College of

Electrical & Mechanical Engineering

PRACTRICAL HANDOUTS
ME-223 Advance Workshop Practice 1-1

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Ali Ubaid
284951
ME-41-C
 ME-223 Advance Workshop Practice (Lab Manual)

Table of Content

1. Introduction to Advanced Workshop.

2. Use of Measuring and Gauging Instruments.

Vernier Caliper, Screw Gauge, Slip Gauges, Merser Gauge, Thread
Measuring Gauge.

3. CNC
Description of CNC Lab layout and Overview of Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) System.
Usage of CNC lathe and CNC milling machines.
Part Fabrication using CNC machine.

4. 3D Scanning.

5. 3D Printing (Familiarization of 3D printing software and CAD

file preparation).
Part Printing.

6. Sheet metal working.

7. Forging.

8. Casting.
Centrifugal Casting and Sand Casting.
Introduction to Advanced Workshop

Conventional Machining Non-Traditional Machining (NTM)

Materials are removed in the form of So called ‘chip’ is not produced here.
tiny sharp chips. Material is removed in various forms,
such as tiny metal particles, ions, molten
or vapor, etc.
Physical contact between cutting tool Although no physical contact occurs
and workpiece and also relative velocity between cutting tool and workpiece, in
in between them are indispensably few processes such as AJM, AWJM, &
necessary in order to remove materials. USM solid abrasive grits strike the work
surface to erode material.
There are certain shapes that cannot be NTM processes sometime become a
produced by conventional machining. reliable option for producing such
critical shapes. Buy this book
These processes are suitable for bulk These are suitable for highly accurate
removal of material. In this sense, these and precise requirements. For bulk
are fast, reliable, and economic (higher removal of materials, these processes
material removal rate—MRR). are time consuming, less reliable, and
uneconomic.
These processes are age old and thus Most of these processes are developing.
physics of the processes are well- Labor cost is also high due to less
understood. Skilled labors are also number of skilled labors available in
readily available at comparatively this field.
cheaper cost.
Shear deformation’ is the only Shear deformation plays an
phenomenon that causes removal of insignificant role in material removing
material. in most of the NTM processes. Instead,
erosion, dissolution, evaporation,
sputtering, etc. occur here.
Examples of conventional machining examples of non-traditional machining
processes— Turning, Facing, Grooving, processes— AJM, AWJM, USM, etc.
etc. Drilling, Boring, Reaming, etc. EDM, ECM, CHM, etc .LBM, PAM,
Shaping, Planning, Milling, etc. EBM, IBM, etc. Hybridization of above
Grinding, Lapping, Honing, etc. processes
 1. Introduction

Workshop practice is a very vast one and it is very difficult for anyone to claim
a mastery over it. It provides the basic working knowledge of the production and
properties of different materials used in the industry. It also explains the use of
different tools, equipment’s, machinery and techniques of manufacturing, which
ultimately facilitate shaping of these materials into various usable forms. In
general, various mechanical workshops know by long training how to use
workshop tools, machine tools and equipment. Trained and competent persons
should be admitted to this type of mechanical works and permitted to operate
equipment.

1.1 Scope Of Study

Today’s competitive manufacturing era of high industrial development and

research, is being called the age of mechanization, automation and computer
integrated manufacturing. Due to new researches in the manufacturing field, the
advancement has come to this extent that every different aspect of this technology
has become a full-fledged fundamental and advanced study in itself. This has led
to introduction of optimized design and manufacturing of new products. New
developments in manufacturing areas are deciding to transfer more skill to the
machines for considerably reduction of manual labor. The scope of the subject of
workshop technology and manufacturing practices is a extremely wide as it
specifies the need of greater care for man, machine, material and other equipment
involving higher initial investment by using proper safety rule and precautions.
The through and deep knowledge in the course of study of this important subject is
therefore becoming essential for all kinds of engineers to have sound foundation in
their profession. Therefore the course of study of this subject provides a good
theoretical background and a sound practical knowledge to the engineering
students and workshop staff. One should also be aware of the following terms for
better understanding of the scope of the study
 Ores(Raw material for industry)

