Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019

UNIT I
Need for Modern Manufacturing Methods
TOPICS:
 Non-traditional machining methods
 Rapid prototyping methods - their relevance for precision and lean manufacturing.
 Classification of non-traditional processes
 Their selection for processing of different materials and The range of applications.

INTRODUCTION: In the early stage of mankind, tools were made of stone for the item being
made. When iron tools were invented, desirable metals and more sophisticated articles could
be produced. In twentieth century products were made from the most durable and the most
un-machinable materials. In an effort to meet the manufacturing challenges created by these
materials, tools have now evolved to include materials such as alloy steel, carbide, diamond
and ceramics.

A similar evolution has taken place with the methods used to power our tools. Initially, tools
were powered by muscles; either human or animal. However as the powers of water, wind,
steam and electricity were harnessed, mankind was able to further extend manufacturing
capabilities with new machines, greater accuracy and faster machining rates. Every time new
tools, tool materials, and power sources are utilized, the efficiency and capabilities of
manufacturers are greatly enhanced. But with the increasing demand for the usage of new
types of material and combinational materials for aerospace applications, unconventional
manufacturing processes came into existence to process the new material requirements.

NEED FOR MODERN MANUFACTURING METHODS

Modern machining methods are also named as non-conventional machining methods. These
methods form a group of processes which removes excess material by various techniques
involving mechanical, thermal, electrical chemical energy or combination of these energies.
There is no cutting of metal with the help of metallic tool having sharp cutting edge. The
major reasons of development and popularity of modern machining methods are listed
below.

(a) Need of machine newly developed metals and non-metals having some special properties
like high strength, high hardness and high toughness. A material possing the above
mentioned properties are difficult to be machined by the conventional machining
methods.

(b) Sometimes it is required to produce complex part geometries that cannot be produced by
following conventional machining techniques. Non-conventional machining methods also

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 1

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
provide very good quality of surface finish which may also be an encouragement to these
methods.

TRADATIONAL( OR) CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

Material removal by mechanical means, such as chip forming, abrasion, or micro- chipping
Advanced machining processes
 Utilize chemical, electrical, and high-energy beams
The following cannot be done by traditional processes:
o Work piece strength and hardness very high, >400HB
o Work piece material too brittle, glass, ceramics, heat-treated alloys
o Work piece too slender and flexible, hard to clamp
o Part shape complex, long and small hole
o Special surface and dimensional tolerance requirements.
Situations where traditional machining processes are unsatisfactory or uneconomical:

o Work piece material is too hard, strong, or tough.

o Work piece is too flexible to resist cutting forces or too difficult to clamp.
o Part shape is very complex with internal or external profiles or small holes.
o Requirements for surface finish and tolerances are very high.

o Temperature rise or residual stresses are undesirable or unacceptable

Non Conventional (OR) NON TRADATIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

It is mainly used for parts like:-

 Skin panel for missiles and aircraft

 Turbine blades, nozzles, sheet metal, small-diameter deep holes, dies, thick
metallic and nonmetallic parts
Economical considerations to be studied before going for Non Conventional
Machining:

 High cost of equipment, which typically includes computer control

 May use hard tooling, soft tooling, or both
 Low production rates.
 Can be used with difficult-to-machine materials
 Highly repeatable
 Typically requires highly skilled operators
NTM processes typically have lower feed rates and require more power consumption when
compared to machining. However, some processes permit batch processing which increases
the overall throughput of these processes and enables them to compete with machining
Advantages:

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 2

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
A major advantage of some NTM processes is that feed rate is independent of the material
being processed. As a result, these processes are often used for difficult to machine materials.
NTM processes typically have better accuracy and surface finish with the ability of some
processes to machine larger feature sizes at lower capital costs.

