CONVERTED MUSLIMS OF KERALA AND

THEIR ROLE IN PREACHING OF ISLAM: A

COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN E.C.
SIMON MASTER AND MUHAMMED EISA

BY
MUHAMMED SHABEEB K

DARUL HUDA ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

KERALA, INDIA
2019

I
 CONVERTED MUSLIMS OF KERALA AND
THEIR ROLE IN PREACHING OF ISLAM: A
COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN E.C.
SIMON MASTER AND MUHAMMED EISA

BY

MUHAMMED SHABEEB K

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Masters in Islamic
and Human Sciences (Department of Da’wa and
Comparative Religions)

Darul Huda Islamic University

Kerala, India

OCTOBER, 2019
II
 ABSTRACT

Religious preaching takes a number of forms, among which some are much influential

than the other in terms of its practical success. This study makes a comparison between

the styles of religious preaching adopted by two different reverts to Islam in Kerala

namely Muhammed Eisa and Simon Master, to provide a better understanding of the

potential of both. The debates, writings and other public appearances of both are

checked with regards to their nature in a qualitative manner for this purpose. The

researcher concludes that Muhammed Eisa adopts a composite of polemic and

apologetic styles in relation with the theoretical aspects of Christian theology with

reference to Bible, while Simon Master stays on apologetic comparisons between

Qur’an and Bible.

III
 ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬

‫ﻛﺜﲑا ﻋﻦ اﻵخﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﳒﺎﺣﻪ‬

‫ﻋﺪدا ﻣﻦ اﻷﺷﻜﺎل ﻣﻊ أن ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻣﺆﺛﺮ ً‬
‫خذ اﻟﻮﻋﻆ اﻟﺪﻳﲏ ً‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻠﻲ‪ .‬ﺗﻘﺎرن ﻫذﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺑﲔ أﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ اﻟﻮﻋﻆ اﻟﺪﻳﲏ اﻟﱵ اﻋﺘﻤﺪﻫﺎ ﻣﺘﺤﻮﻻن ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺎن إﱃ‬

‫اﻹﺳﻼم ﰲ وﻻﻳﺔ ﻛﲑاﻻ وﳘﺎ ﳏﻤﺪ ﻋﻴﺴﻰ وﺳﻴﻤﻮن ﻣﺎﺳﱰ ‪ ،‬ﻟﺘﻮﻓﲑ ﻓﻬﻢ أﻓﻀﻞ ﻟﻘﺪرات‬

‫أﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﻤﺎ‪ .‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﻓﺤص اﳌﻨﺎقشﺎت واﻟﻜﺘﺎ ت وغﲑﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ اﳌظﺎﻫﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻜﻼﳘﺎ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ‬

‫ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻄﺒﻴﻌﺘﻪ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﳍذا اﻟﻐﺮض‪ .‬وﳜﻠص اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ إﱃ أن ﳏﻤﺪ ﻋﻴﺴﻰ ﻳﺘﺒﲎ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ‬

‫ﻣﻦ اﻷﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ اﳉﺪﻟﻴﺔ واﻟﱰﺳﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﳉﻮاﻧﺐ اﻟﻨظﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻼﻫﻮت اﳌﺴﻴﺤﻲ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ‬

‫ﺳﺎﳝﻮن ﻣﺎﺳﱰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺳﻞ ﻣﻘﺎر ت ﺑﲔ اﻟﻘﺮآن واﻟﻜﺘﺎب اﳌﻘﺪس‪.‬‬

‫‪IV‬‬
 kw-£n-]vXw

aX{]-t_m[-\w ]-e cq-]-§Ä ko-Ic

- n-¡p-sa-¦n-epw A-hb
- n Nn-e-Xv {]-mtbm-Kn-Ia
- m-bn G-

sd ^-e-{]-Z-sa-¶p Im-Wmw. ap-l½Zv Cu-k, ssk-a¬ am-ÌÀ F-¶n c-­v C-Ém-am-tÈ-jn-

I-fp-sS aX {]-t_m-[-\ co-Xn-IÄ X-½n-ep-Å A-hb

- p-sS kzm-[o-\ti-jn-bn-e-q-¶n-b H-cp Xm-

cX-ay ]T\-am-WnXv. Cu B-hi

- ymÀ-°w C-hc
- ncp-h-cp-sSbpw kw-hm-Z§Ä, c-N-\-IÄ, a-äp

C-S-s]-S-ep-IÄ F¶n-h hn-ti-jW

- m-ßI
- a
- m-bn hn-i-Ie-\w sN-¿-s¸«p. ap-l½Zv Cuk {In-

kvXob ssZ-hi
- m-kv-{X-¯n-sâ ssk-²m´n-I h-i-§-fp-am-bn _-Ô-s¸-«v c-N\m, kw-hm-Z

ssi-en-I-sf-bpw ssk-a¬ am-ÌÀ JpÀ-B³-- ss_-_nÄ Xm-c-X-ay-]-c-am-bn c-N\m- ssi-en-

sbbpw B-{i-bn-¨p F¶o Cu ]T-\w \n-Ka-\w sN-¿p¶p.

V
 APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a dissertation for the Degree of Masters in Islamic and Human Sciences
(Department of Da’wa and Comparative religions)

Muhammed Raees Hudawi

(Supervisor)

I certify that this dissertation was submitted to the Department of Da’wa and
Comparative religions and is accepted as a fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of Degree of Master in Islamic and Human Sciences

Abdul Rasheed Hudawi

(Head, Department of Da’wa and Comparative religions)

VI
 DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own research, except where
otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted
as a whole for any other degrees at DHIU or other institutions

Muhammed Shabeeb K

Ad No: 14085

Kunnath (H),

Edavannappara,

Cheekode (Po),

Malappuram, 673645

Tel No: 8086918650

E-Mail: shanshabeeb447@gmail.com

Signature ………………………………. Date…………………………

VII
 DARUL HUDA ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY, KERALA, INDIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR

USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2018 by MUHAMMED SHABEEB K

All rights reserved.

CONVERTED MUSLIMS OF KERALA AND THEIR ROLE IN

PREACHING OF ISLAM: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN
E.C. SIMON MASTER AND MUHAMMED EISA

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except
as provided below:
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may
only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgment.
2. DHIU or its library will have the right to make transmit copies (print or
electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The DHIU library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and
supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and
research libraries.

Affirmed by MUHAMMED SHABEEB K

…………………………….. …………………………..
Signature Date

VIII
To my beloved Parents, teachers and friends, who gave me eyes and wings for my
dream…

IX
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, Full of Compassion, Ever Compassionate…

All praises are to Allah the Lord of the Universe. Let His regards and salutations be
upon the Holy Prophet Muhammad and his family and companions.

For the completion of this thesis, I would like to thank my respected supervisor
Muhammad Raees Hudawi, for having given generously of his precious time, guidance
and moral support. I wish to express my special gratitude to the following: Ali Moulavi
and Rasheed Hudawi for the careful attention they gave this thesis and for their valuable
suggestions and critical assessment.

I wish to express the deepest gratitude to all my teachers, supporters, friends and one
who helped me to complete my thesis. May Allah, the almighty, bestow His rewards
and blessings on them. Finally, I state that I am alone responsible for the entire faults
that remain in this thesis. May Allah accept this humble attempt and make it fruitful for
this life and hereafter, Ᾱmīn.

X
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH ................................................................................... III

ABSTRACT IN ARABIC...................................................................................... IV
ABSTRACT IN MALAYALAM ............................................................................ V
APPROVAL PAGE ............................................................................................... VI
DECLARATION .................................................................................................. VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................... X
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... XI
TRANSLITERATION TABLE FOR ARABIC .................................................. XV
FIRST CHAPTER .................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ............................................................................... 1
1.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................................................................. 2
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................. 3
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH ................................................................ 3
1.5. SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH ......................................................................... 4
1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH .......................................................... 4
1.7. METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH ....................................................... 5
1.8. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 5
SECOND CHAPTER ............................................................................................... 9
RELIGIOUS CONVERSION: A THEORETICAL STUDY ................................. 9
2.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 9
2.2. DEFINITION ................................................................................................. 10
2.3 GENERAL TERMS AND CONCEPTS .......................................................... 15
2.3.1 Conversion.............................................................................. 16
2.3.2 Conversion and Proselytism .................................................... 16
2.3.3 Conversion and Reversion ...................................................... 17
2.3.4 Conversion and Resocialization .............................................. 18
2.4 HOLISTIC MODEL........................................................................................ 18

XI
 2.4.1 Culture .................................................................................... 19
2.4.2 Society .................................................................................... 19
2.4.3 Person ..................................................................................... 20
2.4.4 Religion .................................................................................. 20
2.5 STAGES OF RELIGIOUS CONVERSION .................................................... 21
2.6. MODES OF CONVERSION .......................................................................... 22
2.6.1 Context ................................................................................... 22
2.6.2 Crisis ...................................................................................... 23
2.6.3 Quest ...................................................................................... 24
2.6.4 Encounter................................................................................ 25
2.6.5 Interaction ............................................................................... 25
2.6.6 Commitment ........................................................................... 27
2.6.7 Consequences ......................................................................... 27
2.7 THE MOTIVES AND NEEDS OF CONVERSION ........................................ 28
2.8 RELATION WITH DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES ............................................ 31
2.9 THE THEORIES AND TYPES OF CONVERSION ....................................... 32
2.9.1 William James ........................................................................ 33
2.9.2 Lofland and Stark ................................................................... 33
2.9.3 Travisano ................................................................................ 34
2.9.4 Straus ...................................................................................... 34
2.9.5 Taylor ..................................................................................... 34
2.10 THE TYPES OF CONVERSION .................................................................. 35
2.11 THE LAWS OF CONVERSION ................................................................... 36
THIRD CHAPTER ................................................................................................ 38
CONVERSION TO ISLAM IN KERALA: ORIGIN, GROWTH, AND
CONVERTED MUSLIMS AND THEIR INTERVENES .................................... 38
3.1. ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF CONVERSION TO ISLAM ........................... 38
3.2. PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD ............................................................................ 39
3.2.1. The Advent of Conversion to Islam in Kerala ........................ 39
3.2.2. Growth of Conversion to Islam in Malabar ............................ 44
3.3. COLONIAL PERIOD .................................................................................... 47

XII
 3.3.1. Hindrance to Conversion in Portuguese Period ...................... 47
3.3.2. The Resurgence of Muslims in Mysore Period....................... 49
3.3.3. Decline of Muslims in British Period ..................................... 51
3.3.4. Increase in Numbers of converted Muslims in British Period. 53
3.4. POST-COLONIAL PERIOD.......................................................................... 54
3.4.1. Debates of Conversion in late centuries ................................. 54
3.5 CONVERTED MUSLIMS IN KERALA ........................................................ 53
3.6. E.C SIMON MASTER ................................................................................... 57
3.6.1. Birth and family ..................................................................... 57
3.6.2. Education ............................................................................... 57
3.6.3 Social life and interferences .................................................... 58
3.6.4 To path of Islam ...................................................................... 58
3.6.5. Influences and consequences ................................................. 59
3.6.6. Works .................................................................................... 60
3.6.7 Methodology........................................................................... 62
3.6.8. Death ..................................................................................... 62
3.7 MUHAMMAD EISA ...................................................................................... 63
3.7.1. Birth and family ..................................................................... 63
3.7.2. Education ............................................................................... 63
3.7.3. Social life and interferences ................................................... 64
3.7.4. To Path of Islam..................................................................... 64
3.7.5. Influences and consequences ................................................. 66
3.7.6. Works .................................................................................... 66
3.7.7. Methodology.......................................................................... 67
FOURTH CHAPTER............................................................................................. 68
PREACHING OF CONVERTS TO ISLAM: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
BETWEEN E.C. SIMON MASTER AND MUHAMMAD EISA......................... 68
4.1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 68
4.2. METHODS OF PROPAGATION .................................................................. 69
4.2.1. Verbal Propagation ................................................................ 69

XIII
 4.2.2. Written propagation ............................................................... 70
4.2.3. Practical propagation ............................................................. 70
4.3 METHODS OF E.C SIMON AND MUHAMMED EISA................................ 70
4.4. MAJOR ARGUMENTS ................................................................................ 72
4.4.1. Trinity .................................................................................... 72
4.4.2. Rituals and customs of Christianity ........................................ 75
4.4.3. Pauline influences ................................................................. 77
4.4.4. The descendant of Prophet Eisa ............................................. 78
4.4.5. Divinity of Quran and the Bible ............................................. 78
4.5. DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES .......................................................... 80
CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 83
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 86

XIV
 TRANSLITERATION TABLE FOR ARABIC
Arabic Capital Small letter Arabic Capital Small letter
Letter letter and Letter letter and and
and Unicode Unicode Unicode
Unicode
‫ا‬ A A ‫ط‬ Ṭ ṭ
-
‫ب‬ B B ‫ظ‬ Ẓ ẓ
-
‫ت‬ T T ‫ع‬ ʿ -
-
‫ث‬ TH Th ‫غ‬ GH -
-
‫ج‬ J J ‫ف‬ F -
-
‫ح‬ Ḥ ḥ ‫ق‬ Q -

‫خ‬ KH Kh ‫ك‬ K -
-
‫د‬ D D ‫ل‬ L -
-
‫ذ‬ DH Dh ‫م‬ M -
-
‫ر‬ R R ‫ن‬ N -
-
‫ز‬ Z Z ‫و‬ W -
-
‫س‬ S - ‫ه‬ H -
-
‫ش‬ SH Sh ‫ي‬ Y -
-
‫ص‬ Ṣ ṣ ‫ء‬ ʾ

‫ض‬ Ḍ ḍ

Short vowels Long Vowels

َ‫أ‬ a A ‫آ‬ Ā Ā ‫أو‬ aw

‫إ‬ i I ‫إي‬ Ī Ī ‫أي‬ ay

ُ‫أ‬ u U ‫أو‬ Ū Ū

XV
 FIRST CHAPTER

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Religious conversion is the acceptance of a set of beliefs recognized with one particular

religious’ values by eliminating pre-assigned religious values. In other words, it defined

as the discordance of adherent to one value and associating with another. Therefore, it

has played a pivotal role in the dissemination of religions in different parts of the world.

By the frequent advent of missionaries, it intensively expanded all over the world.

There are several reasons and motives for religious conversion, such as the

grave dominations on adherents and ruthless customs, and rituals of specific religion

are few among them, which have been continuing still today in different religion.

Though, the religious conversions have been caused various concerns and problems in

the socio-political and especially in religious sphere of the world.

However, the religious conversion to Islam was initiated by Thamīmu Dāri, a

renowned disciple of Prophet Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬, who had reached in Kerala at the

beginning of the sixth century. It was advanced by Arab traders and Islamic

missionaries, such as Nā Khudhā Misgāl and Mālik Dīnār had done in later centuries.

Later, it vigorously flourished under the leadership of the charismatic personalities and

pious families, as well as families such as Makhdūm and Yamani Sayyids had done in

the colonial period. In the end of nineteenth and the beginning of twentieth centuries,

conversion to Islam not only took under the specific charismatic leaders, religious

organizations and rehabilitation centres, that led various mass conversions movements

1
to the both Islam and Christianity in Kerala, but it caused also such discourses related

religious pluralism, which had constructed a specific harmony and congruence among

different religion by inter and intrareligious dialogues, that led to critical evaluations

of adherents among the different religious values and norms.

The trend of inter and intrareligious dialogues spread throughout the Kerala due

to increasing in the numbers of converted Muslims, that helped to understand both basic

truthiness and ruthless of different religious values and norms, and it also led to critical

evaluation and serious assessment of basic beliefs and philosophies of that religions

among the Keralites, such as E.C. Simon Master, Muhammad Issa and Ibrahim

Mundakkal are pious converted Muslims who interrupted in interreligious dialogues in

Kerala.

Muhammad Eisa and E.C. Simon Master, renowned converted Muslims were

highlighted in the preaching of Islam by refuting the baseless creeds and flawed

philosophies of Christianity, and interpreting the absolute corrections and basic

complex quotes of the sacred texts with comparing between the Holy Bible and holy

Qur’an. According to their propagation, they faced lots of social, political and cultural

especially religious concerns in Kerala, as well as they influenced Keralite Muslims in

several kinds of religious studies by interpreting their experiences and refutes and

understanding social and political sphere of Kerala.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Religious preaching is done in various forms right from simple persuasion to great

debates. The nature of each of these varies and thus affects the practical outcome of it.

Among these the styles of religious preaching adopted by reverts to Islam from different

religions are observed as specific because of their certain characteristics. What are the

2
basic natures of the styles of religious preaching adopted by reverts? How do they differ

between a number of them? What are their relations with the phenomenon of

conversion? In order to draw a much better answer for the problem or issue arising from

all these questions, the researcher employs a comparative approach towards the

religious preaching styles of Muhammed Eisa and Simon Master and their interferences,

public appearances, which may lead to a comprehensive outlook of the influence of

religious reverts to Islam on religious conversion in Kerala.

1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The researcher will have an attempt to answer the following questions:

1. What is the religious conversion: types, theories, gradual stages,

causes and consequences?

2. How the interferences of Muhammed Eisa and Simon master should be

viewed or understood with regards to the socio-political and essentially

religious spheres of Kerala?

