Assigment #01

SUBJECT : HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

Name : Asia Noor Roll # BY627591 B.Ed 1.5 years Spring
(CODE: 8610)
(UNITS: 1-4)

Q1: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT MAY LOOK LIKE SAME BUT HAVE MANY DIFFERENCES.
EXPLAIN THESE DIFFERENCE.

Ans: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Most people use the terms „growth‟ and „development‟ interchangeably and accept them as
synonymous. But in reality, the meanings of these two terms are different.
GROWTH: CONCEPT AND DEFINITION:
Growth refers to physical increase in some quantity over time. It includes changes in terms of height,
weight, body proportions and general physical appearance. In Encyclopedia Britannica, growth is
defined as “an increase in size or the amount of an entity”. It means growth involves all those structural
and physiological changes that take place within individual during the process of maturation. For
example, growth of a child means the increase in weight, height and different organs of the child’s body.
Hurlock has defined Growth as “change in size, in proportion, disappearance of old features and
acquisition of new ones”. Growth refers to structural and physiological changes. Thus, growth refers to
an increase in physical size of whole or any of its part and can be measured.
DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPT AND DEFINITION:
Development refers to the qualitative changes in the organism as whole. Development is a continuous
process through which physical, emotional and intellectual changes occur. It is a more wider and
comprehensive term than growth. It is also possible without growth. In Webster’s dictionary development
is defined as “the series of changes which an organism undergoes in passing from an embryonic stage
to maturity.” In Encyclopedia Britannica is the term development defined as “the progressive change in
size, shape and function during the life of an organism by which its genetic potential are translated into
functioning adult system.” So, development includes all those psychological changes that take in the
functions and activities of different organs of an organism. Development is continuous and gradual
process (Skinner). According to Crow and Crow (1965) development is concerned with growth as well
as those changes in behavior which results from environmental situation.” Thus, development is a
process of change in growth and capability over time due to function of both maturation and interaction
with the environment.
Comparison of Growth and Development:
Growth refers to physiological changes. Development refers to overall changes in the
individual. It involves changes in an orderly
and coherent type towards the goal of
maturity.
Changes in the quantitative respect is termed Development changes in the quality along with
as growth. quantitative aspect.
Growth does not continue throughout life. Development continues throughout life.
Growth stops after maturation. Development is progressive.
Growth occurs due to the multiplication of Development occurs due to both maturation
cells. and interaction with the environment.
Growth is cellular. Development is organizational.
Growth is one of the part of the developmental Development is a wider and comprehensive
process. term.
Growth may be referred to describe the Development describes the changes in the
changes in particular aspects of the body and organism as a whole.
behavior of the organism.
The changes produced by growth are subjects Development brings qualitative changes which
of measurements. They may be quantified and are difficult to measure directly. They are
observable in nature. assessed through keen observation of
behavior in different situations.
Growth may or may not bring development. Development is possible without growth.
Developmental psychologists believe that knowledge of an accurate pattern of development is
fundamental to an understanding of children. There are several basic principles that characterizes the
pattern and process of growth and development. These principles describe typical development as a
predictable and orderly process. Even though there are individual differences in children‟s personalities,
attitudes, behavior and timing of development, the principles and characteristics of development are
universal patterns.

1. Development involves change:-

The human being is undergoing changes from the moment of conception to the time of death. There are
different types of change occur such as, changes in size, proportions, disappearance of old features and
acquisition of new features etc. The goal of these developmental changes is self-realization, which
Abraham Maslow has labeled as self-actualization. Each individual is equipped with certain abilities and
potentialities at birth. By utilizing the innate or inborn abilities one tries to realize and strive for self
actualization during the total life period. Children‟s attitude toward change are generally determined by
his knowledge about these changes, social attitudes toward this change and the way people of society
treats to children when these changes take place.

2. Development is a continuous process:-

Development continues throughout the life of an individual. This process takes place in interaction with
the environment in which a person lives. One stage of development is the basic framework for the next
stage of development. A child has limited knowledge and experiences about his environment. But as he
develops, he acquires more information through explorations and adds to the skills already acquired and
the new skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills. For example, the child is
able to write and draw, he must have developed a hand control to hold a pencil and crayon. Thus, a
person has vast experiences and knowledge as he grows up.

3. Development follows a direction and uniform pattern in an orderly manner:-

(i) Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. This is the principle of proximodistal
development that describes the direction of development (from nearer to far apart). It means that the
spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child‟s arms develop before the hands and the
hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.
(ii) Development proceeds from the head downwards. This is called the cephalocaudal principle.
According to this principle, development occurs from head to tail. The child gains control of the head
first, then the arms and then the legs.

4. Individual Differences in the Development Process:- Even though the pattern of development is
similar for all children but the rate of development varies among children. Each child develops as per his
abilities and perception of his environment. Children differ from each other both genetically and
environmentally. So, both biological factor and environmental situations have their impact on individual’s
development which leads to individual differences in development. Understanding this fact of individual
differences in rates of development should aware us to be careful about using and relying on age and
stage characteristics to label children.
5. Development depends on maturation and learning:- Maturation refers to the sequential
characteristic of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in sequential order and
give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation.
These changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation.
The child‟s environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the child‟s experiences largely
determine whether the child will reach optimal development. An enriched environment and varied
experiences help the child to develop his/her potential.

Q2: WHAT DO YOU THINK WHETHER DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD DEPENDS ON HEREDITY

OR ENVIRONMENT? ILLUSTRATE WITH EXAMPLES.
ANS: Factors that affect Development:
There are two factors that affect the development of a child.
They are:

