Wolaita Sodo University Finite element analysis in manufacturing

UNIT-I

1. Introduction
Manufacturing is the industrial activity that changes the form of raw materials to create
products. The derivation of the word manufacture reflects its original meaning to make by
hand. Manufacturing is deriving from two Latin words, 'manus' meaning 'hand', and 'facere'
meaning 'to make', 'manufacturing' is the process whereby materials are changed from one state
into another by work. The new state is worth more than the old. Today the manufacturing
process often involves the use of sophisticated machinery and complex organizations.

As the power of the hand tool is limited, manufacturing is done largely by machinery today.
Manufacturing technology constitutes all methods used for shaping the raw metal materials
into a final product. As shown in Figure 1, manufacturing technology includes plastic forming,
casting, welding, and machining technologies.

Fig.1

2. Material removal
Machining is the process to shape any raw material (workpiece), metal or nonmetal, into a part
(product) or to improve the tolerance and surface finish of a previously formed workpiece by
removing a portion of the raw material. This can be done either mechanically (turning, drilling,
milling, grinding, water-jet machining, ultrasonic machining, etc.), chemically (chemical

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machining, electrochemical machining, etc.), electrically (electrical discharge machining), or

thermally (laser machining, electron beam machining, etc.).

Metal cutting is a process in which excess material is removed by a harder tool, through a
mechanical process of extensive plastic deformation or controlled fracture. Metal cutting, in
this definition, is a subset of machining.

Machine tools bring the interacting tool and work together in such a way that after defined
relative motions between them, a geometrically definable work form (finished component)
results at the end of the production process." According to this definition, a machine tool is a
manufacturing tool that comes in the form of a machine. It can perform one or a combination
of processes such as cutting, casting, forming, or joining. On the other hand, the term machine
tool is commonly used to describe the hardware system (equipment) that performs machining
only. In this narrower context, machine tool refers to the tool that is used to fabricate machines.

Machining is the backbone technology for a large number of manufacturing systems. It may be
used in either the primary manufacturing process or form an important part of preparing the
tooling for other processes like forming or molding. Machining and machine tools are
important over other manufacturing processes because:

i. Machining is extremely precise:

It can create geometric configurations, tolerances, and surface finishes often unobtainable by
any other technique (such as casting, forming, or joining). For example, generally achievable
arithmetic average surface roughness is 10 − 20𝜇m in sand casting, 2-5 𝜇m in die casting, 5-
10 𝜇m in forging, and 0.5 − 1𝜇m in turning. In precision machining (superfinishing, lapping,
diamond turning, etc.) it can be 0.01𝜇m or better. The achievable dimensional accuracy in
casting is 0.8 − 2%, depending on the thermal expansion coefficient; in metal forming it is
0.05 − 0.3%, depending on the yield strength and stiffness; in machining it can be infinitely
good since the dimensional accuracy becomes independent of the size of the workpiece.

ii. Machining is highly flexible:

In machining, the shape of the final product is programmed; therefore many different parts can
be made on the same machine tool and just about any arbitrary shape can be machined. The
fact that the product contour is created by the path rather than the shape of the cutter makes
the process extremely flexible, agile, and economical for prototyping and small batch

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manufacturing. The cutting tools can be mass produced in standardized shapes. On the
different, casting, molding, and forming processes require one dedicated tool for each product,
which makes them much less flexible.

Material removal processes, also known as machining processes. Here the use of cutting tools
with a "defined cutting edge" or a "undefined cutting edge" leads to two main technique groups,
i.e., the cutting and abrasive processes respectively. A third group is the "non-conventional
machining" processes, which can be also defined as erosion processes.

Classification of machining processes. AJM, abrasive jet machining; WJM, water jet
machining; USM, ultrasonic machining; AFM, abrasive flow machining; MAF, magnetic
abrasive finishing; CHM, chemical machining; ECM, electrochemical machining; EDM,
electro discharge machining; LBM, laser beam machining; PBM, plasma beam machining.