3. What is the arguments Muhammad Eisa and E.C. Simon Master and

the similarities and differences between them in critics of

Christianity?

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

The researcher will have an attempt to achieve the following objects:

1. To explore the religious conversion: its types, theories, gradual stages,

causes and consequences.

2. To explain the main interferences of the Muhammad Eisa and E.C.

3
 Simon Master in socio-politic and religious of Kerala.

3. To elaborate the arguments Muhammad Eisa and E.C. Simon Master

and the similarities and differences between them in critics of

Christianity.

1.5. SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH

The researcher would study on the socio-politics and religious influence of the

converted Muslims of Kerala in preaching of Islam among non-believers. The

researcher takes a certain peripheral portion for the study which is from the emergence

of Islam at the coasts of Kerala. The portion, the commences of Muslim missionary

groups, preserve a certain role in the Islamic history of Kerala, which was a threat to

caste systems of cruel domination and colonial imperialism of British government from

the behalf of Mappilas of Malabar.

The study concentrates on the major social, political and religious influences of

converted Muslims like E.C. Simon Master and Muhammed Eisa, and other inferences

in refuting the flawed theology of Christians and their factual contributions in the sphere

of the preaching of Islam and the research will deal with historical aspects of the origin

of conversion to Islam in Kerala. And it will explain on theoretical aspects of religious

conversion to any religion comparing to contemporary converts.

1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

This is an attempt to sketch out the various influences, made by converted Muslims in

Kerala. The study concentrates on various influences of religious conversion and

interference of converted Muslims in the preaching of Islam, mainly by focusing the

main arguments of Muhammad Eisa and E.C. Simon Master in critics of Christianity

4
and its social influences. They wrote many books in Malayalam, and they presented

some public talks and interviews also. Thus, the researcher hopes the study will be a

good and first attempt over this interesting topic.

1.7. METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH

The study depends on the qualitative method. The researcher uses more authentic

books, interviews, and videos which involved on several talks on the study. The study

includes a collection of several kinds of talks related to this research to find out the

narration and quotes about religious conversion and converted Muslims` influences on

the preaching of Islam of Kerala and it will be a prominent ingredient of the research.

With regards to this study, the researcher will collect and analyse all related studies over

the religious conversion and converted Muslims` influences on the preaching of Islam

of Kerala.

1.8. LITERATURE REVIEW

As per the topic of the research, there are some more studies related to the study but

there is no any suitable study-to the best knowledge of the researcher- over the

compilations of theoretical study about religious conversion, historical background of

conversion to the Islam in Kerala and social interference of converted Muslim in

refutation toward Christianity, especially Muhammad Eisa and E.C. Simon Master in

critics of Christianity. All studies go through a little elaboration of their own opinions

related specific subjects.

Lewis Rambo’s book entitled Understanding Religious Conversion is a prominent

source in the theoretical study of religious conversion. As well as he discusses the

dynamics of conversion by picturizing its multidimensional aspects; from psychology,

sociology, anthropology, history, and theology as well, and various theories of

5
conversion. He also explores lots of forces that shape their religious conversion through

his chapters. Later, he finds also some of a proper resolution to the dilemma and

deprivation that makes change seem attractive to one by religious conversion. Whether,

he provides a critique and evaluation of religious conversion throughout the world, lots

of theories of conversion and stages of conversion it can’t complete the discussion with

theories without giving the laws and rules of conversion.

Lewis R Rambo and Farhadian, Charles` book entitled Oxford Handbook of Religious

Conversion is an entire elaboration of the dynamics Religious Conversions, as his

previous book traced that ways.

However, he examines the experiences of converted individuals and communities also,

by giving an overview of the history of particular religions, including Hinduism,

Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, indigenous

religions, and new religious movements. This collection of essays deals with a wide

range of disciplinary perspectives psychological, sociological, anthropological, legal,

political, feminist, and geographical methods.

Nevertheless, the focus of both Rambo and Charles is comparatively the same matters

of study, as Rambo’s previous book has done, he absolutely attempts to trace the

historical overview of experiences of converts of particular religions. But they didn’t

mention the legal aspects of religious conversion and apt resolutions and solutions of

adapting the environment of a converter, as his previous book has done.

Barrett`s book titled The New Believers: A survey of sects, cults and alternative

religions gives a holistic view about religious conversion and historical background, as

Rambo has done. But his focus was a holistic view of experiences of converters. Though

6
it totally comprises the holistic view of new believers, it demands also for presenting a

socio-political and cultural views of new believers.

The article Conversion and the Growth of the Islamic Community of Kerala,

South India is a prime source in the history of the origin of growth conversion to Islam

and develop of Muslim communities in Kerala, which was contributed by pious

historian Stephen F. Dale.

This article measures the articulations of Mappila Muslim identity in the public

sphere formed in colonial Malabar, especially after the Malabar Rebellion of 1921. The

colonial history of Keralite serves as a background to a better understanding of the

manufacture of present-day Muslim identity in Kerala. It is revealed that a Muslim

community that campaigned against the colonial state in northern Kerala earlier and

came to be seen as aggressive, uncivilized and religiously fanatic, still faces strong

resentment and distrust today. So, this article traces the history of conversion into a

period of the end of Malabar rebellion on the views of British. Though the entire

information is valuable but it demands to examine its credibility and its reliability for

analysing the extend studies of conversion to Islam in both colonial and post-colonial

periods.

Roland E. Miller’s famous book entitled Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study

in Islamic Trends is chief source in picturizing the socio-economic and cultural

development of Muslims of Kerala and current statics of Muslim communities in

Kerala. Even he reveals the current statics of converted Muslim, he didn’t mention their

cultural and historical background of converters and reasons for conversions by

connecting their statics in both colonial and post-colonial periods.

The book Maritime India: Trade, Religion, and Polity in the Indian Ocean is

the main chapter, which is discussed the historical backdrops of the impact of

7
Portuguese commercial expansion on the traditional Muslim merchants of Kerala.

Though, this work focuses on origin, growth, and decline of Islamic civilization in

Kerala, especially Kerala. But it doesn’t authentic preferences for Islamic civilization

in the modern period; the post-colonial period in India, especially, in Kerala.

These articles and books are insufficient to analyse and describe the whole

aspects of this subject, while those are lied as helpful resources of some aspects of

research. Thus, the lack of compilation on historical aspects of conversion to Islam in

Kerala and reverts, and theoretical aspect of religious conversion demanded a wide

study on it, while so many historians and researchers continuing still today to find a

sufficient research related to this subject.

8
 SECOND CHAPTER

RELIGIOUS CONVERSION: A THEORETICAL STUDY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Religious conversion has a significant role in the socio-politic, psycho and economic

life of a society. In a general sense, it is considered as the eminent discourse in social

science, which related to human being ‘s religion in early time. According to several

disciplines such as sociology, politics, anthropology, economics, philosophy, theology,

psychology and other fields of study had discussed and expressed various theories and

concepts to balancing identity of religious conversion in the modern age. Therefore, the

discourses related to conversion are changing, updating and progressing too much

nowadays.

For the religious conversion, has numerous factors and reasons such as retaining

of social identity, suppressing of superior autonomy of caste, social and political

hierarchy and acquiring of economic advantages. Thus, religious conversion commonly

celebrated among people in the modern world.

By spreading of the religious conversion, numerous systematic centres and hubs

raised in different part of the world, which known as Resocialization centres.

Resocialization centre aimed to upgrade and update the converts along to the

fundamental laws and basics of a specific religion, and engage them in the religious

customs and practices. According to the religious conversion, the types of conversion

to differ religions varied based on certain ideologies of religions. Thus, several scholars

of various disciplines had tried to research about this phenomenon of religious

conversion from various angles and aspects. Therefore, the researcher will distinguish

9
the religious conversion as the theoretical study by analyzing certain aspects and angles

of religious scholars and others also.

2.2. DEFINITION

The word “conversion” has used in several contexts such as in-game of Ruby1, in

finance 2, in certain repairs of motor vehicle3, in mathematics4 and specially noted in

religion. According to the common views, the word “conversion” as a theological word,

has used most often within the Christian tradition, latter it came to refer to the general

concept of religious change.

Numerous scholars had defined the concept of religious conversion from

different angles and approaches. Theological and sociological scholars had defined the

concept of conversion based on the social identity or self-identity of converts and

conversion also, and about the political conditions by political scholars. However, the

common meaning of the conversion was the acceptance of a set of belief recognized

with particular religious domination to the exclusion of others. 5

The literal meaning of conversion defined by the oxford dictionary, that the term

conversion is “the fact of changing one’s religion or belief or the action of persuading

someone else to change theirs”. Secondly, it defined as “repentance and change to

Godly life”.6 The definition of oxford dictionary highlighted the ideology of

Christianity, because the religious conversion to Christianity had actively held under

the pope as forced and another way of conversion in the time of crusade war, latter, it

1
The conversion of a ‘try’ in rugby – made by kicking the ball over the crossbar from a place kick.
2
The conversion rate between different currencies.
3
The conversion of a car’s body or engine to improve its style or performance.
4
The conversion of the0020units or form of a number or expression.
5
Religious conversion– Wikipedia.
6
J. A. Simpson, E. S.C. Weiner, Oxford dictionary, (Britten, oxford university publications, 1998),
p.151570.

10
referred to the general concept of religious conversion. Some scholars described that

the term “Conversion is in terms of changes in one’s worldview or ideology” 7.

According to them, the worldview is a wider set of beliefs and ideas about the nature of

the universe. It describes daily events in a larger context of meaning, provides cause

and effect descriptions, which demands particular values. The definition suggested by

some other theorists is “conversion is a change in identity8”. In other words of the

theologian, the concept “conversion is the process of coming to view oneself as having

sacred qualities or being connected to the sacred”9.

Some scholars and individuals defined the meaning of the term of conversion or

religious conversion, as ‘the adoption of new religious beliefs that differ from the

convert's previous beliefs.’ They described that, the conversion is the abandoning of

obedience to domination and affiliating with another one. This could be from the one to

other domination within the same religion, such as from Baptist to Catholic in

Christianity or from Shi'a to Sunni in Islam10. However, the interesting thing is that the

definition of conversion is upgrading and updating simultaneously every day.

Therefore, the meaning and scope of study of the conversion have been become

complicated in day by day.

According to the theological views of Christianity, the definitions of religious

conversion have varied by varying their ideologies. For most Catholic Christians, the

Conversion is ‘change of religious affiliation’, for many Protestant Christians, the

Conversion as ‘experience of salvation from sin’11. Etiology, Catholic theologian

7
E.g ,Lofland and Stark, 1965, Snow and Machalek, 1984.
8
E.g, Staples and Mauss, 1987.
9
E.g,Pargament, 1997.
10
Religious conversion – Wikipedia.
11
R.T. Lawrence, Conversion, Theology of Encyclopedia, New Catholic
Encyclopedia<https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-
maps/conversion-ii-theology> (accessed on 22 September 2019)..

11
Donald Attwater described, that the origin of conversion (in the sense ‘turning of sinner

to god’)is derived from Latin word “conversion”(noun) which means ‘turned about’,

‘remorse’, ‘move’, ‘changes’ and from the verb of convert is from “convertee” which

means ‘to turn’, ‘to turning towards or the way of one thing or to another thing’ 12. He

portrayed both action of turning the state or condition under-identified terms and

realities of a certain religion or thing, which affected in the form, nature, function or

character of the person or thing13. Thus, there various kinds of meaning for religious

conversion that remorse, religion change, attitudes change toward religious teachings

or following a religion.

Another Catholic theologian Lonergan defined conversion “is being grasped by

ultimate distresses. In a word, it is otherworldly falling in love and total, permanent self-

surrender without condition, qualifications and reservations. But it is a surrender, not as

a dynamic state that is before and the principle of subsequent acts. 14.” ” Donald Taylor

explored it is (concerning its usages in the context of the relationships between

religions) an evaluative term used positively by those in the religion to which one

converts and negatively by that religion which one abandons.15

Dwain Starbuck described conversion is “sudden changes of character from evil

to goodness, from sinfulness to righteousness, and from indifference to spiritual insight

and activity”.16 His definition is to turning into the reality of the universe and ultimate

12
Donald Attwater, A Catholic Dictionary, (New York: McMillan, TAN Books, 1949), p.122
13
Ibid.p.123.
14
Bernard Lonergan, Method in Theology, (New York: The Seabury Press, 1972), p.240.
15
M. Darrol Bryant and Christopher Lamb, Religious Conversion: Contemporary Practices and
Controversies, (Cassel London And New York, A&C Black, 1999), P:7
16
Starbuck, An Introduction to Psychology of Religion, (London, The Walter Scott publishing co., ltd,
1897), p. 268

12
truth. The approaches of Heikkinen 17 and William James18are: “gradual or sudden

process by which a self-separated and consciously wrong inferior and unhappy become

unified and consciously right, superior and happy. In consequence, of its adherent hold

upon religious realities19 ”. They claimed that conversion gives plenty of happy and

pleasure to life by following the fundamental basics of the realities of religion. James's

definition remained important; we can now see that it was limited in at least two

important respects. It limited the phenomenon of conversion to Christianity and it

interpreted conversion wholly in psychological terms.

According to the spiritual and social aspects of Islam, Parrucci defined

conversion as “a reorientation of the personality system involving a change in the

constellation of religious beliefs and or practices”20. Kose argued, “Conversion to

another or no religion into another entails change which largely involves aspects of the

individual’s personality, and this may vary in extent according to the religion itself” 21.

From a psychological point of view, religious conversion means as “the

changing of certain mental synthesis to the brand new one”22. Mental synthesis here

means the awareness of a certain faith, which the warmest place in one’s personality.

The definition suggested by Furgeson, from physiological view, it is “a sudden

spontaneous change in personality under the pressure of resolving internal and external

conflict or tension, and surrender to the beliefs and sentiments with the result of the

17
Jacob W. Heikkinen, “Conversion’: A Biblical Study,” National Faith and Order Colloquium,
World Council of Churches,<https://www.worldcat.org/title/colloquium-on-conversion-
papers/oclc/51588324> (Accessed on 29 December 2019)
18
William James,American philosopher and psychologist lived beginning of the twentieth century
19
William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature: Being the Gifford
Lectures on Natural Religion Delivered at Edinburgh in 1901-1902 (London and New York, Longmans,
Green, And Co, 1917), p. 189.
20
Parrucci J Dennis, Religious Conversion: A Theory of Deviant Behavior in Sociology of Religion
<https://www.jstor.org/stable/3710147> (Accessed on, 2019)
21
Ali Kose, p:128
22
Latipun, Asean Conference 2nd Psychology and Humanity at Psychology Forum Umm,
<https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/acpch-17/preface >, (Accessed 19 February 2019)

13
change may be regenerative and progressive partly and completely.23” Therefore, the

concepts and definition of conversion are changeable day by day, then the scholars and

social scientists have complicated for coming forward to discuss the conversion.

However, the latest definitions of E. John Smith, O. David Moberg, and C. Alfred

Underwood are very important in the study of conversion.

The definition suggested by O. David Moberg is “sudden emergence of a new

role, outlook, belief, group identification, character or personality, it includes personal

mutations and changes in political, economic or social outlook24”. The definition of the

O. David Moberg has been covered many wide areas of religious conversion, and it also

included the branches of the naturalists, social scientists and others. According to the E.

Jhon Smith, it is “a change that affects the person in his centre, either in the sense that

he underwent an exchange of centres or that an element belief, attitude, concern that

was previously peripheral, now becomes central25. The meaning of both Moberg and

Smith is significant views of religious conversion that includes all aspects of the

behavior of humans, which affected social, physiological conditions and other aspects

of a person.

Definition of Alfred Underwood is “series of experiences which lead to

deliberate acceptance of religious reality toward which life is thereafter directed26”

According to him, the conversion is a form of psychological surrender to an ideal and

issuing moral development.27

23
Earl H. Furgeson, The Definition of Religious Conversion, Pastoral Psychology, Vol. XVI,
No.156, (1965), 16.
24
David O. Moberg, The Church as a Social Institution: The Sociology of American Religion, Volume:
345, No.1. (1963) P: 421.
25
John E Smith, The Concept of Conversion in Conversion Perspectives on Personal and Social
Transformation, ed. Conn, Walter E., (New York: Alba House, 1978), p.59
26
Alfred C Underwood. Conversion: Christian and Non-Christian, (London: George Allen Unwin, 1925),
p.258.
27
Ibid.259

14
 According to the several views of scholars, the real factors and reasons of

conversion of the person from prior religion is lack of social identity, ultimate

superiority of priests or religious and social leaders, the domination of caste and lack of

economic privileges, which are common factors of society as social scientists defined.

These factors still exist in numerous community and religions such as, domination of

caste and surrender to superior power seen in Christianity, Hinduism and religions.

Nevertheless, at the same time the interesting thing is that some religious conversion

grants decent and respectable conditions to human beings as seen in Islam.

If we evaluate all definitions of the several scholars from various fields, we can

find out that most of them have focused on the turning of psychological, social and

theological aspects, but nobody focuses on the change of socio-economic and cultural

conditions. If we focus on the socio-economic and cultural concept of conversion or

religious conversion a new definition will be required, which would express three

important dimensions of the religious conversion like psychological theological and

socio-economic implications. Thus, we can say '' conversion is a change or to turning

someone from one religion to another which leads to cultural diffusion, social

integration, and economic improvement”.

