suf=N: hostess, gunner, librarian, grammarian, Londoner, Kyivan,
хатка, тазик, книгар, граматист, лондонець, киянин, лисянець, одесит,
чернігівка;
V+Suf=N: reader, construction, runner, painting, insistence, clearance,
doer, в’язка, знавець, читач, орач, хотіння, очистка, вивіска, продавець,
бігун, наполягання, малюнок;
A+Suf=N: freedom, hardship, clearness, softness, longitude, quietness,
highness, вільність, гнучкість, глухота, тупак, гостряк, тонкість, глибина,
сліпець, добрість, завзяття;
D+Suf=N: earliness, slowliness, wellness, зверхність, любощі, труднощі,
виваженість;
Q+Suf=N: primacy, primaries, secondary, fifter, fourter, першість,
десятерик, п’ятірка, двієчник, п’ятак;
A+Suf=V: actualise, modernise, blacken, darken, widen, broaden, shorten,
білити, біднішати, довшати, лівішати, зеленіти, коротшати, чорніти,
старіти;
N+Suf=A: glorious, earthy, watery, interesting, wooden, golden, водяний,
дерев’яний, земляний, славний, срібний, болотяний, торф’яний, піщаний;
A+Suf=A: bluish, lonely, economical, leftist, гарячкуватий, довгастий,
синюватий, багатенький, рідненький;
N+Suf=D: homeward, daily, seaward, southward, бігцем, (їхати) зайцем,
наскоком, вітряно, зимно;
A+Suf=D: longwise, simply, shortly, quietly, calmly, вільно, коротко,
славно, південніше, дешево, сердито, весело;
D+Suf=D: onwards, outwards, inwards, гарненько, щоденно, хутенько,
смачненько, холоднувато.
It must be added that the placement/distribution of suffixes in English and
Ukrainian words is identical: they are added either to the root (teacher, sailor,
massive; вчитель, масивний, моряк) or to the stem of the word (foolish+ly,
friendli+ness; розумно, хворобливість, п’ятірка).

2.2. Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words by adding a prefix to the stem. The
structure of prefixal morphemes in English and in Ukrainian is generally common,
though there are more single-sign (single-letter) prefixes in Ukrainian (e.g.,
внести, зліт, угору, схід, etc.) than in English, which has only one single letter
prefix a- (asleep, alike, aloof).
 All English and Ukrainian prefixes can be typologically subdivided into
some groups. The main of them are as follows:
(1) International prefixes whose lingual form and meaning are identical in
the contrasted languages. Their form-building capacities are equal in the
contrasted languages too, which can be seen from the following structural models:
anti-+A=A: antiglobal, anti-British, антиглобальний, антивоєнний;
anti-+N=N: antimonopolist, antibody, антимонополіст, антитіло;
counter-+N=N: countermeasure, countermarch, контрзмова, контрзахід;
counter-+V=V: counterpoint, counterattack, counterplot,
контрапунктувати, контратакувати, контрасигнувати;
ex-+N=N: ex-champion, ex-president, екс-чемпіон, екс-президент;
extra-+A=A: extraordinary, extramural, extraactive, екстраактивний,
екстраординарний, екстравагантний;
sub-+N=N: submarine, subordination, субмарина, субординація;
sub-+A=A: subordinary, subtropical, субординарний, субтропічний.
(2) National prefixes, which refer to a large group of prefixes that have in
the contrasted languages only semantic identity but they are different in their
lingual form: foresee – передбачити, extra-natural – надприродний,
intraarterial – внутрі/внутрішньоартеріальний; non-party – позапартійний,
sub-species – підвиди/підкласи and the like.
(3) Semantically alien national prefixes pertaining to one of the
contrasted languages and non-existent in the other. The lexical meaning of such
divergent prefixes forms part of the semantic structure of the stem, hence it is
usually conveyed by other than morphological (usually by lexico-semantic) means.
Cf.: decamp – виїжджати з табору/покидати табір, misstate – робити
неправдиву/фальшиву заяву, underhung – той/те, що випирає/виступає
вперед; to recurve – загинати/вигинати назад, (an) upthrow – кидок угору, and
others. There are also some allomorphic Ukrainian prefixes which have no
semantic equivalents in English. Their meaning is also conveyed by other than
affixal means. Cf.: по-українському/по-українськи – in Ukrainian,
щонайкраще/якнайкраще – in the best way possible, very well indeed,
rather/extremely well; якнайповільніше – as slowly as possible/in the most slowly
or in an ever possible slow way, etc.
A specifically Ukrainian phenomenon which is also alien not only to English
but even to other Slavonic languages is the reduplicated use of the prefix no- in
verbs to express an intensive and repeated or durative action. Cf.: поповодити,
попоблукати, поповозитися (з чимсь, з кимсь), попогребти, попоїсти,
попоспати. The meaning of such duplicated prefixes is conveyed in English and
other languages in a descriptive way. Cf. попоїсти – to eat substantially or to eat
repeatedly/again, or to eat without interruption and amply, uninterruptedly;
попоспати – to sleep to one’s heart’s content, to[= sleep much longer than
usually, to sleep and repose nicely after hard work/tiresome walking, etc.

