OKRA, Abelmoschus Esculentus (PDFDrive)

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN
OKRA, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)

Moench
THESIS
By
ADITI BADIYALA
Submitted to
CHAUDHARY SARWAN KUMAR

HIMACHAL PRADESH KRISHI VISHVAVIDYALAYA
PALAMPUR 176 062 (H.P.) INDIA
IN
Partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN AGRICULTURE
(ENTOMOLOGY)
2007
Dr. Desh Raj Department of Entomology,
Professor & Head College of Agriculture,
C.S.K. Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya
Palampur-176062 (H.P.)
INDIA
CERTIFICATE I
This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Integrated Pest

Management in Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench”
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Agriculture) in the subject of
Entomology of Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, is a bonafide research work carried out by
Ms. Aditi Badiyala (Admission No. A-2003-40-10) daughter of
Dr. S.D. Badiyala under my supervision and that no part of this thesis has
been submitted for any other degree or diploma.
The assistance and help received during the course of this
investigation have been fully acknowledged.
(Desh Raj)
Place: Palampur Chairman
Dated: December, 2007 Advisory Committee
CERTIFICATE II
This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Integrated Pest

Management in Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench”
submitted by Ms. Aditi Badiyala (Admission No. A-2003-40-10) daughter
of Dr. S.D. Badiyala to Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Agriculture) in the subject of Entomology,
has been approved by the Advisory Committee after an oral examination of the
student in collaboration with an External Examiner.
Dr. Desh Raj External Examiner

(Chairman)
Advisory Committee
Dr.(Mrs.) Nirmala Devi Dr. D. C. Sharma

(Member) (Member)
Dr. A.S. Kapoor Dr. C. K. Oberoi

(Member) (Member)
Dean‟s nominee
----------------------------
Dr. Desh Raj
(Head)
Department of Entomology
CSK HPKV, Palampur
----------------------------
Dr. Pradeep K. Sharma
(Dean)
Postgraduate Studies
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the first place, I impute the success of this piece of investigation to Lord Shiva for bestowing upon me the
impetus, resilience, dauntless grit and robust health to tide over all the hitches in the way of consummation of my long nurtured
goal..
I am boundlessly indebted to the esteemed and venerable chairman of my advisory committee and head of the
department, Dr. Desh Raj for his incessant exhortation, scrupulous guidance and valuable counsel which enabled me to keep my
chin up during the rough patch. His incisive criticism has accorded me the stirring and nudge to undertake this herculean and
arduous task with gusto. He has been incalculably courteous in procuring the necessary amenities as and when required.
Infinite gratitude to the reverent members of my advisory committee, Dr. (Mrs.) Nirmala Devi, Professor
(Entomology), Dr. D. C. Sharma, Scientist (Entomology), Dr. A. S. Kapoor, Professor (Plant Pathology) and Dr. C. K.
Oberoi, Professor (Chemistry) for their solicitous help and discreet suggestions in wrapping up my research work.
I am profusely thankful to Dr. P. K. Sharma, Dean, Postgraduate Studies from the core of my heart for providing
academic assistance and other facilities during the entire study period. The financial backing proffered by the university in the
form of merit scholarship is duly venerated.
I feel honoured to thank my uncle, Dr. D. Badiyala and also Dr. A. K. Sood and Dr. K. S. Verma for their
whopping help and prolific suggestions in data analysis and thesis writing. I can’t thank Dr. V. V. Ramamurthy, Project Director,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, enough for his adroit help in identification of insect species associated with
okra crop.
I feel inundated with happiness to quote my profound and heartfelt thanks towards my doting and inimitable parents,
Dr. S. D. Badiyala and Mrs. Subhadra Badiyala who instilled loads of confidence and credence in me to embark on this venture
and pull it off assiduously with perfect aplomb.
I would take this opportunity to articulate oodles of thanks to my blithesome friend, Dr. Dhanbir for being an
infallible and stalwart prop and also for being always at the ready to render unconditional help and stupendous support with
alacrity.
I can’t put on the back seat the effervescent encouragement accorded to me by my adorable and loving siblings, Dr.
Bindu Sharma, Geetika Sharma, Abhishek and my jijus, Dr. Amarith Sharma and Mr. Sanjeev Sharma who pepped me up when
the chips were down and bolstered my morale to accomplish this project jubilantly and triumphantly. My chirpy little niece, baby
Tavisha entails special citation for her inexplicably sweet and buoyant company during my study period.
The benign cooperation and helping hand extended by the office and field staff of the department is duly
accredited. Last but not the least, authentic thanks to Mr. Ajay Walia for meticulous and conscientious preparation of the
manuscript.
Pointless to say, all errors and omissions are mine.
Place : Palampur
Dated : December, 2007 (Aditi Badiyala)
CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page
I INTRODUCTION 1-4
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-48
III MATERIALS AND METHODS 49-58
IV RESULTS 59-180
V DISCUSSION 181-228
VI SUMMARY 229-236
LITERATURE CITED 237-263
APPENDICES 264-267
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Title Page
No.
3.1 Schedule of spraying at Palampur and Kachhiari (Kangra) 56

3.2 Details of insecticides and biopesticides used for application 57
4.1 Pests recorded on okra variety Pusa Sawani at Palampur 60
4.2 Pests recorded on okra variety Pusa Sawani at Kachhiari 61
(Kangra)
4.3 Population build-up of A. biguttula biguttula on okra at 63
Palampur
4.4 Population build-up of A. biguttula biguttula on okra at 65
Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.5 Correlation coefficient (r) between abiotic factors and 69
population of A. biguttula biguttula
4.6 Population build-up of A. gossypii on okra at Palampur 70
4.7 Population build-up of A. gossypii on okra at Kachhiari 72
(Kangra)
4.8 Correlation coefficient (r) between abiotic factors and 76
population of A. gossypii
4.9 Population build-up of E. vittella on okra at Kachhiari 77
(Kangra)
4.10 Correlation coefficient (r) between abiotic factors, per cent 80
fruit infestation and larval population of E. vittella at
Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.11 Population build-up of Mylabris spp. on okra at Palampur 82
4.12 Population build-up of Mylabris spp. on okra at Kachhiari 84
(Kangra)
flower damage and beetle population of Mylabris spp.
4.14 Population build-up of S. derogata on okra at Palampur 90
4.15 Population build-up of S. derogata on okra at Kachhiari 92
(Kangra)
rolled leaf infestation and larval population of S. derogata
Table
Title Page
No.
4.17 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to A. biguttula 99
biguttula at Palampur
4.18 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to A. biguttula 101
biguttula at Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.19 Reaction of okra varieties to A. biguttula biguttula with 103
respect to total population
4.20 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to A. gossypii at 104
Palampur
4.21 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to A. gossypii at 106
Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.22 Reaction of okra varieties to A. gossypii with respect to 108
total population
4.23 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to fruit borer, E. 109
vittella at Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.24 Reaction of okra varieties to E. vittella with respect to fruit 111
infestation at Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.25 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to blister beetle, 112
Mylabris spp. at Palampur
4.26 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to blister beetle, 115
Mylabris spp. at Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.27 Reaction of okra varieties to M. pustulata with respect to 117
flower damage
4.28 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to leafroller, S. 118
derogata at Palampur
4.29 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to leafroller, S. 120
derogata at Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.30 Reaction of okra varieties to S. derogata with respect to 123
rolled leaf infestation
4.31 Marketable yield (q ha-1) of different okra varieties 124
4.32 Field efficacy of insecticides and biopesticides against A. 127
biguttula biguttula infesting okra at Palampur during 2005
biguttula biguttula infesting okra at Palampur during 2006
biguttula biguttula infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra)
during 2005
Table
Title Page
No.

biguttula biguttula infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra)
during 2006
gossypii infesting okra at Palampur during 2005
gossypii infesting okra at Palampur during 2006
gossypii infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2005
gossypii infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2006
4.40 Field efficacy of insecticides and biopesticides against E. 152
vittella infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra)
4.41 Field efficacy of insecticides and biopesticides against 155
Mylabris spp. infesting okra at Palampur during 2005
Mylabris spp. infesting okra at Palampur during 2006
Mylabris spp. infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra) during
2005
Mylabris spp. infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra) during
2006
4.45 Field efficacy of insecticides and biopesticides against S. 166
derogata infesting okra at Palampur during 2005
derogata infesting okra at Palampur during 2006
derogata infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2005
derogata infesting okra at Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2006
4.49 Effect of insecticides and biopesticides on marketable yield 179
(qha-1) of okra at Palampur and Kachhiari (Kangra)
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Between
Title
No. pages
4.1 Population build up of A. biguttula biguttula on okra in 63-64

relation to abiotic factors at Palampur during 2005


relation to abiotic factors at Kachhiari (Kangra) during
2005

2006
4.5 Population build up of A. gossypii on okra in relation 70-71

to abiotic factors at Palampur during 2005


to abiotic factors at Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2005

4.9 Population build up of E. vittella on okra in relation to 78-79

abiotic factors at Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2005
4.10 Population build up of E. vittella on okra in relation to 78-79

abiotic factors at Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2006
4.11 Population build up of Mylabris spp. on okra in 82-83

Figure Between
Title
No. pages


2005

2006
4.15 Population build up of S. derogata on okra in relation 90-91




LIST OF PLATES
Plate
Title After page
No.
1. Field trial on okra, A. esculentus at Palampur 50
2. Field trial on okra, A. esculentus at Kachhiari 50

(Kangra)
3. Infestation of A. biguttula biguttula on okra 68
4. Infestation of A. gossypii on okra 68
5. Larva of E. vittella inside okra fruit 76
6. Pupa of E. vittella 76
7. Adult of E. vittella 76
8. Fruits of okra infested by E. vittella 80
9. M. pustulata damaging okra flower 80
10. Infestation of S. derogata on okra 89
11. Larva of S. derogata 89
12. Pupa of S. derogata 90
13. Adult of S. derogata 90

Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench), frequently known as
lady‟s finger or bhendi belonging to family Malvaceae, is an important warm
season vegetable crop cultivated comprehensively in tropical and sub-tropical
regions of the world. Okra is native to Ethiopia (Vavilov, 1951). It is a short
duration crop propagated through seeds, cherished for its tender and
scrumptious green fruits used in curries, soups or in canned, dehydrated or
frozen forms for off-season consumption (Neeraja et al., 2004). Okra is more
remunerative than the leafy vegetables. The roots and stems are useful for
clearing cane juice from which gur or jaggery is prepared (Chauhan, 1972). Its
ripe seeds are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in Turkey
(Mehta, 1959). Fruits have high nutritive value containing proteins, calcium,
phosphorus, iron, carotene and vitamins A, B and C (Singh, 1970) which are very
useful against genito-urinary disorders, spermatorrhoea and chronic dysentery
(Nandkarni, 1927).
Okra has occupied a prominent position among the export oriented
vegetables in India because of its high nutritive value, palatability and good post-
harvest life. It has an enormous potential as one of the foreign exchange earner
crops and accounts for 70 per cent of the export of fresh vegetables (Dhankhar
and Mishra, 2001). At present, it is being exported to the neighbouring countries
in the Gulf and South- East Asia, particularly Singapore, Mauritius, Malaysia, Sri
Lanka and Bangladesh.

2
In India, okra is cultivated in an area of 0.37 million hectare with an
annual production of 3.53 million tons (Anonymous, 2004b). In Himachal
Pradesh, the crop is grown during summer and rainy seasons in low and mid hills
occupying an area of 357 hectare with an annual production of 4114 tons
(Anonymous, 2005b) which is much lower than that of many other states. One of
the major rationales for low yield is the wide array of insect-pests that sabotage
this crop right from germination till harvesting. According to Nair (1984), okra
crop is ravaged by as many as 45 species of insect-pests throughout its growth
period. Among these, cotton jassid, Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida) and
shoot and fruit borers, Earias vittella (Fabricius), E. insulana (Boisduval) are quite
serious and major restraining factors in okra cultivation (Singh et al., 1982;
Rahman, 1983; Prasad et al., 1993; Mandal et al., 2006a). These infest the crop
throughout vegetative as well as reproductive stages causing ample reduction in
yield (Satpathy and Rai, 1999).
The fruit borers are alone reported to cause damage to the extent of
3.5 to 90 per cent to okra in different parts of the country (Srinivasan and
Narayanaswamy, 1960; Rawat and Sahu, 1973; Krishnaiah et al., 1976;
Srinivasan and Krishnakumar, 1983; Chaudhary and Dadheech, 1989; Mandal et
al., 2006a). The larvae of the pest bore into top shoots in the initial stages of
infestation, which subsequently wither and droop. With the appearance of buds,
flowers and fruits, these also are bored; the buds and flowers droop down
whereas the fruits become stunted in growth and sometimes deformed in shape
(Butani and Verma, 1976). The jassids on the other hand cause cupping,
3
yellowing and bronzing of okra leaves under severe attack which shed
prematurely affecting growth of the crop adversely (Mahal et al., 1993a; Mahal
et al., 1994). The losses in okra yield due to this pest have been reported to vary
from 32.06 to 40.84 per cent (Singh and Brar, 1994). Besides these, other
important pests recorded on okra at various stages of growth include cotton
aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Gopalan et al., 1974; Mohan et al., 1983), whitefly,
Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Chelliah et al., 1976), mite, Tetranychus sp.(Rai,
1985; Khaire and Naik, 1986; Chinniah and Ali, 2000), blister beetle, Mylabris sp.
(Barwal and Rao, 1988), leafroller, Sylepta derogata (Fabricius) (Ghosh et al.,
1999) and red cotton bug, Dysdercus koenigii (Fabricius) (Butani and Verma,
1976).
Singh and Joshi (2004) reported 15 species of insect-pests associated
with okra crop in Paonta valley of Himachal Pradesh, out of which 4 were
mentioned as the major pests. However, the related information on the
economic status of insect-pest complex invading okras under mid hill conditions
of the state especially Kangra valley is still lacking. In developing an ecological
sound pest management programme, it is also imperative to spot the major
insect-pests and to ascertain the peak periods of their infestation in relation to
environmental conditions. This will not only be useful in framing an integrated
pest management schedule but will also help in getting information about the
low incidence and pest free periods.
At present, schedule based application of various insecticides are
recommended for the management of different insect-pests. But, the injudicious
use of synthetic chemicals to manage these pests is fraught with the tribulations
4
of resistance, resurgence, secondary infestation, phyto-toxicity, toxicity to
beneficial organisms, residues in food beyond the tolerance limits posing
unwarranted health hazards to the consumers (Mandal et al., 2006c). The
escalating concern for environmental security and global stipulation for pesticide
residue free food have induced intense interest for organic farming. Although use
of insecticides cannot be altogether omitted as they form the mainstay of pest
management strategies, yet their role can indubitably be limited by utilizing safer
techniques of pest management such as biopesticides (plant derivatives and
microbial insecticides), growing of pest tolerant/ resistant varieties and utilizing
bioagents in an eco-friendly integrated pest management package. Integration
of multiple pest suppression techniques has indeed the highest probability of
sustaining long-term crop protection.
Keeping in view, the above considerations, the present study entitled,
„Integrated Pest Management in Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench‟ was
framed with the following objectives:
i) To study the seasonal incidence/ population build-up of insect-pests on okra,
ii) to screen okra germplasm for resistance to major insect-pests, and
iii) to develop eco-friendly management strategies for major insect-pests on
okra.
Chapter II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Till date, the use of synthetic pesticides remains one of the best known
and most extensively used pest management measures. Nevertheless, it seems
that pesticide-related tribulations are going to outnumber the pest problems.
Since the writing of Rachel Carson‟s landmark, Silent Spring in 1962, much
controversy has occurred on the use of insecticides. Over-reliance and non-
judicious use of synthetic pesticides principally insecticides over the last four to
five decades has resulted in cropping up of many negative consequences mainly
the infamous 3 R‟s viz. resurgence, resistance and residue aspects (Mehrotra,
1990; Kabir et al., 1994 ; Mahapatro and Gupta, 1998), besides the health
hazards. Furthermore, their chaotic use has resulted in diminution of biodiversity
of natural enemies (Sekhon and Verma, 1985), outburst of secondary pests
(Praveen et al., 2001), contamination of food (Mitra et al., 1999) and break-
down of food webs in ecosystem (Krishnamurthy, 1999).
Among the various possible substitutes to combat these problems,
biopesticides (plant derivatives and microbial insecticides) are now emerging as
viable components of IPM strategies on all crops in view of the their pesticidal
potency as well as safety to parasitoids and predators (Rao et al., 1999; Salunke
et al., 2000). Besides this, use of resistant/ tolerant crop germplasm (Dhankhar,
1997) and biocontrol agents (Singh, 1993; Singh, 1997; Singh, 2001) are
6
attracting attention these days as imperative tools in IPM. Okra crop is ravaged
by almost the same insect-pests, which attack cotton crop as the two belong to
the same family i.e. Malvaceae. Much consideration is given to cotton crop
whereas okra has largely been overlooked. Keeping in view, the severity of
insect-pests on this crop especially in the Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh, the
present research was framed. The pertinent literature available on insect-pests of
okra has been appraised in this chapter under the following heads and sub-
heads.
2.1 Insects-pests associated with okra crop
Okra plant is closely related to cotton and ornamental plants. It has
many pests, almost as many as cotton; it being a collateral host. It is also a
preferred host plant for the pests of wild malvaceous plants (Pruthi, 1969;
Maxwell-Lefroy, 1990).
Sharma et al. (1964) reported blister beetle, M. pustulata feeding on
okra flowers. Ananthakrishnan (1971) recorded thrips, Frankliniella dampfi
Priesner and Haplothrips gowdeyi (Franklin) infesting the flowers of lady‟s finger.
Various workers have reported A. gossypii, A. biguttula biguttula, Earias spp.,
Dysdercus koenigii Fab., Helicoverpa armigera Hubner, B. tabaci and Spodoptera
littoralis L. as the pests of okra (Mote and Pokharkar, 1974; Gayen, 1975; Gupta
and Dhari, 1978; Babu and Azam, 1982; Krishnakumar and Srinivasan, 1984a;
Singh et al., 1986; Narke and Suryawanshi, 1987; Chaudhary and Dadheech,
1989). Butani and Verma (1976) mentioned as many as 30 pests associated with
7
okra crop, out of which cotton leafhopper (jassid), shoot and fruit borer (spotted
bollworms), red cotton bug, cotton leafroller and red spider mites were listed as
the major pests.
Thippeswami et al. (1980), Nayar et al. (1981), Sharma and Singh,
(1984) and Rajmohana (1999) observed Melanagromyza obtusa (Mall.) infesting
stems of okra plant. Dhamdhere et al. (1984) reported 13 insect and non-insect
pests‟ species attacking okra at various stages of crop growth, the major being
A. biguttula biguttula, B. tabaci, S. derogata, Mylabris spp., D. koenigii and E.
vittella. Maxwell-Lefroy (1990) reported that the pests of cotton attack okra crop
as collateral host and listed S. derogata, Myllocerus maculosus B., Earias spp., D.
koenigii, Oxycaraenus laetus Kirkby and A. gossypii as the principal pests
attacking this crop.
Dubey et al. (1999) reported that the summer crop of okra (cv.
Parbhani Kranti) was infested by different insect-pests viz. A. biguttula biguttula,
E. vittella, B. tabaci, H. armigera, A. gossypii, Anomis flava Fab., D. koenigii and
Nezara viridula Linn. and based on their occurrence and infestation; A. biguttula
biguttula, E. vittella, B. tabaci and H. armigera were rated as the major pests.
Flea beetle, Podogrica bowringi Baly was reported as the major pest on okra in
Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal by Lal (1999). Of the 15 pests recorded on
summer okra crop grown at Dhaulakuan (Himachal Pradesh) by Singh and Joshi
(2004); 4 viz., A. biguttula biguttula, S. derogata, E. vittella and Pectinophora
gossypiella (Saunders) were mentioned as the major pests.