2.3 GENERAL TERMS AND CONCEPTS

There are several terms and concepts to study the concept of conversion. The collections

of conversion and its data carry out based on a standard post, by settings of conversion’s

definitions and concepts, which built up over the years by the theologians, philosophers,

anthropologists, psychiatrists and sociologists who studied about the conversion.

Therefore, the awareness about the terms and concepts of the conversion are one of the

very essential ones.

15
2.3.1 Conversion

According to the researcher “Conversion is a change or to turning someone from one

religion to another which leads to cultural diffusion, social integration and economic

improvement”. In this religious study, there are different types of usages and terms used

for conversion and religious conversion to any religion. Many scholars have revealed

the different usages and terms used in the religious dimension. According to them, there

are various terms used in dimension of conversion, such as convert, revert, resocialize

and proselytize which are used for religious conversion or conversion in different

spheres related religious conversion. They mentioned again about rehabilitation centres

or resocialization centres for converts are prominent centres, which is remarkable

milestone for updating and upgrading the religious values and fundamental laws and

rules of a believer or believers.

2.3.2 Conversion and Proselytism

According to the terminology, the terms conversion and proselytism used in similar

meanings in religious studies. But these terms now used in a sight difference its

meanings in religious dimensions. The word Conversion is “adoption and acceptance

of recognized and identifies with particular religious domination to exclusion of others,

thus, religious conversion is abounding of adherence to other domination or affiliating

with another28. This conversion might be from one to other domination within the same

religion”.

28
Religious conversion- Wikipedia.

16
 The proselytism is “an act of attempting and persuading to convert people to

another religion or opinion”29. Originally30, proselytism is referred to convince for

convert in early Christianity, but now it is used to convince and persuade to convert to

any religion or convert to different viewpoints related with religion or not31.

2.3.3 Conversion and Reversion

According to the common views, the terms Conversion and Reversion are used in

common to convert to any religion. According to terminology, the term Conversion is

used to convert to any religion, while the term Reversion is used to convert to Islam

only, because of the Islamic conception of ‘fiṭrah’.32 It means, “an inborn natural

disposition which cannot change, and which exists at birth in all human” 33. The use of

this term was explained by references to the Muslim beliefs that all creatures are born

Muslim, as Dhaoudi confers Ibn Khaldun’s use of Al-Fiṭrah’ concept is to” a balanced

human inclination that lives according to the laws of the natural divine order”34.

29
Esther Dwarswaard, Proselytism and conversion zeal,
<http://www.bibalex.org/Search4Dev/files/377655/216509.pdf> (Accessed on July 2019)
30
Proselytize is derived from the Greek “prosélytos” "newcomer". Historically, in the Koine Greek
Septuagint and New Testament, the word” Proselyte” denoted a Gentile who was considering conversion
to Judaism.
31
Proselytism - Wikipedia
32
The concept of fiṭrah’ is further explained by Mohammed based on the Hadīth of the Prophet
Muhammed (‫ﷺ‬.): “Every newborn child is born in a state of fiṭrah’. Then his parents make him a Jew, a
Christian or a Majian… (Fire worshipper) and if his parents are Jews, they make him a Jew, with respect
to his worldly situation, and if Christians, they make him a Christian with respect to that situation, and if
Majians, they make him a Majian with respect to that situation, his situation is the same as that of his
parents until his tongue speaks for him, but if he dies before his attaining to the age when sexual maturity
begins to show itself, he dies in a state of conformity to his preceding natural constitution, with which he
was created in his mother’s womb”. Yassin Mohamed, Human Nature in Islam, (Kuala Lumpar: A.S.
Noordeen, 1998), p: 3.
33
Ibid.3
34
Mahmoud Dhaouadi, New Explorations into the Making of ibn Khaldun’s Umran Mind, (Kuala
Lumpar, A.S. Noordeen, 1997), p: 108.

17
2.3.4 Conversion and Resocialization

The difference between conversion and Resocialization is difference with the person

and his land. The Resocialization centre is major centres for converts, reverts, and

proselytizers, which are subjected to follow certain laws and rules under the specific

institutions and centres that help them to remove the old behavior and resocialize to the

characters, which restricted under the certain centres35.

According to Ashley Crossman, “the Resocialization is a process in which a

person is taught new norms, values, and practices that promote their alteration from one

social role to another”.36 She describes that it process ranges from simply adjusting to a

new job or work environment, to moving to another country where you have to learn

new customs, dress, language and eating habits, to even more significant forms of

change like becoming a parent.37

2.4 HOLISTIC MODEL

To study the phenomena the religious conversion, Rambo and R. Lewis considered the

four components cultural, social, personal, and religious system, which were most

crucial to understanding of religious conversion, its richness and complexity, and its

relation to the disciplines of anthropology, sociology, psychology, and religious studies

that are related to them.38

35
Ashley Crossman, Reading: Understanding Resocialization in Sociology Definition, Discussion, and
Examples, < https://www.thoughtco.com/resocialization-3026522> (accessed on 28, August, 2019)
36
Ibid
37
Ibid P:4
38
Lewis Ray Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, (New York, Yale University Press, 1993),
P:7

18
2.4.1 Culture

The intellectual, moral, and spiritual atmosphere of life is constructed by Culture. The

myths, rituals, and symbols of culture provide guidelines for living, which are often

unconsciously adopted. An individual's core sense of reality is deep-rooted in language,

which is the fundamental medium for the transmission of cultural perceptions and

values.

According to the anthropologists, it is a manifestation of human creativity and a

powerful force in the shaping and renewal of individuals, groups, and societies. The

study focus on the phenomena such as rites of passage, rituals, myths, and symbols,

which intertwine the meaningful structure of a culture. They also examine a culture's

symbols and methods for religious change, the cultural impact of conversion, the way

culture hinders or facilitates religious change, and stages of development of new

religious orientations in a particular culture.39

2.4.2 Society

Sociologists observe the social and institutional aspects of traditions in which

conversion takes place. They consider social conditions at the time of conversion,

important relationships, and institutions of potential converts, and characteristics and

processes of the religious group to which people convert.40

Sociologists focus also on the interaction between individuals and their

environmental milieu, and on the relationships between individuals and the expectations

of the group in which they are involved.

39
Ibid.p:8-9
40
Ibid

19
2.4.3 Person

Indiscipline of psychology, the changes of an individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions

are the crucial area. it considers the conversion as a transformation of the self,

consciousness, and experience, in both objective and subjective aspects. As the model

of James and other scholars, the typical psychological study of conversion reveals the

conversion that it is often preceded by anguish, turmoil, despair, conflict, guilt, and

other such difficulties. 41

There several approaches and perspectives on conversion related to psychology,

that is psychoanalytic, behaviorist, humanistic, transpersonal, social, and cognitive

psychology. Psychoanalysts highlights on internal emotional dynamics, especially as

they reflect on the relationship between parent and child. Behaviorists emphasize a

person's behavior and judge the degree of comparison between this behavior and the

rewards and punishments of the immediate social environment. Humanistic and

transpersonal psychologists underline that the conversion gives the person richer self-

realization, highlighting the positive consequences resulting from the conversion. At

last, social and cognitive psychologists examine the impact of interpersonal and

intellectual influences on individuals and groups.

2.4.4 Religion

Whole religions constitute both the source and goal of a conversion. Religious people

affirm that the purpose of conversion is to bring people into a relationship with the

divine and provide them a new sense of meaning and purpose.

41
William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, p. 189.
.

20
 Theologians consider this dimension crucial to the whole process of human

transformation; other factors are subordinate to it. Scholars of religion focus on

transcendence, inquiring into the religious expectations, experiences, and worldviews

of converts. Recently scholars have argued that conversion is a progressive, interactive

process that has consequences in the community. However, scholars may choose to

delineate its causes, nature, and consequences, that conversion is essentially theological

and spiritual.

2.5 STAGES OF RELIGIOUS CONVERSION

Religious change or Religious conversion is a regular feature of the human dilemma.

Whether it involves converting from one religious’ tradition to another, changing from

one group to another within a tradition or the intensifying of religious beliefs and

practices, the case of conversion can be found in many cultures, historical periods,

economic conditions and social categories.

However, the word “Conversion” is the most appropriate term to designate that

religious conversion, is an ongoing complex process, involving many different

dimensions and provides certain stage models that provide the nature of the converting

processes that can be seen more adequately.42

According to the Lewis R. Rambo and Charles E. Farhadian there are seven

stages in this model. The stages are Context, Crisis, Quest, Encounter, Interaction,

Commitment and Consequences43. Therefore, Conversion is a process of religious

change that takes place in a dynamic force field of people, events, ideologies,

42
Lewis Ray Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, (New York, Yale University Press,
1993),p:23
43
Ibid, P: 24-25.

21
institutions, expectations and experiences. Nevertheless, it is always an ongoing

process, rather than a single event and it cannot be removed from the fabric of

relationships, processes, and ideologies that provide the medium of religious change.

Dimensions of the conversion process are multiple, interactive and cumulative.44

2.6. MODES OF CONVERSION

For Rambo, Charles E Farhadianand R. Lewis, the conversion is the name for all forms

of 'religious change. In their model of conversion, it is a complex process involving

seven stages. Those stages are context, crisis, quest, encounter, interaction, committing,

and consequences. Seen in such a process, conversion is not just a moment in a person's

life but involves a complex set of factors that are at once social, psychological and

spiritual dimensions.

Rambo and R. Lewis also provided an interdisciplinary model of opened stages

of conversion, which combines more insights for sociology, psychology, anthropology

and theology. Their holistic views identified the four components, which are cultural,

social, personal and religious systems.

2.6.1 Context

The context is referred to dynamic force fields. The context is the ecology or

environment in which conversion takes place. The context influences each stage, and

each stage can have a reciprocal impact on the context. A pervasive dialectic emerges

among and between stages and the context.

44
Ibid

22
According to them, the context consists of three interrelated spheres are Macro-context,

Micro-context, Meso-context.

The Macro context comprises such large-scale domains as political systems,

religious organizations, multinational corporations, important ecological

considerations, and economic systems. The Micro-context focuses upon the further

personal world of the individual, such as family and friends, profession, and other

aspects of a person's life that have a direct impact on the person's thoughts, feelings and

actions.

Finally, the Meso-context includes those aspects of the context, which mediate

between the Macro contexts and Micro contexts, such as local government, regional

politics and economics, and local religious institutions.45 According to him, the

diversity of contexts is immense, as seen between Macro-context and Micro-context (a

nuclear family that shares many of the same features of the Macro context) and each

member of Micro-context may be involved in various Macro contexts. These varieties

of contexts shape a person or group's life.

2.6.2 Crisis

Crisis is a promoter for change. Crisis an experience of disordering and disrupting that

call into question a person's or group's taken for the granted world. Crises are produced

by the interaction of external and internal forces.46

External influences contain, such as, colonial contact for the sake of exploration

and trade and the imposition of military force, which involves coercion, manipulation

or threat. On a personal level, people such as an evangelist, family member, or events

45
Ibid, p:25
46
Ibid, p:26-27

23
such as an illness, mystical experience may generate a crisis47. According to human

science literature, social disintegration, political oppression and something very

dramatic are instigating crises.

Crucial features of the crisis stage are: The intensity (degree of severity),

Duration (length of time), Scope (degree of pervasiveness), Source (internal or external)

of the crisis.

For conversion, Internal influences include mystical or near-death experiences,

illness, existential questions about the purpose of life, desire for transcendence, altered

states of consciousness, pathology, or apostasy48.

2.6.3 Quest

The quest stage includes different ways in which people respond to crises or how people

orient themselves to life, especially the religious life.

The quest consists of three important factors are: Response style, Structural availability,

Motivational patterns.

Response style depicts whether a person responds actively or passively to

conversion. A significant factor in understanding the quest stage is the assessment of

motivational structures. In general view, human motivations are complex, involving

emotional, intellectual and religious features. In the stage of quest, people seek to

maximize meaning and purpose in life. Under unusual or crisis conditions this active

searching becomes more compelling people look for resources for growth and

development or enrich life. The quest stage may intensify during times of crisis.49

47
Smith D Curtis, Religion and Crisis in Jungian Analysis', Counselling and Values, Vol: 34, No: 3,
(1990), p. 177-85.
48
There are countless examples of internal incentives for conversion within Christianity.
49
Lewis Ray Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, (New York, Yale University Press, 1993),
p:27

24
 Other motivations inspire an individual or group to seek religious conversion,

which include the desire to experience pleasure and avoid pain, enhance self-esteem,

institute and maintain relationships, achieve power, or experience transcendence. 50

2.6.4 Encounter

The encounter stage explains the contact between the potential convert and the advocate

or proselytizer.51 Three major components of the encounter are:52The advocates, The

potential converts, The setting of the encounter.

First feature is concerning the religious advocate; Religious advocacy may

contain particular strategies such as encountering the potential convert publicly or

privately, personally or impersonally.

The second feature is to understand the proselytizer, who perceives as the

benefits of conversion. According to this stage, Conversion may provide a system of

meaning, emotional gratification, and techniques for living, leadership, and power.

Finally, the setting of the encounter provides the background for conversion.

Religious group members find for private encounters in a public setting.53

2.6.5 Interaction

Interaction is a stage of creating new identities. By the stage of the encounter, convert

or group learns or learn more about the teachings, lifestyle and fundamental laws of the

group; these are required to start deciding for commitment. Therefore, all religious

50
Ibid, p:28
51
Robert W. Hefner, Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great
Transformation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993), Steven Kaplan (ed.), Indigenous
Responses to Christianity (New York: New York University Press, 1995) P:31,
52
Lewis Ray Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, (New York, Yale University Press, 1993),
p:28-29
53
Peter van der Veer, Conversion to Modernities: The Globalization of Christianity (New York:
Psychology Press, 1996) P:52

25
groups generally encourage conversion, as seen in some groups actively seek new

members while others remain passive.

There are four features of interaction, which engross the converting person or group

into the new religious option, are Ritual, Relationship, Rhetoric, Roles.

Ritual is a crucial element in the affiliation of a certain religion and it essential

to the learning process, may follow the lines of family, friends or teachers.54 Generally,

the closer the relationship between the advocate and potential convert the greater

likelihood for religious change.55

Relationship is intensified by the participation in ritual practices through deep

understanding that religious tradition. However, the rituals are merely enabling convert

to experience religion from the intellectual level. Through, the various community

activities such as singing, recitation of scriptures, and prayer, such ritual actions

consolidate persons, groups, and maintains a deeper sense of belonging. The rituals are

events in the religious community, that perform interaction between the deity and faith

community.

Rhetoric means, the convert or group starts or start to employ the specific

rhetoric of the religious group, therefore incorporating into their lifeways the language

of transformation inherent to the particular group.56 Such as religious terminology

serves as a new interpretative system that has the potential to dramatically transform the

worldview of the convert person.57

54
Because of space limitations, this chapter cannot consider the so-called brainwashing theory of
conversion.
55
Larry D. Shinn, Who Gets to Define Religion, The Conversion Brainwashing Controversy, Religious
Studies Review, Vol:19, No:3, (1919) p. 195-207.
56
Peter G. Stromberg, Language and Self Transformation: A Study of the Christian Conversion Narrative
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993)
57
For instance, Christians utilize terms such as 'sinner', 'heaven' and 'hell'; Buddhists 'stimsara','dhamma'
and 'Nirvana'; and Muslims 'shirk', 'sharia' and 'jihad

26
 Roles mean the expected roles and manner required before the deity or God and

others are learned by converts.58 It leads to change their lives both actively and

passively. These changes will encompass different levels of personality: self-behavior,

values and attitudes. Some groups expect total rejection of the former self and the

creation of a new self.59

2.6.6 Commitment

Commitment is a way of consolidating new spiritual orientations. It is a common

method for publicly displaying commitment is the personal testimony, a narrative of the

convert's life before and after conversion. The testimony provides to reconstruct

biographical information, integrating the convert's and religious community's story.

Conversion narratives can also be published to reach a wider audience, thus, solidifying

their commitment to the public arena.60

2.6.7 Consequences

Consequences mean assessing the effects of converting. This stage reveals whole

aspects of convert’s life that are affected for the comprehensive changes. It indicates

that the missionary is influenced by the interaction with converting persons in historical

and theological level.61 Many scholars believe that conversion is an ongoing process of

transformation. According to the perceptions of specific religious community, the

58
Alan Roland, In Search of Self in India and Japan: Toward a Cross-Cultural Psychology (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988).
59
Lewis Ray Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, (New York, Yale University Press, 1993), p:
30-31
60
Virginia Lieson Brereton, From Sin to Salvation: Stories of Women's Conversions, 1800 to the Present
(Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1991).
61
James C. Russell, The Germanization of Early Medieval Christianity: A Socio-historical Approach to
Religious Transformation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

27
convert changes their aspects of life that are connected to the new religious value. These

dimensions include affective, intellectual, ethical, religious, and social or political

domains.

2.7 THE MOTIVES AND NEEDS OF CONVERSION

There are various motives beyond religious conversion. According to the arguments of

numerous scientific scholars, Religious Conversion caused by factors, which tend to be

dominated by the disciplines they pursue.