1. Heredity
2. Environment

What is Heredity?
The transfer of physical or mental characteristics from parent to child through genes is called heredity.
Genes are inherited traits encoded into a personal DNA. In some previous year question papers you
might find that genes, genetics and heredity are used as synonyms.
1 What does heredity influence? Heredity influences the different aspects of growth and development
i.e. height, weight and structure of the body, color of hair and eye, intelligence, interest and certain
behaviors. Heredity is a static social structure meaning once we inherit certain genes they cannot be
modified or changed.
What is Environment? The word environment in this context means the environment around the child,
his interaction with his family, his neighborhood, his school, the nutrition the child receives.
What are the environmental factors which influence development?
There are various environmental factors which influence the development. Some of these are classified
as follows:
1. Physical factors: Physical and geographical conditions influence a child’s behavior, responses, and
attitudes. For examples, a person born in Chennai would be more tolerant to hot, humid environment, as
compared to someone born in Himachal Pradesh.
2. Family: Family plays an important role in a child’s development since the first interaction a child has,
is with his/ her family. The behaviors that a child observers, the values she or he is taught are all through
this initial interactions.
3. School and teachers: The school environment and the teachers also play a very important role in
the grooming of a child. The teachers are the first role models for a child and through the way a teacher
conducts her, or interacts with the child affect the knowledge they acquire, and the people they become.
There are various other environmental factors, in addition to these, like the book a child reads, or what
he/she watches on TV, the sport they play, affects their development.
The answer to this and other questions about inheritance lies in a specialized branch of biology called
genetics. Geneticist found that most aspects of life have a hereditary basis and that many traits can
appear in more than one form. For instance, human beings have blond, or red, or brown, or black hair.
They may have one of several different types of blood, one or several colors of skin. Their ear lobes may
be attached or free. They may or may not be able to manufacture certain enzymes. Some of these traits
are much more important to the life of the individual than others, but all of them are hereditary. The
geneticist is interested not only in the traits of man but in those of all other organisms as well.
The study of inheritance depends on the differences as well as the similarities between parents and
offspring over several generations.
Heredity is very complex, and a geneticist cannot possibly analyze all the traits of an organism at once.
Instead, he studies only a few traits at a time. Many other traits are present. As the geneticists work out
the solution to each hereditary mystery, the geneticist must not forget that all organisms live in a
complex environment. The environment may affect the degree to which a hereditary trait develops. The
geneticist must try to find out which of the many parts of the environment may affect his results.
The factors must be kept as constant as possible by using controlled experiments. Only then can he tell
that the differences observed are due to heredity.
Heredity determines what an organism may become, not what it will become. What an organism
becomes depends on both its heredity and environment.
The modern science of genetics started with the work of Gregor Mendel. He found that a certain factor in
a plant cell determined the traits the plant would have. Thirty years after his discovery this determines
was given the name gene. Of the traits Mendel studied, he called dominant those at showed up in the
offspring and recessive those The question I will ask is: how much of the variability observed between
different individuals is due to hereditary differences between them, and how much to differences in the
environments under which the individuals developed?
In most organisms, including man, genetics information is transmitted from mother to daughter cells and
from one generation to the next by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Knowledge of the heredity or inheritance of plants and animals is important in many phases of our life.
The question I will ask is: How much of the variability observed between different individuals is due to
hereditary differences between them, and how much to differences in the environments under which the
individuals developed?
The purpose of designing a unit on “Heredity And Environment” is to help students learn more about
themselves. They will learn why they develop into the kind of individual they are.
The unit will discuss heredity traits and environmental conditions, chromosomes, DNA, studies of
identical twins, and several diseases linked to heredity and environment.
The students will do some hands on activities by constructing a model which represents DNA. They will
explore plants with the exact same heredity and plants with different heredity. They will change the
conditions in the environment to see the way the plant organisms with the same heredity may develop
differently in different environments and why organisms with different heredity develop in the matter in
which they do. Heredity is not the only thing that effects development. The environment also has an
important effect.
The unit can be taught to students in grades five through eight. The science and math teachers are
encouraged to use a team teaching approach. Other features that will be included in the unit are
content, lesson plans, resources, reading list and a bibliography.
Q3: SUGGEST SOME ACTIVITIES FOR PERSONAL CHILDREN WHICH MAY ENHANCE
CHILDREN’S PHYSICAL GROWTH.

ANS: Physical activity is an essential component of everyone’s overall health and wellness. Getting
regular activity offers short- and long-term benefits for your physical and mental health,
including reducing your risk of disease, building stronger bones and muscles, increasing energy, and
decreasing stress levels. Exercise is essential for everyone throughout their lives, so we need to be
educated on the benefits of exercise and how to incorporate daily physical activity as early as possible.

Early childhood services and childcare should include physical activity as a key component of a child’s
development. Services should offer play-based activities and games that combine physical activity with
a child’s interests and abilities.

Some activities for personal children which may enhance children’s physical growth are given
below:

1. Build a Tower

For this activity, you’ll need a supply of blocks, containers with lids, or another similar, stackable object.
Using your item of choice, build a tower with a child. Take turns adding blocks or containers to the tower
and see how high the child can stack them. You can count the number of stacked items together, and
then when the tower is complete, the child can knock it down.

2. Toss Balls in a Basket

Give toddlers foam or rubber balls to roll back and forth to a partner. Older toddlers can toss the balls
into a basket. During this activity, exercise caution with younger children who might bite foam balls.
Avoid small balls that toddlers could put in their mouths and swallow.

3. Throw Sponges

This activity is great for a hot day. Children take wet sponges and toss them toward a container or bin.
They can compare how far sponges of different sizes can be thrown or how different amounts of water
affect the distance the sponge travels.

4. Imitate Animals

While on their hands and knees, toddlers move, stretch, and play like animals. They can hop like a frog
or waddle like a penguin. They can arch their backs, roll on their backs, reach as high as they can, and
walk on all fours. Choose a variety of animals and movements to keep children engaged and using their
whole bodies to stay active.

5. Traffic Safety

Cut three circles from colored paper –– one red, one yellow and one green. Label the red circle “Stop,”
the yellow circle “Slow,” and the green circle “Go.” One child is chosen to be the traffic light, and they will
hold up the green circle, the yellow circle and the red circle in turn.
The other children move forward when “Go” is held up, slow down when “Slow” is held up and freeze
when “Stop” is held up. Take advantage of this fun activity to also teach children about traffic safety.

6. Snake Dance

For this activity, children form a line to make a snake. They place their hands on the shoulders of the
child in front of them, and the first child or the teacher leads them around the room or play area.

To make things a bit more exciting and challenging, the child at the front of the line can try to tag the
child at the end. This will get everyone moving faster!

7. Catching Feathers

Take feathers and toss them into the air for children to catch with their hands or in containers before
they reach the ground. This will get toddlers moving and having fun!

If children are old enough, they can also each be given a feather and try to keep the feather in the air by
blowing on it.

8. Follow the Leader

Stand in front of the children and tell them to watch you carefully and copy your moves. Touch your
nose, hop on both feet, stomp in a circle, or crawl on all fours. Choose simple actions and use large
motor activities.

9. Musical Chairs

Use an adapted, no-lose version of this activity to keep all children up and moving while having fun.
Place chairs in a row or in a circle facing outward. Play a song or have the children sing a short rhyme
while circling the chairs. When the song is over, the children sit in the chair closest to them.

Continually change the movement with each new song, such as skipping, hopping or crawling to keep
kids engaged and active.

10. Jumping on Trampolines

For kids who are old enough, find an indoor trampoline park where they can go to jump on trampolines
and hang out with their friends. Trampolines are a ton of fun and a great activity for some high-intensity
exercise and improving balance. For children who are too young for a trampoline park, you can buy a
trampoline for home that’s equipped with the right safety features to keep kids safe while they’re having
fun.

Q4:How Vtgotsky’s theory is different from Piaget’s theory?

Ans: COMPARING PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY

Methods and approaches to teaching have been greatly influenced by the research of Jean Piaget and
Lev Vygotsky. Both have contributed to the field of education by offering explanations for children's
cognitive learning styles and abilities. While Piaget and Vygotsky may differ on how they view cognitive
development in children, both offer educators good suggestions on how teach certain material in a
developmentally appropriate manner.