To suitable reducing or refining process convert metal into molten form

This molten metal poured into mould to give commercial casting called ingots

From suitable process to obtain usable metal product of different shapes and sizes

1.2 MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

Advance Workshop Processes:

1. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

2. Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
3. Sand Blasting
4. Water Jet Machining (WJM)
5. Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
6. Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
1.3 Primary shaping processes

Some of these finish the product to its usable form whereas others do not and it
requires further working to finish the component to the desired shape and size.
Wire drawing lead to the directly usable articles, which do not need further
processing before use.
Casting, forging, bending, rolling, drawing, power metal forging, etc.

1.4 Machining processes

Large number of components need further processing after primary processes known
as secondary operation to obtain desired shape and dimensional accuracy. These
operations require the use of one or more machine tools, various types of cutting
tools and cutters, job holding devices, marking and measuring instruments,
testing devices and gauges etc. Common machining operations are: Turning,
Threading. Drilling, Boring, Planning, Shaping, Sawing, Milling, Grinding,
Slotting, etc.

1.5 Joining processes

These processes are used for joining metal parts and in general fabrication work.
Such requirement usually occur when larger lengths of standard sections are
required or several pieces are to be joined together to fabricate a desired structure.
Common processes are Welding, Soldering, Brazing, Riveting, Screwing,
Pressing, etc.

1.6 Surface Finishing Processes

These processes should not be misunderstood as metal removing processes in any

case as they are primarily intended to provide a good surface finish or a decorative
and/or protective coating on to the metal surface, although a very negligible
amount of metal removal or addition may take place. Thus, any appreciable
variation in dimensions will not be effected by these processes. The common
processes employed for obtaining desired surface finish are the following:

1. Buffing 2. Polishing 3. Lapping 4. Belt grinding 5. Metal spraying 6. Painting

1.7 Processes Effecting Change in Properties
These processes are employed to impart certain specific properties to the metal
parts so as to make them suitable for particular operations. Most physical
properties like hardening, softening and grain refinement etc., call for particular
heat treatment. Heat treatments not only effect the physical properties, but in
most cases also make a marked change in the internal structure of the metal. So is
the case with cold and hot working of metals.
1. Heat treatment 2. Cold working 3. Hot working
1.8 Workshop safety
The safety in Workshops has been written not only to provide appropriate safety
procedures but also to assist trained workshop personnel with the provision of a
reference document outlining the general principles of safe working practices
relevant to the mechanical engineering aspects. It relates to specific are as
where definite safety measures are required for workshop operations.
 1.9 Factories Act and Accident
Various acts relating to accidents are spelt out in workmen’s compensation Act-
1923, The factories act1948 and Fatal Accidents Act-1855. These acts describe the
regulations for fencing and guarding the dangerous machinery, items and
employer’s liabilities.
1.2.0 Concept of Accident
It is very difficult to give a definition of the word‘Accident’. However, a generally
accepted conception that an accident is a mishap, a disaster that results in some sort
of injury, to men, machines or tools and equipments and in general loss to the
organization. The said injury or loss may be of minor or major nature and the
accident is termed as non-reportable or reportable. For example, a small cut on the
body will be reportable accident in a training workshop. It can be treated by first
aid and does not involve any appreciable loss of time, and will not be considered a
reportable accident in a production unit
1.2.1 Causes of Accidents
The 98% accidents could be easily avoided provided due precautions are taken
well in time. A very familiar slogan goes on to say that accidents do not just
happen but are caused due to the failure of one element or the other, and the most
unfortunate factor is that the human element is the most pronounced of all which
fail.
The common causes which lead to accidents are the following:
1. Unsafe working position.
2. Improper or defective tools or their improper use.
3. Improper acts- which result in violation of safety rules and non-observance of
safety precautions.
2. Use of Measuring and Gauging Instruments.