One of the most significant factors certified with motivating individuals to

convert to other religion is relative deprivation.62 Various social studies on conversion

conducted in the 1960s and 1970s reveal that economic, social, moral, spiritual, and

psychological deprivation has been described as the key movement behind a person’s

decision to alter their religious identities.

Several theologians defined that, the factors of the religious conversion are

divine guidance. Supernatural influence plays a major role in the process of religious

conversion. While sociologists argue that, religion is driving the conversion of social

influence and powerHowever, to the interpersonal relationships, the conversion is

enormously encouraged through these relationships, which are both religious and non-

religious, and it intensifies through the influence of customs and recommended

propaganda of family, religious leaders, organizations and leaders. The psychologists 63

argue that motives of religious conversion are the psychological factors, which are both

internal and external.

62
Neha Chauhan, Religious Conversion and Freedom of religion in India: debates
and dilemmas, ILI Law Review. Vol:1, No:1, (1978). p:134.
63
Such as,Jalaluddin, 2000

28
 According to the Jalaluddin64, Numerous factors push to religious conversion,

that are: Conversions: occur due to a power of soul master centre one's habits.

Therefore, it takes place by appearing a new perception in the form of an idea (religious)

that blossomed on a steady basis. Conversions: may occur due to a crisis or a sudden.

Some scholars assert that it is movements of spiritual transformation; the

emphasis on gradual conversion process has resulted in an empirical phenomenon.

There are several classification systems, which connect models and motives of classic

and contemporary of religious conversions. Lofland and Skonovd provide certain

models of the psychological and sociological classification system. They attribute the

ideas of six conversions, and five main dimensions that relate to each idea, which are

pushing to religious conversion, those are:65

Intellectual motives: it consists of an intensive study on religion, books, reading,

television, internet and other media, which enable interpersonal contact. By intensifying

this interpersonal contact, social pressure is usually avoided and trust leads inclusion in

the community.

Mystical motives, it happened abruptly and dramatically and associated with a

dream or vision.

Experience (experimental) motives include an active exploration of the diverse

options of different religious, where the convert observes whether religion really 'work'

and gain what they have learned. An idea takes place gradually and in a long time and

involvement in the community following the belief or faith.

64
Pious psychologist lived in 2000.
65
Raja Oloan Tumanggor, The Conversion of Religion in Psychological Perspective, <
file:///C:/Users/User-01/Downloads/The_Conversion_of_Religion_in_Psychologi > (Accessed 19 on
february 2019)

29
 Affection motives include the construction of a direct and personal relationship

with members of a religious group for a certain time. Therefore, the potential converts

are given an experience loved and accepted.

The Resurrection idea (revivalist) is a type of conversions that occur in a group

meetings revival (revivalists). To this theme, lots of instruction and a high emotional

level are raised to accept the conversion.

The motive force (coercive) is a type of conversion that includes brainwashing,

coercive persuasion and mind programming. Although many new religious movements

accused of using this method, in fact this model has been in place for decades.

While the fifth dimension, that related to each idea: The level of social

pressure (degree of social pressure), The length of time (temporal duration), The level

of affective arousal and excitement, The content of affective (affective content), The

effect of change in behaviour and beliefs (belief and behaviour sequence of change).

On the other hand, Buxant, Saroglou, and Scheuer argue that Religious

Conversions are now driven by motives of personal growth or self-growth and the need

for replacement.66 They finally concluded that some of the things that motivate a person

to do the conversions are as follows:

An appreciation for the beauty and greatness (admiration of beauty and

excellence).This refers to the ability to find, recognize and enjoy the goodness of the

physical and social world. Here also includes openness to the aesthetic including

religious experience, ritual, and mysticism.

It an open mind to future generations. It is expressed in various ways, such as

education, social responsibility, concern for people and the environment.

66
Ibid

30
 Realizing the potential fully covering the movement toward a new way of

thinking, feeling and acting; creating new challenges and strive to make it happen.

Existential well-being can also be driving forces someone to perform conversions.

Therefore, the conversion process for events that is important in their lives.

People who do conversions driven by the need for understanding (need for

cognition). Therefore, they fight with a variety of questions on issues of moral and

existential.

In the context of the humanistic tradition accepted that as the conversion process

of spiritual transformation that includes a positive change in a person's system of

meaning, value, purpose, self-definition, and purpose in life.

In general, the perspective of the hierarchy of needs Maslow's model, religion

and spirituality is not only related to the immediate needs (deficiency needs) but self-

actualization needs.

2.8 RELATION WITH DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

Numerous scholars from diverse disciplines like geography, history, economics,

political scientists, legal departments, sociologists, psychologists, have researched

religious Conversion by defining all aspects and theories related to them. Religious

Conversion has kept its relationship with all disciplines here mentioned. Some various

disciplines are concerned with the study of religious conversion directly, but others are

concerned indirectly.

According to the psychology of religion, the typical psychological study of

conversion stresses how conversion is often preceded by anguish, turmoil, despair,

conflict, guilt, and other such difficulties. However, numerous psychological theorists

31
approach conversion from various theoretical perspectives: psychoanalytic, behaviorist,

humanistic, transpersonal, social, and cognitive psychology.

From sociological views, self-identity is a pivotal thing achieved by religious

conversion. According to them, numerous socio-political conversion movements reveal

that it escapes key from pathetic domination of certain religious values and leaders and

division of the caste system among the human being. Therefore, the sociologists and

political theorists describe that it is medium of creating the self and social identity and

political hierarchy among other domination groups who are existing in various religious

groups. The views of social, political and economic scholars were based on the upgrade

of self-identity in society and they are worked mainly based on self-identity related to

various dimensions of disciplines.

The view of Rambo gives more insight from sociology, psychology, theology,

and anthropology about the conversion, which involves an interdisciplinary model of

opened stages for conversion.

2.9 THE THEORIES AND TYPES OF CONVERSION

There were numerous theories and laws related to religious conversion. According to

several scholars of various disciplines, it influenced in all fields and levels related to

human beings, as seen in social, political, commercial and other disciplines of various

science. Therefore, several theories and aspects of diverse scholars were decisive in

studies and understanding of religious conversion. The theories of William James,

Lafland, Stark, Travisano, Straus and Donald Taylor are major aspects on religious

conversion.

32
2.9.1 William James67

The classic psychologist and philosopher William James (1842–1910) defined religious

conversion as the healing of a divided self.

According to his typical psychological study of conversion stresses how

conversion is often preceded by anguish, turmoil, despair, conflict, guilt, and other such

difficulties. He described in his famous book “The Varieties of Religious Experience”

(1958) that ‘it is acceptance of personal religion pure and simple by refusing the

institutional branches68 Therefore, religious conversion appeared to be a highly

individualistic form of healing. He distinguished moreover two types of religious

conversion, are:

Volitional conversion, which is a gradual transformation

The instantaneous conversion which is a sudden and dramatic change

Instantaneous conversion has four indicators: a sense of higher control, peace,

and harmony, a sense of perceiving truths not known before, a sense of the clean and

beautiful newness of life and the world, in general, having an ecstasy of happiness.

2.9.2 Lofland and Stark

Lofland and Stark, two sociologists prescribed that the conversion is a quest of change

from the tension and deprivation and subsequent, which are existed in a religion.

He explored the basic conception of religious conversion, which based on the

several factors that are: Personal tension, Ideological congruence, Religious seekership.

67
Henri Gooren, Religious Conversion and Disaffiliation Tracing Patterns of Change in Faith Practices,
(USA, Palgrave Macmillan publication, 2010), P: 21-22.
68
William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, p:41

33
2.9.3 Travisano

The sociologist and psychologist Richard Travisano distinguished the conversion as

disruption of identity. He drew different kinds of personal transformation69 are;

Alteration, which is transformation into identities, which are prescribed in a one

person. It is a simple transformation and membership is affiliate.

Conversion, which involves absolute and complete disruption of older identity

2.9.4 Straus

The sociologist Roger Straus perceived that the conversion is a system of brainwashing

mode from prior. He explored, however, conversion is an ultimate imitation of a group

that will agree with the whole cognitive and belief system of institutional structure.

His model outlines the conversions through the three typical patterns are:

Pre-affiliation is instrumentally combing the followers through social medial or mass

media, it gives an important quest and views about religion they want to follow.

Affiliation is a stage of learning that sacred texts, languages, and interpretation.

Conversion is a stage of turning into specific institutionalized structure.

2.9.5 Taylor

According to the general definition of a convert, he divided the religious conversion

into three parts:70 Inward conversion, Outward conversion, Awkward conversion

69
Richard Travisano, Religious Conversion and Disaffiliation: Tracing Patterns of Change in Faith
Practices, (US, Palgrave Macmillan 1970) P:598
71
Lewis Ray Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, (New York, Yale University Press, 1993),
p:35-40

34
 The Inward conversion is ‘convert' or 'conversion', for they seem to imply

moving away from an inferior to a superior tradition (in the eyes of the convert and of

those in the receiving tradition but not in the eyes of the giving tradition).

Outward conversion is from the giving tradition's point of view a person who

leaves the fold to take up with another tradition is not entering a superior tradition, so

the word 'conversion' is hardly ever used. Various words may be used, depending on

the degree of animosity the transfer of allegiance has aroused. In this condition,

movement from the inferior to the superior is often expressed in phrases such as see the

light.

Awkward conversion is usually used to several necessary of self or group. The

importance of 'conversions' from one religion to another, the boundary walls between

them are not always as hidden, as they may seem at first. For instance, one can traverse

the boundary wall through marriage.

2.10 THE TYPES OF CONVERSION

According to Rambo, Lewis R’ ideal type, the conversion is into four types which are

core to understand the range and varying characteristics of many kinds of conversion,

are:71Apostasy or Defection, Intensification, Affiliation, Institutional transition

Apostasy, or defection, is the refutation of a religious tradition or its beliefs by

previous members. This change does not involve the acceptance of a new religious

perspective but often indicates the adoption of a nonreligious system of values.

Deprogramming, an intensive method sometimes used to remove people from religious

movements viewed as sects, may be seen as a form of forced reconversion, or apostasy.

71
Ibid,12-13.

35
 Intensification is the rejuvenated commitment to a faith in which the convert has

a previous affiliation, formal or informal. It occurs when nominal members of a

religious institution make their commitment a central focus in their lives or when people

deepen their involvement in a community of faith through profound religious

experience and or life transitions like marriage, childbirth, and approaching death.

Affiliation is the movement of an individual or group from no or nominal

religious commitment to full involvement with an institution or community of faith.

Institutional transition involves the change of an individual or group from one

community to another within a major tradition. This process, which sociologists call

denominational switching, can involve simple affiliation with a church because of

convenience (such as geographical proximity) or significant religious change based

upon profound religious experience.

Tradition transition refers to the movement of an individual or a group from one

major religious tradition to another. Moving from one worldview, ritual system,

symbolic universe, and life-style to another is a complex process that often takes place

in a context of cross-cultural contact and conflict.

2.11 THE LAWS OF CONVERSION

The religious conversion was widely agreed by rules and regulation under human rights

and other features of different constitutions of various countries. The freedom of

religious ethics is generally understood by article 18 of the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights and by article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights. It

includes the freedom to choose, to keep, to change or to abandon a particular religion,

36
as well as the freedom to choose or to abandon religion or atheism in general without

any disadvantageous consequence.72

“The freedom of religious conscience, as understood above, encompasses the

right to persuade others through teaching, for example through missionary activity,

without which the right to change religion or faith would run the danger of remaining a

dead letter.”73 This right is not to be acted upon only in a collective manner, for example

in public or within a group of fellow believers, but also in private and individually.

Under article, two of ICCPR74the right to change religion is not just a freedom from

direct and indirect coercion the active state but itis much more than that. These are the

main laws connected to religious conversion globally75

72
Dr. Atlanta Filos, The Freedom to Change and Manifest Religion or Belief and Dominant Religion,
(N.p, N.p, 2009), p: 17-20.
73
ibid
74
Art. 2 of ICCPR reads: “1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure
to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present
Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
75
Dr. Atlanta Filos, The Freedom to Change and Manifest Religion or Belief and Dominant Religion, p:
21.

37
 THIRD CHAPTER

CONVERSION TO ISLAM IN KERALA: ORIGIN, GROWTH,

AND CONVERTED MUSLIMS AND THEIR INTERVENES

3.1. ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF CONVERSION TO ISLAM

The primary preaching of Islam in Kerala, like any part of the world, was made by Arab

missionaries, traders and Sufis, who had long relations to Indian subcontinent through

the commercial activities in early periods, even before the period of Prophet

Muhammed(‫)ﷺ‬. It was intensively enhanced by the chieftains of Malabar and other

provinces including their adherents by understanding righteousness of Islam, that it is

way of strengthening their economy and a way annihilation of caste system, which

existed in different regions of Malabar. Therefore, Arab missionaries and Sufis,

especially converted Muslims had an had an important role in modeling the Kerala’s

great Islamic legacy.

Thus, this chapter will discuss on the advent of Islam, and origin, growth and

decline of the conversion to the Islam in Kerala and the interference of the reverts in

social, cultural, political and especially religious spheres of Kerala. And research will

elucidate some important converted Muslims, who preached the Islam by refuting the

basic errors and ideology of their pre-assigned religion, especially focused on biography

and religious intervenes of E.C. Simon Master and Muhammad Eisa.

38
3.2. PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

3.2.1. The Advent of Conversion to Islam in Kerala

There are various parallel opinions in cases the conversion to Islam in Kerala. As many

historical documents revealed that Islam reached in the period of the prophet (‫)ﷺ‬by

Islamic missionary groups and Arabs Yemenis trades.

In pre-colonial period, according to George Sarton and Francis Day76, the

conversion to Islam was originated in Kerala during the period of Prophet (‫()ﷺ‬7th

century) by Arab trades and Islamic missionary groups from Arabia directly. 77

Steaphen Federic Dale, a famous British historian found that "Islam came to the

coasts of Kerala as a part of peaceful trade of Arab countries with Africa, India, and

Southeast Asian countries. Even before the birth of Prophet Muhammed (‫)ﷺ‬, Malabar

had attracted traders from various places because Malabar was famous for its spices,

aromatic woods and hardwood. The Hindu rulers in Malabar had a favourable trade

policy; they gave grants and other facilities for the traders. This led to the spread of

Judaism, Christianity and Islam in Malabar."78 It shows that Islam has reached the coast

of Kerala its early age.

P Saidu Muhammad asserts that, by the migration of Prophet Muhammed (‫)ﷺ‬to

Madinah, Islam begun to spread all over the Arabia, as hundreds of Arab tribes

embraced Islam rapidly. By coming of Yemenis to Islam in the ninth and tenth year

of Hijra, Islam started spreading out of Arabia, such as people in south Asian countries

76
Francis Day, The Land of the Permauls: Or Cochin, Its Past and Its Present (Madras, Nabu Press,
2010), p. 365
77
Hāmid Ali, Custom and Law in Anglo-Muslim Jurisprudence, (Calcutta: Thacker, Sprink &
Company, 1938). See also Zainuddīn Mandalamkunnu, Presence of Islam in South India: in the records
of 9th and 10th century, The Guide, Vol.1, No. 1, (2014) pp.8.
78
Stephen F. Dale, Trade, Conversion and the Growth of the Islamic Community of Kerala, South India,
Studia Islamica, No. 71 (1990), p155-157

39
reverted to Islam in the early ages of Islam, as they were the sailors of Arabs. Long

commercial relations of Yemenis with Persia, Egypt, Sind, Konkanam, Malabar,

Ma’bar, Silon, Qafila, Sajib, Java, China, Machina, led to dissemination Islam all over

the world. By the arriving of Arab Yemenis to maritime Kerala and south Asia in the

ninth and tenth year of Hijra, conversion to the Islam initiated by social, cultural and

commercial inferences between Arabs and Keralite. 79

Ahmad Al Balasari discloses that, the conversion into Islam was firstly initiated

by Arab Yemenis trades and migrants who were going to Silone for visiting Adam

Mountain.80 It intensively trended in coastal Provinces of Kerala after the embracing

Islam of the two Kings (Cheraman Perumal and Ali Raja as said) as historical evidences

revealed. S.S.Nadwi recommends that it is true that before the inhabitancies of Muslims

in northern India, there were Muslim colonies in southern India.81

The major historical documents argued, that the conversion to the Islam firstly

initiated by the advent Arab missionary groups in Kerala especially in Malabar during

the period of Prophet Mohammed (‫)ﷺ‬, it helps to sustain inhabitancies in Malabar, even

in whole Kerala also by interfering social, cultural activities of converts throughout the

Kerala.

3.2.1.1 The legend of Cheraman Perumal

According to historical facts, there are two kings in Malabar, who travelled to the Arabia

to embrace Islam. The first one was King Tājuddīn who reverted to Islam in front of

79
PA Saidu Muhammad, Kerala Muslim Directory, (Calicut, N.p, 1960), p. 103- 108
80
Moin Hudawi Malayamma, Kasaragod Muslimkalude Charitram, (Kasaragod, Dias Book Cell, 2008),
p.31, 33.
81
Roland E Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study of Islamic Trends, (New Delhi, Sangam Books
Limited, 1992) p. 55.

