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High Cycle Fatigue Allowable vibratory stresses
Low Cycle Fatigue Crack initiation life
1/1000 to small crack
Component
retirement
Crack Growth Remaining life from crack
Safety
inspection interval
Inspection
size requirement
For Crack Initiation, High Cycle Fatigue
(HCF) and Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) are
treated separately. Why?
General distinction for Gas Turbines:
HCF - Usually high frequency, due to resonant
vibration. Failure criteria based on allowable
stresses. Millions of Cycles
LCF - Usually low frequency, due to engine
start/stop or throttle cycles. Accurate life
prediction required. Thousands of Cycles
Turbine Disk Design Requirements
Most Severe Structural Challenge: High structural loads, fatigue, & creep
• Environmentally friendly
• Fatigue cracking resistance
initiation
propagation
• Creep resistant
• Strong
• Lightweight
• Predictable/Inspectable
• Affordable
• Environmentally stable
• High temperature
accelerates fatigue damage
Compressor blade tested in
a vibratory fatigue test rig
Cyclic vs. Monotonic Curves: Behavior can be significantly different ...
From Metal Fatigue in Engineering, H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens, John Wiley &
Sons, NY, 1980
Crack Size: How big is big? ...
HCF: S-N Curves ...
Initially used to address HCF for allowable
stress, but what about predicting actual cycles
of life? ...
HCF cycle prediction is more of a statistical
estimate with a large scatter allocation,
instead of an exact science
P&WA Stress Control HCF Test Apparatus
Specimen Fully Reversed Stress/Strain Cycle S/N Plot
Basic Cycle
Terms to Remember
max min
Alternating Stress Amplitude: a
2
Mean Stress:
max min
0
2
min
Stress Ratio: R
max
Stress Range:
max min
a m
Soderberg (USA, 1930) 1
Se S y
a m
Goodman (England, 1899) 1
Se Su
2
a m
Gerber (Germany, 1874) 1
Se Su
* Exists in theory only
HCF: S-N Curves ...
Soderberg is highly conservative and seldom
used
Actual test data usually falls between
Goodman & Gerber Curves
This is not a large difference in the theories
when the mean stress is small in relation to
the alternating stress.
P&W has found the most success with the
Goodman approach
HCF: A Christienson Diagram Contains all of
this information ...
HCF: An example of Pratt’s Goodman
diagram which combines Stress Amplitude and
Mean Stress Effects ...
The discontinuous slope on the x-axis modifies
for the yield value instead of the ultimate as
required by a traditional Goodman Diagram.
HCF: Cyclic limits ...
107 cycles - Most other alloys
109 cycles - Titanium, certain Nickel Blade
Alloys
109 cycles - ????? (Proposed following the
HCF Initiative)
9
Why no actual 10 Testing?
Present frequency capability is 200 Hz,
which is 1.6 years!!
Assuming 25 tests on two machines, this is
20 years to characterize a single material !!!
Target now is 2000 Hz for coupon testing,
which is 2 months for a single test.
HCF: Elastic Stress-Life Relationship ...
HCF Notches: Parameters of Interest ...
Parameter Description
Kt Elastic Stress
Concentration
Kf Fatigue Notch
Factor (KfKt)
Material constant
(related to grain size)
r Notch radius
q Notch sensitivity
HCF Notches: Neuber proposed the
following relationship ...
Kt 1
Kf 1
1 / r
Kf 1 1
q
Kt 1 1 / r
Where:
Se(notched)=Se(unnotched) / Kf
In the previous equations, the notched value
would then be substituted.
LCF Testing: Verification ...
Three primary ways of verification testing:
Subcomponents
Spin Pit
Ferris Wheel
P&WA Strain Control LCF/TMF Test Apparatus
LCF Testing: Typical set-up involves
uniaxial loading ...
Cyclic Fatigue: Testing Parameters of Interest ...
Strain Range -
Stress Range - P/A = max - min
Max. Tensile Stress - T
Mean Stress - m = 0.5*(max + min)
Inelastic Strain - i, p
-
Temperature T
Cyclic Loading: Key Relationships ...
E
Elastic Modulus, (monotonic) or (cyclic)
e e
min
Stress Ratio, R
max
Max. Stress, max mean
2
Min. Stress, min mean
2
Total Strain = Elastic Strain Range + Plastic Strain Range
tot e p
1
Where and n'
p 2
E 2K '
n'
tot 2
E 2 K '
LCF: Pratt & Whitney Definition ...
Nucleation to detectable crack.
Initiation is a 1/32” crack along the surface.
The acceptable probability of occurrence of
an LCF crack as 1 crack occurring in a
sample size of 1000 (1/1000 or B.1) having
a 1/32 inch long crack at the predicted
minimum life.
LCF: Characteristics ...
From stress/strain cycling in the plastic
range at significantly higher stresses than for
HCF.
The stress/strain cycles that cause LCF
cracking are produced by significant engine
power level changes.
Microscopic changes in a material that has
been subjected to LCF cycling may be seen
after only a few cycles.
Microscopic dislocations in the crystal
structure.
The dislocations link up to form
cracks.
Depends on the stresses and
orientation of the individual grain.
Highly statistical in nature.
LCF: What are the parameters? ...
LCF: Mean Stress Effects must be included ...
Simple approach by J. Morrow:
Su Sm N 0.12 0.6 N 0.6
t 3.4 f f f
E
Alternative approach by Smith, Watson &
Topper (1970):
max a E f
2
2 N 2b f f E 2 N b c
where max=m+a and a is the alternating strain
Notch LCF: Overall philosophy ...
Kt < ~1.5
Local stress-strain calculated
Smooth LCF curves used
Kt > ~1.5
Local stress-strain calculated
Notch LCF curves used usually mean
stress/strain range, temperature corrected
Notch LCF: Strain Range-Mean Stress
Curves ...