Vernier Caliper, Screw Gauge, Slip Gauges, Mercer Gauge, Thread

Measuring Gauge.

2.1 Aim: To find the volume of rectangular block by using a Vernier calipers.

Apparatus: Vernier caliper, rectangular block

Theory: (a) volume of the rectangular block(V), V=lbh in m3 Where

l=length of the block in m b=breadth of the block (in m) h=height of the
block (in m) Volume of the sphere=(4/3)π r3 (in m3 ) Where r=radius of the
sphere (in m)

Least count: It is the smallest measurement that which any measuring

instrument can measure accurately(value of one division=L.C.)

Observations and calculations

Least count=Value of one main scale division/Total no: of Vernier

scale divisions L.C.=1div/10=1mm/10=0.1mm L.C.=0.01cm

1) To find length, breadth and height of a rectangular block

S.no Dimension M.S.R(cm) VSR(div) VSRxLC Total=MSR+ Mean

cm (VSRxLC)cm cm

1 Length 62 19 0.95 62.95

2 Breath 37 9 0.45 37.45
3 Height 37 18 0.90 37.90

Volume of the rectangular block=lbh

V= (62.95cm) (37.45cm) (37.90cm) = 89,348 cm3
V = 89,348 cm3 =8.9348 x 104 cm3
V= 0.089348 m3 = 8.9348 x 10-2 m3
 2) To find the diameter of the sphere
S.no Dimension MSR VSR (VSRxLC) Diameter=MSR+
(cm) (div) (cm) (VSRxLC)
cm
1 Diameter 19.5 19 0.19 19.69
2
3 19.5 22 0.22 19.72
4
5 19.5 24 0.24 19.74
6

Radius of the sphere,r=d/2= ((19.69+19.72+19.74)/3)/2 = 9.858 cm

Volume of the sphere,V=(4/3)πr3 = (4/3)π(9.858cm)3 = 4013 cm3
Volume of the sphere,V=(4/3)πr3 = (4/3)π(0.09858m)3 = 4.013 x 10-3 m3
Procedure:
I. Calculate the LC of Vernier calipers.
II. Measure length, breadth thickness of a rectangular block and diameter
of the given sphere by using Vernier calipers.
III. Find MSR and VSR for each physical quantity.
IV. Calculate the total reading by using the formula MSR+(VSRxLC)
V. Find the volume of block using the equation V=lbh & volume of the
sphere V==(4/3) Пr3

a. The movement of Vernier scale on main scale should be smooth

b. Take measurements of diameter by changing the orientation of the body
c. Notice the readings carefully to avoid error due to parallax

In poor quality of Vernier calipers jaws may not be perpendicular to

scales
Parallax may be there in taking the observations
Result:
Volume of the rectangular block,V= ------------m 3

Volume of the sphere,v= ------------- m 3

2.2 Aim: To find the thickness of the given wire and sphere using a screw
 gauge and hence to find their volumes.

Apparatus: Screw gauge, thin wire, small sphere and meter scale.

Theory: (a) Volume of the given wire= πr2h in m3

Where r=radius of the wire (in m) h=length of the wire. (in m)

(b) Volume of the sphere=(4/3) πr3 (m3)

Where r=radius of the sphere (in m)

Observations and calculations

Least count: It is the smallest measurement that which any measuring

instrument can measure accurately (value of one division=L.C.)