8
2.2 Seasonal incidence/ population build up of insect-

pests on okra crop
2.2.1 Sucking pests
Seasonal activity of different pests of okra varies from region to region
due to ecological differences. Seasonal incidence of various pests of okra has
been studied by many workers (Kashyap and Verma, 1982; Mahmood et al.,
1988 and Kandoria et al., 1989). They reported that many pests infested okra
severely during warmer and rainy season i.e. from June to August. Intensity of
damage caused by them also varied from one region to another.
Low humidity was found favourable for the development of A.
biguttula biguttula on okra crop by Dhamdhere et al. (1984) at Gwalior, Madhya
Pradesh. According to Uthamasamy (1988), the incidence of leafhopper (A.
biguttula biguttula) on okra crop was highest on 25th and lowest on 35th day
after sowing at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu). Further, per cent hopper burn damage
showed a negative correlation (r= -0.57) with the yield whereas leafhopper
infestation and the hopper burn damage on the leaves had a significant positive
correlation (r=+0.43).
The seasonal activity of A. gossypii was studied at Ludhiana (Punjab)
and it was observed that the pest was active on okra crop during September-
October and the population declined from mid- May to the end of June due to
high temperature i.e. 40-45 ˚C (Kandoria et al., 1989). Jamwal and Kandoria
(1990) noticed that at Ludhiana (Punjab), A. gossypii remained active from 4th
week of July to 3rd week of October on okra with a peak population of 450
aphids per 30 plants observed in 1st week of September.

9
Mahmood et al. (1990) reported from Islamabad (Pakistan) that the
leafhoppers started emerging from the month of June on okra and remained
active till the end of crop. They found a positive correlation between the
maximum and minimum temperature and the density count of leafhoppers.
However, relative humidity and rainfall had no noteworthy contribution towards
increasing or decreasing the leafhopper numbers. Devasthali and Saran (1997)
reported from Indore (Madhya Pradesh) that the sucking pests viz. A. biguttula
biguttula, A. gossypii and B. tabaci were the first to appear on okra crop i.e. in
1st week of July.
An experiment was conducted during 1983-91 at Anand (Gujarat) by
Patel et al. (1997a) to study the outcome of weather factors on the activity of
aphid (A. gossypii) and leafhopper (A. biguttula biguttula) infesting okra. They
observed no momentous relationship between the population of aphid and
weather parameters. However, significant positive relationship was observed
between leafhopper level and maximum temperature (r=0.76) as well as hours
of bright sunshine (r=0.82). The population of leafhopper amplified in monsoon
when temperature remained around 37˚C along with at least 10 hours of bright
sunshine.
The highest population of A. biguttula biguttula on okra plants was
observed during 1st week of August in Haryana and numbers were negatively
correlated with maximum temperature but positively correlated with minimum
temperature and average relative humidity (Sharma and Sharma, 1997). At

10
Pundibari (West Bengal), peak population of aphids (A. gossypii) and whiteflies
(B. tabaci) were observed at the end of growth period of okra i.e. in 4th week of
July, while jassid (A. biguttula biguttula) showed its peak population in middle of
June (Ghosh et al., 1999). Gogoi and Dutta (2000) noticed at Jorhat (Assam)
that jassid population was maximum in the last week of May in 1998 (37.53
nymphs/leaf) and middle of April in 1999 (30.00 nymphs/leaf) and low rainfall
period coupled with bright sunshine hours favoured the development of this pest.
Kumawat et al. (2000) reported from Jobner (Rajasthan) that the
infestation of jassids and whiteflies started in 4th week of July and reached peaks
in 2nd and 4th weeks of September, respectively, and maximum temperature was
significantly and positively correlated with whitefly density.
Al Eryan et al. (2001) revealed from Alexandria (Egypt) that A. gossypii
activity started in July on okra and reached its peak in late August (1343.38
aphids/plant). Safdar et al. (2005) noticed that minimum temperature and
relative humidity had significant correlation with whitefly population on okra; the
whitefly population decreased with increase in relative humidity and increased
with increase in minimum temperature at Faisalabad (Pakistan).
2.2.2 Shoot/ fruit borers
Mote (1977) reported from Maharashtra that E. vittella infestation on
okra (var. Pusa Sawani) started as soon as the fruits set and attained a
maximum (69.91%) 3-4 weeks later, after which it dwindled.

11
Radke and Undirwade (1981) noticed the appearance of Earias spp. on
okra in 3rd week of December at Akola (Maharashtra) and reported 100 per cent
infestation in fruits with an average larval population per fruit to be 1.33 when
the average weekly maximum and minimum temperature were 28.1˚C and
10.2˚C, correspondingly, and relative humidity was 56.50 per cent. An increase
of 83.33 per cent was recorded in 1st week of January and beyond 2nd week of
January, 100 per cent fruits were found infested. During this week, average
weekly maximum and minimum temperature were 30.8˚C and 12.1˚C,
respectively, with 49-50 per cent relative humidity.
Kashyap and Verma (1982) reported from Hisar (Haryana) that
population density and incidence of okra spotted bollworm (Earias spp.) was not
correlated with the prevailing temperature, relative humidity or rainfall. They
however, indicated each increase and decrease in pest incidence corresponding
with decrease and increase in temperature and decrease in relative humidity.
Dhamdhere et al. (1984) reported that E. vittella was favoured by high humidity
at Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh.
At Rewa (Madhya Pradesh), summer okra crop was found infested by
stem and shoot fly, M. obtusa and the population was abundant in February and
March. However, there was a decline in the population in last week of April
(when okra stems became hard) and by the end of April, the population almost
ceased because of scorching heat and inability of the pest to oviposit in hard
stems (Sharma and Singh, 1984).

12
Studies on the seasonal incidence of shoot and fruit borer on okra at
Dapoli (Maharashtra) by Madav and Dumbre (1985) revealed that during hot
weather season, an incidence was spotted during 2nd week of March, which
increased progressively and reached its peak (37 % fruit infestation) during 1st
week of April, after which it declined. No incidence was detected throughout the
kharif season. During rabi season, the pest activity started in last week of
November, increased steadily and reached its peak in last week of December
after which it diminished.
At Rahuri (Maharashtra), infestation of E. vittella was highest from 7th
to 20th meteorological week (50.63% in summer season). It was low to moderate
from 21st to 40th meteorological week (24.23% in rainy season). Thereafter, it
increased rapidly and reached its peak, becoming severe (54.56%) in 45th to 52nd
meteorological week (November-December). There were significant and negative
correlations between pest infestation, relative humidity and rainfall (Kadam and
Khaire, 1995).
Shukla et al. (1997) studied seasonal incidence of E. vittella in summer
okra crop at Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) and reported the peak shoot damage
before fruiting (8.5 %) and peak fruit infestation (41.25 %) before harvesting in
1st fortnight of June. An experiment conducted at Samastipur (Bihar) to forecast
the okra shoot and fruit borer damage (weight basis) in relation to weather
factors revealed that the minimum incidence (3.2%) was recorded in last week
of May and the maximum (32.1%) in 4th week of July. Significant positive
13
relationships with the minimum temperature (r=0.8245), total rainfall (r=0.3387)
as well as significant negative correlation with maximum temperature (r=-
0.6194) were observed (Gupta et al., 1998).
Studies carried out during kharif 1996 and 1997 on okra cv. Parbhani
Kranti at Anand in Gujarat revealed that the activity of E. vittella started from 3
and 4 weeks age of crop and remained in accelerated mode until removal of
crop. Further, bright sunshine hours and maximum and mean temperature
showed a significant positive, whereas mean vapour pressure and relative
humidity showed significant negative influence on larval activity in okra (Zala et
al., 1999).
Ahmad et al. (2000) reported from Samastipur (Bihar) that peak larval
population (185.7) of E. vittella in fruits of Parbhani Kranti cultivar was noticed
during 1st fortnight of July at 29.9˚C, 84 per cent relative humidity and 61.4mm
precipitation. In a field experiment at Mohanpur (West Bengal), damage by E.
vittella on okra shoots and fruits occurred on 3 and 6-weeks old crop,
respectively, with two peaks of the pest, one at the vegetative stage (2 nd
fortnight of August) and other at reproductive stage (2nd week of September)
(Naresh et al., 2003).
At Samastipur (Bihar), the activity of E. vittella on summer okra crop
was observed from 35 days age of the crop. The infestation on shoots ranged
from 0.3 to 3.46 per cent in 2000 and 1.45 to 4.86 per cent in 2001. Maximum
temperature had negative effect while minimum temperature, relative humidiy
(morning and evening) and rainfall had positive effect on larval population and
fruit damage (Mandal et al., 2006b).

14
2.2.3 Foliage/ flower pests
Blister beetle, M. pustulata is a polyphagous pest reported to feed on
floral parts of Ipomoea spp., maize, musk-melon, okra, olive, pearl-millet, red
gram, rice, sorghum, watermelon etc. (Sharma et al., 1964; Yadav et al., 1977;
Anand, 1979; Nair, 1984; Garg, 1985). Sharma et al. (1964) reported that the
blister beetle appeared in July and its population peaked in August in Himachal
Pradesh on various crops including okra.
Sangha and Mavi (1995) reported from Ludhiana (Punjab) that M.
pustulata appeared in 2nd fortnight of July during 1990 and 1991 on various
crops, population peaked in mid-August and the activity ceased on November
18th and 14th, during the respective years.
Devasthali and Saran (1997) reported from Indore (Madhya Pradesh)
that A. flava appeared on okra in 3rd week of July. At Pundibari (West Bengal), S.
derogata infestation on okra started in the end of July, showed its peak
population in 2nd week of July, and declined in the month of August (Ghosh et
al., 1999).
2.3 Screening of okra germplasm for resistance against

insect- pests
Okra is cultivated throughout the country mainly during spring-summer
and rainy season. Considerable native diversity in cultivated and wild types occur
in Indian sub-continent. The available variability including both indigenous and
exotic germplasm has been utilized to a considerable extent in the improvement
of okra. The varietal resistance is a vital tool of integrated pest management. It

15
is quite important component in crops such as okra, in which fruits are picked at
short intervals, hence, the spray of insecticides becomes not only uneconomical
but hazardous also (Sardana and Dutta, 1989). It suppresses pest population
with least disturbance to crop ecosystem and also reduces need for harmful
pesticides that pollute the environment. Host plant resistance is rated as top
priority for IPM. It is highly effective based on cost-benefit analysis and play an
important role in sustaining productivity (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2003). It is a very
effective strategy to manage both direct damage produced by insects and
indirect damage produced by insect-transmitted plant pathogens.
Plant morphology is known to play an important role in imparting
resistance or susceptibility to a cultivar. Physical appearance of the plant like
colour, hairiness, hardness, trichomes, surface waxes, incrustation of minerals in
cuticle and anatomical adaptation of organs may affect the preference or non-
preference for egg laying, feeding and development of an insect (Dhankhar,
1997). In addition, wide array of chemical substances including inorganic
chemicals, primary metabolites, intermediary metabolites and secondary
substances are known to render cultivars less suitable or unsuitable to a wide
array of insect-pests (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2003).
2.3.1 Sucking pests
Positive correlation of jassid incidence with plant height and stem
thickness was reported in okra by Uthamasamy et al. (1973). Bindra and Mahal
(1979) and Mahal et al. (1993b) revealed that okra varieties having dense and
longer hair on mid-vein of leaves imparted resistance against oviposition by A.

16
biguttula biguttula. Uthamasamy and Subramaniam (1980) rated A.E.22 and
Pusa Sawani as highly resistant and susceptible to leaf hopper (A. devastans),
respectively, in Tamil Nadu. Of the 29 varieties of okra and 7 F1‟s screened in
Rahuri fields (Maharashtra) against A. biguttula biguttula during late summer and
rainy seasons of 1977; White Velvet, Clemson Spineless, Early Long Green, AE
27 and IC 75 showed less jassid population (Teli and Dalaya, 1981b).
At Hisar (Haryana), out of 44 promising F5 lines of okra tested for
resistance, HB-45, HB-39 and HB-43 were the most resistant to A. biguttula
biguttula (Kishore et al., 1983). In further studies, Uthamasamy (1986)
discovered that the resistance in okra varieties to leafhopper is governed by non-
preference and antibiosis mechanisms. The variety A.E. 22 was less preferred for
oviposition and feeding compared to the susceptible variety, Pusa Sawani. In
addition, the rate of multiplication of the insects on resistant variety was low
compared to the susceptible variety.
It was observed that the okra varieties having more and longer hairs
on the mid-rib and leaf lamina were resistant to leafhopper, rather than those
having more hair density (Singh, 1988; Singh and Agarwal, 1988). These
research workers also reported that the jassid resistant varieties had higher total
sugar, non-reducing sugars, tannins and silica in the leaves. Roy (1990) tested 5
varieties of okra in Orissa fields and found that Selection 2-2 was the least
susceptible to A. gossypii (because of its thick leaves) and Selection-1 was the
most susceptible.
17
Mahal et al. (1991, 1993a) studied the development and survival of
nymphs of A. biguttula biguttula at various ages of okra crop (1, 2, 3 and 4-week
old plants) on different varieties. They observed that varieties IC 7194 and New
Selection exhibited prolonged development and reduced survival of nymphs as
compared to Pusa Sawani at various ages of crop plant. They suggested that 1-
week was the optimum age of okra plant for screening of germplasm based on
the development and survival of jassid nymphs.
In Laguna (Philippines), length and density of trichomes and leaf
surface toughness were significantly greater in the moderately jassid resistant
okra Accession-12. Further, it was found that leaf thickness and number of
trichome branches did not differ significantly, while mid-rib width was
significantly narrower in the susceptible variety, Smooth Green. It was concluded
that long dense leaf trichomes probably impeded feeding and egg deposition and
the greater quantity of readily utilizable free sugar may have led to the greater
attraction and fecundity of the hoppers on Smooth Green (Taylo and Bernardo,
1996).
Based on nymphal abundance and leafhopper injury index, 2 resistant
(Siswal Local and IC 7194) genotypes were identified at Hisar (Haryana) while
Pusa Sawani and Pusa Reshmi were rated as highly susceptible. Further, the
resistance to leafhopper was associated with higher trichome density, longer
trichome length and higher concentration of sugars, silica, potassium, tannins
and phenols in the leaves of resistant cultivars (Hooda et al., 1997).

18
Six okra varieties viz. Parbhani Kranti, Arka Anamika, LBH-55, H-7,
Amtala hybrid and Kamdhenu were tested at Pundibari (West Bengal) for
resistance against major insect-pests of okra viz. aphids, jassids and whitefly. It
was found that both Arka Anamika and Parbhani Kranti showed moderate
resistance against aphids, jassids and whitefly (Ghosh et al., 1999). Among the
different okra varieties evaluated for resistance to A. biguttula biguttula, Pusa
Sawani was observed to be the most susceptible recording lowest fruit yield
(Sharma et al., 2001).
Of the 9 okra cultivars tested for resistance against leafhopper ( A.
biguttula biguttula) and red cotton bug (Dysdercus sp.) by Srinivasa and
Sugeetha (2001), KS 410 registered the lowest number of hoppers, while GOH- 1
was the most preferred by hoppers. Further, Arka Abhay and GOH- 1 recorded
low number of bugs while Parbhani Kranti and KS 410 recorded high bug
population. At Faizabad (Uttar Pradesh), Kumar and Singh (2002) revealed that
the pooled (2 seasons) nymphal population of A. biguttula biguttula was lowest
in Punjab Padmini (1.87) followed by DOV-91-4 (1.96) and Arka Anamika (1.98)
and highest in Pusa Sawani (3.77). The lowest leaf injury was recorded in Arka
Anamika (12.61%) followed by Punjab Padmini (13.27%) and highest in Pusa
Sawani (61.06%).
Out of 25 cultivars of okra tested in Palayamkottai (Andaman and
Nicobar islands), against the mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval); EC
28427, IC 141065, IC 90049 were rated resistant and EC 329364, IC 140977, TC

19
90074 were rated moderately resistant. The resistance level was based on low
moisture and more phenol content and more number of glandular hairs on the
leaves of resistant cultivars (Sahayaraj et al., 2003).
2.3.2 Shoot / fruit borers
Some of the genotypes of okra reported relatively tolerant to shoot
and fruit borer by Srinivasan and Narayanaswamy (1961) were Bhendi Red-1,
Bhendi Red-11 and Red Wonder. Late flowering varieties of okra irrespective of
hairiness were reported susceptible to fruit borer (Gupta and Yadav, 1978).
Raut and Sonone (1979) evaluated 25 cultivars and 2 related wild
species of okra with respect to shoot and fruit borer, E. vittella resistance at
Rahuri (Maharashtra). They found minimum infestation of fruits in cultivar,
Wonderful Pink (11.68%) while the variety Pusa Sawani was highly susceptible
(42.39 % infested fruits) and the wild species, A. mannihot and H. tetraphyllus
were respectively immune and highly resistant to the attack of pest.
Among 72 genotypes of okra screened against Earias spp. under field
conditions at Hisar (Haryana), Narnaul Special, 6(2), Harbhajan, Clemson
Spineless, White Snow and Sel Round revealed less than 10 per cent infestation
while the remaining genotypes exhibited 10-50 per cent infestation (Kashyap and
Verma, 1983).
Studies on relative susceptibility of different cultivars of okra for 2
seasons at Dapoli (Maharashtra) revealed that none of the cultivars was resistant
to shoot and fruit borers. The cultivars viz. A.E.-75, Pusa Sawani, Long Green,
20
Indo-American hybrid and White Velvet were tolerant showing 21-30 per cent
shoot infestation. However, based on fruit infestation, all the cultivars were
either susceptible or highly susceptible except A.E.-75 which was tolerant (Madav
and Dumbre, 1985).
Singh et al. (1986) found P-8 and Ludhiana Selection-2 genotypes
resistant to okra shoot and fruit borer. Tannin content in the fruit pericarp of fruit
borer tolerant okra genotypes was higher than susceptible genotypes (Singh and
Singh, 1987). Ninety nine okra genotypes were screened for resistance to Earias
spp. at Hisar (Haryana) and it was found that number of infested fruits per plant
were lowest in cultivar, Long Green Smooth (14.4%) followed by All Season
(14.5%), Sel 2-2 (15.0%), IC 6497 (15.2%) and IC 6316 (15.5%) (Sharma and
Dhankhar, 1989).
Okra varieties viz. AE 79, AE 69 and AE 22 screened at Rahuri
(Maharashtra), demonstrated high resistance to shoot borer (in terms of number
of dying plants and per cent fruit infestation) and resistance to fruit infestation
was correlated with increased fruit hair density (Kumbhar et al., 1991). Among 5
okra varieties tested for their reaction to fruit borer at Jachh (Himachal Pradesh),
maximum incidence was observed on P-8 followed by Harbhajan, Parbhani
Kranti, Punjab 7 and Pusa Sawani (Raj et al., 1993).
Shukla et al. (1998) conducted field trials in 2 different locations at
Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) to test 7 okra varieties/ hybrids for resistance to E.
vittella. They concluded that varieties AROH 2 and Komal hybrid F1 showed
21
lowest shoot damage (4 and 5 %, respectively) but were poor yielders (27.80
and 19.70 qha-1, respectively). Variety Ankur 35 and Parbhani Kranti however,
registered significantly higher shoot damage (7.5 and 8.0 %) but produced
higher healthy fruit yields of 72.81 and 62.06 qha-1, respectively.
resistance to fruit borers. It was discovered that fruit damage due to borer varied
between low to moderate (7.73-10.10%) on all the varieties (Ghosh et al.,
1999). Nine okra cultivars were evaluated for resistance to Earias spp. during 2
season trial conducted by Srinivasa and Sugeetha (2001) at Bangalore
(Karnataka). It was observed that none of the cultivars was completely free from
infestation, the most susceptible variety being GOH-1.
Naresh et al. (2003) observed in field experiments at Mohanpur (West
Bengal) that Vijaya cultivar was less susceptible based on shoot damage by
Earias spp., however, fruit damage was lowest in Hybrid No. 8 followed by Jaya,
OH-1, Arka Abhoy, Harsha, Vijaya, Arka Anamika and Soumya. Neeraja et al.
(2004) screened some okra hybrids against fruit borer at Rajendranagar
(Hyderabad) and reported that the fruit borer incidence ranged from 21.7 per
cent in MBORH-913 to 27.6 per cent in JNDOH-1. Singh et al. (2005b)
determined the resistance of 20 okra germplasm lines against E. vittella at
Faizabad (Uttar Pradesh). They revealed that KS-410, A-4 and NDO-10 showed
lower damage on shoots as well as fruits.