Overview of Machining Processes and Systems

Traditional metal-cutting process, a subset of machining, can be categorized into following

processes:

1 Turning: Performed on a lathe to produce externally cylindrical or axisymmetric parts

2 Boring: A lathe process to produce internally axisymmetric parts

3 Reaming: A process to enlarge the hole size and improve roundness and surface finish

4 Drilling: A hole-making process using a tool called drill to create or enlarge a hole

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5 Milling: Material removed by a rotating cutter, usually having multiple cutting edges

6 Broaching: Using tools of gradually enlarging shape to remove material

7 Tapping and threading: Using a sharp, pointed tool to generate internal or external
thread

8 Grinding: Using bonded hard abrasive as the tool for material removal

9 Honing: A process utilizing the expanding tool, called honing stones, to correct the
axial and radial distortions from previous operations

10 Burnishing: Using a hard, smooth roller or ball as the tool to press against the work
surface and generate the finish surface through plastic deformation

11 Deburring: A process to remove burrs, the undesired projections of material beyond

edges of machined workpiece due to work material plastic deformation at the exit of
the machining process.

In addition to these traditional metal-cutting processes, other processes using electrical,

chemical, and thermal energy for removal of the work material have been developed. These
so-called nontraditional machining processes are:

 Electrical discharge machining (EDM): This process uses electrical sparks between the
tool electrode and workpiece to erode and remove work materials. The electrode can
be shaped form (die-sinking EDM) or continuously running wire (wire EDM).

 Electrochemical machining (ECM): This process uses electrolysis to remove the work
material.

 Waterjet: High-pressure water can be used to cut soft work materials, such as bread or
carpet, cleanly and quickly. In the abrasive waterjet machining, abrasive particles are
mixed in the highpressure water and are used to cut metals, concrete, granite, and other
materials.

 Laser machining: The concentrated laser energy is used to melt and remove materials.

 Plasma machining: The hot plasma is used for flexible, low-cost cutting of materials.

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 Ion-beam machining: The energy can input via ionization to remove the work material.
It usually removes a small amount of material, such as the optical lens, after form
polishing.

3. Review of near net shape

Near Net Shape (NNS) is a generic term given to manufacturing processes that aim to produce
products which are close to the final shape and material of the component. NNS technologies
aim to minimize finishing steps (e.g. machining operations, heat treatments) and as a
consequence reduce the wastage of raw material (e.g. swarf, flashing) and energy. Because of
this, NNS technologies are often associated with Lean manufacturing methods where variations
in processes, part design and material choices are driven by the desire to reduce waste.
However, NNS processes do not need a complex justification, as it is clear to any
manufacturing engineer that any reduction of lead-times and waste will produce many
collateral advantages beyond the basic savings. The manufacturing capability of different
processes is a 'moving target' because the various NNS technologies are constantly improving
and evolving so there is an inherent challenge in accurately reflecting their requirements and
capabilities. Near net shape manufacturing is a multi-disciplinary task and consequently
approaches are varied and often driven by the nature of the specific application.

NNS concepts have now been extended to casting and powder technologies and are implicit in
the justification of many specialist forming processes (e.g. flow forming, hydroforming),
powder technologies and additive layer manufacturing systems. Indeed, today, the term NNS
is frequently used to convey the generic capabilities of manufacturing technologies and
distinguish them from systems that aim to deliver finished components.

3.1. Methodology for assessing a near net shape process feasibility

To assess the potential benefit of a new NNS manufacturing process replacing an existing
process, the feasibility needs to be systematically assessed. Because the authors' proposed
methodology considers both technological and economic feasibility (shown schematically in
Figure 2), it is referred to a 'Differential Cost and Feasibility Analysis' (DCFA). The first step
assesses the ability of the new process chain to produce a component that satisfies the
specifications (i.e. geometric features, tolerances, mechanical properties, defect rates). In
contrast, the economic feasibility describes the efficiency of the new manufacturing chain and
by measuring the resources used for producing the component (i.e. cost) and comparing them
to the current method of production.

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Fig. 2 A generic methodology for assessing the feasibility of adopting an NNS process

𝑆i : Primary shaping process (e.g. forging, casting, additive layer manufacturing, powder
technologies).

𝐻1 : Secondary Process (e.g. heat treatment).

𝑀i : Material removal and finishing processes (e.g. machining).

𝑆NNs: Near Net Shape primary shaping process ( 𝐻1 , potentially required secondary process)

𝑆Ex : Existent (applied) primary Shaping process.

𝑀1.…𝑛 : required 𝑛 material removal and finishing process (existent chain)

𝑀1 … 𝑘 ∗ potentially required 𝑘 material removal and finishing process (NNS manufacturing

chain)

In other words, the approach uses the current manufacturing chain as a benchmark for
comparison: consequently, both technology (i.e. the product quality) and costs analyses are
defined relative to the old manufacturing process.