Zero error=-------------------div

Pitch of the screw =distance moved/no: of rotations made

=4mm/4
=1mm
Least count(LC) =Pitch of the screw/Total no of circular scale divisions
=1mm/100
=0.01mm

Length of the given wire, h= ----------- cm

= --------- mm

(1) To find the diameter (thickness) of the given wire

S.no PSR(mm) HSR(div) CHSR(div) CHSRxLC Diameter,d=PSR+ (CHSRx LC)
(mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5

Mean d= mm
Radius of the wire,r=d/2= -------- mm
Volume of the wire,V= πr2h
=----------
= ----------------- mm3
= -------------------- m3

(2) To find the diameter of the sphere

S.no PSR(mm) HSR(div) CHSR(div) CHSRxLC Diameter,d= PSR+(CHSRxLC)
(mm) (mm)

1
2
3
4
5
6

Mean d= mm
Radius of the sphere,r=d/2
= ---------- mm
Volume of the sphere,V=(4/3) πr3
=---------------- mm3

= --------------- m3
Procedure:
1. Measure the Zero correction and least count of screw gauge.
2. Measure the diameter of the given wire and sphere using screw gauge
3. Find PSR,HSR and CHSR using screw gauge
4. Calculate PSR+(CHSRxLC).
5. Measure the length of the given wire by using metre scale.
6. Find volume of wire and sphere using the formulae V=
πr2h& V=(4/3) πr3
7. Repeat the experiment 4 or 5 times
Precautions:

1. At a time rotate the screw in one direction to avoid backlash error

2. Zero error should be observed carefully and taken into consideration.
Sources of error:
The wire may not be of uniform cross section
Backlash error always exists because it cannot be removed
completely
Result:
(a) Diameter of the given wire,d= -------- m
Volume of the wire,V = ---------- m3
(b) Diameter of the sphere,d = ---------- m
Volume of the sphere,V = ---------- m3
 3. CNC Machine:

In a CNC machine, all the numerical functions are controlled by the

computer. The computer stores the programs which are required to
operate the machine. The computer also gives the display of various
parameters of the machine-like spindle speed, feed rate etc. It consists of
electronic instrumentation to measure the output.

CNC stands for computer numerical control. It is a machine controlled by a

computer. Its external appearance is similar to that of an NC machine.
Tape or Computer Keyboard or Tutor Keyboard is used as input media for
CNC machines. For NC machines tape is to be fit repeat to produce
repeated jobs.

But for CNC machine tape is fit once and the program is stored in the
memory and can be run repeatedly to produce repeated jobs. CNC or
computer numerical control is an NC system that employs a dedicated
microcomputer as a machine control unit.

The presence of a microprocessor, RAM memory, ROM memory, input

and output devices have increased the level of automation in NC systems.
CNC Machine is designed to perform multiple operations in a faster way
which increase the flexibility of the machine.

3.1 Basic CNC Concept:

A CNC system can be described in terms of three major elements:

1. Hardware,
2. Software and
3. Information.
 1. Hardware:
A Hardware includes microprocessors that affect control system functions
and peripheral devices for data communication, machine tool status
monitoring and machine tool interfacing.

2. Software:
The software includes programs that are performed by system
microprocessors and there are different types of software associated
with CNC.

3. Information:

Information about the dynamic characteristics of the machine and many

other information related to the process. When any of these deceptive
components fail, the diagnostics subsystem will automatically separate
the faulty component from the system and activate the unnecessary
component in place of the damaged one so that the newly installed
component can perform its task.

3.2 Features of CNC Machine

The feature of CNC machines are as follows:

Part program input may be through the keyboard.

The part program is entered into the computer and stored in the
memory. Then it is used again and again.
 The entered part program can be edited for any errors or design
changes.
A graphical display of the cutter path and shape of the finished work is
possible before actually running the program (simulation).
Tool wear compensation is possible.
Able to get machine utilization information’s like the number of
components produced, time per component, time for setting the job
etc.,
The sub-program facility is also possible for repetitive machining
sequences.

3.3 Basic Elements of the CNC Machine

The main parts of the CNC machine are:

1. Input devices
2. Machine control unit (MCU)
3. Machine tool
4. Driving system
5. Feedback system
6. Display uni
 1. Input Devices:
These are devices that are used to input the part program into a CNC
machine. There are three generally used input devices and these are
punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader and computer via RS-232-C
communication.
 2. Machine Control Unit (MCU):

Machine control unit called the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the
control functions of the CNC machine, there are various tasks performed by
MCU are.
It reads the coded instructions given in it.

