Course Contents

Module I: Materials and Manufacturing Techniques:

Recent advances in mechanical engineering,
Role of Computer Aided Design,
Simulation and 3D printing.
Units and measurements.
Engineering Materials and Materials Response.
Basic manufacturing processes,
conventional and non-conventional fabrication processes.
 Basic manufacturing processes

Introduction to Manufacturing Process:

Manufacturing: The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words manus (hand) and
factus (make); the combination literally means “made by hand”.

Manufacturing: Something made from raw materials by hand or by machinery

Process: A series of actions that you take in order to achieve a result

The progress of society mainly depend on progress of Manufacturing sector

 Basic manufacturing processes

General Classification of Manufacturing Processes

 Primary or shaping processes (0)

Secondary or machining processes (-)

Joining processes (+)

 Finishing processes

 Processes to enhance the desired properties of materials

 Basic manufacturing processes
Broad classification of Engineering Manufacturing Processes

• It is extremely difficult to tell the exact number of various manufacturing processes existing
and are being practiced presently because a spectacularly large number of processes have
been developed till now and the number is still increasing exponentially with the growing
demands and rapid progress in science and technology.

• However, all such manufacturing processes can be broadly classified in four major groups
as follows:

(a) Shaping or forming Manufacturing: a solid product of definite size and shape from a
given material taken in three possible states:

• in solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.

• in liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
• in powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
 Basic manufacturing processes

(b) Joining process such as welding, brazing, soldering etc.

(c) Removal process Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.

(d) Regenerative manufacturing Production of solid products in layer by layer from

raw materials in different form:
• liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
• powder – e.g., selective laser sintering
• sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
• wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modelling)

Out of the aforesaid groups, Regenerative Manufacturing/Additive manufacturing is

the latest one which is generally accomplished very rapidly and quite accurately
using CAD and CAM for Rapid Prototyping and Tooling.
 Machining
Purpose of Machining
Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools, screws and
nuts etc. need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving their
purposes. Pre-forming like casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide the desired
accuracy and finish.

For that such preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing and finishing and it is
done by machining and grinding.

Grinding is also basically a machining process.

Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product

• fulfill its functional requirements
• improve its performance
• prolong its service
Definition of Machining
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which jobs are produced to the desired
dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from the
preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work
surface(s).
Or
It is a metal removing operation from the work piece with the help of machine tools and
cutting tools. Metal is removed in the form of chips from the workpiece.

Fig. Principle of machining (turning)

Common machining processes
Traditional/ Conventional machining process
1. Lathe machines
2. Shaping machines
3. Planning Machines
4. Milling Machines
5. Drilling machines
6. Boring Machines
7. Grinders
8. Metal Cutting Saws
9. Slotting machines
Non-traditional/ Non-conventional machining process
 Ultrasonic machining (USM)
 Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
 Electric discharge machining (EDM)
Etc.
Brief Overview on any one of conventional machining process

Lathe machine
 Lathe machine
The first lathe machine in its useful form was made by H. Maudslay in 1800.

Lathe: Definition and principle of working

 Lathe is a machine, which removes the metal from a piece of work to the required
shape and size.

Lathe is one of the most important machine tools in the metal working industry. A lathe
operates on the principle of a rotating workpiece and a fixed cutting tool.

The cutting tool is fed into the workpiece, which rotates about its own axis, causing the
workpiece to be formed to the desired shape.

Lathe machine is also known as “the mother” of the entire machine tool family”.
Classification Of Lathes
Parts of lathe machine

A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of

grey cast iron on which headstock, tailstock,
carriage and other components of lathe are
mounted. Fig. shows the different parts of
engine lathe or central lathe. The major
parts of lathe machine are given as under:

1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Feed mechanism
6. Thread cutting mechanism
Bed
The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted. It is
massive and rigid single piece casting made to support other active parts of lathe.

On left end of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side tailstock is
located. The carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it.

On the top of the bed there are two sets of guideways-innerways and outerways. The innerways
provide sliding surfaces for the tailstock and the outerways for the carriage. The guideways of
the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V shape.

Generally cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium material is used for manufacturing of the
lathe bed
Head Stock
The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe. It
comprises of the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts within it including gear train
arrangement.

The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live centre to which the work can be
attached. It supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the main spindle of the
headstock.

The cone pulley is also attached with this arrangement, which is used to get various spindle
speed through electric motor.

The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining a wide range of slower speeds

Tail Stock
Tail stock commonly used for giving support to the circular job being turned on centers.
 Main Machining Operations on Lathe
1. Turning

2. Facing

3. Drilling

4. Boring

5. Reaming

6. Knurling

7. Grooving

8. Chamfering

9. Parting off

10. Thread cutting or threading

 Limitations of Conventional Machining Methods

 Increased workpiece hardness: decreased economic cutting speed. Hence, lower

productivity.

 Rapid improvements in the properties of materials (hardness, strength, etc)

Requires much superior quality of tool materials.

Tool material hardness should be greater than workpiece hardness.