22
2.3.3 Foliage/ flower pests
resistance against leafroller, S. derogata. It was found that both Arka Anamika
(1.07 larvae/plant) and Parbhani Kranti (0.32 larva/plant) showed moderate
resistance to this pest (Ghosh et al., 1999).
Naresh et al. (2003) screened 8 okra cultivars at Mohanpur (West
Bengal) for resistance to leafroller and found that the order of susceptibility was:
Arka Anamika < Vijaya < Hybrid No.8 < OH-1 < Arka Abhoy < Jaya < Soumya <
Harsha.
2.4 Management of insect pests
2.4.1 Seed treatment
Application of insecticides to seeds before or at the time of planting
offers the most proficient and concentrated means of protecting the germinating
seeds and seedlings. Such applications are minimal in dosage and highly
economical as well as least disturbing to the environment. Seed treatment with
systemic insecticides like phorate and disulfoton protects the seedlings from the
attack of aphids, thrips and leafhoppers for several weeks (Metcalf, 1975). It is
an effective method for managing sucking pests on okra which occur at an early
stage of crop growth. Moreover, the seed treatment is superior to foliar sprays in
rainy season too (Mote et al., 1994). Clayton (1988) suggested seed treatment
23
technology to replace wasteful foliar or soil application in order to reduce the
environmental impact of agro-chemicals. A new insecticide, imidacloprid
belonging to the group of nitroguanidines has been tried recently (Kumar and
Dixit, 2001) as seed dresser against sucking pests of okra and found efficient.
Mote et al. (1994) found imidacloprid (15 g kg-1 seed) treatment
promising against sucking pests of okra viz. aphids, jassids, thrips, mites and
whiteflies at Rahuri (Maharashtra). Okra seed treatment with Gaucho
(imidacloprid) 70 WS or Cruiser (thiomethoxam) 70 WS at 5 and 4.29 g kg -1
seed, respectively, kept pest population of A. biguttula biguttula below economic
threshold level (2.5 nymphs/ leaf) for more than 45 days (Sharma and Kalra,
1996).
Sreelatha and Divakar (1997) in an experiment conducted at
Rajendranagar (Hyderabad) revealed that seed treatment with imidacloprid (7.5
g kg-1 okra seed) effectively suppressed aphids and jassids besides increasing
the plant height, leaf area and yield of okra. They further reported that 2 foliar
sprays during vegetative stage of crop could be avoided if the seed is treated.
Bhargava and Bhatnagar (2001) revealed that 2 formulations of
imidacloprid 600 FS at the rate of 9 ml kg-1 and 70 WP at the rate of 10 g kg-1
okra seed treatment performed well against jassids and whiteflies at Jaipur
(Rajasthan) recording higher yields with no phyto-toxic symptoms on crop.

24
Kumar and Singh (2001) reported from Bangalore (Karnataka) that
seed treatment with imidacloprid (Gaucho 600 FS) at 12 ml kg-1 was efficient in
reducing leafhopper infestation with no phyto-toxic effect on okra plants;
however, the lower concentrations were not effective. Seed treatment of okra
with imidacloprid (5g kg-1) managed population of A. biguttula biguttula
successfully at Hisar in Haryana (Lal et al., 2001).
In field experiments conducted at New Delhi, okra seed treatment with
imidacloprid (3 or 5.4 g a.i. kg-1 seed) was found effective in managing A.
biguttula biguttula population (Sinha and Sharma, 2007).
2.4.2 Foliar application
2.4.2.1 Botanicals
Among the various plant products studied during the last 25 years,
extracts and compounds from neem tree (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) have
attracted a special contemplation of entomologists all over the world. Neem is
known to contain assorted array of biologically active principles, of which
azadirachtin is one of the best known ingredients (Singh, 1996). Neem has
antifeedant, antiovipositional, growth disrupting and fecundity reducing
properties for different insects (Singh, 1984; Schumutterer, 1990; Schumutterer,
1995) and is suitable for inclusion in integrated pest management programmes.
Neem and neem products have been reported to check population of more than
200 species of insects belonging to different orders like coleoptera, diptera,
lepidoptera, heteropotera, homoptera, orthoptera and thysanoptera
(Ramarethinam, 1998).
25
More than 68 neem (A. indica) based formulations are now
commercially available in India (Srinivasamurthy, 1998) which have been largely
tested and used against number of insect-pest species on various crops as
compared to other botanical pesticides. Furthermore, the chances of developing
resistance in insects to neem preparations are very less. Such preparations are
also comparatively more economical, biodegradable, and safe to human beings
and beneficial insects.
2.4.2.1.1 Sucking pests
Neem oil (2%) failed to provide any noteworthy suppression of okra
leafhopper population compared to check insecticide, monocrotophos, 0.05 per
cent at Bangalore, Karnataka (Sardana and Kumar, 1989). At Anand (Gujarat),
okra crop sprayed with botanicals viz. neemark (1.0%), neemol (1.0%) and
neem seed kernel suspension showed oviposition deterrent and growth inhibitory
effect on jassids and resulted in lower percentage of normal adult emergence
(Patel and Patel, 1996).
In Nairobi, population of A. gossypii was effectively checked on okra by
4 weekly sprays of 0.5 per cent aqueous neem seed extract or 2 per cent neem
oil, the results being at par with butocarboxim insecticide (Dreyer and Hellpap,
1997). Aqueous leaf extracts of tobacco (2%), Ipomoea carnea (5%) and seed
extracts of A. indica and Pongamia glabra (both at 5%) gave a similar level of
suppression of A. devastans and A. gossypii on okra as that by endosulfan
(0.06%) and monocrotophos (0.05%) at Nagpur in Maharashtra (Kulat et al.,
1997).
26
Patel and Patel (1998) revealed that Repelin (formulation based on A.
indica) at 1 per cent was highly effective in managing A. biguttula biguttula on
okra under Gujarat conditions. Thakur and Singh (1998) reported from
Dhaulakuan (Himachal Pradesh) that neem compounds viz. achook, niconeem
and neemark failed to provide effective decrease of jassids on okra.
At Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), 2 sprays of neem at the rate of 2.5 ml l-1
during vegetative phase of the okra crop were less effective compared to
synthetic chemicals and their combinations tested against jassids (Satpathy and
Rai, 1999). Two sprays of neemitaf (azadirachtin 6 ppm; 4ml l-1) on okra crop at
Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) at an interval of 15 days were rated relatively
ineffective against A. gossypii (Chinniah and Ali, 2000).
In an experiment conducted by Kumar and Singh (2001) at Faizabad
(Uttar Pradesh), the efficacy of some botanicals was evaluated against A.
biguttula biguttula infesting okra crop. It was observed that both achook
(0.07%) and neem seed kernel extract (NSKE - 3%) were effective in checking
jassid population and out of these, NSKE (3%) witnessed the most economical
cost: benefit ratio (1:10.7). Rosaiah (2001) conducted field experiments at
Guntur (Hyderabad) to evaluate the performance of various botanicals against
the pest complex of okra for 3 consecutive years (1995-97) and showed that
NSKE (5 and 10 %) and neemazal (0.5%) were less effective in reducing jassid
population.
The plant product azadirachtin at the rate of 3 g a.i. ha-1 was reported
effective against okra aphids but not against jassids by Mishra (2002) at
Bhubneshwar (Orissa). Mishra and Senapati (2003) reported from Bhubneshwar

27
(Orissa) that azadirachtin (3 g a.i. ha-1) resulted in optimum reduction in
population of jassids on okra (55.50 % reduction over untreated check).
Aqueous neem seed extract (50g l-1) reduced the population of D. superstitious
and B. tabaci on okra and produced higher fruit yield in Ghana thus concluding
that this botanical can be lucratively used by farmers as an element of integrated
pest management (Obeng and Sackey, 2003). Panickar et al. (2003) reported
from Anand (Gujarat) that 3 sprays of achook (0.15% EC) starting from 45 days
old crop of okra registered substantially lower aphid population.
Mudathir and Basedow (2004) observed that neem preparations viz.
neem kernel water extract (NKWE) containing 2.5-5.0 per cent azadirachtin a.i.
ha-1 and neemazal containing 6-12 per cent azadirachtin a.i. ha-1 appreciably
abridged the attack of A. gossypii and B. tabaci on okra in Sudan. Safdar et al.
(2005) reported that neem extract significantly lowered the whitefly (B. tabaci)
population on okra at Faisalabad (Pakistan).
2.4.2.1.2 Shoot / fruit borers
Among the various plant oils evaluated against E. vittella at Bangalore
(Karnataka), neem oil (2%) proved to be the best in reducing the borer damage
on okra (Sardana and Kumar, 1989). Repelin (1.0%), neemark (0.1%) and
neem oil (1.0%) provided good reduction of E. vittella on okra (Sojitra and Patel,
1992). Four sprays of achook (1.0%) and neem oil (1.0%) provided good check
of E. vittella infestation on okra at Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) (Shukla et al.,
1996). NSKE (3%) was found equally effective as chlorpyriphos (0.04%),
triazophos (0.04%) and quinalphos (0.025%) in giving protection to okra fruits
against E. vittella at Anand in Gujarat (Patel et al., 1997b).

28
Neem seed kernel extract was reported ineffective in managing E.
vittella on okra at Akola (Maharashtra) by Sarode and Gabhane (1998). Singh et
al. (1998) reported from Udaipur (Rajasthan), that 3 foliar sprays of both neem
seed extract (100%) and neem seed oil (1 kg ha-1) were effective against Earias
spp. on okra.
Compared to synthetic chemicals and their combinations tested against
fruit borers on okra at Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), neem sprays at the rate of 2.5
ml l-1 were less effective (Satpathy and Rai, 1999). Ambekar et al. (2000a)
reported from Pune (Maharashtra) that achook (0.5%) was the best in reducing
okra fruit borer infestation among the various neem products viz. NSKE, achook,
nimbecidine, rakshak, bioneem, nimbitor, neemgold and neemark tested against
this pest. Three neem preparations viz. NSKE (5%), nimbitor (0.5%) and achook
(0.5%) when used alone were less efficient than synthetic pesticides against
okra fruit borer and recorded 27.25, 28.38 and 29.58 per cent fruit borer
infestations, respectively, at Pune (Maharashtra) (Ambekar et al., 2000b).
Anaso and Lale (2002) reported from Maiduguri (Nigeria) that okras
sprayed with aqueous neem kernel extract harboured appreciably less population
of H. armigera. In field trials at Bapatla (Andhra Pradesh), Gowri et al. (2002)
revealed that nimbecidine (1.0%) was quite effective against E. vittella and gave
higher okra yields. Neem preparations viz. neem kernel water extract (2.5-5.0 %
azadirachtin a.i. ha-1) and neemazal (6-12% azadirachtin a.i. ha-1) noticeably
reduced the attack of E. vittella on okra at Khartoum North in Sudan (Mudathir
and Basedow, 2004).

29
Five sprays of NSKE (1.5%) gave good reduction of E. vittella on okra
at Faizabad (Uttar Pradesh) and recorded higher fruit yield of 56.33 qha-1
compared to 29.17 qha-1 in untreated check (Singh et al., 2005a). Gupta and
Mishra (2006) reported from Pusa (Bihar) that neem oil (0.5%) failed to provide
effective decrease in E. vittella incidence and was at par with untreated check.
2.4.2.1.3 Foliage / flower pests
Cobbinah and Owusu (1988) found in Ghana that okra plants treated
with neem seed extracts harboured lower population of S. derogata and P.
sjostedti. Neem products viz. 3 per cent neem oil and 5 per cent NSKE were
found effective against flea beetles, P. uniformis and P. sjostedti on okra in
Lalabar (Nigeria) and gave higher yields (Emosairue and Ukey, 1997). Both these
neem products showed promise as a substitute for synthetic insecticides for the
management of these pests. Further, it was suggested that higher concentration
and closer spray regimes would probably improve their efficacy.
Anaso and Lale (2002) reported from Maiduguri (Nigeria) that okras
sprayed with aqueous neem kernel extract recorded appreciably less population
of Podogrica spp. and S. derogata. At Bhubneshwar (Orissa), azadirachtin (3g
a.i. ha-1) was observed effective (Mishra et al., 2002) in managing okra
leafrollers with least per cent infestation (1.2-2.0%) as compared to untreated
check (12.4%). Obeng and Sackey (2003) revealed from Ghana that aqueous
neem seed extract (50g l-1) reduced the population of P. uniformis, S. derogata,
Epilachna similis, S. littoralis and S. litura on okra and produced higher fruit yield.
30
Neem preparations viz. neem kernel water extract (NKWE) containing
2.5-5.0 per cent azadirachtin a.i. ha-1 and neemazal containing 6-12 per cent
azadirachtin a.i. ha-1 significantly reduced the attack of P. punticollis on okra at
Khartoum North in Sudan (Mudathir and Basedow, 2004).
2.4.2.2 Microbial insecticides
Microbial insecticides are basically pest management agents of
biological origin, including bacteria, fungi and viruses. These provide viable and
ecofriendly alternative to chemical insecticides for the successful management of
insect-pests on a variety of crops. Among these, bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis
Berliner plays a very important role in natural mortality of the larvae. Falcon
(1971) reported 23 strains of B. thuringiensis used in insect management. This
bacterium is currently being used worldwide, mainly for the management of
lepidopterous, coleopterous and dipterous pests (Jaques, 1988; Biswas et al.,
1996; Sharma and Odak, 1996; Elanchezhyan et al., 2007).
Bt based bioinsecticides account for 90-95 per cent of the world
biopesticides market (Asokan et al., 2001). This bacterium acts on host through
delta endotoxin crystals which are stomach poisons (Elanchezhyan et al., 2007).
Many bacterial formulations such as Halt, Dipel, Bioasp, Biobit, Delfin etc are
available in the market for the management of lepidopterous insect-pests on
vaious crops.
31
Ghosh et al. (1999) inferred that Bt (1g l-1) recorded 32.14 per cent
mortality of jassids and 35.35 per cent mortality of aphids on okra at Pundibari
(West Bengal). They further reported that vertimec, a microbial toxin originated
from a soil actinomycetes was more effective than synthetic insecticides viz.
malathion and DDVP and biopesticides viz. Bt and Beauveria bassiana (Bals.)
Vuill. against both these sucking pests.
Obeng and Sackey (2003) reported from Legon (Ghana) that sprays of
Bt (1g l-1) on okra substantially dropped off the damage caused by B. tabaci and
D. superstitious and produced higher yields of marketable fruits, thus
emphasising that this biopesticide can be effectively used by farmers as a
component of IPM of okra.
In a field experiment conducted at Samastipur (Bihar), 3 sprays of Bt
(500g ha-1) on okra were effective in reducing the jassid population and this
treatment was at par with the monocrotophos treatment (Mandal et al., 2006a).
2.4.2.2.2 Shoot/ fruit borers
Foliar applications of dipel at 0.5, 1.0 or 1.5 lb acre-1 in Nigeria
effectively checked infestation of H. armigera, E. insulana and E. biplaga on okra
(Taylor, 1974). Three weekly sprayings with dipel (0.5 kg ha-1) on okra in
Karnataka effectively managed E. vittella (Krishnaiah et al. 1981). Mohan et al.
(1983) reported sprays of dipel (0.5 kg ha-1) equally effective as fenvalerate (0.1
kg a.i.ha-1) in suppressing E. vittella infestation on okra at Bangalore
(Karnataka).
32
Three sprays of either B. thuringiensis var. kurstaki-1 (BTK-1) at the
rate of 1.5 kg a.i. ha-1 or B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis (BTT) at the rate of
1.5 kg a.i.ha-1 were found effective in reducing the fruit infestation by Earias spp.
on okra crop at Udaipur (Rajasthan) (Singh et al., 1998).
The commercial formulation of B. thuringiensis (dipel) at the rate of
0.1 per cent was least effective in reducing okra shoot and fruit infestation by E.
vittella over untreated check at Bilaspur (Madhya Pradesh) (Tomar, 1998).
Among the various pesticides tested against fruit borer on okra in West Bengal
by Ghosh et al. (1999), vertimec (formulation based on microbial toxin originated
from a soil actinomycete) and B. thuringiensis proved superior over synthetic
pesticides (Malathion, DDVP) and biopesticides (neem, B. bassiana) in reducing
fruit damage by borer i.e. 57.80 and 50.12 per cent, respectively.
Karim et al. (2000) reported from Pakistan that B. thuringiensis
formulations- Agree and Larvo Bt (250-1500 g a.i. ha-1) were effective against H.
armigera and E. vittella on okra crop. Lal et al. (2001) found that B. thuringiensis
(0.5 kg ha-1) sprays at weekly intervals was effective in checking E. insulana
infestation on okra.
At Rahuri (Maharashtra), sprays of B. thuringiensis (0.03%) on okra
crop did not prove effective against fruit borer. However, alternate spraying of
cypermethrin, followed by NSE followed by B. thuringiensis recorded the lowest
fruit damage i.e. 15.33 per cent (Patil et al., 2002). According to Gupta and
Mishra (2006), sprays of Spicturin (Btk 0.3%) gave good protection to okra crop
33
from E. vittella infestation at Pusa (Bihar). Likewise, Mandal et al. (2006a)
reported from Samastipur (Bihar) that 3 sprays of Bt (500g/ha) significantly
reduced fruit infestation by E. vittella over untreated check.
2.4.2.2.3 Foliage/ flower pests
Taylor (1974) investigated in Nigeria that foliar applications of dipel at
0.5, 1.0 or 1.5 lb acre-1 successfully managed population of S. derogata, A. flava
and S. littoralis on okra. Vetimec, proved its superiority over synthetic pesticides
in decreasing the larval population of leafroller on okra (Ghosh et al., 1999).
In Legon (Ghana), sprays of B. thuringiensis (1g l-1) significantly
decreased the damage caused by P. uniformis, S. derogata, E. similis, S. littoralis
and S. litura on okra (Obeng and Sackey, 2003) and produced higher yield of
marketable fruits thereby concluding that this biopesticide can be efficiently used
by farmers for integrated pest management in okra.
2.4.2.3 Synthetic pesticides
One cannot ignore the harmful effects of synthetic pesticides reported
in almost every component of biosphere. Moreover, in crops such as okra, the
short interval between picking of fruits poses the residue hazards to the
consumers when the chemical insecticides are used. Nevertheless. it is to be
confessed by one and all that when used properly, pesticides provide an
efficient, fast, reliable and cost-effective means of pest management
(Mahapatro, 1999).
34
Satpathy and Mishra (1970) suggested sprays of endosulfan for
suppressing population of okra jassids. Field trials for 3 successive years (1973-
75) on rainfed okra crop at Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) revealed that 4 sprays of
malathion (0.04%), 2 at vegetative and 2 at fruiting stage were effective in
checking jassid population (Gupta and Dhari, 1978). Mote (1978) reported from
Rahuri, that first 2 sprays on okra crop with 0.03 per cent monocrotophos and
dimethoate at an interval of 15 days starting from 2 weeks after sowing and next
3 sprays with 0.05 per cent endosulfan at fortnightly intervals starting from fruit
setting were effective for the management of A. devastans.
At Hisar (Haryana), Singh and Chopra (1979) found malathion 0.1 per
cent effective against okra jassids upto 12 days after spraying. Parkash et al.
(1980) noticed at Hisar (Haryana) that 1 spray of 0.03 per cent dimethoate/
phosphamidon during prefruiting stage followed by 4 fortnightly sprays of
phosalone (0.1%) or malathion (0.1%) or endosulfan (0.05%), during the
fruiting stage were effective against A. biguttula biguttula on okra crop. Three
sprays of endosulfan (310g a.i. ha-1) were at par with 5 sprays of malathion
(700g a.i. ha-1) in managing A. biguttula biguttula population on okra at
Ludhiana in Punjab (Singh et al., 1982). It was also noticed that higher yields
were obtained when the crop was sprayed at an infestation level of 5 nymphs
per leaf.
35
A field experiment conducted at Bangalore (Karnataka) by Mohan and
Mohan (1985) revealed that endosulfan (0.7 kg a.i. ha-1) was quite effective for
the suppression of A. biguttula biguttula and A. gossypii population on okra crop.
Rai (1985) revealed from field trials conducted at New Delhi on management of
okra pests that decamethrin (0.0065%) gave maximum reduction in jassid
population but was statistically at par with cypermethrin at both the doses
(0.017%; 0.00325%), whereas, chlorpyriphos (0.048%) was the most effective
against aphids but did not differ statistically from cypermethrin (0.034%) and
decamethrin (0.0065%).
Yadav et al. (1988) evaluated some insecticides against jassids at Hisar
(Haryana) and signified that 3 sprays of endosulfan (0.05%) provided an
excellent reduction of jassid population on okra throughout the growth period.
The performance of 16 insecticides against the cicadellid, A. biguttula biguttula
on okra was studied at Hisar (Haryana) by Dahiya et al. (1990) during kharif and
it was found that cypermethrin, fenvalerate, flucythrinate (all at 0.006%),
deltamethrin (0.002%) and endosulfan (0.07%) were the most persistent and
effectively checked pest population for 15 days. Further, fenthion, diazinon,
phenthoate (all at 0.05%), malathion (0.075%) and carbaryl (0.1%) were
effective for a week only.
Rao et al. (1991) reported from Bapatla (Andhra Pradesh) that 4
sprays of endosulfan (0.07%) or endosulfan (0.07%) alternated with carbaryl
(0.15%) were quite effective against aphids and leafhoppers infesting okra crop.
36
Singh et al. (1991) revealed from Jammu that deltamethrin (0.0014%, 0.0028%
and 0.0042%) and endosulfan (0.053%, 0.070% and 0.087%) were more
effective than malathion (0.084%) against okra jassids at all the tested dosages.
Okras sprayed with 0.1 per cent endosulfan at Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh)
resulted in 90 per cent mortality of D. cingulatus upto 2 after spraying (Kumar et
al., 1992). Borah (1994) revealed from Diphu (Assam) that application of 0.05
per cent malathion at 15 days after germination followed by 0.03 per cent
dimethoate at 25 and 30 days after germination managed A. biguttula biguttula
effectively and resulted in higher fruit yield of okra.
Kumar et al. (1996) observed that foliar sprays of malathion 50 EC at
400-500 ml acre-1 at Hisar (Haryana) increased okra fruit yield significantly over
untreated check because of the reduction in the population of A. biguttula
biguttula. Sosamma and Sheila (1996) investigated that cypermethrin (0.02%)
was the most effective insecticide against okra aphids and remained effective till
14 days after spraying in field trials conducted at Thrissur in Kerala.
Patel et al. (1997b) conducted field experiments on okra at Anand
(Gujarat) to test the efficacy of some conventional insecticides against A.
gossypii and A. biguttula biguttula. They reported that among the different
insecticidal sprays, endosulfan (0.035%) was most effective against both the
pests. Endosulfan (0.07%) was observed to be highly efficacious in reducing the
population of A. biguttula biguttula on okra in field experiments conducted at