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Although NNS processes can vary in nature (e.g. casting, forging, additive layer
manufacturing), they are always a primary shaping process (i.e. one that facilitates the
transition from raw material to a semi-finished product). So the choice of NNS operation
inevitably impacts the supply chain design (i.e. required machining steps, heat treatments ...)
and its overall efficiency (i.e. amount of employed resources for reaching the required final
production quality). Using the a NNS principles, a reduction of machining (less material waste)
and an increasing of raw material usage are the desired results of a new primary shaping process
application that maintains at least the current product quality as requirements (i.e. quality
improvement and collateral advantages can be achieved, but they are not the main objective).

Fig. 3. A. Schematic of the existing manufacturing process chain (top) and the proposed
NNS manufacturing process chain (bottom)

3.2. Powder metallurgy

Powder metallurgy is the process of producing objects from metal powders by pressing
powders to shape usually in metal moulds and subsequently sintering it below the melting point
(m.p.) of the major constituent.

3.2.1. Powder Metallurgy Manufacturing Process

The flow chart shown below depicts the steps in the manufacture of metal-powder parts.

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Metal

Manufacture of powders

Powder mixing

Pressing or compaction of powders

Sintering

Finished parts

Figure 3.b Punch and die arrangement for compacting metal powder

The principal steps in powder metallurgy process are

1 Obtaining or producing metal powders in a suitable degree of fineness and purity.

2 Weighing blending and mixing of necessary powders plus lubricants to get a

composition necessary for the desired properties in the fabricated part.

3 Briquetting by pressing the powder in a suitable mould of required size and shape to
cause cohesion to occur between the powder particles.

4 Pre-sintering the powder compact by heating and holding at moderate temperature to

develop green strength and drive out lubricants and moisture.

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5 Sintering the compacted mass at a temperature high enough to cause diffusion and
intergranular crystal growth to occur.

6 Finishing and sizing the final product.

In addition to the above basic steps the following additional operations may also be required
for powder-metal components.

1 Annealing

2 Repressing to increase density and dimensional accuracy

3 Machining

4 Polishing

The following conditions are necessary for a part to be formed by powder metallurgy,

1 The metal in the powder form must be able to respond to solid-phase welding.

2 The metal powder must be capable of getting closely packed and intimately mixed
under pressure to permit welding between the particles to take place.

Casting and Powder Metallurgy similarities

 Accommodate the blending of material – either as powder or liquid

 Can be suited for high volume product runs
 Production parts with varying complexities
 Production of near net shape parts with a high degree of precision

Casting and Powder Metal Differences

 Powders will have additional binder materials in the mix

 Casting shrinkage can lead to voids not typical in powder metallurgy
 Casting may entrain impurities from the melt, mold or during the pour
 Powder metal may be deliberately compacted to lower densities per end use

3.3. Forging

Forging is the process of beating metal by compressing it and making it flow into the desired
shape of tool or die geometry. Near Net Shape, the term implies that the die so produced is as
close to the final product as is possible, leading to marginal machining allowances and greater

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accuracy. Forming process design via finite element simulation is the state of the art. The
tribological logical conditions the knowledge of the thermal material properties as well as the
knowledge of elastic & plastic mechanical material characteristics.

Advantages of Near Net Shape Forging:

 Increased strength due to cold work & better grain flow

 Reduction in Energy Cost

 No wastages of Material

 Excellent surface finish & improved corrosion and wear resistance

 Higher Productivity & Reduced machining

Forging Commonalities to Casting and Powder Metal:

 A wide variety of alloys can be used to create desired products

 Each process creates a shape more nearly that of the intended end use product
 Resulting metal parts are typically more durable than other materials
 Subsequent machining of fine details and high surface finish is required

Forging Differences to Casting or Powder Metal:

 Forging assures optimum strength at critical stress points with minimum material
 Forged parts are fully dense with no voids
 Deformation disperses any impurities remaining from original raw material

4. Bulk manufacturing
Methods of plastic forming are used extensively to force metal into the required shape. The
processes are diverse in scale, varying from forging and rolling of ingots weighing several tons
to drawing of wires less than 0.025 mm in diameter. Most large-scale deformation processes
are performed at high temperatures so that a minimum of force is needed and the consequent
recrystallization refines the metallic structure. Cold forming is used when smoother surface
finish and high dimensional accuracy are required. Metals are produced in the form of bars or
plates.