Machine control unit decodes the coded instruction.

This axis implements interpolation (linear, circular and helical) to
generate motion commands.
Machine control unit feeds the axis motion command to the
amplifier circuit to drive the axis mechanism.
It takes a feedback signal of position and speed for each drive axis.
It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or
spindle on/off and tool change.
 3. Machine Tool:

A CNC machine tool always has a sliding table and a spindle to control the
position and speed. The table of the machine is controlled in the X and Y-
axis direction and the spindle is controlled in the Z-axis direction.
4. Driving System:
The driving system of a CNC machine include of an amplifier circuit, drive
motors and ball lead screws. The MCU supplies the signals (i.e., of position
and speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals are
then augmented (increased) to actuate the drive motors. And the actuated
drive motors rotate the ball lead screw to put in a position the machine
table.
5. Feed Back System:
The feedback system has the transducers that act as sensors. It is also
called a measuring system. It consists of position and speed transducers
that continuously monitor the position and speed of the cutting
tool located at any given moment. The MCU receives signals from
transducers and it uses the difference in reference signals and feedback
signals to generate control signals to correct position and speed errors.

6. Display Unit:

The monitor is employed to display programs, commands and other

useful data of the CNC machine.
Read also:

Different types of Shaper Machine Operations 22

Different Types of Lathe Machine Operations

3.4 How CNC Machine Works?

The figure shows the CNC machine working

First, the part program is entered into the MCU of the CNC.

The MCU processes all the data and according to the program prepared, it
prepares all the motion commands and gives it to the driving system.

The drive system acts as motion commands sent by the MCU. The drive
system manages the motion and velocity of the machine tool.

The feedback system records the position and velocity measurements of the
machine tool and gives a feedback signal to the MCU.

In the MCU, the feedback signals are compared with reference signals
and if errors occur, it corrects it and sends new signals to the machine tool
to be corrected.
The display unit is used to see all the programs, commands, and other
data. It works like the eye of the machine.

3.5 Working Principle of CNC Machine

It consists of two separate controls, a CNC controller that doses the function
of program decoding interpolation, diagnostics machine actuation, etc.
Another is the programmable logic controller (PLC), which dose spindle on-
off, coolant on-off, turret operation etc. Slides are transferred via their own
feed drive (AC or DC) servomotors or ball screws and nut drives. The feed
drive controllers the feed drive motors. Suitable transducers have been fitted
to either the table or the motor, which measures the slide position. Also, the
position is monitored and checked through the feedback transducers to
ensure the accuracy of positioning. The spindle is provided with stepped
motors of AC or DC. A suitable control is used to vary is the speed of the
spindle motor. A suitable feedback device connected to the shaft monitors the
speed. This is how the CNC machine works.

3.6 Advantages of CNC Machine

Following are the advantages of CNC machine:

1. CNC machine can produce jobs with highest accuracy and precision
than any other manual machine. It eliminates human errors.
2. It can be operated for 24 hours of a day. Higher flexibility also.
3. The parts manufactured by it have the same accuracy. There is no
variety in parts manufactured by CNC machines.
4. A highly skilled operator is not needed to run a CNC machine.
5. A semi-skilled operator can also operate accurately and more precisely.
6. Operators can easily make changes and improvements and reduce the
delay time and Reduce inspection cost.
7. It has the capability to produce a complex design with high accuracy in
minimum possible time with minimum wastage.
8. Modern design software allows the designer to emulate the creator of his
idea.
9. And this removes the need for making a prototype or model a saves
time and money.
10. Fewer workers are required to operate a CNC machine and save
labour cost.
11. It is suitable for batch production.
12. It requires less space for its operations
13. More operational safety.