Classification of non-traditional processes

The non-conventional manufacturing processes are not affected by hardness,
toughness or brittleness of material and can produce any intricate shape on any work piece
material by suitable control over the various physical parameters of the processes. The non-
conventional manufacturing processes may be classified on the basis of type of energy
namely, mechanical, electrical, chemical, thermal or magnetic, apply to the work piece
directly and have the desired shape transformation or material removal from the work
surface by using different scientific mechanism.
Thus, these non-conventional processes can be classified into various groups according to
the basic requirements which are as follows :
(i).Type of energy required, namely, mechanical, electrical, chemical etc.
(ii).Basic mechanism involved in the processes, like erosion, ionic dissolution, vaporization.
(iii).Source of immediate energy required for material removal, namely, hydrostatic
pressure, high current density, high voltage, ionized material, etc.
(iv).Medium for transfer of those energies, like high velocity particles, electrolyte, electron,
hot gases, etc.
I. Classification along with the principle of working (type of energy used for material
removal) is described below.
Use of Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy is used for removing material from work piece. In this process, cutting
tool with sharp edge is not used but material is removed by the abrasive action of high
velocity of stream of hard, tiny abrasive particles. The particles are kept vibrating with very
high velocity and ultra high frequency to remove the material.
Electrical Energy
In this category of non-traditional machining electrical energy is used in the form of
electrochemical energy or electro-heat energy to erode the material or to melt and
vapourized it respectively. Electrochemical machining, electroplating or electro discharge
machining are the examples work on this principle.

Use of Thermal Energy

According to this principle heat is generated by electrical energy. The generated thermal
energy is focused to a very small portion of work piece. This heat is utilized in melting and
evaporating of metal. The example based o this principle is electric discharge machining.

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 3

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
Use of Chemical Energy
According to this principle of working chemicals are used to erode material from the work
piece. Selection of a chemical depends upon the work piece material. Example of this type of
machining is electrochemical machining. The dame principle can also be applied in reversed
way in the process of electrochemical plating
There can be one more way of classification of the non-conventional machining processes
which is mechanisms of metal removal.
Abrasion and Shear
When small and hard metallic particles are made vibrating against the work piece to be
machined, the material is removed by shear action and abrasion. This phenomenon generally
takes place in case of ultrasonic machining.
Chemical Ablation and Ionic Dissolution
This is the dissolution of work piece material into electrolyte solution (chemical) which takes
place atom by atom. This happens in case electrochemical machining.
Vaporization by Spark Erosion
Concentrated heat is focused at a point of the work piece by electric spark which melts and
evaporates the work piece material like electric discharge machining and LBM
II.NTM processes can be divided into four groups based upon the material removal
mechanism:

1. Chemical-Chemical reaction between a liquid reagent and the work piece results in
etching.
2. Electrochemical- An electrolytic reaction at the work piece surface is responsible
material removal.

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 4

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
3. Mechanical- High velocity abrasives or liquids remove material.
4. Thermal- High temperatures in localized regions evaporate materials.

Their selection for processing of different materials and The range of applications
A particular manufacturing process found suitable under the given conditions may not
be equally efficient under other conditions. Therefore, a careful selection of the process for a
given manufacturing problem is essential.

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 5

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
The analysis has been made from the point view of :
 Physical parameters involved in the processes;
 Capability of machining different shapes of work material;
 Applicability of different processes to various types of material, e.g. metals, alloys
and non- metals
 Operational characteristics of manufacturing .
 Economics involved in the various processes.
Physical parameters
The physical parameters of non-conventional machining processes have a direct impact
on the metal removal as well as on the energy consumed in different processes.(Table 1.2)
TABLE 1.2. Physical Parameters of the Non-conventional Processes

From a comparative study of the effect of metal removal rate on the power consumed by
various non-conventional machining processes shown in fig. 1.2.

Fig 1.2 Effect of metal removal rate on power consumption

It is found that some of the processes (e.g. EBM, ECM) above the mean power consumption
line consume a greater amount of power than the processes (e.g. EDM, PAM, ECG) below the
mean power consumption line. Thus, the capital cost involved in the processes (EBM, ECM

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 6

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
etc.) lying above the mean line is high whereas for the processes below that line ( e.g., EDM,
PAM, MCG) is comparatively low.
Capability to shape
The capability of different processes can be analyzed on the basis of various machining
operation point of view such as micro-drilling, drilling, cavity sinking, pocketing (shallow and
deep), contouring a surface, through cutting (shallow and deep) etc.,

For micro-drilling operation, the only process which has good capability to micro drill is laser
beam machining while for drilling shapes having slenderness ratio, l/D < 20, the process
USM, ECM and EDM will be most suitable. EDM and ECM processes have good capability to
make pocketing operation (shallow or deep). For surface contouring operation, ECM process
is most suitable but other processes except EDM have no application for contouring
operation.
Applicability to materials
Materials applications of the various machining methods are summarized in the table
1.4 and table 1.5. For the machining of electrically non-conducting materials, both ECM and
EDM are unsuitable, whereas the mechanical methods can achieve the desired results.