Piaget proposed that cognitive development from infant to young adult occurs in four universal and
consecutive stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations (Woolfolk,
A., 2004). Between the ages of zero and two years of age, the child is in the sensorimotor stage. It is
during this stage the child experiences his or her own world through the senses and through movement.
During the latter part of the sensorimotor stage, the child develops object permanence, which is an
understanding that an object exists even if it is not within the field of vision (Woolfolk, A., 2004). The
child also begins to understand that his or her actions could cause another action, for example, kicking a
mobile to make the mobile move. This is an example of goal-directed behavior. Children in the
sensorimotor stage can reverse actions, but cannot yet reverse thinking (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

During a child's second and seventh year, he or she is considered to be in the preoperational stage.
Piaget stated that during this stage, the child has not yet mastered the ability of mental operations. The
child in the preoperational stage still does not have the ability to think through actions (Woolfolk, A.,
2004). Children in this stage are considered to be egocentric, meaning they assume others share their
points of view (Woolfolk, A. 2004). Because of egocentricism, children in this stage engage in collective
monologues, in which each child is talking, but not interacting with the other children (Woolfolk, A. 2004).
Another important aspect of the preoperational stage is the acquisition of the skill of conservation.
Children understand that the amount of something remains the same even if its appearance changes
(Woolfolk, A., 2004). A child in the preoperational stage would not be able to perform the famous
Piagetian conservation problem of liquid and volume, because he or she has not yet developed
reversible thinking – "thinking backward, from the end to the beginning" (Woolfolk, A., 33).

Concrete operations occurs between the ages of seven to eleven years. Students in the later elementary
years, according to Piaget, learn best through hands-on discovery learning, while working with tangible
objects. Reasoning processes also begin to take shape in this stage. Piaget stated that the three basic
reasoning skills acquired during this stage were identity, compensation, and reversibility (Woolfolk, A.,
2004). By this time, the child learns that a "person or object remains the same over time" (identity) and
one action can cause changes in another (compensation) (Woolfolk, A., 2004). This child has an
understanding of the concept of seriation – ordering objects by certain physical aspects. The child is
also able to classify items by focusing on a certain aspect and grouping them accordingly (Woolfolk, A.,
2004).

Piaget's final stage of cognitive development is formal operations, occurring from age eleven years to
adulthood. People who reach this stage (and not everyone does, according to Piaget) are able to think
abstractly. They have achieved skills such as inductive and deductive reasoning abilities. People in the
formal operations stage utilize many strategies and resources for problem solving. They have developed
complex thinking and hypothetical thinking skills. Through hypothetico-deductive reasoning, one is able
to identify the factors of a problem, and deduce solutions (Woolfolk, A., 2004). People in this stage also
imagine the best possible solutions or principles, often through the ability to think ideally (Woolfolk, A.,
2004). The acquisition of meta-cognition (thinking about thinking) is also a defining factor of those
people in formal operations.

Based on Piaget's proposed stages and ability levels at each, certain teaching strategies have been
offered for teaching in the Piagetian school of thought. In the preoperational stage, the teacher would
have to use actions and verbal instruction. Because the child has not yet mastered mental operations,
the teacher must demonstrate his or her instructions, because the child cannot yet think through
processes. The use of visual aids, while keeping instructions short would most benefit the child in this
stage (Woolfolk, A., 2004). Hands-on activities also aid with learning future complex skills, as the text
mentions, reading comprehension (Woolfolk, A., 2004). The teacher must be sensitive to the fact that
these children, according to Piaget, are still egocentric and may not realize that not everyone shares the
same view (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Teaching children in the concrete operations stage involves hands-on learning, as well. Students are
encouraged to perform experiments and testing of objects. By performing experiments and solving
problems, students develop logical and analytical thinking skills (Woolfolk, A., 2004). Teachers should
provide short instruction and concrete examples and offer time for practice. With skills such as
classification, compensation, and seriation developing during this stage, teachers should provide ample
opportunities to organize groups of objects on "increasingly complex levels" (Woolfolk, A., 37).

Teaching those in the formal operations stage involves giving students the opportunity to advance their
skills in scientific reasoning and problem solving, as begun in the concrete operations stage. Students
should be offered open-ended projects in which they explore many solutions to problems. Opportunities
to explore hypothetical possibilities should be granted to these students often. As the text states,
teachers need to teach the "broad concepts" of the material while relating it to their lives. Idealism is
assumed to be acquired by a person in the formal operations stage; therefore, understanding broad
concepts and their application to one's life aid in the realization of ideal concepts.
Piaget also proposed that a child acts on his own environment for learning. Social interaction takes
place mainly to move a young child away from egocentricism. It is also important to note that Piaget
stated that a child either held the mental structure for conservation, for example, or he did not. A child in
the preoperational stage could not be taught to understand the liquid volume experiment; she does not
possess the mental structure of a child in concrete operations.

As part of their cognitive development, children also develop schemes, which are mental
representations of people, objects, or principles. These schemes can be changed or altered through
what Piaget called assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is information we already know.
Accommodation involves adapting one's existing knowledge to what is perceived. Disequilibrium occurs
when new knowledge does not fit with one's accumulated knowledge. When one reaches what Piaget
called equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation have occurred to create a new stage of
development (Woolfolk, A., 2004). When learning the concept of conservation, a child must first
"struggle" with the idea that the liquid amount in the cylinders has not changed (disequilibrium). After
accommodating the new knowledge, equilibrium occurs, and the child may advance to a new cognitive
stage (concrete operations).

Around this time, another psychologist was offering his views on child cognitive development. Lev
Vygotsky offered an alternative to Piaget's stages of cognitive development. Vygotsky's Sociocultural
Theory of Development became a major influence in the field of psychology and education (Woolfolk, A.,
2004). This theory stated that students learn through social interactions and their culture – much
different from Piaget's theory that stated children act on their environment to learn. Through what
Vygotsky called "dialogues," we socially interact and communicate with others to learn the cultural
values of our society. Vygotsky also believed that "human activities take place in cultural settings and
cannot be understood apart from these settings" (Woolfolk, A., 45). Therefore, our culture helps shape
our cognition.

Through these social interactions, we move toward more individualized thinking. The co-constructed
process involves people interacting during shared activities, usually to solve a problem (Woolfolk, A.,
2004). When the child receives help through this process, he or she may be able to utilize better
strategies in the future, should a similar problem arise. The co-constructed dialogues lead to
internalization, which in turn leads one to independent thinking (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Scaffolding is another Vygotskian principle for the sociocultural perspective. Scaffolding involves
providing the learner with hints or clues for problem solving in order to allow the student to better
approach the problem in the future (Woolfolk, A., 2004). While Piaget would assume the student does
not yet have the mental structures to solve such a problem, Vygotsky would offer encouragement or
strategies, in the form of scaffolding, in order for the student to attempt the problem.

The development of language is considered to be a major principle of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.