37
Anand (Gujarat) by Patel and Patel (1998). In West Bengal, higher mortality of
aphids (66.19%) and jassids (49.52%) on okra crop was brought about by the
application of malathion (Ghosh et al., 1999).
In Jos (Nigeria), cypermethrin at 12.5 g a.i. ha -1 reduced the
population of Empoasca spp. substantially on treated okra plants than those on
untreated ones (Parh et al., 1999). Two sprays of endosulfan (700 g a. i. ha-1)
during vegetative stage of okra restricted jassid population quite effectively at
Varanasi and Ranchi (Satpathy and Rai, 1999; Singh and Chaudhary, 2001).
Cypermethrin (100 g a.i. ha-1) gave good protection to okra against
aphids and jassids at Bhubneshwar, Orissa compared to thiomethoxam and
imidacloprid (both at 25g a. i. ha-1) which were less effective (Mishra, 2002).
Sherlone (phosalone 24% + cypermethrin 5%) at 360 g a.i. ha-1 was found
effective against A. biguttula biguttula on okra at Bhubneshwar, Orissa by Panda
et al. (2002). Sprays of malathion (0.05%) gave satisfactory reduction in
population of jassids on okra (Sharma and Shukla, 2003) at Jabalpur (Madhya
Pradesh). Mandal et al. (2006a) demonstrated the efficacy of 3 sprays of
monocrotophos 36SL (400g) in managing jassid population on okra in Bihar.
2.4.2.3.2 Shoot / fruit borers
Satpathy and Mishra (1970) advocated the sprays of endosulfan for
the management of okra borers. Three-four sprays of monocrotophos (0.1%) or
endosulfan (0.07%) at 15 days interval were equally effective in checking okra
fruit borer (E. vittella and E. insulana) infestation at Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu
38
(Gopalan et al., 1974; Mote and Pokharkar, 1974; Uthamasamy and
Subramaniam, 1976). Field trials for 3 successive years (1973-75) on rainfed
okra crop at Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) revealed that 4 sprays of malathion
(0.04%), 2 at vegetative and 2 at fruiting stage were effective in checking shoot
and fruit infestation by E. vittella (Gupta and Dhari, 1978).
Mote (1978) reported from Rahuri, Maharashtra that first 2 sprays on
okra crop with 0.03 per cent monocrotophos and dimethoate at an interval of 15
days starting from 2 weeks after sowing and next 3 sprays with 0.05 per cent
endosulfan at fortnightly intervals starting from fruit setting were effective for
the management of E. vittella and E. insulana. Jadhav and Nawale (1980) in field
experiments conducted at Rahuri and Kolhapur (Maharashtra) revealed that 4
sprays of 0.05 per cent monocrotophos were more effective than endosulfan
(0.05%) in reducing the infestation of fruit borers and getting higher yield of
healthy fruits but keeping in view the environmental safety, endosulfan was
recommended.
At Akola (Maharashtra), sprays of malathion (0.05%) and endosulfan
(0.05%) gave good reduction in fruit infestation by spotted bollworm, E. vittella
on okra (Radke and Undirwade, 1981). According to Kale et al. (1982), sprays of
cypermethrin (15g a.i. ha-1) at an interval of 14 days could be relied upon for
reducing the losses due to E. vittella on okra. Both fenvalerate and cypermethrin
were found effective in checking infestation by E. vittella and H. armigera and
giving higher yields of marketable okra fruits (Krishnakumar and Srinivasan,
1984a; Krishnakumar and Srinivasan 1984b; Patel et al., 1984; Krishnakumar
and Srinivasan, 1985; Krishnakumar and Srinivasan, 1987).

39
Rai (1985) revealed from field trials conducted in New Delhi that fruit
borer of okra was effectively managed by the application of decamethrin
(0.0065%). Field experiments conducted at Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) indicated
that malathion (0.03 %, 3 sprays) gave satisfactory protection against okra shoot
and fruit borer infestation (Verma, 1985).
Cypermethrin (0.012%) was observed to be promising against the okra
fruit borer, E. vittella by Khaire and Naik (1986) at Pune (Maharashtra). At
Rahuri in Maharashtra, 1 spray of endosulfan at the rate of 500 g a.i. ha -1, 15
days after germination of okra followed by 3 sprays of fenvalerate or
cypermethrin (both at 50 g a.i. ha-1) were quite effective in checking fruit borer
infestation. In addition, this treatment gave the highest yield (73.32 q ha -1)
compared to untreated check (18.14 q ha-1) (Pawar et al., 1988). In field
experiments at Agartala (Tripura), all the tested insecticides viz. malathion,
endosulfan, fenvalerate, deltamethrin were found effective in managing E.
vittella with fenvalerate (0.5 ml l-1) giving the highest reduction in number of
infested okra fruits (Sarkar and Nath, 1989).
At Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), 2 applications of malathion (1000 ml ha-1)
on okra gave satisfactory reduction of E. vittella and E. insulana incidence (Konar
and Rai, 1990). David and Kumaraswami (1991) reported from Madurai (Tamil
Nadu) that cypermethrin (0.016%) was superiormost in reducing the okra fruit
damage by fruit borer on number as well as weight basis. Rao et al. (1991)
reported from Bapatla (Andhra Pradesh) that 4 sprays of endosulfan (0.07%)
during kharif season or endosulfan (0.07%) alternated with carbaryl (0.15%)
were quite effective against shoot and fruit borers infesting okra crop.
40
Endosulfan (0.350 kg a.i. ha-1) brought about effective suppression of
fruit borer, E. vittella on okra at Padappai (Tamil Nadu) and gave appreciably
higher yield of healthy fruits (Samuthiravelu and David, 1991). Minimum damage
to okra fruits by fruit borers was observed in treatment comprising 4 regular
sprays of endosulfan at an interval of 15 days at Rahuri in Maharashtra (Pawar
and Lawande, 1993). Cypermethrin (0.006%) was found less effective against
the okra fruit borer, E. vittella at Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh by Prasad et al.
(1993). Of the several insecticides tested against E. vittella on okra at Diphu
(Assam), by Borah (1995), malathion (0.05%) applied after 15 days of
germination in combination with dimethoate (0.03%) applied 25 and 30 days
after germination were the most effective and also gave highest marketable
yield.
Kumar et al. (1996) noticed that foliar sprays of malathion 50 EC (400-
500 ml acre-1) at Hisar (Haryana) increased the fruit yield of okra significantly
over untreated check because of reduction in population of E. vittella. At
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, 4 sprays of cypermethrin 10 EC (0.005%) on okra
gave good reduction of E. vittella infestation (Shukla et al., 1996). Patel et al.
(1997b) conducted field experiments on okra at Anand (Gujarat) to test the
efficacy of some conventional insecticides against E. vittella. They reported that
endosulfan (0.035%) was the most effective among the different insecticidal
sprays.
41
Both, monocrotophos (500g a.i. ha-1) and cypermethrin (50g a.i. ha-1)
performed equally well (Rai and Satpathy, 1999) against E. vittella on okra at
Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh). Among the different chemicals tested against E. vittella
on okra at Ranchi (Jharkhand), cypermethrin 25 EC (0.075%, 2 sprays) showed
its superiority in terms of lower fruit infestation and higher cost-benefit ratio over
other chemicals viz. fenvalerate, ethion, cartap hydrochloride, fluvalinate and
endosulfan (Singh and Chaudhary, 1999).
Among the different chemicals viz. endosulfan, cypermethrin, NSKE,
achook, nimbitor, combination of neem products and synthetic pesticides tested
against Earias spp. on okra at Pune (Maharashtra), cypermethrin (0.01%) was
the most effective, recording the lowest fruit infestation (6.57 %), and was
significantly superior over other treatments. This was followed by endosulfan
(0.06%) which recorded 12.52 per cent fruit infestation compared to 44.16 per
cent infestation in untreated check (Ambekar et al., 2000b).
Gowri et al. (2002) noticed that endosulfan (0.07%) was most
effective in managing E. vittella and gave higher yield of okra at Bapatla (Andhra
Pradesh). In field trials at Brahmavar (Karnataka), Manjanaik et al. (2002)
observed that endosulfan (0.05%) gave the lowest fruit damage (2.92%) of okra
as well as highest fruit yield (61.85 qha-1) and benefit-cost ratio (1:9.26). Mishra
et al. (2002) found that significantly better management of E. vittella on okra
was acquired with the application of cypermethrin (100g), profenofos (500g ha-1)
and rocket i.e. combination product of profenofos and cypermethrin (440g a.i.
ha-1) at Bhubneshwar, Orissa.

42
Four sprays of cypermethrin 25 EC (0.0075%) at an interval of 10 days
starting from flowering were found effective in reducing infestation of okra fruits
by E. vittella at Rahuri in Maharashtra (Patil et al., 2002). According to Gupta
and Mishra (2006) and Mandal et al. (2006a), monocrotophos gave only low to
moderate level of protection to okra crop against E. vittella in field experiments
conducted in Bihar.
2.4.2.3.3 Foliage / flower pests
Kakar and Dogra (1988) found cypermethrin (0.008%) and malathion
(0.05%) effective against M. pustulata on okra in Himachal Pradesh. Use of 0.05
per cent malathion, monocrotophos or primphos-methyl during the vegetative
stage of okra crop and 0.05 per cent malathion or dichlorvos during flowering
and fruiting stages provided adequate protection to the crop against Podogrica
spp. in Nigeria (Ahmed et al., 1998).
Studies on evaluation of some insecticides at Garampani (Uttar
Pradesh) for the management of Mylabris spp. on okra by Prasad and Dimri
(1998) revealed that decamethrin (0.025%) was quite efficacious against this
pest. Parh et al. (1999) observed that cypermethrin at 12.5 g a.i. ha-1 reduced
the population of Podogrica spp. substantially on treated okra plants than those
on untreated ones in Jos (Nigeria).
Mishra et al. (2002) found that significantly better reduction of S.
derogata population on okra was attained with the application of cypermethrin
(100g), profenofos (500g ha-1) and rocket i.e. combination product of profenofos
43
and cypermethrin (440g a.i. ha-1) at Bhubneshwar, Orissa. Deltamethrin provided
good protection to okra crop from Podogrica spp. and S. derogata in Nigeria and
gave higher yields than neem seed extracts (Anaso, 2003). Endosulfan (0.07%)
or malathion (0.05%) sprays have been reported to be effective against Mylabris
spp. on okra in Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 2005b).
2.4.3 Use of biocontrol agents
Of the safer pest management strategies, biological suppression is
considered as an effective, environmentally non-degrading, economically viable
and socially acceptable method of pest management (Singh, 2001). Among the
various biological control agents, Trichogramma egg parasitoids are being
utilized for managing several crop pests effectively. Trichogramma belongs to
family Trichgrammatidae of the super-family Chalcidoidea of the order
Hymenoptera. The sub-family Trichogramminae comprises 11 genera and 30
species (Kyrger, 1918). Out of 12 indigenous species of Trichogramma, only T.
chilonis has the distinction of being the highest produced and most utilized
biocontrol agent (Manjunath, 1991; Brar et al., 2000). T. chilonis releases at the
rate of 50,000 ha-1 during the active egg-laying period hold promise against a
number of lepidopteran insect-pests.
T. brasiliensis Ashm. was observed to parasitize eggs of E. vittella
and H. armigera to the extent of 64 and 70 per cent, respectively, under
laboratory conditions but when released under field conditions at Parbhani
(Maharashtra) proved less efficient (Rao et. al., 1978).

44
Raja et al. (1998) reported from Tamil Nadu that the parasitoid, T.
chilonis decreased E. vittella damage on okra crop compared to untreated check.
In Egypt, effective management of A. gossypii (99.5% reduction) was achieved
by liberating coccinellid beetles (Coccinella 11-punctata) in the predator-prey
ratio of 1:200 at the beginning of detection of aphid population on okra (Al Eryan
et al., 2001). Sumathi and Balasubramaniam (2002) reported the efficacy of T.
chilonis release at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) against E. vittella and E. insulana on
okra crop in the order: T. chilonis (50000 ha-1 at 10 % fruit damage)> T. chilonis
(7.5 % fruit damage)> T. chilonis (5.0 % fruit damage)> T. chilonis (2.5 % fruit
damage).
Kumar et al. (2004) evaluated Trichogrammatids for the management
of fruit borer, H. armigera on tomato at Ludhiana, Punjab. They concluded that
lowest fruit damage (8.01%) was observed in the plots where T. chilonis was
released at the rate of one lakh ha-1, followed by T. chilonis at the rate of 75,000
ha-1 (9.20%), T. brasiliensis at the rate of 1 lakh ha-1 (11.66%) and T.
pretiosum at the rate of 1,000,00 and 75,000 ha-1 (10.88 and 11.82 %,
respectively). Further, higher yields were obtained at higher release rates.
2.4.4 Combination of treatments (IPM)
Integrated pest management appears to be the only viable option to
manage future insect-pest problems as part of a holistic crop production
technology. It combines care and concern for natural resources and the use of
modern methods to produce safer and wholesome food. This system represents
45
a logical way forward between the extremes of ultra intensive agro-ecosystems
and low output organic farming (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2003). Integration of
different pest management components in which natural enemies play an
important role, have proved effective, economical and ecologically sound
(Gahukar, 1997).
Endosulfan (0.035%) in combination with neem oil (0.3 %) proved
effective against fruit borer, E. vittella on okra and also produced higher yield of
healthy fruits at Padappai, Tamil Nadu (Samuthiravelu and David, 1991). Mathur
et al. (1998) noticed at Bangalore (Karnataka) that the combined application of
monocrotophos 36 SL (1 l ha-1) followed by 2 sprays of B. thuringiensis sub sp.
kurstaki (Dipel 8L, 1 l ha-1) + methomyl 40 SP (0.625 kgha-1) produced the
lowest okra fruit damage by Earias spp. (4.21%) and highest fruit yield (4.07 t
ha-1).
The combinations of dipel + endosulfan (0.1% + 0.035%) and dipel +
fenvalerate (0.1% + 0.0025%) considerably lowered okra shoot and fruit
infestation by E. vittella over untreated check at Bilaspur (Madhya Pradesh)
(Tomar, 1998). It was observed by Praveen and Dhandapani (2001) in field
experiments on okra at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) that 3 releases of predator, C.
carnea (25,000 larvae ha-1 release-1) + econeem 0.3 per cent (0.5l ha-1) at 15
days interval were effective in reducing the population of A. biguttula biguttula,
B. tabaci , A. gossypii, H. armigera and E. vittella on okra. Moreover, the fruit
yield (10326 kg ha-1) and cost: benefit ratio (1:2.60) were also higher when C.
carnea and Econeem were integrated as compared to the individual treatments.