40
Prophet (‫)ﷺ‬. Then, his companions returned to Malabar after his death and they

preached their Holy religion, Islam.82

Another one was king Bana Perumal, who was informed the new religion from

Arabia by Sheikh Saharuddīn ibn Taqiyuddīn, who was the veteran leader of the first

Islamic missionary group advanced in Kerala. By recognizing as it is truthful religion

in the world, he wanted its presence in Malabar, which was disordered with religious

and political atmosphere, to puts forward a peaceful atmosphere in Kerala especially

Malabar.

By attracting to the new religion, he made a trip to Arabia in 628 CE (6 Hijri)

and he embraced the Islam by the hand of the prophet (‫)ﷺ‬at Medina and he named him

Tājuddīn83 Constantly, He studied the basics of Islam from the king of Yemen Malik

bin Habib, who welcomed him to Arabia before. In his return to Malabar with his

companions, he took a little rest at Shahar. Unfortunately, he fell ill and he yielded to

death in tenth Hijri.

After his death, his companions including Sharif Bin Malik, Malik Bin Dinar

and Malik Bin Habib returned to Malabar, in order to accomplish of Cheraman

Perumal's demand as far as he had handed over a letter to his associates to be given it

to the ruler of Kodungallur, in which he had stated that all facilities for propagation of

the new religion might be provided to them. Hence, they landed in Kadungallur.84 They

started the missionary activities in various coastal areas with the permission of the

Kodungallur Raja.85 However, under the leadership of the Malik Bin Habib and his

82
KN Ganesh, Keralathinte Innalekal, (Trivandrum, Kerala Bhasha institute, 1990), p. 250.
83
Ibid, p. 35
84
William Logan, Malabar Manual, (Trivandrum, Chatitram Publications, 1981), p. 225
85
Shaykh Zainuddin Makhdum, Tuhfat Al-Mujāhidīn: A Historical Epic of the Sixteenth Century
Translated from the Arabic with notes by S. Muhammad Husayn Nainar, (Calicut: Other Books, 2006),
pp.35-39.

41
associates, Islam trended and Keralite reverted to Islam, especially who were in lower

castes that enjoyed a special degree of social freedom.

As the part of revert and spread of Islam in Kerala, he firstly built a Mosque in

Kadungallur. Then he went to Kollam and built another Mosque there. After the Kollam

mission, he visited Heli (Ezhimala), Fakannur (Barkur), Manjarur (Mangalore),

Kanjarkuth (Kasargod), Jarfatten (Srikandapuram), Dahfatten (Darmadam),

Fandareenu (Pandalayani), and Shilishat (Chaliyam), and built Mosques there86

However, there are various parallel and unparalleled established accounts in

which the date of conversion of Cheraman Perumal to the Islam and advent of Islam in

Malabar, Kerala, as well as whether they agree on the legend of Cheraman Perumal or

not.

Many historians had recorded it was in the time of Prophet Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬.

Abul Qāsim Firishtha, Akbar Shāh Khān and Dr. Burnell emphasized that the legend of

Cheraman Perumal was in the first decade of Hijri. But Shamsullah, renowned modern

historians had jotted down that the birth of Perumal was in 788 CE/ 172 Hijri. So, this

event should be in the third century of Hijra.87 According to most of earliest traditional

accounts of historians such as Logan88, Krishna Ayyar and Shaikh

Zainuddin89demonstrated that Muslims resided in Kerala by the ninth century AD (200

years after Hijra, 825 AD), but, the earliest extant account of an established Kerala

Muslim community dates only from the mid-fourteenth century, when the itinerant

North African, Ibn Battuta, visited the Malabar Coast on his way from Delhi to China.90

86
Moin Hudawi Malayamma, Kasaragod Muslimkalude Charitram, p. 37- 39
87
Dr. Shamsullah Qadiri, Pracheena Malabar, (Calicut, Other Books, 2011) p. 38
88
William Logan, Malabar Manual, p. 19 1
89
Shaykh Zainuddin Makhdum, Tuhfat al-Mujāhidīn, pp.35-39.
90
Ibn Battuta, Muhadhdhab Rehlat Ibn Battuta (Cairo: Wizarat Mu’arif 'Umimiyeh, 1934), p. 181. It was
translated by Mahdi Husain, The Rehla of ibn Ballttuta (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 195
3).

42
These interpretations probably provided in order to the historical evidences of Masudi

of Bagdad (890-966 AD), as well as he speaks of contacts between Malabar and Arabia.

And he is verified by Ibn Kurdad Bah (867-885 A.D) and Abu Zaid of Ziraf (916 A.D).

Therefore, these early contacts would increase the possibility of the Cheraman legend

if it was being genuine.91

According to the modern historians like Prof. Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai and Dr.

M.G.S. Narayanan disclosed that the conversion of Cheraman Perumal into Islam is in

12 century A.D. As historical view confirms that, till the 11th century Chera kingdom,

was not partitioned and Perumals were ruling at Mahodayapuram (Makotai) till 1102.

It may be noted that the Madayi Mosque was completed in 1124.92

Mumtas Begum A.L disclosed that, the various analyses of Logan, Padmanabha

Menon and others were mostly based on guess work because these scholars did not have

the preference of researching the records of the later Chera kingdom, which existed

from 9 to 12 century A.D. The foreign travellers, who visited in later centuries AD,

were the earliest to perceive the Cherman legend without observing it authenticity and

record it in their literature. The first writer to put in his record was Duarte Barbosa

(1510A.D). He has replicated from hearsay the story of the Perumal's conversion,

following him many writers have referred to it.93 Padmanabha Menon also rejected, the

view that the alleged convert; Cheraman Perumal had met the Prophet in 9 century A.D.

He frequently demonstrates that there were none of the early geographers like Sulaiman

91
M.G.S. Narayanan, 'Political and Social conditions of Kerala, under Kulasekharas of
Mahodayapuram', (C 800 AD-1124 AD) (unpublished Ph.D thesis, Kerala University, 1972), 582.83
92
Prof. Elamkulam Konjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History, (Trivandrum, N.p, 1970), p.212-2 13
93
Mumtas Begum A.L. “Muslim women in Malabar-Study in social and cultural change, (published Phd
thesis, University of Calicut, 2006), 11-12.

43
(850 AD), Al-Beruni (970-1039 AD), AD-Idirisi (1153-54) even Macropoli (1271-94)

didn’t mentioned it.94

M.G.S Narayan, prolific modern historian, concludes that Cheraman Perumal's

conversion has found a place not only in the Muslim chronicles, but also in Brahmana

chronicles, so it cannot be rejected as such.95

In short, Islam had reached at coast of the Malabar during the time of Prophet

Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬by the hand of the sailors from Arabia. The king Cheraman Perumal’s

reversion to Islam may be in the first decade of or in the third or ninth or 12th century

Hijri. Another possibility is that, the events may be different as some historians

concluded.96

3.2.2. Growth of Conversion to Islam in Malabar

By residing of Malik Bin Habib and his associates at the coastline of the Malabar, Islam

exactly spread all over the Malabar and related provinces also. Sailor from West Asia,

who came for trade and settled in coastal areas of Malabar, which steered to an

intensification in the numbers of Muslims.

Many Hindus converted to Islam by impressing the distinct social status and

unique life style of Muslims. Numerous native non-Muslims converted to Islam because

of propagations made by Islamic missionary scholars and endorsements of native rulers

for social, political and economic advantages. Especially, this period was a significant

94
K.P. Padmanabha Menon, History of Kerala, Vol.1, (Ernakulam, Asian Educational Services;
Facsimile of 1924 ed edition, 2003), pp.437-38
95
M.G.S. Narayanan, 'Political and Social conditions of Kerala, p .121 122.
96
Dr. Bahauddin Muhammed Nadwi, Islamikagamanathinte Kerala Charitram, appilayundayaYatrakal,
Thelitcham 15th Anniversary Issue, Chemmad, 2014, p. 20

44
landmark in the Islamic history of Malabar. When Wasco De Gama reached Malabar in

fifteenth century it was a centre of Muslims in India.97

3.2.2.1. Causes of Conversion to Islam in Malabar

The expansion of Islam was absolutely peaceful in Malabar. It was a fertilized land for

Islam. Hence, Islam grew rapidly in Malabar. However, Malabar has specific Sufi

missionary movements, which led to the growth of Islam as it spread in north India.

Therefore, the prime factors of conversion in Malabar were related numerous spheres;

such social, political, economic and religious concerns.

According to Rolland. E. Miller, there are specific factors involved in the growth

of the Muslim community up to the time of European invasion, mainly immigration,

intermarriage and missionary movement, the support of the Zamorin and individual

benefits.98

According to Dr. K.K.N. Kurup99and Jāfar Sharīf100, the crucial motive in

growth of the conversion in Malabar was caste system in Hinduism, an abhorrent

system, which compelled Swami Vivekananda to call Malabar as a “madhouse.”101

When Islam introduced a diplomatic social system, which puts forward a policy of

egalitarianism between its members, a huge number of low caste peoples converted to

Islam. Exactly, according to them, the conversion was an escape from the intolerances

and discriminations of upper castes and royal families. The outcasted groups from

Hindus usually known as untouchables also converted to Islam. By embracing Islam,

97
Dr. Shamsullah Qadiri, Pracheena Malabar, p. 43.
98
Roland E Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, p.52-53.
99
Dr. KKN Kurup, Mappila Paramparyam, (Calicut, Irshad Book Stall, 1998), p. 31.
100
Jāfar Sharīf, Islam in India or the Qanum – Islam, Eng. Trans. G.A. Herklots, ed., (London, William
Crooke, Curuzon press Ltd., 1975), p.4.
101
Vivekananda Sahitya Sarvaswam, Bhaskaranunni, Pathompatham Nuttandile Keralam, Kerala
Sahitya Academy, Vol, III, (1988), pp. 186-187.

45
they were treated alike as other Muslims and they enjoyed some degree of social

freedom and status. Thus, caste system had intensively existed as chief cause of

conversion to Islam in Malabar.

In medieval period, by existing the cultural and economic presence of Arabs or

the Arab-Muslim cosmopolitanism and advent of new political trend; shifting of the

headquarters of rulers from inland agrarian centres to maritime trade centres, natives

desired to convert to Islam, to attain maximum economic benefits and political

power.102Especially, most of the conversions occurred in 14 to 16 century, were

connected with the political economy of Zamorins.103However, sometimes Zamorins

convinced some Mukkuva community to convert to Islam, to build a naval power with

the support of Arabs and to create a labour force in the coastal region for merchants.

Thus, hundreds of Mukkuva community in coastal areas came to Islam. 104

By advent of Ali Raja as the head of Arakkal kingdom in north Malabar,

Muslims got power and dignity which led to rapid growth of the Muslim community.105

As Arakkal kingdom is chief kingdom, which ruled by Muslim Mappila chieftains, who

facilitated a lot in spreading Islam. Sometimes the rulers of Arakkal kingdom were

women who called Beevis.106 In this time Muslims were attracted by other due to

wearing costly dresses and others related cultural dignities which has been caused

convert to Islam

102
Pius Malekandathil, Maritime India: Trade, Religion and Polity in the Indian Ocean, (Calicut, Primus
Books, 2010) P:59-75.
103
E.S Muhammed Aslam, Political Economy of Zamorin and Religious Conversion to Islam, café
dissensus, < https://cafedissensus.com/2016/02/15/political-economy-of-zamorin-and-religious-
conversion-to-islam/ > (Accessed on on February 15, 2019)
104
Dr. KKN Kurup, Mappila Paramparyam, p. 67
105
P.A..Sayyid Mohammed, 'Muslims in Kerala's History in Krishna Chaitanya (ed.), (Calicut, Kerala
Darshan,1959), p.55.
106
Roland E Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, p. 68

46
 In Malabar, Islam was growing rapidly to the invasion of Portuguese sailors. As

well as Barbosa, a well renowned Portuguese traveller, had recorded that “in coastal

areas of Malabar, Muslims increased quickly because of Arabs settled there and got

married with Malabar women and Arabs had continued their trade contacts with

Mappila communities till the invasion of Portuguese sailors.

3.3. COLONIAL PERIOD

3.3.1. Hindrance to Conversion in Portuguese Period

By invasion of Portuguese sailors into Malabar, Arab merchants withdrew from

Malabar and contact with Arabia and expansion of Islam also weakened, and Portuguese

merchants under Wasco De Gama came into Malabar in 1498 CE. Their aim was

economic advantages only. In this most of the rich people located in Calicut were

Muslims. Zamorins had appointed a Nair soldier, a helper and an accountant for every

Muslim merchant.

Portuguese sailors targeted to conquer the trade monopoly from Muslims to

accomplish their economic dreams. It was their dream for a long time to have trade with

India. With a well-planned team work of Portuguese sailors with various chieftains

simplified to occupy the trade monopoly of Muslims in Calicut step by step. In first

phase they did not face any opposition from anybody, but also Zamorins helped them.

According to Muslim traders, they were observing the new comers. When Muslims

understood that they were expelled from the market they began to react. But they had

no powers and they were defeated. The time of Muslim’s prosperity was in its end in

Malabar107.

107
Dr. KKN Kurup, Mappila Paramparyam, p. 91

47
 By the colonialization of the Malabar, Portuguese started to preach their religion;

Christianity. Many Christian missionaries from Europe came to Malabar. They not only

easily spread their religion, but also sometimes forced natives to convert to Christianity

where ever Portuguese went, they looted shops and houses, demolished Mosques,

victimised them without any reason and forced to convert to Christianity. 108 By

homicide and converting forcefully to Christianity, the increasing numbers of Muslims

started to stop then to decrease. The dignity of Muslims was vanished and they were

victimised and they became backward. therefore, Islam lost all its growth and became

weaker in Malabar provinces in the time of Portuguese invasion109.

By coming of Dutch sailors in the end of sixteenth century, Portuguese withdraw

to their homeland. After the Dutch, Malabar had faced many European powers who

invaded India. Other European powers were not as cruel as Portuguese, but it seemed

same to Malabar Muslims and their fall continued. By the end of European invasion

period, Malabar Muslim communities were politically devastated. Sometimes they

appeared as the soldiers of some other powers who fought for the independence.

Economically Muslims were demolished entirely. Some Mappilas remained rich, but

Malabar Muslims were fighting to recover from the big fall. Economical disasters

became usual phenomenon to Mappilas. However, Mappilas became a society of

landless labours, small traders and poor fishermen110.

Though Malabar Muslim communities were weakened economically, politically

and socially the increasing of numbers of Muslims continued. But it was not rapid as

before in pre-Portuguese era. Muslims never re-established their lost formality and

dignity in the society. Nobody appeared there to bring back the Malabar Muslim

108
Dr. ShamsullahQadiri, Pracheena Malabar, p. 78
109
Roland E Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, p. 74- 85
110
Ibid, p. 92

48
community to their splendid past. As result of European dominance in the Malabar

coasts, the religious preachers and charismatic figures from Arabia returned to their

homeland, even some stayed at coasts of the Malabar provinces. However, European

invasion was the main setback that Malabar Muslims faced after the advent of Islam in

Kerala.111

3.3.2. The Resurgence of Muslims in Mysore Period

By decline of Portuguese and Dutch invaders, Malabar Muslim communities were

recovered by Hyder Ali and Tippu, who were charismatic rulers of Mysore. They

invaded Malabar in eighteenth-century CE. When Malabar Muslim communities felt

glorious advances under Hyder Ali in time of the bad condition, they supported him.

However, the unification of partitioned Malabar by Hyder Ali was a prominent

milestone in recovering of Muslim communities in Malabar. As well as, Malabar had

divided into twelve pieces under the leadership of Perumal’s descendants after his

demise. By the eighteenth century Malabar had divided again to forty-two small

countries. The constant fights between those countries formed a political chaos in the

Malabar provinces. By Annexing Malabar by Hyder Ali brought those portioned areas

under one control112. As part of retrieval of Mappila Muslim, his renowned son, Tippu

governed this zone by dividing systematically into Taluks. This system was followed

even after the independent India. This unification facilitated Muslims a lot to recover

from the tremendous decline.113

111
Ibid, p. 93
112
KK Koch, BudhanilekkullaDuram, (Kottayam, DC Books, 2011), P. 85, 86
113
Abdussamad.MK, Aadhunika Charitramaram bhikkunnath TippuvilNinnu,
MappilayundayaYatrakal,Thelitcham 15th Anniversary Issue, Chemmad, 2014, p.191, 192

49
 In 1766 Hyder Ali firstly attacked Malabar for Aliraja of Arakkal kingdom, who

had demanded his help to fight against Nair army. In this time Malabar Mappila

Muslims greeted him as a Muslim. However, more than eight thousand Mappilas helped

his army to fight against Nairs and Brahmins. This caused to attract Mappila Muslims

to mainstem of the Malabar. But the conflicts between Hyder Ali, British and Nairs

continued till his death114.

He agitated strongly against ruthless policies of Nairs. As well as he put forward

egalitarian policies in the social, political and economic fields, as he declared that Nairs

are the law caste in the society and he removed all the concession of Nairs. However,

he declared that, Nairs who convert to Islam can receive all the concessions. Therefore,

many of Nairs converted to Islam. The rich Muslim landlords’ family names and the

matrilineal system of north Malabar are the evidences of the conversion of Nairs in this

period115.