3.7 Disadvantages of CNC Machine

Following are the disadvantages of CNC Machine:

1. The cost of a CNC machine is much higher than a manually operated

machine.
2. The initial cost is high.
3. The parts of the CNC machines are costly.
4. Maintenance costs are significantly higher in the case of CNC.
5. It does not eliminate the need for costly tools.
6. CNC machine requires skilled programmers.
7. It is not suitable for small scale production
8. Maintenance cost is more.

3.8 Applications of CNC Machines

Almost every manufacturing industry uses CNC machines. With an

increase in the competitive environment and demands, the demand for
CNC usage has increased to a greater extent. The machine tools that come
with the CNC are late, mills shaper welding etc. The industries which are
using CNC machines are the automotive industry, metal removal industry,
fabricating metals industry, electrical discharge machining industry, wood
industry etc.

The following parts are normally done in practice on CNC machine

1. Aerospace equipment.
2. Automobile parts.
3. Complex shapes.
4. Electronic industry uses CNC e.g. Printed circuit board.
5. Electrical industry uses CNC e.g. Coil winding.
6. For small to medium batch quantity.
7. Where the set-ups are very large.
8. It used where tool storage is a problem.
9. Where much metal needs to be removed.
10. When the part geometry is so complex.
11. The operations are very complex.
12. For parts subjected to regularly design changes.
13. When the inspection is required 100%.
14. It used when the lead time does not permit the conventional tooling
manufacture.
15. When the machining time is very less as compared to down.
16. Where tool storage is a problem.
17. Where repetitive operations are required on the work

3.9 Understanding CNC Milling

CNC milling, or computer numerical control milling, is a machining process
which employs computerized controls and rotating multi-point cutting tools to
progressively remove material from the workpiece and produce a custom-designed
part or product. This process is suitable for machining a wide range of materials,
such as metal, plastic, glass, and wood, and producing a variety of custom-
designed parts and products.
Designing a CAD model
Converting the CAD model into a CNC
program Setting up the CNC milling machine
Executing the milling operation

4. 3D Scanning

3D scanners are tri-dimensional measurement devices used to capture real-

world objects or environments so that they can be remodeled or analyzed in
the digital world. The latest generation of 3D scanners do not require contact
with the physical object being captured.

3D scanners can be used to get complete or partial 3D measurements of any

physical object. The majority of these devices generate points or measures of
extremely high density when compared to traditional “point-by-point”
measurement devices.
 4.1 Working:

Scanning results are represented using free-form, unstructured three-

dimensional data, usually in the form of a point cloud or a triangle mesh.

Certain types of scanners also acquire color information for applications

where this is important.

Images/scans are brought into a common reference system, where data is

merged into a complete model. This process -- called alignment or

registration -- can be performed during the scan itself or as a post-

processing step.

4.2 Advantage:

Tracked 3D scanner very good accuracy and excellent precision through out

the measurement volume. Removing the need for a physical link between

the scanner and the object being scanned provides freedom of movements.
 4.3 Limitation:

The optical link that is a strength of this technology is also one of its

limitation. The Tracker must always have a clear and direct line of sight the

3D scanner. The tracker often have a limited working volume. Extending

the scanning parameters add complexity to the process and can induce

some additional uncertainty in the measurements.

5. 3D Printing

5.1 Overview of 3D Printing

“3D printing” or “Additive Manufacturing” takes digital input in the

form of Computer Aided Design (CAD) model and creates solid,
three dimensional parts through an additive, layer by layer process.
5.2 Types of Manufacturing
Additive Manufacturing
Subtractive Manufacturing
Additive Manufacturing could reduce energy use by 50% and reduces material costs by up to
96% compared to traditional manufacturing.

5.3 General Principles

1. Modelling:
It takes virtual blueprints from modeling software and “slices” them into digital cross-sections for
the machine to successively use as a guideline for printing.