The language of a certain group of people indicates their cultural beliefs and value system. For example,
a tribe with many words meaning "hunting" indicates that hunting is an important aspect of their lives.
The text states that children learn language much the same way that children learn cognitive skills.
Vygotsky states that humans may have "built in biases, rules, and constraints about language that
restrict the number of possibilities considered" (Woolfolk, A., 2004). A child's thinking regarding these
language constraints is very important in language development (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Another aspect of language development involves private speech. Private speech is self-talk children
(and adults) may use to guide actions and aid in thinking. While Piaget may view private speech as
egocentric or immature, Vygotsky understood the importance of self-directed speech. Private speech is
considered to be self-directed regulation and communication with the self, and becomes internalized
after about nine years (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Vygotsky also emphasized the importance of cultural tools in cognition. Cultural tools can be any
technological tool or any symbolic tool which aids in communication (Woolfolk, A., 2004). Language, the
media, television, computers, and books are only a handful of all the cultural tools available for problem
solving or learning. Higher-level processing is "mediated by psychological tools, such as language,
signs, and symbols" (Woolfolk, A., 2004). After receiving co-constructed help, children internalize the
use of the cultural tools, and are better able to utilize the tools in the future on their own (Woolfolk, A.,
2004).

Another Vygotskian principle for teaching involves the zone of proximal development. Like Piaget,
Vygotsky believed that there were some problems out of a child's range of understanding. However, in
contrast, Vygotsky believed that given proper help and assistance, children could perform a problem that
Piaget would consider to be out of the child's mental capabilities. The zone is the area at which a child
can perform a challenging task, given appropriate help (Woolfolk, A., 2004).

Piaget and Vygotsky also differ in how they approach discovery learning. Piaget advocated for discovery
learning with little teacher intervention, while Vygotsky promoted guided discovery in the classroom.
Guided discovery involves the teacher offering intriguing questions to students and having them
discover the answers through testing hypotheses (Woolfolk, A., 2004). The students are engaged in the
discovery process; however, they are still receiving assistance from a more knowledgeable source.

A teacher utilizing Vygotskian methods for teaching would be a very active member in her student's
education. The teacher would apply the technique of scaffolding by providing assistance and offering
feedback when relating new information (Woolfolk, A., 2004). Teachers should also make sure that
students are provided adequate tools for learning. Students should be taught how to use tools
such as the computer, resource books, and graphs in order to better utilize these tools in the future
(Woolfolk, A., 2004). Teaching in the Vygotskian method would also incorporate group or peer learning
(Woolfolk, A., 2004). By having students tutor each other through dialogues and scaffolding, the
students can begin to internalize the new information and come to a better understanding of the
material.

I believe that both Piaget and Vygotsky provided educators with important views on cognitive
development in the child. Piaget proposed that children progress through the stages of cognitive
development through maturation, discovery methods, and some social transmissions through
assimilation and accommodation (Woolfolk, A., 2004). Vygotsky's theory stressed the importance of
culture and language on one's cognitive development.

Regarding the two cognitive theories, I would be more apt to apply Vygotskian principles to my
classroom. I believe that principles such as scaffolding, co-constructed knowledge, dialogue, and
cultural tools are all important components of a student's knowledge acquisition. By helping students
within their zone of proximal development, we offer them useful learning strategies which they
internalize and utilize later. Piaget proposed many applicable educational strategies, such as discovery
learning with an emphasis on activity and play. However, Vygotsky incorporated the importance of social
interactions and a co-constructed knowledge base to the theory of cognitive development.

In conclusion, a teacher's focus should be to provide assistance to students in need, and provide cultural
tools as educational resources. Teachers should provide for group and peer learning, in order for
students to support each other through the discovery process. Especially in today's diverse classroom,
the teacher needs to be sensitive to her student's cultural background and language, and be an active
participant in his knowledge construction.

Q5: WHAT ARE SOCIAL SKILLS? ALSO DISCUSS THE SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS AND THE
FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AT PRESCHOOL LEVEL.
ANS: Social skills are the skills we use to communicate and interact with each other, both verbally and
non-verbally, through gestures, body language and our personal appearance.
Human beings are sociable creatures and we have developed many ways to communicate our
messages, thoughts and feelings with others.

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS AND THE FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AT

PRESCHOOL LEVEL.

1. Family and Home Environment

The status of family has great impacts upon a child. You will see great variations in children. One of the
causes of that will be of the family background. In order to have a balance personality’ of a child, there
must be great cooperation between parents and their children. As according to Franks: “Home & family
is the only institution for child’s socialization and transmission of cultural heritage which shapes the basic
structure of child’s personality”. Islam also stresses upon cordial working relationship among the
members of family to bring up children and make them useful citizens of society.
2. School and Teacher Role
Next place where most of social development takes place is school and the influencing role of a teacher.
The more good and cordial atmosphere is in the school and good relationship with teacher the more
good social development will take place.
3. Parental Style
The parental style must be very democratic and involved one for the sack of children. Those children
show greater social development and emotional maturity whose parental style is democratic and
involved one.
4. Peer Group
In peer group a child gets social independence and make. Some decisions to define his / her role. Here
a child shares his /her feelings and emotions independently and get influenced by. The children start
self-confidence and from time to time new habits are developed which shape a child personality. The
guardians must help the children to be the part of good peer group. As an old saying says:- “Man is
known by the company he keeps”.
5. Media
Now a days there is great information explosion. Every person has very easy access to all kinds of
information. The most commonly available informational machines are internet, cable TV and Mobile
phone system. All these means of information can be used in positive and negative ways. Now it is the
responsibility of children’s incharge(s) to guide them on the right path.

In short, Social Development in children is a very important area of learning and building up of
balance personality. This is the responsibility of school, teacher, and home / parents that children must
be fully developed in social relationship with human sand with the value system of particular society. For
social development in children new techniques and methodology must be explored.
 Assigment #02
SUBJECT : HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
Name : Asia Noor Roll # BY627591 B.Ed 1.5 years Spring
(CODE: 8610)
(UNITS: 5-9)

Q#1: DESCRIBE THE EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ELEMENTARY LEVEL STUDENTS?

ANS: SHARING :
Children are in the egocentric stage when they join the pre-school. Through play, they will be
encouraged to interact with other children, observe and imitate that type of behaviour that you as the
educator and role-model, favour and encourage.