46
Kaur (2002) reported from Ludhiana (Punjab) that leaf injury of okra
due to jassid infestation was lowest with seed treatment of imidacloprid (5g kg -1)
+ foliar sprays with monocrotophos (500g a.i ha-1) + cypermethrin(15g a.i. ha-1).
At Udayagiri (Orissa), lowest fruit borer incidence due to E. vittella (8.6% on wt.
basis) was detected when biotex (Bt sub sp. thuringiensis serotype) at 1 kg ha-1
was applied to okra crop twice and alternated with 1 malathion application at 0.5
kg a.i.ha-1 (Mishra and Mishra, 2002). These workers also reported that
mutineem (neem oil) at 2.5 l ha-1 or neemax (NSKE) at 1.0 kg ha-1 combined
with malathion application (0.5 kg a.i.ha-1) lowered the fruit borer incidence
(11.7-13.3 %), compared to the untreated check (16.9%). In addition, they
revealed that the aphid population remained very low (50.7/ top 3 leaves) in
treatment where biotox, neemax and mutineem were applied once in succession,
which was statistically at par with treatment where mutineem was applied in
between 2 malathion applications.
The combination treatment NSKE (2%) + cypermethrin (0.0075%)
effectively managed infestation by fruit borers on okra at Ahmednagar,
Maharashtra (Patil et al., 2002). Sprays of NSKE in combination with methanolic
extracts of sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.) and pungum (Pongamia glabra Vent)
at the rate of 0.42 per cent recorded highest mortality of leafhoppers on okra
compared to NSKE alone at Madurai in Tamil Nadu (Rao and Rajendran, 2002).
Sahoo and Pal (2003) revealed that 2 carbofuran sprays alternated with
azadirachtin spray lowered considerably the fruit damage by E. vittella on okra at
Mohanpur (West Bengal).

47
Application of endosulfan (0.07%) followed by Achook (0.7%) and
NSKE (3%) were effective in managing okra jassid at Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh
(Singh and Kumar, 2003). Balakrishnan et al. (2004) in field trials on rainfed
okra crop at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) indicated that 2 releases of T. chilonis
(1,00,000 ha-1; 40 and 60 days after sowing) with 2 sprays of Btk (1 kg ha-1; 90
and 120 days after sowing) recorded less mean larval population (0.33/ plant) of
H. armigera and higher yield (782 kg ha-1) as compared to combination
treatments of T. chilonis with other microbial insecticides viz. Ha NPV and B.
bassiana.
Satpathy et al. (2004) investigated at Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) that
seed treatment of okra with imidacloprid at 3 g kg-1 and subsequent application
of monocrotophos at 500g a.i. ha-1 at 55 and 70 DAS offered maximum
protection against A. biguttula biguttula (0.53 nymphs/ plant) throughout the
growth period of crop.
Endosulfan (0.25 kg a.i. ha-1) and spicturin(Btk 0.5 L ha-1) alternately
sprayed between 6 am and 4 pm when the infestation by E. vittella exceeded
ETL (5.3% wt. basis) i.e. after 92 days of carbofuran (3G) soil treatment were
found most effective in lowering pest incidence and giving highest okra fruit yield
(Gupta and Mishra, 2006). In field experiments conducted at Samastipur (Bihar),
the treatment combinations of B. thuringiensis (500g ha-1) with lower doses of
endosulfan 35 EC (250g ha-1) and acephtae 75 SP (300g ha-1) recorded minimum
jassid population as well as larval population of E. vittella on okra (Mandal et al.,

48
2006a). Soil application of neem cake (@ 200kg ha-1) combined with sprays of
endosulfan 35 EC (@ 0.5 kg ha-1) or chlorpyriphos 20 EC (@ 0.5 kg ha-1) were
quite effective in reducing the incidence of jassid and shoot and fruit borer on
okra at Samastipur, Bihar (Mandal et al., 2006c).

Chapter III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Studies on the research investigation entitled, „Integrated Pest
Management in Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench‟ were carried out
during 2005 and 2006 crop seasons at two locations viz. research farm of
Department of Entomology, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur situated at an altitude of 1290 metres above mean
sea level between 32o 6‟ N latitude and 76o 3‟ E longitude and farmer‟s fields in
village Kachhiari (Kangra) situated at 760 metres above mean sea level.
3.1 Raising of the crop
Okra crop was raised in the fields at the two sites under different
experiments following all agronomic practices as recommended for the crop in
the package of practices (Anonymous, 2005b). The crop was sown in the first
week of April at Kachhiari during both the years and first week of June and last
week of May and at Palampur during 2005 and 2006, respectively, with a row to
row and plant to plant spacing of 60 x 15 cm.
3.2 Meteorological Observations
The weekly means of meteorological data for maximum and minimum
temperature (˚C), relative humidity (%), hours of bright sunshine and total
rainfall (mm) recorded daily during the crop growth periods of 2005 and 2006
50
were obtained from the Agro-meteorological Observatory of the Department of
Agronomy, CSK HPKV, Palampur and Shivalik Hill Agricultural Research and
Extension Centre, Kangra.
3.3 Surveillance and monitoring of insect-pests

associated with okra
In order to understand the insect-pests associated with okra and also
to study their extent of incidence, the crop was grown in 10 plots of size 3m x
3m and observations were taken on 10 randomly selected plants per plot (100
plants in total) under natural infestation conditions. Observations were taken on
Pusa Sawani variety because of the fact that it is still one of the most popular
varieties grown in the mid-hills of Himachal Pradesh and also reported to be
susceptible to insect-pest attack.
The sampling of insects infesting the crop was carried out at weekly
intervals throughout the cropping season. The percent plant infestation on each
sampling was recorded by observing 100 randomly selected plants. The broad
criteria for classifying the insects were according to Jasrotia (1999) as follows:
Minor pests: 5 to 10 per cent plants affected.
Major pests: More than 10 per cent plants affected.
Each of the insect species infesting the crop was classified as major or
minor pest depending on their intensity and damage caused to the crop. The
species were identified either from the collection of Department of Entomology,
CSK HPKV, Palampur or were sent to IARI, New Delhi for identification.
51
3.4 Seasonal incidence/ population-build up of insect-

pests on okra crop
For studying population build-up of insect-pests, okra variety- Pusa
Sawani was raised at Palampur and Kachhiari as per the recommended package
of practices. No insecticide was sprayed. Observations were recorded for
different groups of insect-pests viz. sucking pests, shoot/fruit borers and
foliage/flower pests at both the locations on 100 randomly selected plants at
weekly intervals throughout the crop growth period as follows:
3.4.1 Sampling of major insect-pests
Sucking pests:
Population counts (nymphs + adults) were made on 3 randomly
selected leaves per plant (100 plants in total) from upper, middle and lower
canopy as per the procedure adopted by Singh and Kaushik (1990).
Shoot/fruit borers:
Total number of shoots along with the infested ones were counted on
100 plants at weekly intervals and was expressed as percentage at different
sampling dates. At each picking, carried out at weekly intervals, total number of
fruits along with number of infested fruits harvested from 100 plants were
counted and the same was also expressed as percentage. The larval density was
recorded by counting all the larvae in the infested fruits harvested from 100
plants at each picking. Larvae were either seen crawling on the fruits or were
present inside the fruits.

52
Foliage/flower feeders:
Weekly records on the number of larvae/grubs and adults per plant on
100 randomly selected plants were made as soon as these pests started
appearing in the fields. The per cent flower damage was determined by counting
total number of flowers and number of damaged flowers on 100 plants at weekly
intervals. In case of leafroller, per cent rolled leaf infestation was estimated by
counting total number of leaves and number of rolled leaves having infestation of
leafroller on 100 plants at weekly intervals.
3.4.2 Infestation Index
The infestation index for sucking and foliage / flower pests was
calculated as per the formula adopted by Sood and Bhalla (1996):
Mean larval population per plant x Per cent plant infestation

Infestation Index = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
100
3.4.3 Effect of abiotic factors on population build-up of major

insect-pests of okra
To study the instant impact of the abiotic factors on the population
build-up of major insect-pests, the following two methods were used:
Graphical superimposition of insect-pest population and abiotic

factors:
The activity records for major insect-pests were prepared showing
their peak activity periods during the two years of study at the two locations.
Comparative fluctuations in mean maximum and minimum temperature (˚C),
mean relative humidity (%) and mean hours of bright sunshine, (latter recorded
53
at Palampur only) averaged for the preceding 7 days of observations along with
the total rainfall (mm) recorded during the period were also presented in the
activity records.
Correlation studies:
The population build-up data so obtained for the major insect-pests
were subjected to correlation analysis with various abiotic factors and the
correlation coefficients thus obtained were compared for their significance
following the method described by Fisher and Yates (1963).
3.5 Screening of okra varieties/hybrids for resistance

against major insect-pests
Ten varieties/ hybrids viz. Pusa Sawani (Seed Production Unit, CSK
HPKV, Palampur, H.P.), P-8 (Department of Vegetable Science, CSK HPKV,
Palampur, H.P.), Pusa Makhmali (IARI Regional Station, Katrain, Kullu, H.P.),
Tulsi (F1) (Nunhems Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad), Varsha Uphar F1 (Durga Dass
Hybrid Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Chandigarh), Panchaali F1 (Century Seeds Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi), Parbhani Kranti (Nuziveedu Seeds Ltd., New Delhi), Arka Anamika
(Nuziveedu Seeds Ltd., New Delhi), Shagun (Nunhems Seeds Pvt. Ltd.,
Hyderabad) and Harbhajan (Regional Horticulture and Forestry Research Station,
Bhota, Hamirpur, H.P.) were evaluated for their relative susceptibility against the
major insect-pests under natural infestation conditions.
The screening was done for two seasons at both the locations. The
seeds of these ten varieties/ hybrids were sown in the fields in plots of size 3m x
2m with a row to row and plant to plant spacing of 60 cm x 15 cm. The
experiment was conducted in randomized block design and replicated thrice.

54
3.5.1 Screening for resistance against sucking pests:
In order to assess the level of infestation of sucking pests, weekly
observations on the population counts of immature stages (nymphs) as well as
adults were recorded on 5 plants in each replication as described under section
3.4.1.
3.5.2 Screening for resistance against shoot/fruit borers and

foliage/flower feeders:
Following observations were recorded at weekly intervals to assess the
relative susceptibility of different varieties/ hybrids of okra to these pests under
natural infestation conditions:
1. Larval population per 10 plants in each replication.
2. Flower damage by counting total as well as damaged flowers on 10
randomly selected plants in each replication.
3. Fruit infestation by counting total number of fruits along with the
infested ones harvested from all the plants in a plot in each replication.
4. Rolled leaf infestation by counting total as well as number of rolled
leaves carrying infestation on 10 randomly selected plants in each
replication.
The last three parameters were expressed as percentages at different
sampling dates. In case of fruit borer, the varieties were categorized as per the
mean rating given by Bhalla et al. (1989).
3.5.3 Marketable yield
The weight of healthy fruits was recorded per plot variety wise at each
picking done at weekly intervals. Based on the data of cumulative pickings, total
yield (q ha-1) was worked out for each variety and analyzed statistically.
55
3.6 Field efficacy of insecticides and biopesticides

against major insect-pests of okra
Efficacy of different insecticides and biopesticides alone and in
combination with bioagent, Trichogramma chilonis Ishii was evaluated under
field conditions. Four commercially available synthetic insecticides viz. malathion,
endosulfan, cypermethrin, imidacloprid, two commercially available biopesticides
viz. Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Dipel) and azadirachtin (Achook) and one
laboratory reared egg parasitoid, T. chilonis were applied as per the following
details:
Variety : Pusa Sawani
Plot size : 4.2 m x 3 m
Design : Randomized Block
Replications : 3
The crop was raised following the recommended package of practices
of the university (Anonymous, 2005b). The details of different treatments were
as follows:
Treatments:
T1: Trichogramma chilonis (50,000 parasitized host eggs ha-1)
T2: Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (3.96 x 107 IU ha-1)
T3 Azadirachtin (0.00045%)
T4: Malathion (0.05%)
T5: Endosulfan (0.07%)
T6: Cypermethrin (0.01%)

56
T7: Imidacloprid (5g kg-1 seed)
T8: T. chilonis (25000 PE ha-1) + B. thuringiensis (1.98 x 107 IU ha-1)
T9: T. chilonis (25000 PE ha-1) + Imidacloprid (2.5 g kg-1 seed)
T10: T. chilonis (25000 PE ha-1) + Endosulfan (0.035%)
T11: B. thuringiensis (1.98 x 107 IU ha-1) + Endosulfan (0.035%)
T12: Untreated check
In all, three sprayings were carried out at Kachhiari and two at
Palampur during both the years. The adjuvant (teepol) was added to spray
solutions to avoid wash-off of chemicals due to rain. The schedule of spraying
has been outlined in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Schedule of spraying at Palampur and Kachhiari (Kangra)
Palampur Kachhiari
2005 2006 2005 2006
First spray August, 7 July, 28 June, 18 June, 11
Second spray August, 28 August, 18 July, 23 July, 14
Third spray - - August, 13 August, 4
A total of 6 releases of T. chilonis were made at Kachhiari and 4 at
Palampur. During each spray, 2 releases were carried out, first at 7 days before
spray and second at 7 days after spray.
The population counts of sucking pests were recorded on 5 randomly
selected plants while that of foliage and flower pests on 10 randomly selected
plants per plot in each replication a day before spray and after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15
days of spraying as per the procedure discussed under section 3.4.1. Reduction
57
in the population of these insect-pests at different intervals after spraying was
worked out as percentage in relation to the population observed in the untreated
check plots on that particular day. In case of fruit borer, pre-treatment per cent
fruit infestation (no. basis) was determined one day before spray and at 7 and
14 days after spray by harvesting all the fruits from each plot and sorting them
into healthy and infested ones. The per cent fruit infestation for the
corresponding days in different treatments was analyzed statistically.
The weight of healthy fruits was recorded in each plot treatment-wise
throughout the crop season and total yield (of all the pickings) in quintals per
hectare was worked out for each treatment.
3.6.1 Details of insecticides and biopesticides used
The details of insecticides and biopesticides including biocontrol agent
used for application are depicted in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Details of insecticides and biopesticides used for application

Trade name Common name (a.i.) Manufacturer
Dipel 8L Bacillus thuringiensis var. Lupin Agrochemicals (India) Ltd.,
kurstaki strain HD-1, 17600 IU Santacruz, Mumbai
/ml
Achook Azadirachtin (EC) Godrej Agrovet Ltd., Surat,
(0.15%) Gujarat
Jythion 50 Malathion 50% EC Jyoti Insecticides, Delhi

Thiodan Endosulfan 35% EC Bayer Crop Science India Ltd.,
Mumbai
Cymbush 25 EC Cypermethrin 25% EC Syngenta Protection Pvt. Ltd.,
Mumbai
Quasar Imidacloprid 70% WS FIL Industries, Bari Brahamana,
Jammu
Trichogramma Egg parasitoid Brought from PAU, Ludhiana and
chilonis mass cultured in P.G. Laboratory
of the Department
58
3.6.2 Mass production of T. chilonis
T. chilonis was mass-produced on the laboratory host, Corcyra
cephalonica Stainton following the method adopted by Project Directorate of
Biological Control, Bangalore (Anonymous, 1991) with slight modifications. The
moths of C. cephalonica were collected daily, transferred to glass jars having
filter paper at the bottom, and covered with muslin cloth. The jars were placed in
BOD incubator at 26+1 ˚C for 24 hours. After 24 hours, the jars were removed
and the eggs were collected and passed through mesh sieves to eliminate insect
scales and dust particles. The eggs were then glued to trichocards of 15 cm x 10
cm size that were pre-punched to obtain chips of desired size leaving uncovered
space at one end to facilitate stapling. After 24 hours, the exposed trichocards
were removed and placed in separate glass vials. Thus, the culture of parasitoid
was built-up. Six days old parasitized egg cards were utilized for field release.
3.7 Statistical Analysis
Data recorded under different experiments were subjected to statistical
analysis for drawing inferences using standard statistical methods (Gomez and
Gomez, 1984).
Chapter IV
RESULTS
The results emanating from the present study on “Integrated Pest
Management in Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench” are presented
hereunder:
4.1 Insect-pests associated with okra crop
Surveillance studies conducted during 2005 and 2006 at Palampur
revealed that 18 different pest species were associated with okra crop (Table
4.1). Among these, 4 were observed to cause plant damage of more than 10
per cent and thus classified as major pests during both the years. These
included cotton jassid, Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida), cotton aphid,
Aphis gossypii Glover, blister beetle, Mylabris pustulata Thunbergo and
cotton leafroller, Sylepta derogata (Fabricius). The remaining insects were
rated as minor pests of the crop as they caused 5 to 10 per cent damage.
At Kachhiari (Kangra), the surveillance studies carried out during
2005 and 2006 revealed 19 different pest species associated with okra crop
(Table 4.2). Among these, 5 were rated as major pests of okra (plant
damage of more than 10%) which included cotton jassid, A . biguttula
biguttula ; cotton aphid, A. gossypii; shoot and fruit borer, Earias vittella
(Fabricius); blister beetle, M. pustulata and cotton leafroller, S . derogata .
The rest of the insects were categorized as minor pests becaus e of their
lower numbers and plant damage of 5 to 10 per cent.