2. Printing:
To perform a print, the machine reads the design from an .stl file and lays down successive layers of
liquid, powder, paper or sheet material to build the model from a series of cross section.
 3. Finishing:

5.4 Method of 3D Printing

1.Selective Laser Sintering(SLS)

2.Stereolithography

3.Fused Deposition Modeling(FDM)

6 Sheet Metal Work

6.1 Introduction
Series of operation that involve cutting, bending and drawing sheet metal. Sheet metal (from
0.4mm or 1/64in to 6mm or 1/4in thickness); Plate (from 6mm upwards). Operations are
usually performed as cold working.

6.2 Advantages of Sheet Metal:

Relatively low cost.

Good dimensional accuracy and good surface finish.
High strength
 6.3 Basic Types of Sheet Metal Operation
Cutting: It involves processes such as punching, shearing and blanking

Bending: Deform the sheet around a straight axis.

Drawing: Deform the sheet into convex or concave shapes.

When subjected to a tensile force there are three deformations to be measured: the longitudinal strain, the
strain in the width direction and the strain in the thickness direction. The material is anisotropic.

Shearing - Separating material into two parts

Blanking - Removing material to use for parts

6.4 Blanking:
Blanking is a cutting process in which a piece of sheet metal is removed from a larger piece
of stock by applying a great enough shearing force. In this process, the piece removed,
called the blank, is not scrap but rather the desired part. Blanking can be used to cutout
parts in almost any 2D shape, but is most commonly used to cut workpieces with simple
geometries that will be further shaped in subsequent processes.
6.5 Punching:

Punching is a cutting process in which material is removed from a piece of sheet metal by applying a
great enough shearing force. Punching is very similar to blanking except that the removed material,
called the slug, is scrap and leaves behind the desired internal feature in the sheet, such as a hole or slot.
Punching can be used to produce holes and cutouts of various shapes and sizes. The most common
punched holes are simple geometric shapes (circle, square, rectangle, etc.) or combinations thereof. The
edges of these punched features will have some burrs from being sheared but are of fairly good quality.
Secondary finishing operations are typically performed to attain smoother edges.
6.6 Clearance:
In blanking operation, the die size is taken as the blank size and the punch is made
smaller giving the necessary clearance between the die and the punch. Die size =
blank size
Punch size = blank size – 2 x clearance
Clearance = k .t τ.
where t = shear strength of material, t = thickness of sheet metal stock, and k is a constant
whose value may be taken as 0.003.
6.7 Bending:
Bending is a manufacturing process; it is defined as the straining of the sheet metal
around a straight edge. It produces a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape along a straight
axis in ductile materials called sheet metal.
Bending induces plastic deformation in the material, so the part retains its shape after the bending
force is released.
Types of bending:
V – Bending
Edge Bending

Rotary bending

Spring Back
At the end of the bending operation, when the pressure on the metal is released, there is
an elastic recovery of the material. This cause a decrease in the bend angle and this
phenomenon is called as spring back.

BEND ALLOWANCE:

BA = α(R + kt)

Where

BA = bend allowance (mm)

α= bend angle (radian)

R = bend radius (mm)

t = thickness of sheet (mm), and

k = constant,
whose value may be taken as 1/3 when R < 2t, and as 1/2 when R ³ 2t.

Bending Force :

The bending force is required to perform bending depends on the geometry of the punch

and die, strength, thickness and width of the sheet metal. The bending force can be

estimated from the following simple relation.

Where

F = Bending force

TS = tensile strength of sheet metal

w = width of the part in the direction of the bend axis

t = thickness of sheet metal D = Die opening

dimension

Kbf = bending factor 1.33 = V-Bending

Bending Operation:

Flanging

Straight
Stretch
Shrink

Hemming

Flat
Open
Seaming : two sheet metal edges are assembled

Curling : form the edges of the part in to a roll or curl as shown in figure

Drawing:

Drawing is sheet-metal forming operation used to make cup-shaped, box shaped or other

more complex-curved, hollow shaped parts. It is performed by placing a sheet metal blank

over die cavity and then pushing the metal into the opening with a punch, as shown in

figure The blank must usually be held down flat against the die by a blank holder.

Applications: beverage cans, cooking pots and automobile body panels.