COOPERATION :
As the child grows, he will develop confidence, trust and friendship with other children. With the activities
you promote, he will learn to collaborate with others, become involved in groups to play more elaborate
games or produce more interesting work.
RESPECTING AND ACCEPTING OTHERS:
Just as children learn to share and cooperate with others, the respect for and acceptance of others is
learned while interacting with others in the socialization process.
BY ACCEPTING AND SHOWING RESPECT: for the children and their parents, you demonstrate that
all people are worthy of being treated with dignity.
LEARNING FROM OTHERS: Acquiring appropriate social attitudes will enhance learning by increasing
the possibility of interaction with and learning from others. Young children are characteristically
egocentric in a social sense. They are often unaware that others also view the world from a personal
perspective and that others may not share their opinions. They must then defend their ideas, justify their
opinions, clarify their thoughts, and solve their own problems.
SEEKING AND GIVING COMPANIONSHIP:
The pre-school, where children are encouraged to learn from others, to seek and give companionship,
offers the emotional security that makes it possible for them to interact. Learning how to make and
maintain friendship is a part of the social learning that should take place in the pre-school setting.
ANTICIPATING CONSEQUENCES : of Actions By encouraging children to interact, use language, and
solve problems, you can guide them to take responsibility for their actions. Acting with forethought can
be learned within the social framework of the pre-school.
DEVELOPING A POSITIVE, REALISTIC SELF-CONCEPT:
Consideration for the emotional development of children is important not only in ensuring that their
selfconcept is positive and realistic but also in ensuring that they are able to develop cognitively.
Children who are confident of themselves and are secure in their environment, are ready for new
learning. Successful learning, in turn, enhances self-esteem. You will agree that children with high self-
esteem (feeling good about oneself, feeling ready to do better) are more enthusiastic, more willing to
accept challenges, and more able to concentrate and to persevere. Your support is important to foster
the natural development of self-esteem as children attempt to explore and master their own goals.
ACCEPTING AND EXPRESSING EMOTIONS IN SOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE WAYS :
Children need to observe model behaviour that fosters the development of interpersonal skills. Everyday
opportunities are offered to the children to deal with, and gain competence in living with other people.
Talking about problems, fears, and concerns leads children to the understanding that emotions are
common to all people. Your task is to help children to realise that all emotions are acceptable but some
reactions to these emotions are unacceptable. Awareness of how to deal with and express emotions in a
socially acceptable manner leads children to function independently and in cooperation with others.
Within the safety of the pre-school environment, children can experience the natural consequences of
their actions without loss of self-worth.
ACCEPTING AND DEMONSTRATING EMPATHY: You are in an ideal position to provide a model and
facilitate emotional development when you use patience to understand the personal point of view
(egocentrism) of each child. While you can often describe your own points of view, pre-school children
have difficulty in understanding the points of view of their peers or other educators. When children are
secure and trust you, dialogue helps them to accept decisions even if they cannot understand them. As
children receive empathy from their educator and peers, they begin to view themselves as worthwhile
members of the group. They are more likely to express empathy towards others. Children possessing a
sense of self-worth are then capable of showing sensitivity to others while maintaining their unique
identities.

ACCEPTING CHALLENGE :
When children are encouraged to think differently, to express different ideas, and to experiment, they
develop a belief in their own abilities. Feeling secure in the classroom serves to increase their
knowledge of themselves as unique and competent persons. Personal stress that is related to insecurity
may cause children to revert to easier and, less challenging tasks. Repetition and familiarity are
comforting security aides. Some children may react by withdrawing into themselves or by resorting to
physical aggression. Emotionally secure children have the confidence to be curious and creative, to
accept challenges, and to take appropriate risks.
FEELING PRIDE IN ACCOMPLISHMENT :
Children who have learned that their attempts will be accepted and encouraged will be more likely to try.
Praise may lead to tentative feelings of success but may leave them still seeking other’s opinions to
judge their own success. Ongoing encouragement that focuses the children’s attention on the
importance of valuing their own attempts helps them develop personal pride. Children who can view
their work and say, “I did it, I tried my best, and I like it” do not need an adult to say, “It is good”.
DEVELOPING INDEPENDENCE:
Growth of independence can only occur when children are aware of available support and are willing to
seek that support when needed. Dependence involving the healthy seeking of emotional support from
others and the benefits of having trusting relationships with adults or other children is linked closely with
self-confidence. You will agree that experience, practice, and role-playing are the basis for developing
independence.

ENJOYING LIVING AND LEARNING: By treating children with respect, warmth, good humour, and
dignity, you help them to become strong emotionally. It is this emotional strength that is the key to
successful learning and finding enjoyment and appreciation in the world.

Q2: SUGGEST SOME ACTIVITIES WHICH MAY PROMOTE MORAL DEVELOPMENT AT

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LEVEL?

ANS: There are no good or bad children, but there are good and bad ways of teaching children to
identify and reason about the things in their environment. A lot of great minds in the field of
developmental psychology have dedicated their careers to finding the mechanism through which
children internalize moral values, calling this phenomenon – moral development.

We, on the other hand, have dedicated this comprehensive guide on moral development in children,
where we share the most important findings and show you how to promote prosocial behavior in kids.

Starting from the basics, we’ll help you understand how children learn to recognize right from wrong, and
what’s the role of teachers and parents in this process. Once we summarize the contemporary
frameworks in the field, we’ll share with you 3 specific activities you can easily implement in the
classroom or at home.

How to Promote Morality in Children?

Whether you’re a parent or a teacher, here are some examples of how to encourage moral development
in children.

Be Clear About Moral Values

In our previous sections, we mentioned that parents (teachers, too) provide a cognitive mechanism for
the moral development in children. This means that children should have a clear definition of what’s
good, bad, right, or wrong. If you say one thing, but then try to rationalize a contradictory behavior, or
simply add exceptions to the rules, the child won’t think of the moral norms as something important
(because you can always find excuses).

Lead by Example
This goes without saying, but let’s go over it once again. Children’s brain is like a sponge that takes in
everything from their environment. This means that even though you said “you should be patient and
respect others,” if they see you cut the line and taking someone’s place when you’re in a hurry, they’ll
think that the rule doesn’t matter – “If mommy does it, it’s okay.”

Hold The Child Accountable

All these pieces of advice are based on one thing – consistency. Whether that’s consistency in your
teachings, in your behavior, or in your ability to follow through, the child learns better and benefits when
there’s consistency. Sometimes, this means consistency in keeping them grounded when they do
something wrong.

Instill Guilt, Not Shame!

This is crucial! If you’re not careful, your wish to endorse prosocial behavior might end up in a socially
withdrawn and insecure individual. The distinction between these two things in
your wording and behavior. When you scold the child, criticize their actions, not their personality, and
give explanations!

Guilt = I did a bad thing!

Shame = I am bad!

A good example of this might be a situation in which you catch your child lying.

You can say: “I’m very sad because when you lie, I don’t know how to trust you next time. You’re
grounded because you lied.”

Don’t say: “I’ll never trust you. You’re grounded because you’re a liar!”

Praise Prosocial Behavior

Reward prosocial behavior with emotional support, words of encouragement, and praise your kid in front
of close friends and family. Children love to feel supported and to know that they make you proud, which
will motivate them to continue to behave well.

Promote Morality Through Playful Activities

Children learn about morality by constructing an idea about the world through social interactions.
However, there are many activities through which you can face children with moral challenges and
opportunities where they can use that experience to conclude what’s good and right and what’s bad or
wrong. Here are a couple of activities that you can easily implement in the classroom or at home.