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4.1. Metal Forming

Metal forming is the process of plastically deforming the raw material into product form. It is
broadly classified into two classes - bulk metal forming and sheet metal forming. In the bulk
metal forming processes, usually the work-piece has a high volume to surface area ratio.
Examples of such processes are rolling, wire drawing, extrusion, forging etc. In the sheet metal
forming processes, usually the work-piece sheet has a low volume to surface area ratio. The
sheets usually have a thickness less than 6 mm. In sheet metal working, the change in thickness
during plastic deformation is not desirable. Examples of sheet metal forming processes are
deep drawing, stretch forming, bending, spinning etc. In the following subsection we describe
various bulk metal forming processes.

4.2. Bulk Metal Forming

Bulk metal forming processes are characterized by high volume to surface area ratio. These
processes can be carried out in hot or cold conditions. If the temperature during processing is
more than the recrystallization temperature of the metal, the process is called hot working.
Recrystallization temperature is the temperature above which new equiaxed and strain-free
grains are formed replacing the old grains. For most metals, recrystallization homologous
temperature ranges approximately between 0.3 and 0.5, where homologous temperature is the
absolute working temperature (in Kelvin) divided by the absolute melting temperature of the
work-piece. However, in hot working, the homologous temperature is generally more than 0.6.
If the temperature is less than the recrystallization temperature, the process is called cold
working. In between cold working and hot working falls the warm working. In warm working,
the heating of the work-piece reduces the flow stress; however the temperature is not high
enough to cause recrystallization. The relative ease with which metal can be shaped through
plastic deformation is called workability. It is dependent on strain, strain rate, temperature and
inherent flow characteristics of the material. Some typical bulk metal forming processes are
described here.

Table 1 Classification of metal forming processes based on deformation temperature

Category Characteristic Remark

Hot metal 0.7 TM < deformation No work hardening, dynamic recovery,

forming temperature < 0.8 TM and recrystallization

Warm metal 0.3 TM < deformation

Partial strain/participation hardening
forming temperature < 0.5 TM

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Cold metal deformation temperature <

Work hardening
forming 0.3 TM

TM = melting temperature

4.2.1. Forging
Forging is the process of plastically deforming metal by pressing or hammering. It is perhaps
the oldest metal forming process. Forging may be performed in cold, warm or hot state of the
metal. There are mainly two types of forging processes: open die forging and closed die
forging.

4.2.1.1. Open die forging

Open die forging is carried out between flat dies or dies of simple shape. In this process, on
certain surfaces, material flows in an unconstrained manner. One example of open die forging
operation is the upsetting of a cylindrical work-piece between two flat dies, as shown in Figure
4.

Fig. 4 Open die forging process. a Before deformation. b After deformation

In this, the work-piece is kept on a fixed platen and the top surface is pressed by a moving
platen. Due to friction between the work-piece and platens, the material faces a restraint in its
flow at the top and bottom surfaces, whilst the middle portion flows freely. Because of this, the
work-piece adopts a barreled shape. The amount of bulging may be used as an indirect

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measurement of friction at the tool-job interface. Open die forging is often employed to pre-
form material for subsequent metal forming processes.

Fig. 5 Closed die forging process. a Before deformation. b After deformation

4.2.1.2. Closed die forging

In closed die forging, also called impression die forging, the work-piece is deformed between
two die halves, which carry the impression of the desired final shape. The hammering or
pressing causes the metal to flow so as to fill completely the die cavity. Excess metal is
squeezed out around the periphery of the die cavity to form a flash. In the die design, the design
of a proper flash gap is very crucial. Besides providing an outlet for excess metal, it helps in
proper filling of the die cavity. The flash is trimmed off after the forging operation is complete.
This causes a significant amount (of the order of 20% ) of wastage of material. Figure 5
illustrates a closed die forging process schematically. In Figure 5 b, the dies have reached the
final position and the deformation is complete. Note the formation of a thin ribbon of excess
metal called flash. This flash can be removed with a trimming die. In flashless forging, the
flash is not produced. However, the design of a flashless process is difficult. In this process,
the work-piece should be of proper size. Also, the design of work-piece and die is very
important.