According to Arnold, Tippu was the Muslim king who forced to convert to Islam

systematically. Over thirty thousand non-Muslims were converted to Islam or killed or

exiled by Tippu.116 As revenge the Portuguese’ attack on Muslims, Tippu attacked

Portuguese than others. He renewed the recent customs and he brought out a well

relationship between the local and high cates communities.

The conversion to Islam continued up to withdrew of Tippu from Malabar in

1792. As the Mysore invasion was magnificent for Mappilas reforms in Malabar, and

there had rapid increase in the statistics of Muslims. It caused to improvement of Kerala

114
PK Balakrishnan, TippuSulthan, (Calicut, Al Huda Book Stall, 1989), p. 183
115
Dr. KKN Kurup, Mappila Paramparyam, p. 42, 43
116
KK Koch, Budhanilekkulla Duram, p. 88

50
Muslim communities from the political decline a little. Economically although they had

got enhanced in this time, even they remained deprived in the society117.

3.3.3. Decline of Muslims in British Period

By treaty of Seringapatam in 1792, Malabar became a chief colony under British

control. The farmers of Malabar Mappilas opposed their new tax policies, as well as

they fought and struggled against the British regime’ new policies for many years.

However, they irritated in many places. As Sufis like Umer Qadi publicly disagreed to

pay tax for the God’s land. But British regime tried to record these revolutions as fanatic

of Malabar Muslims118. By interpreting and mentioning British regime these uprisings

as a part of fanatic and religious belief of Mappila Muslims of Malabar, they started to

suppress them by using their armies force. Thus, British rule became another hell for

Mappilas.

By the emergence of nationalism in 20th century in India, British government

frightened of their rule. Although, they used the Divide and Rule policy to maintain

their hierarchy. Consequently, the struggles, which affected by British’s new

discriminative policies, that led Mappila Muslims of Malabar to document British

regime them as Mappila Muslims’ religious and fanatic revolts are against Hindu

landlords. Therefore, all the nationalist movements by Muslims were recorded as

religious fanatic movement by British regime. So, Hindu didn’t support and never allied

with agitational activities of Malabar Mappila Muslim against British regime and their

policies.119

117
K Balakrishna Kurup, Kozhikkodinte Charitram, (Calicut, Mathrubhumi Books,2013), p. 115
118
Dr. KKN Kurup, Mappila Paramparyam, p. 64
119
PK Pokker, Swathwa Rashtreeyam, (Calicut, Progress Publications, 2012), p. 70.

51
 Government not only controlled the all the activities of Malabar Muslims under

their new policies, but also, they seized the all wealth of Mappilas by introducing and

imposing government new tax policies. From the huge amount of tax, which collected

from the farmers of Malabar, gave a glance that how significant was Malabar to British

government120.

Initially, British rule was in favour with Hindus and opposite to Muslims because

that, British had seized the rule from Tippu, who was supported by Malabar

Muslims121.By introducing the new tax system, which collected huge amount of the

taxes from peasants by the landlords, landlords utilized this as an opportunity to take

revenge towards Mappilas. However, they attacked Muslims in the name of tax

collection, even every Hindu feudal and Zamorins begun to fight against Mappilas. This

time was Malabar’s another political, economic and communal disorder. Therefore,

in1800 British government took the direct control of Malabar.122

By disappointing of Mappilas and Hindus in new British rule, they used to

uprising and revolt against them. As well as Hindus recognized British’ s divide and

policy from the revolts of Pazhassi Raja, they begun to come in front of revolt against

them. However, Mappilas and Hindus revolted all over Malabar. But, British forcefully

oppressed the revolts. Thousands of Malabar Muslims were executed in revolts.

Thousands were evacuated and exiled to Australia and Andaman Island. Muslims

reached the worst situation ever had seen. So many disagreements rose within the

community against the revolts which defect them.123 Briefly, British period was worst

time Malabar Muslims as result of revolts and struggles shows. Muslims lost their

120
Prof. KM Bahaudhin, Kerala Muslims, (Kottayam, SahithyaPravarthaka Co Operative Society Ltd,
1992, p. 109
121
PK Balakrishnan, Tippu Sulthan, p. 215.
122
Roland E Miller, Mappila Muslimkal, p. 108- 114
123
Ibid, p. 120- 125

52
dignity. Hundreds of them lost their lives and Hundreds were exiled from India. 124 In

the revolt of 1921 more than ten thousand Mappilas lost their lives. It may double if add

the numbers of all the deceased Mappilas in all revolts against British rule. As a result

of illustrating the Mappilas as fanatic, British regime introduced new ‘Mappila Project’

to rehabilitate and to exile the rebels from Mappilas to Andaman Islands.125

Consequently, Malabar Muslims were victimised as the fanatic and brutal barbaric

community. And Government established Malabar Special Police (MSP) to control

Mappilas. The big gap between Muslims and Hindu was another result. So, Muslims

were isolated in Malabar. But by the new policies, which introduced by later governors

and early independent Indian government, the gap was filled.126

3.5 CONVERTED MUSLIMS IN KERALA

3.3.4. Increase in Numbers of converted Muslims in British Period

According to historical references, the percentage of converted Muslims was increasing

in the trouble stricken British period. In Mysore invasion period reversion to Islam was

very fast because of the caste system and ruthless domination of landlords, religious

missionaries and both British and native officials.

However, in British period it was not rapid as Mysore period. The census of

1871- 1881 shows that, there are around fifty thousand Hindus converted to Islam due

Mysore invasion in Malabar. The majority of this new Muslims were Cheruma caste

Hindus, who were economically and socially backward and isolated. This drift directed

124
M Gangadharan, Mappila Padanangal, (Calicut, Vachanam Books,2007), p. 147
125
Roland E Miller, Mappila Muslimkal, p. 148- 151
126
Ibid, p. 153

53
Muslim community to the immense dilemmas. The population of Hindu Cherumas

became half in ten years127.

The census exposes that there had recorded more than fifty thousand conversions

to Islam in these ten years128. Another community, who reverted to Islam in British

period was fishermen. Other low caste people from Hindus were also converted. But

the upper-class peoples, who embrace Islam were rare. In forty years from 1871 to 1911

the population of Mappila Muslims increased 63.9 percentages, while the increase of

Hindus was just 22.6 percentages.129 From the data it is clear that, the conversion to

Islam was continuing even in the time of revolts and struggles. But it was mainly for

the personal merits of the converted, even though the number of Muslims in the British

period was increasing.

3.4. POST-COLONIAL PERIOD

3.4.1. Debates of Conversion in late centuries

According to numerous discrimination and polarisation concerns arouse among low

level cates from Brahmins, government officials, officers and high castes people also in

different part of Malabar by targeting and oppressing them publicly, the debate of the

conversion into Islam or Christianity or conversion movement arose under leaderships

of charismatic leaders such as K. Sukumaran, Dr. K.P Thayyil, P.K. Kunniraman, K.

Ayyappan, A.K Baskaran, K.P.Vallon and C.P. Kunnraman, as it is mass conversion

movements in Malabar, especially in Kochi in 1930130.

127
William Logan, Malabar Manual, p. 231
128
KK Koch, Budhanilekkulla Duram, p. 88
129
William Logan, Malabar Manual, p. 127
130
K.Sukumaran, Dr. K.P Thayyil, P.K. Kunniraman, k. Ayyappan, A.K baskaran Asavarnarkk Nallth
Islam {Compilation of Essays},( Calicut, Bahujan Sahitya Academy, 2005).p:9-10.

54
 The debate of conversion aimed to uplift the backward communities, such as

Cheruman and Iyvan, who were considered as polluted and untouchable communities

in society, even they are included in Hindu society.131 Recently, these leaders supported

and exhorted to conversion to Islam, Buddhism and Christianity by considering their

fundamental basis. According to numerous leaders such as K. Sukumaran, Dr. K.P

Thayyil, P.K. Kunniraman, K. Ayyappan, A. K Baskaran, K.P. Vallon, E.V Rama

Swamy Naikar and Mahatma Gandhi also not only exhorted and encouraged to

conversion to the Islam tremendously. But also, they published famous compilation of

essays named as Asavarkk Nallath Islam, that encouraged them to revert to Islam.132 In

this time, the chieftains afraid of this mass conversion movement. Consequently, they

banned the all edition of that book and they seized them. They also arrested the authors

and leaders, who led to protest “Nivarthana Prashobham” under the united front of

different religious figures, such as Keshavan who was was prime leader. By arresting

of main leaders, the movement isolated. But, some of communal leaders continued

along with these movements through the Malabar. As a part of movement, Karuppan

and Kumaranashan, renowned Ezhava poet, supported to revert to Islam, and he also

mocked at the Brahmins, who maintained strange and irrational practices, through his

lines of the poem:133

“A Cheruman (a serf caste) who keep off, the way many a distance, when

embraces Islam, can be seated aside. Don’t be afraid, oh, Lords.”

However, when the debate of the conversion to Islam was strengthened among

local communities all over the Malabar, chieftains and landlords of Malabar and Kochi

afraid of loss of their rule and increase of reversion of Iyvans to Islam and it will enrich

131
Ibid, p:11-12
132
Ibid, P:14
133
Kumaranasan, Asande Padya Kritikal, (Kottayam, Nitya Chaitanya Yathi CBEB fund, 1990), p. 509.

55
the Muslim community in Malabar. As a part of oppressing the mass conversion

movement, they put forward “proclamation of temple entry” in 1936, which was

proclaimed a chief declaration, that weakened the conversion movement in Malabar.134

By bring the new proclamation, conversion movement was isolated as being a

coordination of all ideas of all religion to achieve of equality, love and fraternity by the

authorities. The debate of conversion was isolated and it centred into leader only. 135

By arresting all leaders, all movement of conversion were disappeared. And local

communities such as Iyvans and Cheruman, were declined culturally and politically. 136

3.4.1.1 Asvarnnarkk Nallath Islam

Asvarnnakk Nallath Islam is famous book involved a compilation of five essays of

prolific leaders like: K.Sukumaran, D r. K.P Thayyil, P.K. Kunniraman, K. Ayyappan,

A.K Baskaran , E.V Rama Swamy Naikar and Mahatma Gandhi137published in 1936

under Kerala Thiyyath Youth League in Kochi.138This historical complication of essays

aimed to inform personal experiences and researches about Islam and it right and

qualities by exhorting the reversion to Islam is better way to upgrade self-identity and

emancipation slavery.

According to strengthening of protest against of authorities and debate of

conversion, the authorities banned and seized it’s all editions and arrested the authors

and leaders of united front. By arresting of all leader and authors and bring of

134
K.Sukumaran, Dr. K.P Thayyil, P.K. Kunniraman, k. Ayyappan, A.K baskaran Asavarnarkk Nallth
Islam.p:8-9.
135
Ibid
136
Ibid.
137
Ibid.
138
It again republished under Kerala Dalit Sahitya academy in 1988 after the seize of authorities of
Thiruvidhamkur.

56
proclamation of temple entry, the debate of conversion and united front were

disappeared and it absolutely isolated.

In short, the completion of essays named Asvarnnakk Nallath Islam had a

tremendous influence in debate of conversion to Islam in Malabar, especially in Kochi

and other part of Kerala.

3.6. E.C SIMON MASTER

E.C Simon Master, one of renowned reverted Muslims in Kerala, who was prolific

figurative person engaged in interfaith dialogues among interreligious and intrareligious

dialogues.

3.6.1. Birth and family

E.C Simon Master was born in 1932, July 14 at Edavilangu (Taluk) in Kodungallur. His

father, Illangikkal Cheeku was prominent person among natives, though, he kept a close

relationship with all types of religious and non- religious natives, especially he made a

close familiar with Islam and Muslims, as far as they are his close neighbour. As he was

in a prominent family in Illangikkal Tharavad, as they played chief role in development

of education of Christian families as they were one of them.139

3.6.2. Education

His primary education was from his parents, as his family are well educated family and

organizers of some of educational foundations. His primary school level education

started from the primary School in Edavilangu. Later, he joined in Eariyad High School

139
Shaikh Muhammed Karakunnu, E.C Saimon Master Sanmarkam Parabhicha Sathyaneshaanam,
Prabhodhanamm online Magazine, <prabodhanam.net/inner.php > (accessed on 17 April in 2019).

57
to complete his basic school level education. As part of wishes of being a lecture or

teacher, he admitted to teachers training in S.S Teachers Training centre in

Muthakkunnam. 140

In this time, he interested to study and think about his religion; Christianity. As

part of his higher education, he abroad to London and applied for a correspondent course

in Ambassador college for a deep research about the Holy Bible and passed there every

exam with high percentage of marks.141

3.6.3 Social life and interferences

After the completion of his research related with Holy Bible, he joined in Edavilangu

government UP School as a teacher. He continued his service till 1988 (fifteen years).

And he resigned while he was headmaster there in 1988. He was expert both of English

and Hindi language.142

Before his conversion he has wrote some many articles related to the ideologies

and creed of Islam and Christianity in weekly. Many of family has knew about it, but

they have no any courage to read it except his one sister. The essays Jesusvum

Mariyavum Bibililum Quranilum and Krithumathvum Kirthuvinte Mathavum are

controversial essays published before embracing of Islam143.

3.6.4 To path of Islam

When he knew about Islam due to the continuous interaction with his close Muslim

friends, he started himself to read and study the translation of Holy Quran, which was

140
E.C Saimon Master, Ente Islam Anubhavanggal, (Kottayam, Islamic publishing house, 2014), p:3
141
Shaikh Muhammed Karakunnu, E.C Saimon Master Sanmarkam Parabhicha Sathyaneshaanam,)
142
Ibid
143
Ibid.

58
written by Yusuf given by his native and close friend Ahmmad. Through this reading

he found the pure belief of Thuhīd (one of God), importance in the worship of one god,

accurate belief in Ākhira (Hereafter), clarity in the prayers, inclusiveness and

acceptance of former Prophets, the ideology of Islam in equality, humility and the anti-

priestess and the methodology of the facing our brothers, and he understood also the

basic and fundamental errors of ideologies of the Christianity, and he accepted Islam

with his self-promotes on 18 august 2000.144

The main reason which led E.C Simon Master to Islam is very different from

others. As he wrote it: “there are some many reasons led me to conversion. But it just I

want to move in to best route of lifestyle from which I am in it. Anybody can believe

that all I practice are good. For example, I avoid alcohol because I hate it, also I avoid

eating pork and using the interest from the bank”.145

3.6.5. Influences and consequences

Before his conversion he has wrote some many articles about the ideology of Islam and

Christianity in weekly. Many of family has knew about it, but they have no any courage

to read it except my one sister, as he says. After his conversion his family separated him

from their family. This gave him lost feeling and really when he became alone. But he

felt the blessing from almighty Allah showered him more and more happiness and relax

from all stresses. The verse of the Quran “I will make everything easy for whom keep

trust in me” encouraged him to stand with almighty Allah.146

144
Ibid
145
E.C Saimon Master, Enthu Kondu Njanru Muslimayi, <jesusline.blogspot.com/p/blog-page.html>
(Accessed on 2019).
146
Shaikh Muhammed Karakunnu, E.C Saimon Master Sanmarkam Parabhicha Sathyaneshaanam.

59
 However, before the conversion he informed most of his family about it by

calling them and before he goes to masjid for the recitation Shahādath Kalima (words

of witness) he informed his family. He asserted, he will continue his relation stronger

and behave them lovely than before. This gave his family more confidence about him.

So, when he went to masjid his son Johnson and grandson Peter and Christopher

followed him in his way. They also witnessed for his conversion in august 8 in 2000.

He continued his life with them after some issues and chaos of family and natives. And

he practiced all Islamic practices such as fast. His wife very alert about his practices.

He wrote: “she was very vigilant to awaken him for the Sahar for fast (supper). He

remembered her that, Allah will give her the blessings from his part due to her helping

mentality for me. She had prepared food for him at evening also, she was ready to take

fast with me if there aren’t any restrictions for her.

He said that, he has got an end-less self-satisfaction after his conversion. He

realized that his has won in seeking of the truth. So, he wrote; ‘it is the only one of his

determination which he took diplomatically and wisely in his life’. 147

3.6.6. Works

According to the intellectual life of Simon master, he is the author of many works about

Christianity. We can separate his intellectual work into two, before conversion and after

conversion. But, after conversion was the glamorous time, as he wrote some many

articles and composed some many books.148

And the main theme of all his works was the Christianity and Islam. As a

Muslim, he tried to explain the real face of Semitic Christianity from its worse priested

147
Master E.C Saimon, Ente Islam Anubhavanggal, p:9-14,31-35.
148
E.C Saimon master, Islam Web Online, <islamonlive.in/columns/E.C.Saimon Master/> (Accessed in
17 April, 2019)

60
version of Christianity. In his book ‘Kristhu Mathavum Kristhuvinte Mathavum’ he

differentiated the current Christianity from the religion of Jesus. He proved it with help

of authentic proofs from Holy texts. And the book ‘Jesusvunte Pingami’, a short work,

he tried to find the exact descend of Jesus in light of verses of Holy Bible, which are

related to later Prophet Muhammad (‫)ﷺ‬.