2.3. Combined affixal formation of words

 The formation of new words with the help of prefixes and suffixes is
performed in English and Ukrainian according to four common
morphological/structural models:
(1) one prefix + the root morpheme/stem + one suffix: (a) forming nouns:
dis-arma-ment, en-rich-ment, for-cast-er, un-suspect-ness, vice-roy-ship, за-піч-
ок, о-грив-ок, (b) forming adjectives: anti-cyclon-ic, anti-christ-ian, be-jewel-ling,
in-ponder-able, para-phras-tic, pre-script-ive, без-атом-н-ий, без-рос-ян-ий,
над-звук-ов-ий, до-шкіль-н-ий, (c) forming verbs: de-colour-ise, dis-satis-fy, ex-
cav-ate, over-estim-ate, re-vivi-fy, un-satis-fy, пере-сіс-ти, and (d) forming
adverbs: dis-creet-ly, un-tru-ly, un-war-like, не-оцін-енн-о, etc.
Relative adjectives in Ukrainian are more often formed according to the first
combined morphological model than nouns. The most often used prepositional
prefixes are без-, від-, до-, за-, на-, and others. The suffixes used with these
prefixes are: -н-, -ов-/-ев-, -єв, -ськ-/-зьк-, -цьк-/-овськ- and others. Cf. без-/-н-:
безвірний, безпарний; без-/-ов-: бездоказовий, безготівковий; -від-/-н-:
віддієслівний, між-/-ов-: міжвидовий, на-/-ян-: навітряний, над-/-янськ-:
наддніпрянський, без-/-ев-/-єв-: безстатевий, безчуттєвий, and others.
A large number of productive noun stems in Ukrainian originate from
prepositional noun phrases which in the course of historical development have
become prefixes and now together with the phonetically identified suffix -j- form a
large number of -я/-а root nouns: без-: безладдя, безділля; за-: загір’я, заріччя;
між-: міжгір’я, міжріччя; над-: надбрів’я, надпліччя; перед-: переджнив’я,
передсердя; по-: подвір’я, пониззя (Побужжя, Покуття, Полісся,
Подніпров’я), etc.
Adjectives with verbal stems have in Ukrainian the characteristic prefix не-,
originating from the negative particle не. The suffixes that are used with this prefix
in combined adjectives are of two kinds: (a) -н-, -анн-/-янн-/, -енн-: невтомний,
несказанний, and (b) -м-, -уч-/-юч-, -уш-/-ющ-/, -лив-: непитущий, невидющий,
неквапливий.
(2) two or more prefixes + the root morpheme/stem + one suffix, as in
the nouns over-sub-scrip-tion, re-im-prison-ment, re-in-carn-ation, ре-ін-карн-
аці-я, etc., or Ukrainian adjectives and participles: не-по-сид-юч-ий, не-в-лов-им-
ий, не-в-гас-им-ий, не-ви-мов-н-ий, etc.
(3) one prefix + the root morpheme/stem + two or more suffixes, as in
English adverbs that are formed from adjectives and participles. For example: dis-
stress-ing-ly, dis-trust-ful-ly, en-harmon-ical-ly, pro-portion-ate-ly, under-hand-
ed-ly, or in Ukrainian participles and verbs: за-сміч-ува-н-ий, ви-дзень-к-ува-ти,
etc.
The number of words formed according to the third combined structural
model by far exceeds those given above and comprises also adjectives and nouns.
The most typical adjectives are as follows: counter-revolu-tion-(a)ry, de-contemin-
at(e)-ing, de-central-iz(e)-ing, pre-histor-ic-al. Examples of nouns thus formed are
as follows: dis-trust-ful-ness, in-comprehens-ible-ness, ir-respons-ibil-ity, de-
moral-iz-ation, де-морал-із-аці-я, and others.
 Derived verbs are formed in Ukrainian according to the third structural
model from over 400 nominal stems, the most occurent of which are adjectival and
substantival. The prefixes may be different, whereas the suffixes are for both parts
of speech usually common. They are -и-/-і- and -ти-/-а-/, в-/-у-: cf. уможливити;
з-/-с-/: зменшити, спростити; о-: обіднiти, оминати, очуміти; об-:
облегшити, обшукати; пере-: перевищити; ви-: видужати, з-: звузити,
зсунути, etc.
Verbs from substantival stems are formed with the help of the -и- and -ти-,
-ати suffixes too, i.e. according to the third structural model. For example:
викоренити, закапканити, знеболити, знімечити, переселити, пере'силити.
In combined derivative verbs formed from verbal stems, the main suffixes are
-ува- and -ти-: вицьвохкувати, перечитувати, підкахикувати,
пришкандибувати, погейкувати, покліпувати, розбалакувати,
переважувати, пересилювати, etc.
(4) Fewer nouns are formed according to the fourth and the most
complicated structural model, combining two or more prefixes + root
morpheme/stem + two or more suffixes, as in the words in-ac-count-abil-ity, in-
dis-pens-abil-ity, non-re-activ(e)-ation, non-re-present-ation-al-ism, не-пере-роб-
л-юва-н-ий.
The Ukrainian postfix -ся/-сь is very productive even in building verbs
according to the complicated third and fourth combined structural models: недо-
ви-плач-ува-ти-ся, пере-роз-по-діл-ити-сь. Also Ukrainian adverbs: до-не-с-
хоч-у, що-най-кращ-е; adjectives and participles: за-в-час-н-ий, не-су-під-ряд-н-
ий, не-пере-о-снащ-ен-ий, не-до-ви-торг-ува-н-ий; nouns: не-в-благ-анн-ість,
пере-роз-по-діл-енн-я, etc.
In Ukrainian besides prefixation and suffixation, their exist three more
ways of affixation. They are: (a) postfixation (сушити – сушитися, лити –
литися), (b) suffixation-postfixation (колос – колоситися, гордий –
гордитися), and (c) prefixation-postfixation (літати – злітатися, бігти –
розбігтися).
Consequently, combined affixal, i.e. predominantly derivational word
formation belongs in both languages to productive means of building new words of
new meanings. Especially active, as was testified by the examples above, is this
kind of word formation in Ukrainian.