4.2.2. Rolling
Rolling is a process of metal forming in which raw material is shaped by passing it between
two counter-rotating cylinders. The process can be used for reducing the thickness of slab, plate
or sheet. It can also be used to produce products of different cross-sections. Both hot and cold
rolling can be performed on a mill with one stand or several stands, the latter being called a
tandem mill. Figure 6 shows a tandem mill with three stands. In this figure, each stand has two

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work-rolls, which are in contact with the material being rolled. On the other side, the work rolls
are in contact with the backup rolls. Backup rolls are used to minimize the deflection of the
work rolls.

Fig 8 Rolling process

4.2.3. Extrusion
Extrusion is basically categorized as a compression forming process, since the main forming
stress comes from the compressive stresses which are applied from the punch, as shown in Fig.
9.

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Extrusion is usually either performed at room temperature (cold extrusion) to obtain the final
part with close dimensional accuracy or at elevated temperatures (hot extrusion) for extreme
conditions such as high punch pressure and high degree of deformation.

Fig. 9 Schematic of the extrusion process

The extrusion products are typically axisymmetric solid bars or hollow pipe/ tube, and parts
with anomalous shape of cross sections.

Fig. 10 Different types of extrusion processes: (a) direct extrusion (forward extrusion),
(b) indirect extrusion, (c) backward can extrusion

4.2.3.1. Extrusion Processes

a) Direct Extrusion (Forward Extrusion)

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The flow of the material is in the same direction of the punch movement. Thus, the punch
pushes the material to be extruded through the die orifice. The cross-sectional shape of the
extruded product is dictated by the geometry of the interior shape of the die.

b) Indirect Extrusion
In indirect extrusion process, the die set is designed in a way that the material could only flow
in the opposite direction of the punch movement, through the hole at the punch center.

c) Backward Can Extrusion

In this type of extrusion, the material flow is also in the opposite direction of the punch
movement, but only through the gap between the punch and die walls. Lateral flow is
constrained by the die walls, to distinguish this method by the heading process. This technique
is used for forming a can by piercing from a bulk billet.

The schematic of the abovementioned types of extrusion process is shown in Fig. 10.

There is a slight difference between the forming-load behaviors of the direct and indirect
extrusion processes. As shown in Fig. 9, the forming pressure in backward extrusion is slightly
lower. This is because in backward extrusion, there is no load necessary to overcome the
container friction.

Fig. 11 Difference between load-stroke behaviors of direct and indirect extrusion

processes

The extrusion force is influenced by the following process variables: Extrusion ratio, R= A0/Af,
where A0 and Af are cross-sectional areas of the workpiece before and after extrusion,

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respectively. Since the average strain increases by increasing the reduction ratio, i.e., average
strain, the amount of deformation stress goes up.

Die geometry (die angle, 𝛼 in Fig. 9). The material flow during the process highly depends on
the die angle, which is reflected on the forming load. In forward extrusion, increasing the die
entrance angle leads to an increase in the volume of the metal undergoing shear deformation,
which in return increases the deformation load. On the other hand, increasing the die entrance
angle decreases the die-metal interface and results in the decrease in the die friction load. As a
consequence, for a given reduction and friction, there is an optimum die angle that minimizes
the extrusion load.

5. Joining Processes
Joining is an all-inclusive term covering processes such as welding, brazing, soldering,
adhesive bonding, and mechanical fastening.

Joining processes fall into three major categories:

• Welding

• Adhesive bonding

• Mechanical fastening.

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Table 1. lists the general relative characteristics of various joining

Welding processes, in turn, are generally classified into three basic categories:

• Fusion welding

• Solid-state welding

• Brazing and soldering.

As will be seen, some types of welding processes can be classified into both the fusion and the
solid-state categories.

5.1. Fusion welding

Fig.11 Examples of joints that can be made through the various joining processes

Fusion welding is defined as the melting together and coalescing of materials by means of heat,
usually supplied by chemical or electrical means; filler metals may or may not be used. Fusion
welding is composed of consumable- and non-consumable electrode arc welding and high-
energy-beam welding processes. The welded joint undergoes important metallurgical and
physical changes, which, in turn, have a major effect on the properties and performance of the
welded component or structure. Some simple welded joints are shown in Fig. 11.