Play Group Games

Playing a group game where everyone has to follow specific rules is a great opportunity to teach
children about fairness, equal opportunities, and justice. At first, they might see a benefit in cheating, but
because they’re playing with many other people, they’ll soon realize the consequences of someone
else’s cheating. Just be careful. Make sure you punish those who cheat, otherwise children will think that
cheating is acceptable.

Role-playing a Story
Another great way to show the consequences of immoral behavior is by role-playing a story that centers
around a moral issue. Children involved in the acting will have a first-hand experience, while the others
will identify with the characters.

When the play finishes, leave some room for discussion. Start with the children who directly took part in
the play and let them tell the whole classroom who they felt. Afterward, try to encourage children to tell
how would have they acted in that kind of situation and why.

Discuss a Moral Dilemma

Kohlberg used moral dilemmas to study moral reasoning in children, but we can use them to encourage
children to think differently and see the many possible outcomes and consequences of the situation.
Moral dilemmas might seem easy at first, but once you start discussing them in the classroom, you’ll be
faced with many different arguments and positions, that you might not have thought of at first!

Before You Leave

Moral development in children is an important topic for both parents and teachers. In today’s society,
we’re witnessing a lot of deviance in young people and teenagers, which makes us wonder whether
we’re doing things right. If you share the same sentiment then our article might have helped you
understand things better and have a clearer idea of your role in the child’s moral development.

Homeschool parents, as they have the same responsibility teachers have, in a way, can also benefit
from the examples that show how to recognize and encourage prosocial behavior in different stages of
life, as kids spend most of the time at home.

Q3: what is the language development? Explain the transitions and signs of language
development.
Ans: Language development is a higher level cognitive skill involving audition and oral abilities in
humans to communicate verbally individuals’ wants and needs.

Language development in humans is a process starting early in life. Infants start without knowing a
language, yet by 10 months, babies can distinguish speech sounds and engage in babbling. Some
research has shown that the earliest learning begins in uteri when the fetus starts to recognize the
sounds and speech patterns of its mother's voice and differentiate them from other sounds after birth.
Typically, children develop receptive language abilities before their verbal or expressive language
develops. Receptive language is the internal processing and understanding of language. As receptive
language continues to increase, expressive language begins to slowly develop.
Usually, productive/expressive language is considered to begin with a stage of pre-verbal
communication in which infants use gestures and vocalizations to make their intents known to others.
According to a general principle of development, new forms then take over old functions, so that children
learn words to express the same communicative functions they had already expressed by proverbial
means.
Language development is thought to proceed by ordinary processes of learning in which children
acquire the forms, meanings, and uses of words and utterances from the linguistic input. Children often
begin reproducing the words that they are repetitively exposed to. The method in which we develop
language skills is universal; however, the major debate is how the rules of syntax are acquired. There
are two quite separate major theories of syntactic development: an empiricist account by which children
learns all syntactic rules from the linguistic input, and a natives approach by which some principles of
syntax are innate and are transmitted through the human genome.
The natives theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky, argues that language is a unique human
accomplishment, and can be attributed to either "millions of years of evolution" or to "principles of neural
organization that may be even more deeply grounded in physical law". Chomsky says that all children
have what is called an innate language acquisition device (LAD). Theoretically, the LAD is an area of the
brain that has a set of universal syntactic rules for all languages. This device provides children with the
ability to make sense of knowledge and construct novel sentences with minimal external input and little
experience. Chomsky's claim is based upon the view that what children hear—their linguistic input—is
insufficient to explain how they come to learn language. He argues that linguistic input from the
environment is limited and full of errors. Therefore, atavists assume that it is impossible for children to
learn linguistic information solely from their environment. However, because children possess this LAD,
they are in fact, able to learn language despite incomplete information from their environment. Their
capacity to learn language is also attributed to the theory of universal grammar (UG), which posits that a
certain set of structural rules are innate to humans, independent of sensory experience. This view has
dominated linguistic theory for over fifty years and remains highly influential, as witnessed by the
number of articles in journals and books.

THE TRANSITIONS AND SIGNS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:

Several major transitions in language use take place during the first 5 years of life. Each transition
allows the child to move to a higher level of complexity of expression and to accomplish communicative
goals more flexibly and precisely than was done at the previous level. At least three of these transitions
appear to be modulated to some degree by speech. In the first transition, prelinguistic to early linguistic
communication, babbling provides the infant with a prelinguistic form of vocal behavior that is in many
ways analogous to language. A second transition takes place in the movement from single words to
multiword combinations. In the process of this transition, word order becomes a means by which
children convey semantic role information, and transitional forms such as successive one-word
utterances help to facilitate the child's leap from single-word speech to multiword sentences. A third
transition involves the development of phonological awareness, an important basis for the acquisition of
literacy, which builds on the foundation laid by the phonological system for articulation. In each of these
transitions, speech appears important for mediating the move to a higher language level. This paper
considers the question of how these transitions can be facilitated in children who use augmentative and
alternative communication rather than speech as a first expressive system, in order to provide as
precise and flexible a communication modality as possible to children with severe speech impairments.

Language development in later childhood is often characterised in terms of increasing complexity. While
other linguistic theories might describe such complexity either in structural terms or in semantic terms, it
is proposed in this thesis that a systemic model might explain developing complexity in terms of the
relationship between the grammar and the semantics. The thesis argues that around adolescence, there
is a qualitative change in this relationship, whereby in addition to the system expanding in terms of
greater delicacy, there is a compounding of the system - meanings are realised not by new additions to
the system but by deploying in new ways lexicogrammatical resources already in the system which have
developed to realise other meanings. There is no longer a 'simplex' (congruent) relationship between the
semantics and the lexicogrammar, but a 'complex' relationship, whereby in the metaphorical1
lexicogrammatical choice, there are (at least) two meanings immanent. Whereas the transition to the
mother tongue is characterised by metafunctional complexity (the lexicogrammar allowing the child to
mean ideationally and interpersonally at the same time), the transition to adolescence is characterised
by a further level of complexity whereby the child is able to mean metaphorically as well as congruently.
The basis for distinguishing between the congruent and the metaphorical has been described by
Halliday in terms of the phylogenetic, ontogenetic and logogenetic histories of this phenomenon. Using
ontogenetic and logogenetic analysis, this longitudinal case study has demonstrated that there is in fact
a marked development in the child's deployment of various categories of grammatical metaphor in later
childhood. The study identifies certain uses of language in early childhood which could be regarded as
'gateways' to grammatical metaphor, including various protometaphorical categories. As the child enters
school, a very limited use of some types of grammatical metaphor has been observed. In later
childhood, however, there is a dramatic increase in the use of most types of grammatical metaphor. If a
distinction is made between a more liberal and a more conservative interpretation of grammatical
metaphor, then it is possible to identify certain uses of grammatical metaphor which develop later than
others and which have significant implications for learning in secondary school.