Where:
Kmax & Kmin are temp. correction factors on strain at max and min
stress points
K vs. T is derived from LCF tests at various temperatures
Kt is the geometric stress concentration factor
max & min are the nominal max and min stresses
Emax & Emin are elastic moduli at the max and min stress points
Notch LCF: Notch Factors ...
Kt, K, and K relate local behavior to nominal:
Notch LCF: Surface stresses and strains in
stress concentration areas are important
and need to be calculated ...
Three methods used most often:
Linear Rule - elastic equivalent stress
method
Neuber Rule - ideally for plane stress cases
Glinka Method - energy based method
Notch LCF: Linear Rule ...
Notch LCF: Neuber Rule ...
Notch LCF: Neuber Rule for Cyclic
Loading must be solved incrementally...
The pairs are A-D, B-C, E-F, and G-H.
Cyclic Stress-Strain Behavior: Derived from loci of cyclic endpoints ...
Constitutive Modeling Approach
3.5E+07
Constant 1
3.0E+07
Constant 2
Parameter 2.5E+07 Constant 3
2.0E+07
1.5E+07
1.0E+07
5.0E+06
0.0E+00
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature (F)
Relevant Topics:
Crystal Structure
Deformation Mechanisms
Crack Initiation .. Sequence of Events
Visual Aspects - Fractography
Deformation for crystal structures can be visualized like a sliding row
of bricks...
Metals have a highly ordered crystal structure...
Cubic Arrangement
Hexagonal Close-Packed
Structure
Zn, Mg, Be, -Ti, etc.
Two predominant deformation mechanisms in metals...
Dislocation: occurs at all temperatures,
but is predominant at lower temperatures.
Diffusion: important at higher temperatures,
especially above one half the melting temperature
Can you find the Illustrated Dislocation Defect?
Edge dislocation. (a) “Bubble-raft” model of an imperfection in a crystal structure.
Note the extra row of atoms. (b) Schematic illustration of a dislocation. [Bragg and
Nye, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A190, 474, 1947.]
Pure metals are easily deformed. Several methods are used to inhibit
deformation...
Dispersion strengthening
Solid solution strengthening
Precipitation hardening
Microstructure control (grain size and morphology, precipitate
control, etc.)
Solid Solution Strengthening: Perturbations to crystal lattice retard
dislocation motion...
Precipitation Hardening: Local areas of compositional and/or
structural differences retard dislocation motion...
Grain Boundary Strengthening: Crystallographic and/or
compositional boundary. Strengthens at low temperature; but weak
link at high temperature...
Grain Boundary Resistance: Will resist dislocation motion at the
boundary...
Grain Boundaries Illustrated: Notice the vacancies and excess atoms at boundaries...
Grain Boundary Mechanics:
Crystallographic and/or compositional boundary. Strengthens at low
temperature; weak link at high temperature...
Persistent Slip Band Formation:
A product of cyclic deformation important to fatigue initiation for ductile
metals ...
From Metal Fatigue in Engineering, H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens, John Wiley
& Sons, NY, 1980
Diffusion: A high temperature deformation mechanism ...
Diffusion: Usually considered at temperatures above half the melting
point ( K) ...
Melting Point (F) 1/2 Melting Point (F)
Ice 32 -213
Grain Boundary Sliding: A diffusion controlled deformation process ...
Grain Boundary Sliding: Can provide large deformation at boundary with
relatively small intergranular deformation ...
Fatigue Crack Initiation: Occurs when enough local deformation
damage accumulates to produce a crack ...
from dislocations - as in slip
from diffusion - as in grain boundary sliding
or from both
Fracture Stages: Steps of an Idealized Fatigue Process ...
Stage I Crystallographic Fracture, along a few planes, brittl
appearance, at angle to principal loading direction.
Stage II Usually transgranular, but numerous fracture planes
to principal loading direction. Striations often seen at high
magnification for more ductile alloys.
Stage III Final fracture; brittle, ductile or both.
Fracture Stages: Fatigue origin often at a Mechanical or Metallurgical
Artifact ...
Final Fracture
Fatigue Area
Ramberg-Osgood Relationship: Describes cyclic inelastic behavior ...
IN100, (Tests Conducted in Air at 650°C, Frequency, = 0.33 Hz)
Typical Failure Modes: General Characteristics ...
Failure Mode Some General Characteristics
Overstress Rapid fracture, may be ductile or brittle, large
deformation, often transgranular, often the final stage
of some other fracture mode.
Creep/Stress Rupture Usually long term event, large deformation,
intergranular, elevated temperature
High Cycle Fatigue Often short term event, small deformation,
transgranular
Low Cycle Fatigue Moderate time event, moderate deformation, fracture
dependent on time/temp.
Thermomechanical Fatigue Moderate time event, subset of LCF with deformation
due largely to thermally induced stresses, fracture
usually shows heavy oxidation/alloy depletion
Cyclic Behavior Must be Modeled: After Tensile yield, there are two models
which describe compressive behavior ...
Isotropic
- assumes symmetrical behavior in tension and compression.
Kinematic
- assumes yield stress, following inelastic deformation, is degraded ...
Hardening Models: Defines the Bauschinger effect ...
Cyclic Effects on Stress-Strain Behavior: Progressive changes occur during cyclic
loading ...
From Metal Fatigue in Engineering, H.O. Fuchs and R.I. Stephens, John Wiley &
Sons, NY, 1980
Summary:
Cyclic properties are important to our product.
Principal deformation mechanisms are slip at low temperature and diffusion
at high temperature.
Cracking can be crystallographic, transgranular, or intergranular.
Simple deformation models can be used to consolidate data and predict loca
stresses and strains.