As part of refuting of fundamental and basic errors and philosophies of

Christianity, he wrote many of the books and one of them was ‘Jesusvum Mariyavum

Bibililum Quranilum’, he argued through this book that the Holy Quran is vital authentic

source and evidence other than The Holy Bible in picturizing actual faces of Jesus and

Mariyam. And the book ‘Bibilum Quranum’, chief work, which was contained more

over Hundred pages. Throughout the book, he discussed many of subjects related to the

religion of Christianity and its text; the Holy Bible. At first, he argued that the four

Gospels of Jesus, as they claimed, in new testaments of the Holy Bible weren’t written

by Jesus Christ, even he didn’t see that texts also, and the written language of that texts

weren’t Jesus’s language, nevertheless the unclaimed self-divinity of that texts was

created by ancient Christian clergies. He has reviewed that the Holy Quran had

explained very clearly and authentically the birth of Jesus, the truth state of the

crucifixion, the story of Prophet Adam and devil Iblees, the history of Prophets

Ibraheem, Nooh, Looth, Yusuf, Moosa and Davud and no one can deny that truths.

The book ‘Ente Islam Anubhavanal’ he portrays his experience very attracted

intensively on the case of his conversion and the aftermath. Also, he wrote his

impressive chats with his wife and the critics for the letter of the r. Krishnan kutty

Thiruvattar.149

149
Shaikh Muhammed Karakunnu, E.C Saimon Master Sanmarkam Parabhicha Sathyaneshaanam.

61
3.6.7 Methodology

As being professional Biblical scholar, E.C. Simon Master interested to interpret

through spiritual way rather than using the theoretical and comparative study among

theologies of Islam and Christians and their texts also. His autobiographical and others

books are going through the descriptive and analytical methodologies in various

subjects related with his life after conversion to Islam and before conversion.

As he mostly used to refute the Christian unbiased theologies through the analytical and

descriptive methodologies in way of polemical method150 rather than the apologetic

methods. As his all his writing except autobiographical writing focused to interpreted

the unbiased ideologies of Christians such in confusions in cases of descendant of Eisa,

trinity, modified ritual and practises, authenticity of the Holy Bible and factors also.

3.6.8. Death

Having the old age, he faced many diseases. Due to this he died on Saturday morning

27 January. Before his death he had wrote his bequest Vasiyyath next month of his

conversion to bury him in Islamic culture. Also, he added the signature of his son

(Johnson) and daughter (Jesy), its witness, with his own signature. And he gave the

bequest to the Kavathiyalam Mahal committee of Kodungallur.151

However, his family never minded his promise and they leaved his body into the

medical college of Thrissur for the study of medical students after long disputes held

150
The Polemic method is mean that the state of refuting through the writing styles not in style of spoken
method, which is called Apologetic method used widely.
151
Ibid.

62
among family and Muslim natives in sphere of Kerala, which were cleared by Kerala

high court. They didn’t display his dead body even his house152.

3.7 MUHAMMAD EISA

Muhammad Eisa, one of famous converted Muslims in Kerala, who is prolific figure

still actively intervcned in the interreligious and intra religious dialogues.

3.7.1. Birth and family

Muhammad Eisa was born in a prominent family named as Ponthokosth at

Pathanamthitta. Being the one of the members of Ponthakosth family, they had played

an important role in spreading values and beliefs of Christianity among the Christians

and Non-Christians also in Kerala, as they were prominent trained group in

Christianity.153

3.7.2. Education

His primary education was from his parents, as they are well educated and propagators

of Christianity in Kerala. According to being in group of the Ponthakosth among

Christians, he had already achieved the teachings of the Holy Text Bible and teachings

related with Christianity from his parent in his childhood. He started his primary

education from hometown. Later, he joined in Kottayam college for further studies

related laboratory technology.

In this time, he became strongly alerted about his religion; Christianity by

reading the Holy verses of Bibles and practicing the customs and rituals, even his family

152
E.C Saimon master, Islam Web Online, <islamonlive.in/columns/E.C.Saimon Master/> (Accessed in
17 April, 2019)
153
Muhammed Issa, interview by the researcher; Niche of Truth, Ernakulam, Perumbavoor,

63
were abroad in Arabian countries. Though, by understanding the basic and Fundamental

guiding of the Holy Bible and active reading through the Holy Quran, he embraced

Islam in 2001, December 24.

3.7.3. Social life and interferences

After his graduation in laboratory technology, he worked in Medical college in

Palakkad. Later, he transferred to Diagnosis centre of Perumbavoor by help of his

friend after 2 years of his service in Medical college of Palakkad. After his reverted to

Islam, he became chief propagator of Islam and he worked in field of Da’wa by

understanding its advantages by verses of Quran.

He was an active and figurative personality in field refuting the unauthentic

claims and beliefs of Christians by proving through the lines of Holy Bible and

paradoxical approaches of authors of Bible, as they claimed. He also was active in

intrareligious dialogues as in interreligious dialogues.154

3.7.4. To Path of Islam

As he was born in Ponthakosth’s family, he became familiar with all teaching and

discussion of the Holy Bible and he understood the basic and fundamental principles of

Christianity in his childhood through his parents.

Later, he interested not only to understanding the Holy Bible absolutely and he

kept the principles of Christianity through his life and practiced literally during the

graduation of laboratory technology in Kottayam, even his family was abroad. But also,

unlike to other youngers, he turned to spiritual life by thinking and reading the Holy

Bible literally. Though, he wanted and desired to join and believe to the real God and

154
Ibid.

64
he wanted to join to the paradise after death. Recently, through his reading various

verses of the Holy Bible, it guided him to another God; the real God by avoiding concept

of trinity along beliefs of Christianity.

The main reason which led Muhammad Eisa to Islam is very different from

others. According to him, he rethought about the Holy Quran, which is considered Holy

text of the Islam and Muslims unlike he understood early as text copy of the Holy Bible.

The discussion with his elder brother about Jesus as being God was a prominent turning

point in rethinking about the God; Jesus. Later, he believed in Yehova as real God by

guiding Jesus with numerous quotes to another God such as the word Pithav (father),

which is seen in various writing of apostles, and understanding the paradoxical verses

in cases of Jesus led to Islam. Lastly, he advocated with Ashiq Waqis, prominent

Biblical scholar with some of issues related with Jesus. Lastly, he didn’t answer

correctly, but they warned him as he follows the rebel side and he cannot understand

correctly the philosophy of Christianity. Recently understood not only that the cases of

authentic of the Holy Bible is no more and it’s not completely divine text as the Quran.

But also, he approaches to various Christian counsellors with numerous questions

related with Jesus as real God and basic errors of the Holy Bible after he was avoided

by Church.

After marathon discussions, he and his brother totally confused, though, he

embraced the Islam in 2001, December 24. (he received a new name Muhammad Eisa

from his old name Lasar Yohannan). He studied the basic and fundamental of Islam

from Imam at Pattanamthitta located near house155.

155
Ibid.

65
3.7.5. Influences and consequences

After conversion to Islam, Eisa faced good approaches from family unlike from his

neighbours and natives, as they are Believed the Day of Hereafter and other values of

beliefs in Christianity. He married a Christian orthodox girl, who was converted to Islam

by his friend from Muslim.

And his brother also married a traditionalist Muslim girl, as they located at

abroad in gulf countries. He still kept a good relationship with his family even they are

Ponthakosth Christians.156

3.7.6. Works

According to the intellectual life of Muhammad Eisa, who is the author of two famous

books and videos which are related to the interfering and refuting the fundamental and

basic corrupted philosophy of Christianity and its holy text. The prime theme of all his

works and classes and interfaith dialogues related with numerous subjects of

Christianity and Islam. Being a converted Muslim, he attempted to elucidate the exact

faces of Semitic Christianity from bad early priest version and to explain the values of

Islam by comparing with Christianity on light of Quranic verses and Biblical verses

respectively.

The Kirthumaargam Yatharthamenthu he differentiated the current Christianity

from the religion of Jesus. He proved it with help of authentic proofs from Holy text;

the Holy Bible.

The talks Mishiha Aarude Pashath, Thriyekathem and Bibilum Qur`anum give

an over view about the corrections and complex methods of Biblical verses and basic

varied beliefs of Christianity while it`s endured in one reality. Especially his various

156
Ibid.

66
talks Thriyekatham Gilbartinte Kaushalam, Trinity: God one or three, Trinity: four

mysteries, Allah: God Jesus too, Trinity or Modalism, Thriyekatham Bahudaivatham

Vekthamakkunnu and Eaka Thaivathee Kutthapeduthiya Caatholikkar elaborate the

religion of Christianity and their ideologies by revealing the corrections and interpreting

basic complex of the sacred text; the Holy Bible.

3.7.7. Methodology

The mode of propagation of Muhammad Eisa was inclusive with writing and public

debates among Christians toward their unbiased theologies and rectified Biblical texts

around the world, even E.C Simon Master interpreted only in field of writing rather than

inferred in debates or another argumentative field.

He interpreted in both polemical and apologetic methodologies in his writings

and debates respectively. As being a converted Muslims by recurrence reading of

Biblical verses carefully, he used various methodologies to elucidate and clarify their

unbiased theologies and claims related with Christians. His prominent two writings go

through to the both descriptive and analytical methodologies by giving a theoretical

description with analysing the corrupted theologies of Christianity. Unlike his writings,

his debates and talks go through the inductive and analytical methodologies, which are

prominent methodologies of answering the questions.

67
 FOURTH CHAPTER

PREACHING OF CONVERTS TO ISLAM: A COMPARATIVE

STUDY BETWEEN E.C. SIMON MASTER AND MUHAMMAD
EISA

4.1. INTRODUCTION

The primary propagation of Islam in Kerala was done by foreign missionaries during

period of Prophet Muhammed (‫ )ﷺ‬in early of seventh century. Later It was intensively

spread by reverted Muslims in Malabar, as they interfered in numerous ways of

religious propagation, which are helped to maintain both concept of religious plurality

religious harmony among other religions. As part of propagation of Islam, they

interfered in interreligious and intrareligious dialogues between believers and non-

believers also, which are one of chief way of the propagations of Islam. In this way,

they kept social and cultural harmony and religious congruence among other by

understanding and convincing them to the ultimate truth; real God. As they refuted the

baseless creeds and flawed philosophies of various religions especially Christianity, and

interpreting the absolute corrections and basic complex quotes of the sacred texts of that

religions.

E.C. Simon Master and Muhammad Eisa, renowned reverted Muslims, who had

played an important role in propagation of Islam in Kerala, as they interfered in both

interreligious and intrareligious dialogues among Christians and others also, which had

led to reversion of some Christians in Kerala. As part of propagation, they attempted

to elucidate the real religion of Christianity and factual verses of the Holy Bible from

the priested Christianity and rectified Bible respectively by depending historical

evidences of the sacred texts.

68
 Thus, this chapter attempt to elucidate their visions to Islam and Christianity,

and their modes of propagations of Islam in spheres of Kerala, and their different mode

of refutations to the fundamental and basics errors of Christianity and Bible and it’s

influences and effects on Christians and converted Muslims also in spheres of Kerala.

4.2. METHODS OF PROPAGATION

There are numerous methods of propagation, which were used by reverted Muslims of

Kerala to propagate the Islam, and refute baseless creeds and flawed philosophies of

Christianity, and interpreting the absolute corrections and basic complex quotes of the

sacred texts with comparing between the Holy Bible and holy Qur’an.

According to Ibn Jarid Thabari, there are three specific methods, which are used

to propagate Islam, that are: verbal propagation, written propagation and practical

propagation.157

4.2.1. Verbal Propagation

Verbal propagation method is composed with speeches, sermons, call to prayer, reciting

the verses of the Holy Quran, holding celebration programs on various favourable

occasions and mourning on grievous occasions, debates, commanding the good and

forbidding the bad etc. However, the methods of propagation of converted Muslims

focused various aspects of this method. This method also called as Apologetic method.

157
Ibn Jarid Tabari, Tabari History, vol.2 (Beirut, Tahqīq Nukhbatun Minal Ulama Al-Ajella, Al-A'lami
Institute, N.d), p.882.

69
4.2.2. Written propagation

Written propagation method transpires through various sources, as it extended to three

prominent approaches, that are: written propagation through: the verses of the Holy

Quran, valuable traditions narrated from the Holy Prophet and his household, sending

letters. Therefore, this method also called as Polemic method.

4.2.3. Practical propagation

As Prophet and his follower promoted by this method to propagate and proliferate Islam

among his natives and other also, as the words of a propagator great influences on other

only while he takes himself to practice. The marvellous and extraordinary acts of

Prophet and his follower, which are unable to perform to common people, are another

way of practical propagation.

4.3 METHODS OF E.C SIMON AND MUHAMMED EISA

The methods of preaching of E.C. Simon Master and Muhammed Eisa are different

from other converted Muslims in Kerala. They used to preach to Islam by refuting the

Christian’ beliefs and their theological factors in various methodologies and variant

methods.

Regarding the modes of propagations of Muhammed Eisa, his preaching was

inclusive with both verbal and writing propagations, as well as he interfered in public

debates among Christians toward their unbiased theologies and rectified Biblical texts

around the world, even E.C. Simon Master interpreted in field of writing rather than

inferred in verbal field. However, he interpreted in both polemical and apologetic

70
methods in his writings158 and debates respectively. As being a Muslim by recurrence

reading of verses of Bible carefully, he depended on various methodologies to elucidate

and clarify their unbiased theologies and claims related with Christians, especially in

doctrine of trinity. His prominent two writings found on both descriptive and analytical

methodologies, while his talks and debates included different methodologies of

answering the questions; inductive, analytical and descriptive methodologies, by giving

a theoretical description with analysing the improved and modified theologies of

Christianity by their apostles.

Even E.C. Simon Master is professional Bible scholar among converted

Muslims, he interested to interpret through spiritual way rather than using the theoretical

and comparative study among all theological aspects of Islam and Christians and their

texts also, even he depended on theoretical descriptions through his works. His

autobiographical books159 are going through the descriptive and analytical

methodologies in various subjects related with his life after conversion to Islam and

before conversion also and numerous concepts of Islam on different subjects and

practises, such as various practises of pilgrimage to Makkah.

He depended to refute the Christian unbiased theologies through the analytical,

inductive and descriptive methodologies in way of polemical method rather than using

the apologetic methods. As his all his writing except autobiographical writing focused

to interpreted the unbiased ideologies of Christians such in confusions in cases of

descendant of Eisa, trinity, modified ritual and practises, authenticity of the Holy Bible

158
Muhammed Issa’s remarkable work is Christhumatham Yaadarthyamethu, which discussed on
different aspects and visions related to several theologies of Christians. As well as he depicts the
numerous ways of refutations towards such as the doctrine of trinity, the religion of Christianity and the
religion of Jesus, and other also.
159
Ente Islam Anubhavanggal and Vishudha Boomilekk Oru thertha Yathra outstanding autobiographical
work, which are carried on comparative study between Islam and Christianity, on some of practices or
views on specific subjects related with both religious practices and customs and visions also.

71
and factors also. And his autobiographical book focused on his entire life by including

with specific confusions related with Christianity in his childhood.

Therefore, the absent of interferences in the verbal method of E.C Simon Master

is main differences from Muhammed Eisa, who interpreted both verbal and non-verbal

fields (both polemic and apologetic methods) of preaching of Islam.

4.4. MAJOR ARGUMENTS

According to E.C Simon Master and Muhammed Eisa, they had interpreted and refuted

to theology of Christianity in various methodologies; analytic, descriptive, inductive

and deductive methodologies through the different methods; polemic and apologetic

methods.

They interpreted also in various subjects related with of Christianity and Islam,

such as in Trinity, Pauline influence, Quran and Bible theology, descendant of Eisa and

rituals, customs and practises of Christianity. However, Muhammed focused to refute

the flawed theology of trinity, as it was major debatable subjects among his talks, even

E.C Simon Master focused to interpret all altered theology of Christianity in inductive

methodology.

4.4.1. Trinity

The views of refutations of Muhammed Eisa and E.C Simon Master differed from each

other, as unlike Simon Master Muhammed Eisa focus to debate to flawed philosophy

of trinity through both methods; apologetic and polemic different from Simon Master,

he was interfered toward them in polemic method only, as he aimed to focus to

preaching to Islam in spiritual ways.

72
 E.C. Simon Master states that: “the one of prime causes of differences between

Christians and Muslims was variance concepts in cases of the praises the lord or lords;

God. Praises to one God was authenticated by both of Holy texts; Quran and Bible that

the prise is only belonged for one God. But the Christians prise the three God as a being

one God; trinity, even Muslims prises the one God”.160

Recently, he refuted different doctrines of Christianity; the divinity of Jesus, as

he is considered in Bible as Prophet of the God, as Muslims considered in Holy Quran

also. And he claims that: “If Jesus is a God, he must say and proclaim as God, as well

as Allah proclaimed his divinity in his Holy Quran, therefore this is proof for he is

Prophet, who was sent by God, as the Holy Bible stated obviously he was sent by

“Pithavu” as it mentioned to one God, as in Quran, and there aren’t any verses in Bible,

which is related being Jesus as a God, these paradoxical verses and misinterpretations

of apostles led to confusion of being Jesus as God”161.