60
61
62
4.2 Seasonal incidence/ population build up of major

insect- pests on okra crop
Studies on the seasonal incidence/ population build up of major
insect-pests on okra crop were conducted at the two locations viz. Palampur
and Kachhiari during the crop seasons of 2005 and 2006.
4.2.1 Cotton jassid, A. biguttula biguttula
Population count (nymphs + adults)
Data on the population build up of jassids at Palampur presented
in Table 4.3 revealed that the jassids were active on okra crop from 1 st week
of July to last week of September during 2005 crop season. The pest was
first noticed on the crop on July 3, with a total population of 2.63 jassids
(1.01 nymphs + 1.62 adults/3 leaves) which showed a variable trend till the
final harvesting. The peak infestation of the pest was recorded during last
week of August with utmost population count of 46.20 (35.57 nymphs+
10.63 adults) per 3 leaves. The corresponding means of maximum
temperature, minimum temperature, relative humidity, bright sunshine when
the maximum population of the pest was recorded were 27.4˚C, 18.8˚C, 79
per cent, 5.9 hours with a total of 64.4 mm rainfall. Subsequently, the
population declined rapidly. However, the pest population did not cease
completely and remained on the crop till final harvesting i.e. till last week
of September (Fig.4.1).
63
Table 4.3 Population build-up of A. biguttula biguttula on okra at

Palampur
Sampling Population count # /3 leaves Per cent Infestation

date plant index
Nymphs Adults Total
infestation
2005
3 July 1.01 1.62 2.63 8 0.21
10 July 5.20 2.10 7.30 14 1.02
17 July 3.70 1.70 5.40 14 0.78
24 July 12.93 2.75 15.68 22 3.45
31 July 16.79 4.10 20.89 33 6.89
7 Aug. 19.23 7.78 27.01 46 12.42
14 Aug. 29.15 8.93 38.08 58 22.09
21 Aug. 18.69 5.93 24.62 46 11.33
28 Aug. 35.57 10.63 46.20 72 33.26
4 Sept. 23.56 6.57 30.13 53 15.97
11 Sept. 14.76 3.21 17.97 37 6.65
18 Sept. 2.24 1.27 3.51 12 0.42
25 Sept. 2.95 1.25 4.20 9 0.37
2006
1 July 0.50 1.75 2.25 8 0.18
8 July 3.90 2.20 6.10 19 1.16
15 July 3.50 1.94 5.42 22 1.19
22 July 6.68 3.48 10.16 44 4.47
29 July 7.14 3.75 10.89 47 5.12
5 Aug. 26.69 7.47 34.16 62 21.18
12 Aug. 25.97 7.23 33.20 64 21.25
19 Aug. 36.18 9.68 45.86 70 32.10
26 Aug. 16.43 4.54 20.97 43 9.02
2 Sept. 5.85 2.95 8.80 21 1.85
9 Sept. 2.88 2.62 5.50 14 0.77
# Nymphs + adults recorded on 100 plants (3 leaves/plant)
64
During 2006 crop season also, the pest commenced its activity in
1st week of July when a total population of 2.25 i.e . 0.50 nymphs + 1.75
adults per 3 leaves was observed (Table 4.3) which again showed an
irregular pattern. Highest population (45.86/3 leaves) of the pest was
recorded during 3 rd week of August coinciding with mean meteorological
conditions of 28.5˚C (maximum temperature), 20.2˚C (minimum
temperature), 79 per cent (relative humidity), 7.5 hours (bright sunshine)
and 80.5 mm (total rainfall) (Fig. 4.2). Thereafter, the jassid population
showed a speedy decline but remained on crop till 2 nd week of September.
At Kachhiari, the activity of A. biguttula biguttula initiated during
4 th week of May, 2005 when a total population of 0.71 i.e. 0.46 nymphs +
0.25 adults per 3 leaves (Table 4.4) was observed. The pest population
remained low till 3 rd week of June due to higher temperature after which it
gained impetus and illustrated an increasing trend subsequently till August
2, when peak population (51.02/3 leaves) of the pest was recorded
concurring with weather parameters of 29.7°C (maximum temperature),
25.3˚C (minimum temperature), 75 per cent (relative humidity) and 75.7
mm (total rainfall). Consequently, the population showed a retreating
tendency during 2 nd week of August but amplified in the following week after
which it declined (Fig. 4.3).
During 2006 crop season (Table 4.4), the pest appeared in
somewhat lower proportion as compared to 2005 with total population of

65
Table 4.4 Population build-up of Amrasca biguttula biguttula on

okra at Kachhiari (Kangra)
Sampling Population count # /3 Per cent Infestation

date leaves plant index
Nymphs Adults Total infestation
2005
24 May 0.46 0.25 0.71 8 0.06
31 May 0.70 0.33 1.03 12 0.12
7 June 0.97 0.50 1.47 14 0.21
14 June 1.00 0.54 1.54 16 0.25
21 June 0.81 0.43 1.24 17 0.21
28 June 2.85 1.50 4.35 22 0.96
5 July 4.20 1.97 6.17 27 1.67
12 July 8.60 2.18 10.78 35 3.77
19 July 10.74 3.78 14.52 42 6.39
26 July 20.58 8.01 30.59 63 19.27
2 Aug. 37.54 13.48 51.02 77 39.29
9 Aug. 26.30 10.70 37.00 54 19.98
16 Aug. 30.12 11.84 41.96 58 24.34
23 Aug. 11.18 5.17 16.35 25 4.09
30 Aug. 3.10 2.53 5.63 16 0.90
2006
19 May 0.44 0.25 0.69 6 0.04
26 May 0.61 0.32 0.93 8 0.07
2 June 0.40 0.20 0.60 8 0.05
9 June 0.57 0.30 0.87 8 0.09
16 June 1.12 1.54 2.66 12 1.02
23 June 2.70 2.99 5.69 18 0.91
30 June 4.27 2.07 7.34 24 1.76
7 July 9.13 3.12 12.25 32 3.92
14 July 19.55 5.01 24.56 50 12.28
21 July 20.14 5.20 25.34 53 13.43
28 July 31.05 8.16 39.21 66 25.88
4 Aug. 10.94 3.28 14.22 32 4.55
11 Aug. 7.46 3.07 10.53 22 2.32
18 Aug. 7.52 2.83 10.35 17 1.76
25 Aug. 2.50 1.94 4.44 11 0.49
66
0.69 jassids (0.44 nymphs + 0.25 adults/3 leaves) noticed as early as 3 rd
week of May i.e. on May 19, when mean meteorological conditions during
the preceding week were 27.3˚C (maximum temperature), 20.8˚C (minimum
temperature), 46 per cent (relative humidity) and total rainfall of 10 mm
(Fig. 4.4). The population followed a changeable trend remaining low till 2 nd
week of June after which it witnessed an increasing trend till 4 th week of July
but it declined abruptly thereafter, recording a low population of 4.44 per 3
leaves by last week of August. The population varied between 0.60 and
39.21 per 3 leaves during the season being highest (39.21) during 4 th week
of July. The mean maximum temperature, mean minimum temperature and
mean relative humidity during the peak pest activity were 28.4˚C, 23.6˚C
and 80 per cent, respectively with total rainfall of 115 mm received during
this week.
Per cent plant infestation
A perusal of the data presented in Table 4.3 revealed that the pest
was active at Palampur from 1 st week of July to last week of September
during 2005 crop season and from 1 st week of July to 2 nd week of September
during 2006. The peak period of pest activity was observed during last week
of August and 3 rd week of August with a heavy plant infestation of 72 and 70
per cent during 2005 and 2006, respectively. Highest plant infestation
coincided with the highest population count during both the years.
67
The per cent plant infestation during 2005 at Kachhiari varied
between 8 and 77 per cent (Table 4.4). The peak infestation (77%) was
recorded when the population was highest during 1 st week of August which
coincided with weather conditions of 29.7˚C (maximum temperature),
25.3˚C (minimum temperature), 75 per cent (relative humidity) and 75.7
mm (total rainfall). During 2006 crop season, a relatively lower percentage
of plants were found to be infested with A. biguttula biguttula because of
lower population of the pest. The plant infestation varied between 6 and 66
per cent right through the crop season and highest infestation (66%) was
recorded during last week of July when the mean maximum temperature,
mean minimum temperature and mean relative humidity were 28.4˚C,
23.6˚C and 80 per cent respectively, and a total rainfall of 115 mm was
registered during the period (Table 4.4).
Infestation index
During the 2005 crop season at Palampur, the infestation index
varied between 0.21 and 33.26, being highest during the last week of
August (Table 4.3), when jassid population was at its peak (46.20/3 leaves)
with maximum plant infestation of 72 per cent. During this period, the mean
meteorological observations recorded were 27.4˚C (maximum temperature),
18.8˚C (minimum temperature), 79 per cent (relative humidity), 5.9 hours
(bright sunshine) and 64.4 mm (rainfall). During 2006, the infestation index
was lowest (0.18) when the pest was first noticed in the field during 1 st
week of July and it increased to 32.10 during 3 rd week of August when
population of jassids (45.86/3 leaves) and per cent plant infestation (70%)
were highest coinciding with mean maximum temperature of 28.5˚C, mean

68
minimum temperature of 20.2˚C, mean relative humidity of 79 per cent,
mean bright sunshine of 7.5 hours and total rainfall of 80.5 mm (Table 4.3).
The infestation index during 2005 crop season at Kachhiari
increased from 0.06 in last week of May to a maximum of 39.29 during 1 st
week of August coinciding with the peak in jassid population on okra.
Afterwards, the infestation index declined to 0.90 (4 th week of August),
when crop was at its last phase of growth (Table 4.4). A lower infestation
index was observed in 2006 crop season which increased from 0.04 (3 rd
week of May) to 25.88 (4 th week of July). Highest infestation index coincided
with highest pest population (39.21/3 leaves) and plant infestation (66%)
during 4 th week of July. Thereafter, there was a sharp decline in the
infestation index from first week of August and onwards (Table 4.4).
Correlation studies
Simple correlation coefficients worked out between weather
parameters and pest population at Palampur are presented in Table 4.5. It is
evident from the table that rainfall exhibited a significant negative
correlation (r= -0.6187) whereas bright sunshine hours (r=0.5551) displayed
a significant positive relationship with the population count of jassids during
2005 despite the fact that during 2006, none of the weather parameters
influenced the jassid count notably.
Data depicted in Table 4.5 revealed that at Kachhiari 2005, relative
humidity (r=0.6805) was significantly and positively correlated with the
population count of jassids during 2005 (r=0.6805) as well as 2006
(r=0.7483). Besides, the minimum temperature too showed a significant
positive relationship with the pest count (r=0.7148) during 2006.

69
Table 4.5 Correlation coefficient (r) between abiotic factors and

population # of A. biguttula biguttula
Abiotic factors Palampur Kachhiari (Kangra)
2005 2006 2005 2006
Temperature(oC)
Maximum 0.3959 0.0198 -0.4149 -0.4170
Minimum 0.2981 0.0908 0.4179 0.7148*
RH (%) -0.3169 0.0880 0.6805** 0.7483**
Rainfall (mm) -0.6187* -0.3981 0.2419 0.3301
BSS (hours) 0.5551* 0.0307 - -

# Nymphs + adults
* Significant at 5% level of significance
** Significant at 1% level of significance
4.2.2 Cotton aphid, A. gossypii
Population count (nymphs + adults)
It is clear from the data presented in Table 4.6, that the aphids
were active on okra crop from July 3 to September 25 i.e . till the end of crop
growth during 2005 at Palampur. The pest was apparent on crop for the first
time during 1 st week of July when a total population of 4.58 aphids (2.37
nymphs + 2.21 adults) per 3 leaves was observed which showed a variable
trend all through the crop season. Maximum population of aphids i.e. 94.65
(70.38 nymphs + 24.27 adults/3 leaves) was recorded during 3 rd week of
August. The corresponding values of mean maximum temperature,

70
Table 4.6 Population build-up of A. gossypii on okra at Palampur

infestation
Nymphs Adults Total
2005
3 July 2.37 2.21 4.58 9 0.46
10 July 12.94 5.62 18.56 22 4.08
17 July 50.58 15.55 66.13 39 25.79
24 July 29.89 10.46 40.35 31 12.51
31 July 45.91 16.50 62.41 53 33.08
7 Aug. 54.01 20.51 74.52 57 42.48
14 Aug. 44.23 16.20 60.43 58 35.05
21 Aug. 70.38 24.27 94.65 72 68.15
28 Aug. 42.58 15.53 58.11 48 27.89
4 Sept. 36.97 13.41 50.38 46 23.17
11 Sept. 36.53 13.64 50.17 40 20.07
18 Sept. 34.06 10.16 44.22 33 14.59
25 Sept. 19.16 7.43 26.59 20 5.32
2006
1 July 1.93 1.70 3.63 7 0.25
8 July 3.05 2.10 5.15 12 0.62
15 July 11.59 4.03 15.62 23 3.59
22 July 32.13 12.42 44.55 35 15.59
29 July 52.78 15.36 68.14 62 42.25
5 Aug. 48.83 15.70 64.43 57 36.73
12 Aug. 61.72 23.55 85.27 67 57.13
19 Aug. 30.99 15.20 46.19 36 16.63
26 Aug. 28.48 13.57 42.05 30 12.62
2 Sept. 20.86 9.36 30.22 22 6.65
9 Sept. 14.45 6.21 20.66 12 2.48
71
mean minimum temperature, mean relative humidity and mean bright
sunshine were 25.8˚C, 20.1˚C, 89 per cent and 3.1 hours, respectively, with
a total rainfall of 196.7 mm recorded during this period (Fig. 4.5).
Thereafter, the population started declining and reached a level of 26.59
(19.16 nymphs + 7.43 adults/3 leaves) during the last week of September
signifying that the pest remained on the crop till final harvesting in
considerable numbers.
During 2006 crop season also (Table 4.6), the pest initiated its
activity during 1 st week of July when a total population of 3.63 aphids per 3
leaves (1.93 nymphs + 1.70 adults) was detected on okra crop which except
during 1 st week of August remained in an escalating form upto 2 nd week of
August when highest population (85.27/3 leaves) of the pest was recorded
coinciding with mean weather conditions of 25.1˚C (maximum temperature),
19.2˚C (minimum temperature), 85 per cent (relative humidity), 2.5 hours
(bright sunshine) and 152.6 mm (total rainfall) (Fig. 4.6). Beyond that, the
population pursued a decreasing trend although the activity did not stop
altogether and the pest was present in sizeable numbers (20.66/3 leaves)
even towards the end of crop growth.
A perusal of the information presented in Table 4.7 revealed that
at Kachhiari, the aphids first became noticed on okra crop (3.77 adults )
during the year 2005 in last week of June. The pest population witnessed a
mounting trend till last week of July when the maximum aphid population of
68.25 i.e . 52.64 nymphs + 15.61 adults per 3 leaves were observed. The
72
Table 4.7 Population build-up of A. gossypii on okra at Kachhiari

(Kangra)

Nymphs Adults Total infestation
2005
28 June - 3.77 3.77 7 0.38
5 July 7.25 4.93 12.18 18 2.19
12 July 22.06 8.18 30.24 38 11.49
19 July 45.99 12.44 57.43 57 32.74
26 July 52.64 15.61 68.25 65 44.36
2 Aug. 42.02 10.17 52.19 54 28.18
9 Aug. 48.15 12.12 60.27 59 35.56
16 Aug. 37.44 9.67 47.11 44 18.37
23 Aug. 31.85 8.28 40.13 39 15.65
30 Aug. 30.54 7.11 37.65 31 11.67
6 Sept. 30.55 5.22 35.77 26 9.30
2006
23 June - 2.15 2.15 5 0.11
30 June 7.45 3.68 11.13 16 1.78
7 July 14.85 5.44 20.29 33 6.70
14 July 42.19 12.56 54.75 60 32.85
21 July 30.25 9.93 40.18 48 19.29
28 July 40.08 10.14 50.22 55 27.62
4 Aug. 32.42 10.06 42.48 50 21.24
11 Aug. 26.61 8.84 35.45 38 13.47
18 Aug. 15.09 7.17 22.26 25 5.57
25 Aug. 5.15 4.99 10.14 14 1.42
1 Sept 9.47 6.20 15.67 17 2.66
73
subsequent weeks observed a declining trend till 1 st week of September
except 2 nd week of August when it increased. The mean meteorological
parameters recorded during the peak activity of the pest were 27.0˚C
(maximum temperature), 25.4˚C (minimum temperature), 85 per cent
(relative humidity) and 100.4 mm (total rainfall) (Fig.4.7).
The crop season 2006 witnessed the first appearance of the pest 5
days earlier i.e on June, 23 as compared to 2005. During this week, the
adult population of 2.15 per 3 leaves was recorded which then increased till
2 nd week of July, when maximum aphid population of 54.75 (42.19 nymphs
+ 12.56 adults/3 leaves) was observed coinciding with the mean maximum
temperature of 28.3˚C, mean minimum temperature of 24.4˚C, mean
relative humidity of 85 per cent and total rainfall of 212.5 mm recorded
during the preceding 7 days. The pest population then declined steadily in
the succeeding week, amplified the very next week but thereafter, followed
a more or less reducing trend. The activity of the pest did not come to an
arrest even during the last phase of crop maturity indicating a population of
15.67 aphids per 3 leaves during the last sampling date (Table 4.7, Fig.4.8).
The data contained in Table 4.6 revealed that at Palampur, the per
cent plant infestation during 2005 varied between 9 and 72 with the peak
infestation of 72 per cent during 3 rd week of August which coincided with the
highest population count. During 2006, lower incidence of the pest was
recorded compared to 2005 with the plant infestation varying between 7 and
67 per cent. Highest plant infestation synchronized with the highest
population count during 2006 crop season as well (Table 4.6).

74
It is apparent from the data embodied in Table 4.7 that the plant
infestation during 2005 at Kachhiari varied between 7 and 65 per cent. The
peak plant infestation of 65 per cent was observed when the pest population
was also maximum i.e . during 4 th week of July. During 2006 season, a lower
percentage of plants were found to be infested with A . gossypii varying
between 5 and 60 per cent all through the crop season. Highest plant
infestation (60%) was recorded in the 2 nd week of July coinciding with the
highest pest population (Table 4.7).
Infestation index
At Palampur, infestation index varied between 0.46 and 68.15
during 2005 being highest during the 3 rd week of August (Table 4.6) when
pest population (94.65/3 leaves) and plant infestation (72%) were
maximum. In crop season 2006, the infestation index was lowest (0.25)
when the pest was first detected in the field during 1 st week of July and
became highest (57.13) during 2 nd week of August when peak aphid
population (85.27/3 leaves) and maximum plant infestation (67%) were
noticed (Table 4.6).
At Kachhiari 2005, the infestation index increased from 0.38 in last
week of June to a highest of 44.36 during 4 th week of July synchronizing
with the peak aphid population. Thereafter, the infestation index fluctuated
and remained moderate upto 2 nd week of August after which it decreased
steadily when the crop was nearing maturity (Table 4.7). During 2006 (Table
4.7), the infestation index varied from 0.11 in last week of June to a highest
75
of 32.85 during 2 nd week of July at the time when the pest population also
peaked (54.75/3 leaves). It decreased suddenly (19.29) in the consecutive
week, due to unfavourable condition for the pest but increased the very next
week i.e. last week of July with a value of 27.62. Then onwards, the
infestation index observed a declining inclination till last week of August. It
however, increased fairly during the final sampling date i.e. September 1 st
week.
Correlation studies
From the simple correlation coefficient values presented in Table
4.8, it is evident that at Palampur, relative humidity showed a significant
positive correlation with population count of aphids during 2005 (r=0.5536)
as well as 2006 (r= 0.6898). Further, maximum temperature showed a
noteworthy negative effect on pest population with correlation coefficient
value of -0.6047. Remaining weather factors did not show any significant
association with population count during the both the years (Table 4.8).
At Kachhiari, maximum temperature exhibited a significant
negative outcome on pest numbers during both the crop seasons with
correlation coefficient values of -0.6910 and -0.7023 during 2005 and 2006,
respectively (Table 4.8). Further, relative humidity was positively associated
with population count during 2005 and 2006 that too significantly, with
correlation coefficient values of 0.7005 and 0.7556, correspondingly. In
addition, minimum temperature too registered a significant positive
correlation (r=0.6604) with aphid population during 2006 crop season.