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 7

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019

USM is suitable for machining of refractory type of material while AJM are for super alloys
and refractory materials.

Machining characteristics

The machining characteristics of different non-conventional processes can be analyzed with

respect to:

(i).Metal removal rate

(ii).Tolerance maintained
(iii).Surface finish obtained
(iv)Depth of surface damage
(v)Power required for machining
The process capabilities of non-conventional manufacturing processes have
been compared in table 1.6. The metal removal rates by ECM and PAM are respectively one-
fourth and 1.25 times that of conventional whereas others are only small fractions of it.
Power requirement of ECM and PAM is also very high when compared with other non-
conventional machining processes
This involves higher capital cost for those processes. ECM has very low tool wear
rate but it has certain fairly serious problems regarding the contamination of the

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 8

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
electrolyte used and the corrosion of machine parts. The surface finish and
tolerance obtained by various processes except PAM is satisfactory. satisfactory.

Table: 1.6

Economics of the processes

The economics of the various processes are analyzed on the basis of following factors and
given in below table..
(i) Capital cost
(ii) Tooling cost
(iii)Consumed power cost
(iv)Metal removal rate efficiency
(v)Tool wear

The capital cost of ECM is very high when compared with traditional mechanical contour
grinding and other non-conventional machining processes whereas capital costs for AJM and
PAM are comparatively low. EDM has got higher tooling cost than other machining processes.

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 9

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
Power consumption is very low for PAM and LBM processes whereas it is greater in case of
ECM. The metal removal efficiency is very high for EBM and LBM than for other processes.
In conclusion, the suitability of application of any of the processes is dependent upon various
factors and must be considered all or some of them before applying no conventional
processes

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1.What is the need for unconventional machining processes?
 High production rate
 Low cost of production
 Better surface integrity,
 High surface finish.
2. Differentiate the conventional and unconventional machining processes in terms of
principles?
In conventional processes, the material is removed in the form of chips by the advancing
cutting tool that plastically deforms (shearing) the material ahead. In the case of the UCM
processes energy (Electrical, Chemical, Thermo-Electric, Mechanical) in its direct form is
utilized for the material removal and so there is no physical contact between the work piece
and tool.
3. What are the various types of energy sources used in non-traditional machining
techniques?
Give examples for each.
Pneumatic pressure- AJM
Hydraulic pressure- WJM, USM,
AWJM Corrosion- CHM, CHB, PCM
High current density in electrolytes- ECM
High voltage- EDM (for sparking);
IBM, EBM (ionizing);
LBM:(creating avalanche in lazing medium);
PAM :(for ionizing the plasma gases)
4.Classify the different types of unconventional machining processes based on the
mechanical energy?
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Water Jet Machining (WJM) Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

5.Identify the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy source for
EDM?
Mechanism of material removal- Fusion of materials by arcs
Transfer media - Electron stream

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 10

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
Energy source - High voltage
6.Identify the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy source for
ECM?
Mechanism of material removal- Ion displacement
Transfer media - Electrolyte
Energy source - High current
7.Identify the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy source for
EBM?
Mechanism of material removal- Vaporization
Transfer media - Electron stream
Energy source - High voltage
8.Identify the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy source for
LBM?
Mechanism of material removal- Vaporization
Transfer media - Amplified coherent light radiation
Energy source - High voltage
9.Identify the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy source for
PAM?
Mechanism of material removal- Vaporization
Transfer media - Ionised gas stream
Energy source - High voltage
10.Identify the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy source for
USM?
Mechanism of material removal- Erosion
Transfer media - High velocity particles
Energy source - Hydraulic pressure
11.Identify the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy source for
AJM.?
Mechanism of material removal- Erosion
Transfer media - High velocity particles
Energy source - Pneumatic pressure
12. Identify the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy source for
WJM?
Mechanism of material removal- Erosion
Transfer media - High velocity water jet
Energy source - Hydraulic pressure

PART-B
Introduction to rapid prototyping
TOPICS:

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 11

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
 Classification of rapid prototyping methods,
 sterolithography,
 fused deposition methods ,
 materials, principle of prototyping and various applications.