According to Muhammed Eisa, the Prophetess of Jesus was agreed by Muslim

and Christian by introducing the verses of both divine texts; Quran162 and Bible unlike

to Jews. He questioned the concept of divinity of Jesus by introducing and analysing

the verses of Bible; related with son of God and absence of being the God himself. 163

He questioned the paradoxical theories and concepts of the catholicons’

publication of Thalasseri Christian Sabha, which entitled with “The Holy Trinity, 164”

which is sources of description of the problems related being of oneness of God. He

countered them by demanding them to present any powerful proofs and clarifications

160
E.C Saimon Master, Ente Islam Anubhavanggal, p: 15.
161
Ibid., 16-17.
162
Surat Al Anam: 61.
163
Muhammed Issa, Christhumatham Yaadarthyamethu, (Kottayam, Islamic publication house, 2008),
P: 30-46.
164
Father Josphe Pambline, The Holy Trinity, (Thalasseri, Thalasseri catholicon publication, n.d), P: 65-
66.

73
to extinguish that various theories and concepts, even they still keep that illogical

concepts and irrational theories along their life. As they (catholicons) claimed that: “The

concept of oneness of God is main sources for all concerns occurred in the world. The

concept of oneness of the God caused to bring of numerous malevolent concepts among

human being, such as concept of autocracy, concept of centralization of various

religious people under one supremacy and initiation of patriarchal ascendancies in

family”.165

He also countered father Mario Joseph’s researches and arguments, which are

related Goddess of Jesus and son of God. As he portrayed the Almighty Allah in two

faces in same time, as he interpreted Allah as a creator and good guider to good deeds,

and even in same time he interpreted among Christians Allah is statue named with Lathe

or Hubbala. Hence, these revealed his dishonestly among Keralite Christians society,

even he was still actively trended in teaching of Christians’ theologies among them.

Eisa portrayed the histories of movements of Kunan Kurish, which caused to commence

of a leader titled with Parthiyokies, who had received the long name connected with

Allah, it shows the real significance of name of Allah.166

The style of refutation of E.C. Simon Master, toward to the concept trinity of

Christians, focused for asking the logical questions and recurrence of Biblical verses

related to word ‘pithav’. As he expresses his confusions about the absent of

proclamation of Jesus as he is god as Allah does in Quran. But Muhammed Eisa’s

refutation varied from E.C. Simon Master, his confutation to towards to the concept of

trinity and current superstitions of trinity among Christians, focused on elucidating it

with both Quranic and Biblical verses related to concept of oneness of God, by

165
M.M. Akbar, Muhammed Issa, (year) Ekathaivathe Kuttapeduthi Katholikkarum (Debate) Ernakulum:
Nich of Truth.
166
Muhammed Issa, Allah in Arabic Bible, (Debate)

74
introducing the current and contemporary critiques of Christians’ fathers by refuting

them with logical questions and paradoxical claims of contemporary Christians’ fathers

through his debates and talks.

As their style of refutations are comparatively same, even their social influential

environments of religious preaching are different. Therefore, the comparison study of

E.C. Simon Master and activism of Muhammed Eisa had its own influential areas as

current backgrounds are interpreted.

The methodology of E.C. Simon Master, which approaches to the concept of

trinity in the descriptive and analytical ways in polemical method, even Muhammed

Eisa used to refutation toward the Christians’ theology in inductive, analytical and

descriptive ways in the both polemical and apologetic methods.

4.4.2. Rituals and customs of Christianity

As E.C. Simon Master criticised and rejected generally the absolute previous priested

habits and rituals of Christians by elucidating them in light of the Holy Bible and Holy

Quran, which are contrary with verses of the Holy Bible and messages of Prophets, such

as worship the deities and idols, pray to fathers and nuns in churches and confession to

fathers of churches as a salvation from one ’s sins.

He adds latterly that, one of their prime ways of salvation added and rectified by

apostles, even it is considered as ways of salvation by them, it is absolutely contradicted

with their original belief; the superiority of one God; it is scarification of Jesus for their

salvation from all sin as they considered as one God.167 On contrary of refutation to

their unscientific practices, he attempts to picturize the real experiences of practises of

167
E.C Saimon Master, Ente Islam Anubhavanggal, p: 9-14.

75
Islam by revealing its scientific aspects of practises, even it is considered as compulsory

customs and practises consisted by Allah. 168

According to Muhammed Eisa, he defended the critiques of Christians toward

to Islamic rituals and customs; as well as they criticized the concepts of Islam in Jihad

and cooperation of Muslims with Muslims only in a society, by portraying their strict

rules and rigid regulations in that cases in their religion predicted by their Holy text;

Thoura, and comparing with the Islamic concepts of defence from enemy and

brotherhood respectively by reciting the verses of old testament; Thora, as that are seen

totally harder other than Islamic laws and regulations in that cases. 169

The confutation of E.C. Simon Master was toward superstitions of their ritual,

customs and practises of Christians, even Muhammed Eisa focused to refuting the

critiques of Christians towards to Islamic rituals and practises. However, he also

confuted the commence of priested authoritative practises and rituals through his

debates and talks, but his debates totally focused to confuting the critiques of Christians

rather than to focusing to critiques toward tarnished rituals, customs and practises of

Christianity.

The methodology of confutation of E.C. Simon Master and Muhammed Eisa are

same methods, as they used the analytical and descriptive ways even E.C. Simon Master

focused to interpret in polemic method, while Muhammed Eisa concentrated in both

polemical and apologetic methods.

168
Ibid.
169
M.M.Akbhar, Muhammed Issa, Bishop Housil Ninum Sanvadha Velluvili, (Debate) Nich of truth

76
4.4.3. Pauline influences

According to E.C. Simon Master, he criticised and rejected the authenticity of new

testament of the Holy Bible due to consideration of essays of Paul as major part of the

Holy Bible; new testament, and Paul considered as one of disciples of Jesus, as they

(Christians) claimed, even he never met Jesus in his life. Though, he countered them by

revealing the contradictory facts that the founder of religion of Christianity is Paul as

well as his teaching are considered as a major part of their new testament of the Holy

Bible. 170

However, Muhammed Eisa criticised also the rise of Paul as one of authoritative

apostles in Christian religion, who was considered by self as Prime apostle of Jesus; as

a thirteenth apostle, even he was knew as apostle after fourteen year of demise of Jesus

and he was a Jew from Palatine and he was also unaware about Christian traditions.

Latterly, he interpreted the reality of current corrupted Christianity in light Bible

and Quran by comparing and evidencing with them and he divided the current

Christianity to two main traditions, the tradition of Jerusalem of apostles and tradition

of Christians of Paul. He also rejected the authenticity of chapter Luke, who was

disciple of Paul, as in cases of confusions occurred on realism of the chapters of Paul.171

The repudiations of both E.C. Simon Master and Muhammed Eisa toward

Pauline influenced Bible are relatively partially in parallel way, but he rejections of

Muhammed Eisa toward the Pauline influenced Bible focused on numerous evidences

from the Holy Bible, as he traced the biographical facts of Paul and the historical facts

of Paul and his disciple Luke, as he revealed the reasons of his chapter and it sources

and it followers also in his beginning of chapters, even E.C. Simon Master attempt to

170
E.C.Saimon Master, Ente Islam Anubhavanggal, p: 17.
171
Muhammed Issa, Christhumatham Yaadarthyamethu, p: 34-38.

77
arise the logical question toward to the Pauline influence in Bible by comparing with

Holy text of Allah; Quran, which was totally divine verses.

4.4.4. The descendant of Prophet Eisa

According to E.C. Simon Master, he rejected the ‘concept about prophet Eisa’ of

Christians and Jews, as they proclaimed as last Prophet and son of God in same time by

verses of the Holy Bible and Quran also, which are similarly same in its proclamations.

He revealed that the chapter of Yohannan is obviously interpreted about the descendent

of Eisa and his witnesses also in it, and verses also revealed his descendant’s characters

and his completions of divine messages through Quranic verses to all Uma. Through

these explorations, he redefines the concept of descendant of Eisa; Prophet Muhammed

(‫)ﷺ‬.172

According to Muhammad Eisa, he rejected in same ways of E.C Simon Master

by introducing unauthenticity of the numerous verses of the Holy Bible related with son

of God and last Prophet of God, which contributed by his apostles, as they claimed, for

their own invested theology.

The similarity of refutation of concept of descendant of Eisa led similar

approaches of them in some subjects of theology of Christians. However, they used

various methods to interpret them, even their facts of refutation are same.

4.4.5. Divinity of Quran and the Bible

According to E.C. Simon Master, he questioned commonly the authenticity of the Holy

Bible as he indicates that: “the Holy Bible either subjected to rectifications and

modifications or it wasn’t a divine text as many contraries are seen in its odd readings,

172
E.C.Saimon Master, Yeshuvinte Pinkami, Islamic publishing house,novamber2004, p: 11-19.

78
such as the Holy have included with chapter of birth and death of Jesus, it gives an

important point that the Bible never authenticated by him, even they agreed his (Jesus)

is one of Gods and the Holy Bible is divine text. And anther contrary was related to

Bible, that the chapters of the Bible, which were written by his disciple are considered

as divine text, even they never met him in his life; as in cases of Paul.

Therefore, more assertions of the Holy Bible led to controversial manners by

comparing to contemporary beliefs of Christianity, and its effects on founder of religion

as God and his text; the Holy Bible.” He denied the divinity of Bible partially due to

the absence of odd one text of the Holy Bible, which was received with all groups in

Christianity. 173

He divided the verse of the Holy Bible to three types of verses after his deep

researching in Bible correspondent studies: firstly, the verses of God. Secondly, the

verses of Prophet s such as Jesus and Moses. Third, the verses of authors; Mathew,

Luke, Yohannan and Markos. Latterly he did the comparative study between Bible and

Quran.

His views related with Quran were understood by views of Quranic concept of

Islam, such as it was compiled from hadith of Prophet Muhammed (‫ )ﷺ‬by existing the

words of Prophet as second doctrine in Islam entitled with “hadith” and divine text,

which was revealed by itself init. But in cases of the Holy Bible, they are no any

evidence or meek proof to elucidate divine text, but the chains of evidences of

completion of Bible by his disciples, as they claim, were available, as Luke states: the

numerous causes of completion of the four chapters and its sources and its types of

173
E.C Saimon Master, Ente Islam Anubhavanggal, p:15-16.

79
interpretation through his introduction of the Chapter. Latterly these chapters were

agreed as divine word and verses among the Christians. 174

According Muhammad Eisa, he rejected the divinity of the Holy Bible due to the

existences of paradoxical verses in the Holy Bible. Therefore, he raised the confusions

its authenticity due to available of numerous correction and rectification by apostles. As

E. C Simon Master’ claims, he questioned also the reliability of apostles by presenting

the holistic historical evidences among his counters. However, he focused of refuting

the Christians’ philosophies rather than to be familiar with Holy text; Quran of Islam,

its traditions and Prophetic traditions, as E.C Simon Master wrote in his book.

4.5. DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES

In way of leading the discussion can understand the arguments of E.C. Simon Master

and Muhammad Eisa are mixed with parallel similarities and differences from each

other. The researcher elucidates some major similarities and differences in refuting the

philosophy of Christians. That are:

1. Trinity. the activism of Muhammad Eisa toward the philosophy of trinity was

ideal type from activism of E.C Simon Master. Activism of Eisa focused on

analytical ways of its theoretically by presenting its both verse of the Holy Bible

and logical aspects also, as it was intrusive researches of its depth of trinity.

Unlike E.C Simon Master, he interfered in all aspects of past and contemporary

rectification and claims of basic ideologies of Christians by using various

methods; analytic, descriptive and inductive methods. But E.C. Simon Master

approached to flawed theology of Christianity by presenting them in spiritual

ways through the descriptive method rather than using other methods.

174
Ibid :16-17.

80
2. Rituals and customs of Christianity. Engagement of E.C. Simon toward the

unauthorized ritual, customs and practices vary from engagement of

Muhammad Eisa. Engagement of Simon Master focused to explanation both

ritual, customs and practises of Islam and Christianity by comparing between

them. As he rejected priested based ritual, customs and practises of Christians

with divine rooted customs and practises of Islam and he described the extreme

experiences of perform of Islam based rituals, customs and practises. But,

engagement of Muhammad Eisa focused on refutation of Islamic rituals,

customs and practises, such as in cases of Jihad as way of defence and other

Islamic concepts related with social, political and cultural sphere of world.

3. Pauline influence. Repudiation of E.C Simon Master concentrated on Pauline

influences in new testament by describing Paul’s biography and his follower

Luke, which are chief contradicted facts when connecting with Jesus.

Unlike to Muhammad Eisa he rejected the divinity of the Holy Bible by

elucidating it with verses of Holy text; Quran by representing the cases of new

testament, as its major part included Paul’s writings, who was considered by

himself as main apostle from others. However, his interpretations almost are

parallel to E.C Simon Master’s refutation in proving the unscientific

compilation of new testament by familiarizing Luke’s assertions of the style of

compilation of new testament in his introduction of chapter.

4. The descendant of Eisa. Explanation of them directed on same way; regarding

the verses of the Holy Bible; according to the Gospel Yohannan, the concept of

last Prophet Muhammed (‫ )ﷺ‬still existed in his verses, while Christians are

believing a contradictory concept along their beliefs, which is contrary to real

facts

81
5. The divinity of Quran and Bible. The repudiation of both E.C Simon Master and

Muhammad Eisa are comparatively same, by presenting the existence of

paradoxical verses in Bible.

However, unlike to Muhammad Eisa, E.C Simon Master brought a division

among verses of the Holy Bible; he divided the whole verses of Bible into three

faces, that are: firstly, the verses of God. Secondly, the verses of Prophet s such

as Jesus and Moses. Third, the verses of authors; Mathew, Luke, Yohannan and

Markos. Latterly he did the comparative study between Bible and Quran.

82
 CONCLUSION

Religious conversion is the acceptance of a set of belief identified with one particular

religious’ values by eliminating pre-assigned religious values. It would transformation

from one tradition from another tradition or transmission from one domination to other.

Thus, religious conversion has played a vital role in dissemination of religions in

different part world, such as instances in Europe, America and India, especially in

Kerala, also.

By the advent of religious missionaries and commercial troops in Kerala, the

religious conversion to Islam intensively expanded throughout the Kerala. As well as it

was conceived as humanitarian way by eradicating of previous religious gravel

dominations on adherents and emancipation of ruthless customs, rituals and practise

from their life, even it triggered various concerns and issues in socio-political and

cultural backdrop of Kerala. Religious conversion Islam was initiated under the various

commercial and missionary troops from Arabia, such as Thamīmu Dāri, Nā Khudhā

Misgāl and Mālik Dīnār in seventh centuries, as historians revealed. Latter It was

intensified by pious families and leader, such as Makhdūm, Yamani Sayyids and leaders

in late centuries.

However, the interferences and interventions of converted Muslims in late

centuries, for enhancement of preaching of Islam and evaluation of the philosophies of

are caused to various concerns and issues in socio-political and cultural background of

Kerala, such as conversions of celebrities has treated by public views, such as E.C

Simon Master and Kamala Surayya, who are renowned celebrities in cultural and

political background of Kerala.

83
 E.C Simon Master and Muhammad Eisa are pious figures among the converted

Muslims, were highlighted in preaching of Islam by refuting the baseless creeds and

flawed philosophies of Christianity. According to their propagation, they faced lots of

social, political and cultural concerns in the Kerala and they influenced Keralite

Muslims in several kinds of religious studies by interpreting their experiences and

understanding which were took place social background of Kerala.

In first chapter, the researcher comprises theoretical aspects and visions on

dynamic of religious conversion, which was related multidimensional aspects from

various disciplinary perspectives. It encompasses numerous theories and stages, laws

and regulations of religious conversion, as it was seen as essential basics of religious

studies and its practises also.

In second chapter the researcher portrays the histories of the origin, growth and

decline of religious conversion to Islam in Kerala by analysing the socio-political and

cultural concerns and issues along the mass conversion movements through pre-

colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods. It specifically convers the autobiographical

background of E.C. Simon Master and Muhammad Eisa, who engaged in intrareligious

activities in sphere of Kerala, with covering their significances of their work in Keralite

socio-political and cultural background.

In third chapter, the researcher encompasses to elucidate their visions to Islam

and Christianity, and their modes of propagations of Islam in spheres of Kerala, and

their different refutations to the fundamental and basics errors of Christianity and Bible

and it’s influences and effects on Christians and converted Muslims also in spheres of

Kerala, especially Malabar.

As well as, being a Bible Scholar, E.C. Simon Master depended on comparative

study between Quran and Bible, and Islam and Christianity through his refutations and

84
confutations, while, Muhammed Eisa concentrated on Bible based study on Christianity

and its theological aspects, as he understood the real one religion is Islam through his

deep reading the Holy Bible. As E.C. Simon Master approached to various theologies

of Christians depended on spirituality rather than focusing its theoretical faces and

debateable forms along his propagations, even he exposed theoretical and debatable

forms in some works. His works totally depended on analytical, descriptive and

inductive methodologies through the polemical method, which are seen in his different

books and interview also, while Muhammed Eisa’ confutation style is an inclusion with

both spirituality and theoretic and debatable faces to variant Christian ideologies

focused in inductive and deductive, and analytical and descriptive methodologies

through the both polemical and apologetic method, as it is seen his talks and debates,

and his books also.

85
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