76
Table 4.8 Correlation coefficient (r) between abiotic factors and

population # of A. gossypii
Abiotic factors Palampur Kachhiari (Kangra)
2005 2006 2005 2006
Temperature (oC)
Maximum -0.0647 -0.6047* -0.6910* -0.7023*
Minimum 0.3155 0.4806 -0.1755 0.6604*
RH (%) 0.5536* 0.6898* 0.7005* 0.7556**
Rainfall (mm) -0.0184 -0.3146 0.3702 0.2882
BSS (hours) -0.0046 -0.4527 - -
# Nymphs + adults
**Significant at 1 % level of significance
4.2.3 Shoot and fruit borer, E. vittella
The pest was reported as major only at Kachhiari.
Per cent shoot infestation
During 2005, the infestation on okra shoots by E. vittella was
reported as early as in the last week of May when per cent shoot infestation
recorded was 2.24 (Table 4.9). It then decreased to 1.78 per cent following
the next week and thereafter no prevalence of the pest on shoots was
observed. The shoot infestation followed a similar trend during 2006 crop
season also, when the first infestation of shoots (1.56%) was observed
77
Table 4.9 Population build-up of E . vittella on okra at Kachhiari

(Kangra)
Sampling date Per cent shoot Per cent fruit Larvae per fruit#
infestation* infestation*
2005
24 May 2.24 0.00 0.00
31 May 1.78 3.27 1.08
7 June - 8.12 1.20
14 June - 19.41 1.81
21 June - 28.24 2.24
28 June - 35.85 2.33
5 July - 12.91 1.62
12 July - 7.31 1.38
19 July - 4.83 1.35
26 July - 1.83 1.16
2 Aug. - 2.37 1.03
9 Aug. - 0.00 0.00
2006
19 May 1.56 0.00 0.00
26 May 0.82 2.30 1.12
2 June - 9.67 1.18
9 June - 16.91 1.23
16 June - 29.64 2.35
23 June - 24.48 1.94
30 June - 13.49 1.54
7 July - 8.06 1.13
14 July - 1.23 0.37
21 July - 0.00 0.00
* Recorded on 100 plants
# Recorded on all the infested fruits harvested from 100 plants at each picking
78
during 3 rd week of May which was lower compared to the year 2005 (Table
4.9). It then declined to 0.82 per cent during the next week and the
succeeding weeks did not witness any infestation on shoots.
Per cent fruit infestation
Data pertaining to fruit infestation presented in Table 4.9 showed
that during 2005, infestation in okra fruits was first observed during last
week of May when 3.27 per cent fruits were found to be infested by the
pest. The fruit infestation showed an accelerated trend till 4 th week of June
with the peak fruit infestation of 35.85 per cent recorded on June 28 (Fig.
4.9). During this period, the mean maximum temperature, mean minimum
temperature and mean relative humidity recorded were 34.6˚C, 26.9˚C and
47 per cent, respectively with 31.2 mm total rainfall recorded during this
period. The very next week, fruit infestation declined progressively and after
that abruptly in the following week because of heavy rainfall received during
this and later period.
Data on per cent fruit infestation by E. vittella (Table 4.9) during
2006 crop season showed lower incidence of the pest as compared to 2005.
The pest started infesting fruits 5 days earlier than 2006 season with the
first incidence on fruits (2.30%) recorded on May 26. It then followed an
increasing trend with the maximum fruit infestation (29.64%) detected
during 3 rd week of June (Fig. 4.10). The peak infestation coincided with
35.3˚C (mean maximum temperature), 21.9˚C (mean minimum

79
temperature), 36 per cent (mean relative humidity) with 12.1 mm total
rainfall recorded during this week. Later, a declining trend was observed and
pest activity stopped completely by 3 rd week of July when no fruit infestation
was noticed.
Larval population
The larvae of E. vittella started infesting okra fruits in the last
week of May, 2005 with a total of 1.08 larvae per fruit (Table 4.9). The
larval population then started increasing and by 4 th week of June reached its
peak with a total of 2.33 larvae per fruit when the mean maximum
temperature, mean minimum temperature and mean relative humidity
recorded were 34.6˚C, 26.9˚C and 47 per cent, respectively with a total of
31.2 mm total rainfall recorded during this period. Thereafter, the larval
population began to decline and by 2 nd week of August, the population
ceased altogether.
During 2006, the larvae were first observed in the fruits (1.12
larvae/fruit) in 4 th week of May when then pursed an increasing trend and
reached a maximum of 2.35 larvae per fruit in 3 rd week of June (Table 4.9).
During this period, the meteorological conditions prevalent were 35.3˚C of
mean maximum temperature, 21.9˚C of mean minimum temperature and 36
per cent of mean relative humidity with 12.1 mm of total rainfall. A declining
trend in larval population was set in afterwards and by 3 rd week of July, no
larval population of E. vittella was observed in okra fruits.

80
Correlation studies
The correlation coefficients computed between various abiotic
factors, fruit infestation (%) and larval population of E. vittella during 2005
and 2006 (Table 4.10) revealed that maximum temperature registered a
significant positive correlation with per cent fruit infestation and larval
population during both the years with the correlation coefficient values of
0.7793, 0.6726 during 2005 and 0.6918, 0.7687 during 2006 for the
respective parameters. The relative humidity, however, showed a significant
negative correlation with per cent fruit infestation during 2005 (r= -0.6066)
crop season only. In addition, rainfall and larval population were significantly
and negatively (r=-0.6235) correlated during 2005.
Table 4.10 Correlation coefficient (r) between abiotic factors, per

cent fruit infestation and larval population of E. vittella
at Kachhiari (Kangra)
Abiotic factors Kachhiari (Kangra)

2005 2006
Fruit infestation Larval Fruit infestation Larval

(%) population (%) population
Temperature ( oC)
Maximum 0.7793** 0.6726* 0.6918* 0.7687**
Minimum 0.3603 0.2506 -0.4682 -0.4142
RH (%) -0.6066* -0.5306 -0.5785 -0.5787
Rainfall(mm) -0.5206 -0.6235* -0.4380 -0.5147

** Significant at 1% level of significance
81
4.2.4 Blister beetle, Mylabris spp.
Beetle population
Data with respect to beetle count at Palampur during 2005 is
presented in Table 4.11. Mylabris beetles emerged (1.7 beetles/10 plants)
during 1 st week of August and the population built-up and reached its peak
during 1 st week of September with a population of 29.6 beetles per 10
plants. The respective mean maximum temperature, mean minimum
temperature, mean relative humidity, mean bright sunshine and total rainfall
received during this period were 27.7˚C, 21.4˚C, 79 per cent, 7.1 hours and
79.1 mm. Beyond this week, the beetle population began to diminish sharply
and lowest population of 1.4 beetles per 10 plants was observed during the
last week of September (Fig. 4.11).
In the year 2006, beetles first appeared on the crop in the last
week of July with a population of 2.1 beetles per 10 plants (Table 4.11). The
beetle population remained in accelerated form till 3 rd week of August and
caused highest infestation on okra crop (24.5 beetles/ 10 plants) during 3 rd
week of August. The peak infestation coincided with the mean maximum
temperature of 28.5˚C, mean minimum temperature of 20.2˚C, mean
relative humidity of 79 per cent, mean bright sunshine of 7.5 hours and a
total of 80.5 mm rainfall during this period. From 4 th week of August, beetle
population began to decline and reached a lowest of 1.7 per 10 plants in 3 rd
week of September (Fig. 4.12).

82
Table 4.11 Population build-up of Mylabris spp. on okra at Palampur
Sampling Beetles/ Per cent Per cent Infestation

date 10 plants# plant flower index
infestation damage
2005
7 Aug. 1.7 8.0 2.10 0.01
14 Aug. 7.3 14.0 8.15 0.10
21 Aug. 11.2 31.0 14.04 0.35
28 Aug. 25.7 56.0 25.90 1.44
4 Sept. 29.6 60.0 31.15 1.78
11 Sept. 18.0 38.0 23.15 0.68
18 Sept. 5.5 17.0 7.47 0.09
25 Sept. 1.4 6.0 2.46 0.008
2006
29 July 2.1 6.0 2.40 0.01
5 Aug. 12.8 17.0 12.06 0.22
12 Aug. 13.7 23.0 11.38 0.32
19 Aug. 24.5 42.0 26.90 1.03
26 Aug. 17.3 36.0 18.27 0.62
2 Sept. 10.9 18.0 13.36 0.20
9 Sept. 9.5 12.0 10.46 0.11
16 Sept. 1.7 5.0 2.97 0.009

# Population recorded on 100 plants
83
At Kachhiari, during the year 2005, surveillance studies revealed
the first appearance of the pest on the crop in 3 rd week of July with a
population of 1.4 beetles per 10 plants (Table 4.12). The population level
kept on increasing and rose to a highest level of 35.6 beetles per 10 plants
during 3 rd week of August. The mean temperatures viz., maximum and
minimum, relative humidity and total rainfall during the period were 29.1˚C,
25.8˚C, 76 per cent and 37.8 mm, respectively. Thereafter, the beetle
population declined gradually to 3.8 per 10 plants (I st week of September)
before final harvest of the crop (Fig. 4.13).
In the year 2006 (Table 4.12), the beetle population (1 beetle/10
plants) first came to sight about 12 days earlier i.e. on 7 th July as compared
to 2005. The population went on increasing thereafter and reached its
maximum (31.8 beetles/10 plants) during 2 nd week of August. The maximum
temperature of 28.0˚C, minimum temperature of 22.3˚C, relative humidity
of 75 per cent and total rainfall of 70.9 mm prevailed during this period.
After that, a declining trend was set in and population reached a low of 2.5
beetles per 10 plants when the crop was approaching final harvest (Table
4.12, Fig. 4.14).
The per cent plant infestation data presented in Table 4.11
revealed that at Palampur during 2005, the infestation on plants varied
from 6 to 60 per cent. The highest plant infestation (%) coincided with
84
Table 4.12 Population build-up of Mylabris spp. on okra at Kachhiari

(Kangra)
Sampling Beetles/ Per cent Per cent Infestation

date 10 plants# plant flower index
infestation damage
2005
19 July 1.4 8.0 1.51 0.01
26 July 3.5 18.0 3.47 0.06
2 Aug. 9.3 26.0 11.08 0.24
9 Aug. 14.2 43.0 15.92 0.61
16 Aug. 35.6 69.0 38.52 2.46
23 Aug. 26.1 51.0 29.90 1.33
30 Aug. 19.2 30.0 20.69 0.58
6 Sept. 3.8 13.0 5.57 0.05
2006
7 July 1.0 6.0 1.18 0.006
14 July 2.6 12.0 2.36 0.03
21 July 13.5 33.0 13.79 0.45
28 July 15.1 37.0 13.52 0.56
4 Aug. 21.7 53.0 24.93 1.15
11 Aug. 31.8 62.0 32.69 1.97
18 Aug. 19.4 29.0 18.44 0.56
25 Aug. 2.5 11.0 2.77 0.03

85
the highest beetle population (29.6 beetles/10 plants) and flower damage
(31.15%). During the year 2006 (Table 4.11), comparatively lower plant
infestation was noticed because of lower beetle population as compared to
year 2005. The per cent plant infestation varied from a lowest of 5 to a
highest of 42. Maximum plant infestation (42%) was observed during the
period when the beetle population (24.5/10 plants) and flower damage
(26.90%) were also maximum.
A look at the data given in Table 4.12 showed that the plant
infestation by Mylabris varied from 8 to 69 per cent at Kachhiari during 2005
with the highest plant infestation (69%) recorded during the period of peak
beetle count (35.6/10 plants) and flower damage (38.52%). However,
somewhat lesser plant infestation ranging from 6 to 62 per cent was
observed during 2006. Again, the highest plant infestation (62%) was
recorded during 2 nd week of August at the time of peak beetle population
(31.8 beetles/10 plants) and flower damage (32.69%) (Table 4.12).
Per cent flower damage
Data pertaining to flower damage with respect to 2005 crop season
at Palampur is presented in Table 4.11. The per cent flower damage during
the year varied from 2.10 to 31.15 indicating that the flower damage
was maximum when the beetle population was also maximum. Thereafter, a
declining trend with respect to flower damage was set in and reached a low
of 2.46 per cent in 4 th week of September (Fig. 4.11). Throughout the year
86
2006, damage to okra flowers at Palampur ranged between 2.40 per cent to
a maximum of 26.90 per cent coinciding with the maximum beetle count of
24.5 per 10 plants (Table 4.11). The following weeks observed a decline in
flower damage (18.27 to 2.97%) because of the decline in beetle population
(Fig. 4.12).
At Kachhiari, during 2005, per cent flower damage data revealed
an initial damage on flowers to the tune of 1.51 per cent (Table 4.12).
Damage then increased and was at its peak (38.52%) in 3 rd week of August
coinciding with the peak beetle population. The damage level then
decreased in a gradual mode to 5.57 per cent before final harvest (Fig.
4.13). A comparatively lower percentage of damaged flowers was noticed
during 2006 because of lower beetle numbers as is apparent from the Table
4.12 with the flower damage ranging from 1.18 per cent in 1 st week of July
to a maximum of 32.69 per cent in 2 nd week of August, the sampling date at
which the maximum beetle population (31.8/10 plants) was also recorded
(Fig. 4.14).
Infestation index
Infestation index during 2005 crop season at Palampur varied
between 0.008 and 1.78 (Table 4.11). Highest infestation index (1.78)
harmonized with the peak beetle population (29.6/10 plants), flower damage
(31.15%) and plant infestation (60%). During 2006 crop season, infestation
index varied from 0.009 to a highest of 1.03 during 3 rd week of August
(Table 4.11). Again, the highest infestation index was noticed at the time
when the beetle population (24.5/10 plants), flower damage (26.90%) and
plant infestation (42%) were also highest.

87
Based on population counts and plant infestation level at Kachhiari,
infestation index revealed an initial value of 0.01 on July 19, 2005 (Table
4.12) which kept on rising upto August 16 when the maximum value of
infestation index was worked out (2.46). Beyond this, a decline was
observed and infestation index revealed low values reaching 0.05 by 1 st
week of September. The infestation index during 2006 (Table 4.12)
increased from an initial value of 0.006 to a maximum of 1.97 during 2 nd
week of August. Thereafter, it declined and reached a low level of 0.03
during the final sampling date (25 th August).
Correlation studies
The data pertaining to correlation coefficients calculated between
abiotic factors, per cent flower damage and beetle population of Mylabris
spp. at Palampur are presented in Table 4.13. None of the weather
parameters depicted a significant influence on beetle population as well as
flower damage during 2005 crop season. However, during the crop season
2006, maximum temperature had positive association with per cent flower
damage (r=0.8927) as well as beetle population (r=0.8609). Moreover, the
bright sunshine hours too had a significant positive effect on flower damage
(r= 0.7048). On the other hand, relative humidity and flower damage were
significantly and negatively correlated (r= -0.7069). Remaining weather
parameters did not show any significant correlation with both the
parameters under study i.e . per cent flower damage and beetle population
during the season.

88
89
From the statistics available in Table 4.13, it is quite obvious that
during 2005 at Kachhiari, none of the abiotic factors manifested a significant
influence on beetle population and per cent flower damage. In contrast,
during 2006 crop season, minimum temperature was the sole factor to
significantly influence per cent flower damage negatively with correlation
coefficient value of - 0.7157 (Table 4.13).
4.2.5 Leafroller, S. derogata
Larval population
The data pertaining to population build up of S. derogata on okra
crop at Palampur (2005) is presented in Table 4.14. The larval population
was first sampled on July, 24 (3.4 larvae/10 plants) which increased sharply
and attained a peak of 34.7 during 3 rd week of August. The mean maximum
temperature, mean minimum temperature, mean relative humidity, mean
bright sunshine during this week were 25.8˚C, 20.1˚C, 89 per cent and 3.1
hours with a total precipitation of 196.7 mm. The population then reduced
and reached a low of 13.2 larvae per 10 plants on September 4, which
however, increased the following week (20.5 larvae/10 plants) but declined
sharply thereafter and reached a low of 3.8 during the last week of
September when the crop was in its final stage of maturity (Fig. 4.15).
From the data presented in Table 4.14, it is clear that at Palampur
during 2006, a higher population of S. derogata was observed with an initial
population of 2.3 larvae per 10 plants sampled during 2 nd week of

90
Table 4.14 Population build-up of S. derogata on okra at Palampur
Sampling Larvae/10 Per cent Per cent Infestation

date plants# plant rolled leaf index
infestation infestation
2005
24 July 3.4 12.0 2.80 0.04
31 July 9.7 20.0 7.31 0.19
7 Aug. 20.0 38.0 14.74 0.76
14 Aug. 25.7 47.0 18.56 1.20
21 Aug. 34.7 68.0 26.97 2.35
28 Aug. 21.5 49.0 15.86 1.06
4 Sept. 13.2 26.0 8.19 0.34
11 Sept. 20.5 22.0 10.54 0.45
18 Sept. 15.9 15.0 8.97 0.24
25 Sept. 3.8 10.0 2.67 0.04
2006
8 July 2.3 10.0 1.65 0.02
15 July 11.2 23.0 8.72 0.26
22 July 12.9 34.0 9.82 0.44
29 July 27.9 58.0 19.44 1.62
5 Aug. 38.1 70.0 29.21 2.67
12 Aug. 25.3 51.0 20.24 1.29
19 Aug. 14.6 36.0 10.52 0.53
26 Aug. 19.5 30.0 12.58 0.59
2 Sept. 13.7 22.0 9.81 0.30
9 Sept. 3.4 8.0 3.41 0.03
91
July. The larval population followed a rising trend till 5 th August with a peak
larval population of 38.1 per 10 plants. The peak infestation coincided with
mean weather conditions of 26.3˚C (maximum temperature), 20.3˚C
(minimum temperature), 85 per cent (relative humidity), 2.3 hours (bright
sunshine) and 151.2 mm (total rainfall) (Fig. 4.16). Consequently, the pest
population began to diminish except during the 4 th week of August and
reached a low of 3.4 larvae per 10 plants in 2 nd week of September.
At Kachhiari, during 2005, surveillance studies conducted on okra
crop revealed that the pest started its activity in 1 st week of July with an
initial infestation level of 3.1 larvae per 10 plants (Table 4.15). Two peaks of
the pest were recorded, first (36.3 larvae/10 plants) during last week of July
coinciding with the mean maximum temperature of 27.0˚C, mean minimum
temperature of 25.4˚C, mean relative humidity of 85 per cent and a total
rainfall of 100.4 mm (Fig. 4.17). Second peak of larval population (34.4/10
plants) was noticed during 2 nd week of August which synchronized with
weather conditions of 27.4°C (maximum temperature), 24.8°C (minimum
temperature), 81 per cent (relative humidity) and 211.2 mm (total
precipitation). Thereafter, the larval activity declined sharply and reached its
lowest (1.6 larvae/10 plants) by 1 st week of September during the final
harvest of the crop.