RAPID PROTOTYPING :

 Rapid prototyping (RP) is a technology wherein the physical modeling of a design is

done using a specialized machining technology.
 The systems used in rapid prototyping quickly produce models and prototype parts
from three-dimensional (3D) computer aided design (CAD) model data, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) scan data and such data created from 3D digitizing systems.
 Using an additive approach for building shapes, the systems in RP join different
materials like liquids or powder to form some physical objects.
 Layer by layer, the RP machines fabricate these powdered ceramic, wood, plastic and
metal powders using very small and thin horizontal cross sections of the generated
computer model.
 rapid prototyping is an emerging technology, the definition of which is derived from
the key concept - making it rapid.
 Rapid prototyping is creating a profound impact on the way companies produce
models, prototype parts, and tooling.
Steps in RPT

 Creation of the CAD model of the (part) design,

 Conversion of the CAD model into Standard Tessellation Language (STL) format,
 Slicing of the STL file into thin sections,
 Building part layer by layer,
 Post processing/finishing/joining.
Major RP Technologies:
1.Photo Masking or Solid Ground Curing technique.
2.LOM (Laminated Object Manufacturing)
3.SLA (Stereolithography)
4.FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling)
5.SLS (Selective Laser Sintering)
6.Thermo Jet Process
7.3D Printing
8.Ballistic Particle Manufacturing (BPM)

1.Photo masking or Solid Ground Curing :

A mask is generated by electro-statically charging a glass plate with negative image of
cross section of the required part. In the meantime, a thin liquid polymer is spread across the

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 12

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
surface of the work-plane. The mask plate with a negative image of the liquid polymer is
positioned over the thin polymer layer and exposed under the ultraviolet laser lamp for few
seconds.
All parts of the exposed photopolymer layer get solidified with one exposure. However,
the area shaded by the mask is left in a liquid form and is wiped off with vacuum suction
head and replaced by hot wax which acts as a support to the solidified polymer layer. A face
mill makes the surface of wax and polymer flat and to desired thickness. All the above steps
are repeated till final model embedded in removable wax is obtained.
2.Laminated Object Manufacturing:
This technique is especially suited for producing parts from laminated paper, plastic, metal
etc. The schematic of an LOM setup is shown in Fig. A laser beam cuts the contour of part
cross-section. Several such sections when glued or welded yield the prototype. The layers are
built up by pulling a long, thin sheet of pre-glued material across the base plate and fixing it
in place with a heated roller that activates the glue. Then a laser beam is scanned over the
surface and cuts out the outline of that layer of the object. The laser int ensity is set at
just the level needed to cut through a single layer of material. Then the rest of the paper is
crosshatched to make it easier to break away later. The base plate moves down, and the
whole process starts again. The sheet of material is made significantly wider than the base
plate, so when the base plate moves down, it leaves a neat rectangular hole behind. This
scrap material is wound onto a second roller, pulling a new section across the base plate.

3. Stereolithography (SLA):
In this technology, the part is produced in a vat containing a liquid which is a photo-curable
resin acrylate. Under the influence of light of a specific wavelength, small molecules are

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 13

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
polymerized into larger solid molecules. The SLA machine, whose schematic is shown in Fig.
5.2.2, creates the prototypes by tracing the layer cross sections on the surface of liquid
polymer pool with a laser beam. In the initial position the elevator table in the vat is in the
top most position. The laser beam is driven in X and Y directions by programme driven
mirrors to sweep across the liquid surface so as to make it solidified to a designed depth
(say,1 mm). In the next cycle, the elevated table is lowered further. This is repeated until the
desired 3-D model is created. The figure shows a modified design in which a contact window
allows the desired area to be exposed to light, masking the area which remains liquid.