Recommended references
1. Антрушина Г. Б. Лексикология английского языка : учеб. пособ. /
Атрушина Г. Б., Афанасьева О. В., Морозова Н. Н. – М. : Дрофа, 1999. –
С. 78-86.
2. Борисенко О. А. Lecture notes on Contrastive Lexicology : курс лекцій
[для переклад. від-нь внз] / Олександра Анатоліївна Борисенко. – К. : МАУП,
2005. – С. 32-36.
3. Верба Л. Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української
мов : посіб. [для переклад. від-нь внз] / Лідія Георгіївна Верба. – Вінниця :
Нова книга, 2003. – С. 147-164.
 4. Квеселевич Д. І. Практикум з лексикології сучасної англійської
мови : навч. посіб. / Д. І. Квеселевич, В. П. Сасіна. – Вінниця : Нова книга,
2001. – C. 16-25.
5. Корунець І. В. Порівняльна типологія англійської та української
мов : навч. посіб. / Ілько Вакулович Корунець. – Вінниця : Нова книга, 2003.
– С. 147-156.
6. Лексикология английского языка : учеб. [для ин-тов и ф-тов иностр.
яз.] / Р. 3. Гинзбург, С. С. Хидекель, Г. Ю. Князева и А. А. Санкин. – 2-е изд.,
испр. и доп. – М. : Высш. школа, 1979. – С. 89-126, 184-187.
7. Мостовий M. I. Лексикологія англійської мови : підруч. [для ін-тів і
ф-тів іноз. мов] / Микола Іванович Мостовий. – Х. : Основа, 1993. – С. 10-30.
8. Ніконова В. Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української
мов / Віра Григорівна Ніконова. – Дніпропетровськ, 2006. – С. 30-40.

Questions to answer
1. What are the principal ways of word formation?
2. What is the most productive way of word formation?
3. What is a morpheme? What are the semantic types of morphemes?
4. What is a stem? What are the types of stems?
5. What morphemes are called synonymous, polysemic, or homonymic?
5. What are the etymological types of stems?
6. What are the structural types of morphemes?
7. What are the typologically common classes of suffixes?
8. What are the major suffixation-based word-forming models in English
and Ukrainian?
9. What is a prefix? Name and illustrate the typological classes of prefixes.
10. What are the common morphological/structural models of combined
affixal formation of words?