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Table -2 General Characteristics of Fusion-welding Processes

5.2. Solid-state welding

In solid-state welding, joining takes place without fusion; consequently, there is no liquid
(molten) phase in the joint. The basic processes in this category are diffusion bonding and cold,
ultrasonic, friction, resistance, and explosion welding. The permanent joining processes, which
are mechanical in nature, are, in principle, derivatives of the basic metal working processes.
These are often referred to fasteners. The most common mechanical joining methods are rivet,
nut and bolts, staple, seam joint etc. Fig 11 schematically depicts a number of mechanical
joints.

5.3. Brazing
Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is placed between the faying surfaces to be
joined (or at their periphery) and the temperature is raised sufficiently to melt the filler metal,
but not the components (the base metal)—as would be the case in fusion welding. Thus, brazing
is a liquid–solid-state bonding process. Upon cooling and solidification of the filler metal, a
strong joint is obtained. Filler metals used for brazing typically melt above 450°C (840°F),
which is below the melting point (solidus temperature) of the metals to be joined.

5.4. Adhesive bonding

Adhesive bonding has unique applications that require strength, sealing, thermal and electrical
insulating, vibration damping, and resistance to corrosion between dissimilar metals.

5.5. Mechanical fastening

Mechanical fastening involves traditional methods of using various fasteners, especially bolts,
nuts, and rivets.

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The joining of plastics can be accomplished by adhesive bonding, fusion by various external
or internal heat sources, and mechanical fastening.

6. Tooling
Tooling design is a specialized area of manufacturing engineering which comprises the
analysis, planning, design, construction and application of tools, methods and procedures
necessary to increase manufacturing productivity.

Objectives of Tooling Design

1 Manufacture a product within the acceptable limits at the lowest possible cost. (Keep
in mind that the overall cost of production is highly influenced by the cost of tooling.)

2 Increase production by designing tools that have faster production rates.

3 Maintain the quality of the end-product by designing tools which consistently produce
good parts.

4 Design tools that are easy and safe to use and operate.

6.1. Types of Tools

6.2. Cutting tools

Machining processes require cutting tools that undergo huge forces and experience significant
temperature gradients. In general, there are four aspects of cutting tools that must be
considered:

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i. Tool Life
This is the life of the tool, beyond which it loses its operational characteristics. There are two
broad categories of tool failures:

Premature failure: Fracture failure from excessive cutting forces, or Thermal failure from
high cutting temperatures

Gradual failure: A cutting tool will gradually fail as it approaches its life-limit with
operational use.

ii. Tool Materials

There are some tool material properties that must be considered:

Toughness: The tool's ability to avoid fracture

Hot hardness: The hardness of a material at high temperatures

Wear resistance: The tool's ability to resist abrasion

iii. Tool Geometry

Each tool is described by its geometry and angles. Every tool shape has a specific purpose in
metal-cutting intended to achieve the most efficient separation of chips from the work-piece.
This is what makes tool geometry important.

iv. Cutting Fluids

The use of cutting fluids is extremely important in cutting operations.
The following are the few important aspects of cutting fluids:
Tooling: Reduction of heat generated in the friction and shear zone.

Lubrication: Reduction of friction between tool and chip.

6.3. Sheet Metal Dies

The word "die" is used to describe the tooling used to produce stamped or formed parts. A die
set consists of a male and a female component which work in opposition to each other. The
upper half of the assembly, which may either be the male or female, is mounted on the press
ram which then delivers the stroke action. A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing to
cut and/or shape material using press-working machines. Dies have many forms and they can
be classified as follows:

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6.3.1.1. Sheet Metal Processes

Blanking: Blanking is a shearing process in which a flat piece of material is produced by
cutting a desired shape in one single operation.

Piercing: Piercing is a operation in which a large number of holes are punched together.

Notching: Notching is also a piercing operation that removes the edges of a work-piece.

Shaving: Shaving is a shearing process in which a small amount of an already blanked part is
removed.

Trimming: Trimming is used as final operation in which excess and unwanted irregular
material is sheared off from drawn sheets.

Cut-off: Cut-off process is used to separate a stamping from a stock/strip.

6.4. Forging Dies

Forging is a manufacturing process that shapes metal using localized compressive forces.
Forging can be classified according to the temperature of the process:

i. Cold forging

ii. Warm forging

iii. Hot forging

6.5. Injection Mold Tools

Injection molding is a manufacturing process in which parts are produced by injecting molten
material into a mold. Injection molding can be performed using a variety of materials including
metals (the process for metals is called die-casting), glass, thermosetting and thermoplastic
polymers.