4.Fuse Deposition Modeling:

In this technique, a spool of thermoplastic filament is fed into a heated FDM extrusion
head. The X and Y movements are controlled by a computer so that the exact outline of each
section of the prototype is obtained. Each layer is bonded to the earlier by heating. This
method is ideal for producing hollow objects. The schematic of the FDM is shown in Fig. 5.2.3.

In this technique, the object is made by squeezing a continuous thread of polymer through a
narrow, heated nozzle that is moved over the base plate. The thread melts as it passes
through the nozzle, only to get hardened again immediately as it touches (and sticks to) the
layer below.
A support structure is needed for certain shapes, and this is provided by a second nozzle
squeezing out a similar thread, usually of a different color in order to make it easier to
distinguish them.
At the end of the build process, the support structure is broken away and discarded, freeing
the object. The FDM method produces models that are physically robust. Wax can be used as
the material, but generally models are made of ABS plastic

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 14

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019

5.Selective Laser Sintering (SLS):

In this method, a thin layer of powder is applied using a roller. The SLS uses a laser beam to
selectively fuse powdered materials, such as nylon, elastomers and metals into a solid object

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 15

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
6.3-D Systems:

In this system, in order to build a part, the machine spreads a single layer of powder onto the
movable bottom of a build box. A binder is then printed onto each layer of powder to form
the shape of the cross-section of the model. The bottom of the build box is then lowered by
one layer thickness and a new layer of powder is spread. This process is repeated for every
layer or cross-section of the model. Upon completion, the build box is filled with powder,
some of which is bonded to form the part, and some of which remain loose. The steps
involved in the process as show in fig

RAPID MANUFACTURING:

Rapid manufacturing may be considered as an extension of Rapid-Prototyping technology. It

involves automated production of parts by instructions directly fed by the CAD data which is
modeled earlier. Currently, only a few final products are prepared by these machines. This
technology is not suitable for mass production but for small batches and one-off production
articles, it is cheaper since no tooling is involved. Some of the final components that are
produced are: customized dinner-wares, helmets for individual heads (customized),
jewellery patterns, spark erosion electrodes and reverse engineering parts.
Applications of RPT:

 It is mainly used in modeling, Product Design and Development,

 Reverse Engineering applications,
 Short Production Runs and Rapid Tooling,
 In medical applications, RPT is used to make exact models resembling the actual parts of
a person, through computer scanned data, which can be used to perform trial surgeries,
 RP techniques are used to make custom-fit masks that reduce scarring on burn victims,
 Selective laser sintering (SLS) has been used to produce superior socket knees,

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 16

 Modern Manufacturing Methods 2019
 Very tiny, miniature parts can be made by electrochemical fabrication,In jewelry
designs, crafts and arts.
Future developments of RPT:

 As the Rapid Prototyping Technology gets further advanced, it can lead to substantial
reduction in build-up time for manufacturing.
 Further improvement in laser optics and motor control can improve the accuracy.
 The development of new materials and polymers so that they are less prone to curing
and temperature induced war pages.
 Much anticipated development is the introduction of non-polymeric materials including
metals, ceramics, composites and powder metallurgy.
 Developments in ceramic composites can further increase the range of rapid
prototyping.
 Currently, the size is also a restriction; capability for larger parts shall be expected in the
near future.
 Currently, the demand is low and with the further technology advancement, awareness
and training, this can be increased.
 Advancement in computing systems and viability to support net designs from a distant
country to be fed directly on the RP machines for manufacturing is a new possibility
Limitations OF RPT

 Unfamiliarity with the application of RPT exists. Therefore, its complete adaptability
and how exactly this new and advanced technology will be of help and is not known.
 In view of high equipment cost, very few organizations can invest in these new
machines.
 Currently, RPT is more limited to modeling, specimen making and designing.
 The RPT is at present limited to making of paper and plastic type products only.
 Replacing steel by composites is still not easy and people fear its implications.
RP companies usually limit the marketing efforts and industry awareness; hence most
engineering and manufacturing professionals are not fully aware of the RP potentials

Mechanical Department Mr.A.Harinath Page 17