 If work piece material hardness is greater than the tool material hardness. How are we
going to machine such a work piece material?
 Need of Non-Conventional Manufacturing Processes
 Modern or Non-traditional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes
that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal,
electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a
sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing processes.

 Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining
processes such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling.

 Non-traditional machining processes, also called advanced manufacturing processes,

are employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or
economical.

Ex :Tungsten Carbide, Stainless Steel, Titanium and its alloys etc.

 Important characteristics of Non-Traditional Machining Processes

 Process performance is independent of workpiece: Strength & Hardness are not a barrier.

 Performance depends on thermal, electrical and chemical properties of workpiece materials.

 Uses different kinds of energy in direct form.

 In general, low MRR but better quality products.

 Comparatively high initial investment cost of machine tools and high operating cost
 CLASSIFICATION OF NCM PROCESSES:
1. Mechanical Processes
a) Abrasive Jet Machining(AJM)
b) Ultrasonic Machining(USM)
c) Water Jet Machining(WJM)
2. Abrasive Water Jet Machining(AWJM)
3. Electro chemical Processes
a) Electrochemical Machining(ECM)
b) Electrochemical Grinding(ECG)
c) Electro Jet Drilling(EJD)
4. Electro-Thermal Processes
a) Electro-discharge machining(EDM)
b) Laser Jet Machining(LJM)
c) Electron Beam Machining(EBM)
5. Chemical Processes
a) Chemical Milling(CHM)
b) Photochemical Milling(PCM)
Brief Overview on any one of Non-conventional machining
process

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

 ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to erode holes or
cavities on hard or brittle workpiece by using shaped tools, high frequency mechanical motion
and an abrasive slurry.

 USM offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials such as single
crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and increasing complex operations to provide
intricate shapes and workpiece profiles.

 It is therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to
machine by traditional manufacturing processes.

 The hard particles in slurry are accelerated toward the surface of the workpiece by a tool
oscillating at a frequency up to 100 KHz - through repeated abrasions, the tool machines a cavity
of a cross section identical to its own. A schematic representation of USM is shown in Figure.
ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
Working:
 In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25
kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 – 50 μm over the workpiece.

Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F. Between the tool and workpiece

 the machining zone is flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of a water
based slurry.

 As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive particles act as the indenters and indent
both the work material and the tool.

 The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work material, would remove the same, particularly
if the work material is brittle, due to crack initiation, propagation and brittle fracture of the
material.

 USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials {which are poor conductors of electricity
and thus cannot be processed by Electrochemical and Electro-discharge machining.
 ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
Mechanism of material removal:

 Material removal primarily occurs due to the indentation of the hard abrasive grits on the
brittle work material.

 As the tool vibrates, it leads to indentation of the abrasive grits.

 During indentation, due to Hertzian contact stresses, cracks would develop just below the
contact site.

 As indentation progresses the cracks would propagate due to increase in stress and
ultimately lead to brittle fracture of the work material under each individual interaction site
between the abrasive grits and the workpiece.

The tool material should be such that indentation by the abrasive grits does not lead to brittle
failure. Thus the tools are made of tough, strong and ductile materials like steel, stainless steel
and other ductile metallic alloys.
 Process Parameters of USM
The main process parameters of USM are listed below:
 Amplitude of vibration (ao) – 15 – 50 μm

 Frequency of vibration (f) – 19 – 25 kHz

 Feed force (F) – related to tool dimensions

 Feed pressure (p)

 Abrasive size – 15 μm – 150 μm

 Abrasive material – Al2O3 - SiC - B4C - Boronsilicarbide - Diamond

 Flow strength of work material

 Flow strength of the tool material

 Contact area of the tool – A

 Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry – C
The metal removal rate and
surface finish depend on size of
abrasive particles. Coarse grains
give higher MRR, but lower
surface finish. Fine grains give
good surface finish, but MRR is
low. In USM process, the
abrasive of about 30 to 60% by
volume are suspended in liquid
medium
 Advantages of ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 It can be used to machine hard, brittle, fragile and non-conductive materials.

 No heat is generated in work, therefore, no significant changes in physical structure of the

work material.

 Non-metal (because of the poor electrical conductivity) that cannot be machined by EDM and
ECM can very well be machined by USM.

 It is a burr less and distortion less processes.

 It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies like EDM, ECG, ECM.

 High accuracy with good surface finish can be achieved.

 Possesses the capability of drilling circular and non-circular holes in very hard materials like
ceramics and other brittle materials.
 Disadvantages of ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)
 Low metal removal rate.

 It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is restricted.

 Frontal and side tool wear rate is high due to abrasive particles, especially when cutting steel
and carbides. Side wear produces less accurate holes and cavities.

 Tools made from brass, tungsten carbide, MS or tool steel wear from the action of abrasive grit
with a ratio that ranges from 1:1 to 200:1.

 USM can be used only when the hardness of the work is more than 45 HRC. 6. It is not
economical for soft materials.

 Not suitable for heavy stock removal.

 Every job needs a specific tool. Therefore, tool cost is high.

 The abrasive slurry should be changed regularly to replace worn out particles. Therefore
additional cost is involved.
ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)