6.6. Work-Holding Tools

Work-holding tools include any device that is used to hold the work-piece in place for the
cutting tool. This can include clamps, vices, chucks, fixtures, etc. The decision as to how to
hold a workpiece may depend on the following:

 which surfaces can be machined in a single-setup

 machining process accuracy

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 cutting forces, speed and feed-rate

 tool-path

 tool-size and shape

6.7. Fixture Design

Fixtures range from standard clamps to vices and chucks to metal plates with key-slots and tap
holes for fasteners. They can also be part-specific dedicated fixtures requiring extensive design
and build requirements. To correctly machine a part, it must be held in a setup that guarantees
a definite location with respect to the part's datum points and surfaces. This must be repeatable
for many parts.

The fixture must also hold the part securely while vibrations, cutting forces, centrifugal forces
and gravity act to dislodge the part. In theory, the location and clamping of work-pieces are
considered separate issues, but locating and clamping are integral; once located, the holding
action must ensure the work-piece is stable for machining. Conversely, the clamping force
should not be so excessive such that it distorts, gouges, or breaks the work-piece.

7. Significant Process variables

7.1. Metal removal process
The factors that influence the cutting process are outlined in Table 3. In order to appreciate the
contents of this table, let’s now identify the major independent variables in the cutting process:
(a) tool material and coatings
(b) tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness
(c) workpiece material and condition
(d) cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut
(e) cutting fluids
(f) characteristics of the machine tool, and
(g) work holding and fixturing.

Dependent variables in cutting are those that are influenced by changes in the independent
variables listed above, and include:

(a) type of chip produced,

(b) force and energy dissipated during cutting,
(c) temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool, and the chip,

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(d) tool wear and failure, and

(e) surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece.

Table 3

Parameter Influence and interrelationship

Cutting speed, depth of cut, Forces, power, temperature rise, tool life,
feed, cutting fluids type of chip, surface finish and integrity
Tool angles As above; influence on chip flow
direction; resistance to tool wear and
chipping
Continuous chip Good surface finish; steady cutting forces;
undesirable, especially in automated
machinery
Built-up edge chip Poor surface finish and integrity; if thin
and stable, edge can protect tool surfaces
Discontinuous chip Desirable for ease of chip disposal;
fluctuating cutting forces; can affect
surface finish and cause vibration and
chatter
Temperature rise Influences tool life, particularly crater
wear and dimensional accuracy of
workpiece; may cause thermal damage to
workpiece surface
Tool wear Influences surface finish and integrity,
dimensional accuracy, temperature rise,
forces and power
Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish, forces
and power, and type of chip

8. Influence on cost and quality

8.1. Cost
Product cost is virtually always a prime element in decision-making in the manufacturing
industry. The main problem in product introduction is the provision of reliable cost information
in the early stages of the design process, for the comparison of alternative conceptual designs

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and assessment of the myriad of ways in which a product may be structured during concept
development.

Cost estimates are needed to determine the viability of projects and to minimize project and
product costs. One signal that emerges from all workers is that it is crucial to reject uneconomic
designs early, for it is not often possible to reduce costs productively once production has
commenced, largely due to the high cost of change at this stage in the product life cycle. Hence,
costing is best utilized at the stage in the design process when rough designs for a component
have been prepared.

The aim of the component costing method presented here is to highlight expensive and difficult
to manufacture designs, thus indicating areas that will benefit from further attention before the
design has been completed.

Benefits of the method include

 Lower component costs.

 Systematic component costing.

 Identification of feasible manufacturing processes.

 Rapid comparison of alternative designs and competitor products.

 Reduced engineering change.

 Shorter development time and reduced time to market.

 Education and training.

The costing method described is ideally applicable to team-based applications, both manually
and in the form of computer software. The initial work was primarily designed to cater for
components found in the light engineering, aerospace and automotive business sectors. In order
to produce a practical and widely applicable method for designers with the capability to provide
feedback on the technological and economic consequences of component design decisions, it
was considered useful to develop a sample model that is widely applicable to a number of
different manufacturing processes. In addition, the model was designed such that appropriate
manufacturing processes and equipment requirements can be specified early in the product

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introduction process. Recognizing the problem that the relationship between a design and its
manufacturing feasibility and cost is not easily amenable to precise scientific formulation, the
model has come out of knowledge engineering work in a number of user companies and those
specializing in particular manufacturing processes.