Q4: EXPLAIN THE ASSOCIATIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING.

ANS: Associative learning is a theory that states that ideas reinforce each other and can be linked to
one another. This lesson will explain the theory of associative learning as well as provide some practical,
real-life examples of this type of learning. Updated: 09/03/2020

Associative Learning
Sit back and close your eyes. Relax yourself and get ready to recall some really specific details. Imagine
your mother's left eyebrow. Not her right eyebrow. Not her eyes. Just her left eyebrow. Hard, isn't it?
When you try to envision your mother's eyebrow, you see her eyes, cheeks, forehead, nose, chin - her
whole face! Why is it so difficult to recall just her eyebrow?
Associative learning is a learning principle that states that ideas and experiences reinforce each other
and can be mentally linked to one another. In a nutshell, it means our brains were not designed to recall
information in isolation; instead, we group information together into one associative memory. That's why
it is difficult to recall just one eyebrow without seeing the whole face.
Associative learning can be a powerful classroom management and teaching tool and has many uses in
the classroom. It can be used to help students connect with information more deeply and recall that
information with greater accuracy.

Associative Learning and Behavior

Associative learning is a form of conditioning, a theory that states behavior can be modified or learned
based on a stimulus and a response. This means that behavior can be learned or unlearned based on
the response it generates. For example, a student might know that if she misbehaves in class (stimulus),
she will not be permitted to go out for recess (response).
This type of learning can be helpful in classroom management.
Much like conditioning, associative memory can be called upon based on the relationship between two
stimuli. Using both positive and negative reinforces (stimuli used to change behavior), teachers can
help students modify their behavior.
Some examples of positive reinforcement are:

• Awarding good grades for work that is well done.

• Allowing students to watch a video for finishing an assignment.
• Verbally rewarding students for their effort and hard work.
• Giving students a 'punch' in their punch card each time they do something well. When the punch
card is full, the student receives a reward.
• In one of its senses, “associations” refers to a theory of how organisms acquire concepts,
associative structures, response biases, and even propositional knowledge. It is commonly
acknowledged that associations took hold after the publishing of John Locke’s Essay
Concerning Human Understanding (1690/1975).[3] However, Locke’s comments on
associationism were terse (though fertile), and did not address learning to any great degree.
The first serious attempt to detail associationism as a theory of learning was given by Hume
in the Treatise of Human Nature (1738/1975).[4] Hume’s associationism was, first and
foremost, a theory connecting how perceptions (“Impressions”) determined trains of thought
(successions of “Ideas”). Hume’s empiricism, as enshrined in the Copy Principle,[5] demanded
that there were no Ideas in the mind that were not first given in experience. For Hume, the
principles of association constrained the functional role of Ideas once they were copied from
 Impressions: if Impressions IM1 and IM2 were associated in perception, then their
corresponding Ideas, ID1 and ID2 would also become associated. In other words, the ordering
of Ideas was determined by the ordering of the Impressions that caused the Ideas to arise.
• Hume’s theory then needs to analyze what types of associative relations between Impressions
mattered for determining the ordering of Ideas. Hume’s analysis consisted of three types of
associative relations: cause and effect, contiguity, and resemblance. If two Impressions
instantiated one of these associative relations, then their corresponding Ideas would mimic the
same instantiation.[6] For instance, if Impression IM1 was cotemporaneous with Impression
IM2, then (ceteris paribus) their corresponding Ideas, ID1 and ID2, would become associated.
• As stated, Hume’s associationism was mostly a way of determining the functional profile of
Ideas. But we have not yet said what it is for two Ideas to be associated (for that see section
4). Instead, one can see Hume’s contribution as introducing a very influential type of
learning—associative learning—for Hume’s theory purports to explain how we learn to
associate certain Ideas. We can abstract away from Hume’s framework of ideas and his
account of the specific relations that underlie associative learning, and state the theory of
associative learning more generally: if two contents of experiences, X and Y, instantiate some
associative relation, R, then those contents will become associated, so that future activations
of X will tend to bring about activations of Y. The associationist then has to explain what
relation R amounts to. The Humean form of associative learning (where R is equated with
cause and effect, contiguity, or resemblance) has been hugely influential, informing the
accounts of those such as Jeremy Bentham, J.S. Mill, and Alexander Bain (see, e.g., the
entries on John Stuart Mill and 19th Century Scottish Philosophy).[7]
• Associative learning didn’t hit its stride until the work of Ivan Pavlov, which spurred the
subsequent rise of the behaviorist movement in psychology. Pavlov introduced the concept of
classical conditioning as a modernized version of associative learning. For Pavlov, classical
conditioning was in part an experimental paradigm for teaching animals to learn new
associations between stimuli. The general method of learning was to pair an unconditioned
stimulus (US) with a novel stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus is just a stimulus that
instinctively, without training, provokes a response in an organism. Since this response is not
itself learned, the response is referred to as an “unconditioned response” (UR). In Pavlov’s
canonical experiment, the US was a meat powder, as the smell of meat automatically brought
about salivation (UR) in his canine subjects. The US is then paired with a neutral stimulus,
such as a bell. Over time, the contiguity between the US and the neutral stimulus causes the
neutral stimulus to provoke the same response as the US. Once the bell starts to provoke
salivation, the bell has become a “conditioned stimulus” (CS) and the salivating, when
prompted by the bell alone, a “conditioned response” (CR). The associative learning here is
learning to form new stimulus-response pairs between the bell and the salivation.[8]
• Classical conditioning is a fairly circumscribed process. It is a “stimulus substitution”
paradigm where one stimulus can be swapped for another to provoke a response.[9] However,
the responses that are provoked are supposed to remain unchanged; all that changes is the
stimulus that gets associated with the response. Thus, classical conditioning seemed to some
to be too restrictive to explain the panoply of novel behavior organisms appear to execute.[10]
• Edward Thorndike’s research with cats in puzzle boxes broadened the theory of associative
learning by introducing the notion of consequences to associative learning. Thorndike
expanded the notion of associative learning beyond instinctual behaviors and sensory
substitution to genuinely novel behaviors. Thorndike’s experiments initially probed, e.g., how
cats learned to lift a lever to escape the “puzzle boxes” (the forbearer to “Skinner boxes”) that
they were trapped in. The cats’ behaviors, such as attempting to lift a lever, were not
themselves instinctual behaviors like the URs of Pavlov’s experiments. Additionally, the cats’
 behaviors were shaped by the consequences that they brought on. For Thorndike it was
because lifting the lever caused the door to open that the cats learned the connection between
the lever and the door. This new view of learning, operant conditioning (for the organism is
“operating” on its environment), was not merely the passive learning of Pavlov, but a species-
nonspecific, general, active theory of learning.
• This research culminated in Thorndike’s famous “Law of Effect” (1911), the first canonical
psychological law of associationist learning. It asserted that responses that are accompanied
by the organism feeling satisfied will, ceteris paribus, be more likely to be associated with the
situation in which the behavior was executed, whereas responses that are accompanied with a
feeling of discomfort to the animal will, ceteris paribus, make the response less likely to
occur when the organism encounters the same situation.[11] The greater the positive or negative
feelings produced, the greater the likelihood that the behavior will be evinced. To this
Thorndike added the “Law of Exercise”, that responses to situations will, ceteris paribus, be
more connected to those situations in proportion to the frequency of past pairings between
situation and response. Thorndike’s paradigm was popularized and extended by B.F. Skinner
(see, e.g., Skinner 1953) who stressed the notion not just of consequences but
of reinforcement as the basis of forming associations. For Skinner, a behavior would get
associated with a situation according to the frequency and strength of reinforcement that
would arise as a consequence of the behavior.
• Since the days of Skinner, associative learning has come in many different variations. But
what all varieties should share with their historical predecessors is that associative learning is
supposed to mirror the contingencies in the world without adding additional structure to them
(see section 9 for some examples of when supposedly associative theories smuggle in extra
structure). The question of what contingencies associative learning detects (that is, one’s
preferred analysis of what the associative relation R is), is up for debate and changes between
theorists.
• The final widely shared, though less central, property of associative learning concerns the
domain generality of associative learning. Domain generality’s prevalence among
associationists is due in large part to their traditional empiricist allegiances: excising domain-
specific learning mechanisms constrains the amount of innate mental processes one has to
posit. Thus it is no surprise to find that both Hume and Pavlov assumed that associative
learning could be used to acquire associations between any contents, regardless of the types of
contents they were. For example, Pavlov writes,
• Any natural phenomenon chosen at will may be converted into a conditioned stimulus. Any
ocular stimulus, any desired sound, any odor, and the stimulation of any portion of the skin,
whether by mechanical means or by the application of heat or cold never failed to stimulate
the salivary glands. (Pavlov 1906: 615)