The model is logically based on material volume and processing considerations. The process
cost is determined using a basic processing cost (the cost of producing an ideal design for that
process) and design-dependent relative cost coefficients (which enable any component design
to be compared with the ideal). Material costs are calculated taking into account the
transformation of material to yield the final form. Thus, a single process model for
manufacturing cost, Mi, can be formulated as:

Mi = V ⋅ Cmt + Rcc ⋅ Pc

where

V = volume of material required in order to produce the component;

Cmt = cost of the material per unit volume in the required form;

Pc = basic processing cost for an ideal design of the component by a specific process;

Rc = relative cost coefficient assigned to a component design (taking account of shape

complexity, suitability of material for processing, section dimensions, tolerances and surface
finish).

8.2. Quality

8.2.1. Eight Dimensions of Quality for Manufacturing

The quality of a product is said to be satisfactory if it meets the expectations of the customer.
In order to achieve the objective of satisfactory quality product, the following eight dimensions
of quality for manufacturing must be considered: (1) performance, (2) features, (3) reliability,
(4) conformance, (5) durability, (6) serviceability, (7) aesthetics, and (8) perception.

(1) Performance
The performance of a product is the primary consideration in manufacturing. In order to verify
the performance of a product, the manufacturer must ensure that the product does what it is
supposed to do, within its defined tolerances.

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(2) Features
Features of a product may be referred to as the characteristics that complement the primary
operating functions. In order to verify the features, the manufacturer should ensure that the
product does possess all of the features specified or required for its intended purpose.

(3) Reliability
This dimension refers to the probability of a product not failing while performing its function.
Reliability may be verified by ensuring that the product will consistently perform within
specifications. For example, surface hardness should be consistent throughout the surface.

(4) Conformance
A product manufactured with overlooking the dimension of conformance is ruled to be
defective. In order to verify conformance, the manufacturer must ensure that the product does
conform to the specification, which may include size, shape, properties, and so on.

(5) Durability
Durability is a measure of a product's life. The manufacturer must ensure that the product
performs well under the specified operating conditions during its service life. For example, the
drive shaft of an automobile must be fatigue tested for ensuring its fatigue life.

(6) Serviceability
This dimension refers to the adjustments or repairs that a product may demand when put to use.
Sometimes poor serviceability may force the customer to replace the product. Hence, the
manufacturer must ensure that the product is relatively easy to maintain and repair.

(7) Aesthetics
It is a qualitative aspect of a product that reflects an individual's preference. It refers to how the
product looks and feels to the customer. For example, surface brightness and attractive color
generally contribute significantly toward good quality of a product.

(8) Perception
Perception refers to the product's image in public resulting from advertisements, brand name,
and peer approval. Sometimes, a high-quality product may get a bad reputation based on its
poor installation. Hence, it is important to ensure that the product is satisfactorily installed.

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9. Need for FEA in manufacturing

1. Enhanced design
Allowing a designer to model an entire system instead of in its separate parts is a great
advantage to the development of a product. through FEA, it is possible to determine how
stresses within one piece will affect the materials in another separate, but connected, piece.

2. Better insight into critical design parameters

The ability to model the interior, as well as the exterior, of a design is one benefit of FEA. By
determining how critical factors affect the entire structure (inside and out) and why failures
might occur where they will is a huge advantage to a designer.

3. Virtual prototyping
FEA simulators help remove multiple iterations of initial prototyping. The initial prototypes
are very expensive as they are hand-built and time intensive. Even with the additional expense,
they are usually very bad models of the actual parts. By initially simulating the system in FEA
software, the designer can model different designs and materials in hours, versus the days or
weeks of hard prototyping.

4. Faster and less expensive design cycle

With FEA simulations, many design iterations are no longer dependent upon machine shop and
manufacturing schedules. Each new design can be virtually tested in hours, instead of waiting
days or weeks for a hard copy to be tested.

5. Increased productivity
A company that uses FEA software will likely be more. By using FEA software, the company
will be more likely to produce better quality products in a shorter design cycle and with less
waste of material and time.

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