Q5: WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES?

ANS: DEFINITIONS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:
Definitions of individual differences point out the reality of traits that distinguish individuals. For
example, The Encyclopedia of Social Psychology (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007) defines individual
differences in terms of enduring psychological characteristics.
Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristics that distinguish one
person from another and thus help to define each person's individuality. Among the most important kinds
of individual differences are intelligence, personality traits, and values. The study of individual
differences is called differential or trait psychology and is more commonly the concern of personality
psychologists than social psychologists. Individual differences are neither a fiction nor a nuisance; they
are enduring psychological features that contribute to the shaping of behavior and to each individual's
sense of self. Both social and applied psychology can benefit by taking these enduring dispositions into
account.
The Sage Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Sullivan, 2009) has a definition of individual
differences that is particularly geared to learning.
How individuals differ in traits such as skills, aptitudes, and abilities to learn and perform. Learners may
vary in their personalities, motivations, and attributions for their successes and failures when learning—
all of which may affect how and why they learn. Additionally, they differ in their preferences for learning
and their willingness to learn. Some traits may be more adaptive, whereas others are stable and less
malleable, or resistant to change, especially as an individual matures to adulthood. Examples of stable
traits are gender, culture, and race. Even education and age are considered as stable traits. Traits that
may be more malleable, or adaptive, could include effort and attributions of success and failure, among
others. Individual differences may be considered in making the learning environment educationally
appropriate, interesting, and relevant.
A theme that typifies most definitions of individual differences is that individual differences vary across
people and thus distinguish individuals from one another. As the second definition demonstrates,
individual differences are sometimes malleable. As I discuss later, personality traits are considered less
malleable than learning styles. Nevertheless, both are examples of differences that vary across people
and distinguish individuals from one another.
It is also important to note that when scoring individual difference variables such as personality traits and
learning styles, the scores can be averaged for a group of people. For example, one could calculate
the Introversion of a sample of engineers. One might want to do this to ascertain the characteristics of a
“typical” engineer, while recognizing that individual engineers will differ in respect to these
characteristics.

Individual differences have traditionally been studied as three broad domains: intellectual, personality,
and conative. It is important to note that, although these are often treated as separate aspects for the
purpose of investigation, they are intertwined to some degree.

INTELLECTUAL DIFFERENCES

Arguably, no area of psychological study has been more closely scrutinized than the science of mental
abilities. Since its beginnings in the late 19th century, the scientific study of intellectual differences has
amassed a wealth of empirical data that unarguably supports two conclusions. First, what people typically
think of as “intelligence” is best described by a hierarchal model with numerous specific abilities
occupying the lower levels, a small number of group factors at an intermediate level, and a single general
cognitive ability factor, referred to as “g,” at the top. That is, although specific mental abilities (e.g.,
verbal ability, quantitative ability, visual-spatial ability, short-term memory) can be identified, people
who are high (or low) on any individual specific ability tend to be relatively high (or low) on the others.
Second, although the assessment of intra-individual differences in specific abilities may be especially
useful in personnel classification, and academic and career counseling, it is the g factor that accounts
for most of the variance in important academic, occupational, and social outcomes attributable to mental
abilities. The g factor is formally defined as the “eduction of relations and correlations,” that is, the
ability to infer or deduce meaningful principles and concepts from abstractness and novel situations.

PERSONALITY DIFFERENCES

Personality is of interest to numerous disciplines, including the science of individual differences, which
has given rise to a variety of theories. Despite their dissimilarities, most theories typically view
personality as dispositional tendencies, or “a prepardedness,” to exhibit certain behavioral reactions to
certain environmental affordances and demands. Within the individual difference tradition, most research
has followed the “lexical approach” suggested by Galton. This approach assumes that important
dimensions of human behavioral tendencies will be encoded in natural language. Using this approach to
identify personality characteristics has led to a model of personality commonly referred to as the Big
Five. The exact labels used to describe the dimensions have varied, but generally include (1) extraversion
(includes surgency and positive emotionality factors), (2) neuroticism (includes anxiety and negative
emotionality factors); (3) agreeableness, (4) conscientiousness, and (5) openness to experience. Though
there is not a consensus regarding the appropriateness of this model, it is arguably the dominant model in
individual difference research, and alternative models tend to be variations with two or more of the
factors combined into broader factors or, alternatively, split into more narrow factors.

CONATIVE DIFFERENCES

The importance of conative factors (or volition; e.g., interests and motives) is found in virtually all
theories of the determinants of purposeful behavior. For example, John Campbell noted that one of the
three major determinants of work performance, in addition to declarative knowledge and procedural
skills, was motivation. Similarly, Richard Snow has long held that conative (as well as affective) factors
are a critical component in the development of aptitudes, a contention supported by substantial research
showing that interests, for example, are related to the acquisition of domain-specific knowledge and
academic achievement. Likewise, vocational psychologists have long studied differences in interests to
forecast vocational adjustment. For example, a widely used model of interest types developed by John
Holland, known as the RIASEC model (which is an acronym based on names of the six interest types),
has proven an effective framework for studying the impact of person environment fit on developmental,
educational, and occupational outcomes.