92
Table 4.15 Population build-up of S. derogata on okra at Kachhiari

(Kangra)
Sampling Larvae/10 Per cent Per cent Infestation

date plants# plant rolled leaf index
infestation infestation
2005
5 July 3.1 12.0 2.73 0.04
12 July 11.2 25.0 8.89 0.28
19 July 27.6 53.0 20.62 1.46
26 July 36.3 67.0 27.16 2.43
2 Aug. 25.5 62.0 18.51 1.58
9 Aug. 34.4 60.0 24.94 2.06
16 Aug. 20.2 44.0 15.69 0.89
23 Aug. 15.6 35.0 12.79 0.55
30 Aug. 5.3 22.0 4.26 0.12
6 Sept. 1.6 6.0 1.18 0.01
13 Sept. 0.0 0.0 - -
2006
30 June 1.4 7.0 0.86 0.01
7 July 5.6 15.0 3.96 0.08
14 July 23.5 40.0 18.96 0.94
21 July 27.2 48.0 22.15 1.31
28 July 33.8 62.0 25.70 2.10
4 Aug. 24.7 53.0 19.96 1.31
11 Aug. 20.3 46.0 15.02 0.93
18 Aug. 15.6 35.0 12.63 0.55
25 Aug. 10.4 20.0 6.32 0.21
1 Sept. 3.9 9.0 2.73 0.04
93
During 2006, a lower incidence of the pest was noticed (Table
4.15), first emergence being observed during the last week of June (1.4
larvae/10 plants) which pursued a rising trend till 4 th week of July when the
highest population (33.8 larvae/10 plants) of the pest was monitored (Fig.
4.18). The peak larval population was recorded at the time when the mean
weather conditions prevailing during the preceding week were maximum
temperature of 28.4˚C, minimum temperature of 23.6˚C, relative humidity
of 80 per cent and total rainfall of 115 mm. Subsequently, the population
declined slowly but did not come to an arrest even towards the end of crop
growth showing an incidence of 3.9 larvae per 10 plants.
At Palampur, during the year 2005, the plant infestation varied
from 10 per cent to a highest of 68 per cent. Highest plant infestation (68%)
was noticed at the time of peak larval activity (Table 4.14). The per cent
plant infestation during 2006 varied between 8 and 70, being highest during
1st week of August at the time of maximum larval population (38.1/10
plants) as is evident from Table 4.14.
A perusal of the data depicted in Table 4.15 illustrated that at
Kachhiari, the per cent plant infestation varied between 6 and 67 during
2005. Maximum plant infestation (67%) was observed during last week of
July when the larval population and per cent rolled leaf infestation also
peaked. From Table 4.15, it is evident that during 2006 crop season, the
94
plant infestation varied between 7 and 62 per cent, indicating the lower
incidence of the pest during this season. Maximum plant infestation (62%)
was observed in the last week of July just like the year, 2005.
Per cent rolled leaf infestation
The year 2005 recorded the rolled leaf infestation in the range of
2.67 per cent to 26.97 per cent being highest during 3 rd week of August at
Palampur coinciding with the peak larval population (34.7/10 plants). It then
followed an almost declining trend except during 2 nd week of September
when it exhibited an increase. Thereafter, there was a sharp decline with
respect to per cent rolled leaf infestation reaching a low of 2.67 in the last
week of September (Table 4.14, Fig. 4.15). In the year 2006, a
comparatively higher rolled leaf infestation was noticed at Palampur because
of higher pest population (Table 4.14). The per cent rolled leaf infestation
showed an initial value of 1.65 during 2 nd week of July which then pursued a
rising approach upto August 5, with the highest infestation of 29.21 per cent
coinciding with the peak in larval population (38.1/10 plants). A declining
trend was then set in except during the last week of August and reached a
low of 3.41 per cent during 2 nd week of September (Fig. 4.16).
It is discernible from the information shown in Table 4.15 that at
Kachhiari, the per cent rolled leaf infestation varied from 1.18 to 27.16
during 2005 crop season. Highest infestation (27.16%) was apparent during
4 th week of July when the highest larval population (36.3/10 plants) was
95
registered (Fig. 4.17). In the year 2006, maximum per cent rolled leaf
infestation was somewhat lower (25.70) compared to 2005 (Table 4.15, Fig.
4.18) which coincided with the maximum larval population of 33.8 per 10
plants recorded during 4 th week of July.
Infestation index
The infestation index values calculated on the basis of larval
population and per cent plant infestation at Palampur during 2005 crop
season are depicted in Table 4.14. It is quite apparent that the infestation
index varied from a lowest of 0.04 to a highest of 2.35 obtained during 3 rd
week of August. However, during 2006, comparatively lower values of
infestation index were obtained ranging from 0.02 to a maximum of 2.67
recorded during 1 st week of August during the peak period of pest activity
(Table 4.14).
During 2005 crop season at Kachhiari, the infestation index
increased from an initial level of 0.04 on July 5, to a highest of 2.43 on July
26 after which it declined gradually except during August 9 (Table 4.15).
Comparatively lower infestation index values ranging between 0.01 and 2.10
were obtained during last week of July during the year 2006 (Table 4.15).
From August onwards, the infestation index showed a gradual decline
revealing a low value of 0.04 in 1 st week of September.
Correlation studies
The per cent rolled leaf infestation and larval population of S .
derogata when subjected to correlation analysis with that of various abiotic
factors during 2005 at Palampur, revealed no significant correlation with any

96
97
of the factors (Table 4.16). However, during 2006, larval population showed
a significant positive association with relative humidity (r=0.6390). Further,
bright sunshine hours exhibited a significant negative influence on per cent
rolled leaf infestation (r= -0.6638) and larval population (r= - 0.6748) during
2006 crop season (Table 4.16).
The correlation analysis between per cent rolled leaf infestation ,
larval population and various meteorological factors at Kachhiari (Table 4.16)
revealed that during 2005, relative humidity had a significant positive effect
on per cent rolled leaf infestation (r=0.7033) and larval population
(r=0.6919). Remaining abiotic factors did not affect the larval population
considerably. During 2006, larval population of S. derogata showed a
significant negative association with maximum temperature (r= -0.6402). In
addition, relative humidity correlated positively and significantly with per
cent rolled leaf infestation and larval population with corresponding
correlation coefficient values of 0.7112 and 0.7089.

against major insect- pests
Ten varieties/hybrids of okra were evaluated for resistance against
major insect-pests under natural infestation in the fields for two years (2005
and 2006) at both the locations viz., Palampur and Kachhiari. The major
pests reported at Palampur were A. biguttula biguttula, A. gossypii, M.
pustulata and S. derogata. The same pests were also reported as major at
Kachhiari along with one more pest i.e. E. vittella . Evaluation of resistance
was done on the basis of population counts per 5 plants (randomly selected)
98
on 3-leaf basis (nymphs + adults) for A . biguttula biguttula and A. gossypii ,
beetle population and flower damage for Mylabris spp. recorded on 10
plants, larval population and rolled leaf infestation for S . derogata on 10
plants and fruit infestation for E. vittella recorded on all the fruits harvested
at each picking.
Population of okra jassids, A. biguttula biguttula showed an
inconsistent trend on different varieties varying through the two locations,
Palampur and Kachhiari during the two seasons. During 2005 crop season at
Palampur, lowest mean population of 10.71 jassids per 3 leaves (8.20
nymphs + 2.51 adults) was observed on the variety Tulsi. It however, was
statistically equivalent to the population observed on Varsha Uphar variety
i.e. 11.93 jassids per 3 leaves (8.68 nymphs + 3.25 adults), but significantly
different from other varieties (Table 4.17). Variety Pusa Sawani harboured
highest population of jassids i.e . 33.13 per 3 leaves (23.92 nymphs + 9.21
adults) and was significantly susceptible to the rest of the varieties. The
remaining varieties revealed intermediate population range varying from
15.70 (Arka Anamika) to 27.63 (Shagun) per 3 leaves.
A slightly lower population of A. biguttula biguttula was observed
during 2006 crop season on all the varieties (Table 4.17). Variety Tulsi and
Varsha Uphar again proved least susceptible with mean jassid population of
8.52 (6.40 nymphs + 2.12 adults) and 8.83 (6.64 nymphs + 2.19 adults) per
99
100
3 leaves, respectively. On the other side, Pusa Sawani was the most
susceptible with a population of 29.62 per 3 leaves i.e. 21.03 nymphs + 8.59
adults. Following the trend of 2005, an intermediate population range of
13.31 to 26.06 per 3 leaves was recorded on remaining seven varieties viz.,
Arka Anamika, Parbhani Kranti, Panchaali, Harbhajan, P-8, Shagun and Pusa
Makhmali.
Data depicted in Table 4.18 revealed that at Kachhiari, during
2005, variety Tulsi proved to be the least susceptible registering the lowest
mean population of A. biguttula biguttula per 3 leaves (11.33 i.e . 8.41
nymphs + 2.92 adults) being appreciably superior to the rest of the
varieties, followed closely by Varsha Uphar (15.25/3 leaves). The highest
mean population of 36.12 (25.00 nymphs + 11.12 adults) was observed on
variety Pusa Sawani, followed by Shagun with mean total population of
29.51 jassids (21.04 nymphs + 8.47 adults) per 3 leaves. The other varieties
viz. Arka Anamika, Panchaali, Parbhani Kranti, Harbhajan, P-8 and Pusa
Makhmali harboured intermediate population counts of 20.33 (14.13 nymphs
+ 6.20 adults), 21.16 (14.41 nymphs + 6.75 adults), 21.88 (14.93 nymphs +
6.95 adults), 25.00 (17.24 nymphs + 7.76 adults), 25.47 (17.59 nymphs +
7.88 adults) and 28.90 (20.69 nymphs + 8.21 adults) per 3 leaves,
respectively.
In the year 2006, an almost analogous trend was observed (Table
4.18). The pest abundance was however, lower in 2006 crop season
compared to 2005 on all the varieties except for Tulsi which although
101
102
harboured slightly higher mean jassid population than 2005 (11.61 i.e. 8.64
nymphs + 2.97 adults/3 leaves), yet was at first position showing least
population of the pest and significantly superior over other varieties. Pusa
Sawani was once again rated as the most susceptible with mean jassid count
of 34.36 per 3 leaves (23.77 nymphs + 10.59 adults). The remaining
varieties were intermediate with population range of 14.74 (Varsha Uphar)
to 28.69 (Pusa Makhmali) per 3 leaves.
Based on the pooled jassid population for 2 seasons viz. 2005 and
2006, the mean rating of very low, low, moderate, high and very high was
given to the different varieties (Table 4.19). At Palampur, Varieties Tulsi and
Varsha Uphar (6.1-12 jassids/3 leaves) were rated as ones harbouring low
population of the pest while the varieties having more than 24 jassids per 3
leaves were categorized in the mean rating of very high population. This
category included Shagun and Pusa Sawani. Remaining varieties were given
the mean rating of moderate (Arka Anamika, Parbhani Kranti, Paan chali) and
high population (Harbhajan, P-8, Pusa Makhmali) based on the pooled jassid
count i.e . 12.1-18.0 and 18.1-24.0 per 3 leaves, correspondingly. At
Kachhiari (Table 4.19), Tulsi was included in the category of low population
followed by Varsha Uphar which was included in the category of moderate
population. High jassid population was observed on Arka Anamika, Panchaali
and Parbhani Kranti while those falling in the jassid count of more than 24
per 3 leaves (Harbhajan, P-8, Pusa Makhmali, Shagun, Pusa Sawani) were
given the mean rating of very high population.

103
Table 4.19 Reaction of okra varieties to A. biguttula biguttula with

respect to total population
Mean rating Jassid Varieties (Pooled data)

population#/
Palampur Kachhiari(Kangra)
3 leaves
Very low <6 - -
Low 6.1 – 12.0 Tulsi, Varsha Tulsi

Uphar
Moderate 12.1 – 18.0 Arka Anamika, Varsha Uphar

Parbhani Kranti,
Panchaali,
High 18.1 – 24.0 Harbhajan, P-8, Arka Anamika,

Pusa Makhmali Panchaali, Parbhani
Kranti
Very high > 24.0 Shagun, Pusa Harbhajan, P-8,

Sawani Pusa Makhmali
Shagun, Pusa
Sawani,
# Nymphs + adults
The data on seasonal mean population count of A . gossypii on
different varieties at Palampur have been presented in Table 4.20 for the
crop seasons 2005 and 2006. During 2005, the mean aphid population on
various varieties ranged from 39.44 to 70.54 per 3 leaves at Palampur.
Variety Tulsi harboured lowest mean aphid population of 39.44 (31.97
nymphs + 7.47 adults) per 3 leaves whereas the highest mean count of
aphid (70.54/3 leaves) was detected on Pusa Sawani variety followed closely
104
105
by Pusa Makhmali (66.52 aphids/3 leaves) also registered higher aphid
population, both being at par whereas, the mean aphid count per 3 leaves
on remaining 7 varieties varied from 43.93 (Varsha Uphar) to 61.22 (P -8).
In the year 2006 also, Tulsi exhibited its superiority with lowest
mean aphid population of 31.29 (25.21 nymphs + 6.08 adults) per 3 leaves,
being statistically superior to the rest of the varieties (Table 4.20). The next
best variety observed in the lot was Varsha Uphar experiencing mean aphid
count of 35.81 i.e. 28.68 nymphs + 7.13 adults per 3 leaves. Not surprising,
Pusa Sawani registered highest population of 63.71 aphids (48.84 nymphs +
14.87 adults/3 leaves). Remaining seven varieties recorded mean aphid
count per 3 leaves ranging from 42.05 (Arka Anamika) to 57.20 (Pusa
Makhmali).
The incidence of A. gossypii was lower at Kachhiari in comparison
to Palampur during both the crop seasons. Variety Tulsi proved most
superior at Kachhiari during 2005 manifesting lowest mean population of
20.85 (16.44 nymphs + 4.41 adults) per 3 leaves and significantly better
than the rest of the varieties (Table 4.21). It was closely followed by Varsha
Uphar registering a total aphid count of 24.61 (19.48 nymphs + 5.13
adults). Highest aphid population was noticed on Pusa Makhmali (44.32/3
leaves) followed by Pusa Sawani (43.06/3 leaves), the two being statistically
akin to each other. Other varieties viz., Arka Anamika, Parbhani Kranti,
106
107
Panchaali, Harbhajan, Shagun and P-8 experienced mean aphid population in
the range of 29.72 to 39.29 per 3 leaves.
Almost a parallel inclination of varieties with respect to aphid count
was observed during the season 2006 with slight variations (Table 4.21).
Varieties Pusa Makhmali and Pusa Sawani again registered highest
population counts of 41.48 (31.85 nymphs + 9.63 adults) and 40.77 (31.53
nymphs + 9.24 adults) per 3 leaves, correspondingly. Moderate level of
infestation (aphids per 3 leaves) was observed on Panchaali (31.66), Shagun
(34.56), Harbhajan (35.17) and P-8 (35.60). Lower incidence of the pest was
seen on Arka Anamika (26.15/3 leaves), Parbhani Kranti (25.94/3 leaves)
and Varsha Uphar (21.15/3 leaves) which was only higher to the least
susceptible variety Tulsi experiencing lowest mean aphid population of 18.96
(14.84 nymphs + 4.12 adults/3 leaves), although this variety was
statistically at par with Varsha Uphar during the season.
The varieties were given the mean rating of very low, low,
moderate, high and very high, based on the corresponding mean aphid
population ranges of less than 15, 15.1-30, 30.1-45, 45.1-60 and more than
60 per 3 leaves, respectively (Table 4.22). Pooled data of two seasons at
Palampur categorized Tulsi and Varsha Uphar in the moderate population
group (30.1-45.0 aphids/3 leaves) while the very high population group (>
60 aphids/3 leaves) included Pusa Makhmali and Pusa Sawani. Remaining

108
varieties (Arka Anamika, Panchaali, Parbhani Kranti, Shagun, Harbhajan and
P-8) fall in the high population category (45.1-60 aphids/3 leaves).
At Kachhiari, Tulsi, Varsha Uphar, Arka Anamika and Parbhani
Kranti were grouped in the low population category. Remaining varieties viz.
Panchaali, Harbhajan, Shagun, P-8, Pusa Sawani and Pusa Makhmali were
rated as moderate while none of the varieties was rated in the high and very
high population group.
Table 4.22 Reaction of okra varieties to A. gossypii with respect to

total population
Mean rating Aphid Varieties (Pooled data)

population#/
3 leaves Palampur Kachhiari (Kangra)
Very low < 15 - -
Low 15.1 – 30.0 - Tulsi, Varsha Uphar

Arka Anamika,
Parbhani Kranti
Moderate 30.1 – 45.0 Tulsi, Varsha Panchaali, Harbhajan,

Uphar Shagun, P-8, Pusa
Sawani, Pusa
Makhmali
High 45.1 – 60.0 Arka Anamika, -

Panchaali,
Parbhani Kranti,
Shagun,
Harbhajan, P-8,
Very high > 60.0 Pusa Makhmali, -

Pusa Sawani
# Nymphs + adults
109
A perusal of the data embodied in Table 4.23 showed that in
2005, the mean fruit infestation by shoot and fruit borer ranged from 4.59
to 24.02 per cent while during 2006, it varied between 3.79 and 23.41 per
Table 4.23 Relative susceptibility of okra varieties to fruit borer, E.

vittella at Kachhiari (Kangra)
Variety Per cent fruit infestation

2005 2006
Mean* Range Mean* Range
Arka Anamika 11.80 5.56- 11.94 6.67-
(3.56) 16.49 (3.58) 16.40
Harbhajan 13.91 8.43- 13.36 7.79-
(3.83) 21.05 (3.76) 19.96
P-8 19.55 12.64- 18.72 11.58-
(4.48) 26.67 (4.40) 24.43
Panchaali 14.58 8.00- 12.77 6.32-
(3.93) 23.49 (3.67) 18.95
Parbhani Kranti 9.53 3.75- 8.22 4.38-
(3.24) 14.29 (3.03) 12.07
Pusa Makhmali 21.71 14.67- 20.70 14.29-
(4.76) 29.90 (4.63) 25.53
Shagun 17.74 11.34- 15.95 10.71-
(2.36) 26.88 (4.05) 22.14
Tulsi 4.59 1.25- 3.79 0.00-
(2.88) 6.84 (2.19) 7.88
Varsha Uphar 7.41 2.50- 6.65 2.50-
(4.98) 12.94 (2.76) 10.58
Pusa Sawani 24.02 15.48- 23.41 16.66-
(4.29) 32.94 (4.93) 29.79
CD (5%) 0.43 0.48
*Mean of 5 observations
Figures in parentheses are square root transformed values
110
cent. Variety Tulsi revealed the lowest mean fruit infestation of 4.59 per cent
followed by Varsha Uphar (7.41%). Highest mean per cent fruit infestation
was recorded on Pusa Sawani (24.02) followed by Pusa Makhmali (21.71).
The rest of the varieties exhibited mean fruit infestation varying from 11.80
per cent (Arka Anamika) to 19.55 per cent (P-8).
The year 2006 experienced an almost identical trend with respect
to fruit infestation by E. vittella (Table 4.23). Again, Tulsi registered as low
as 3.79 mean per cent fruit infestation, closely followed by Varsha Uphar
(6.65%). Both Pusa Sawani and Pusa Makhmali recorded as high as 23.41
and 20.70 per cent mean fruit infestation, respectively. Others registered
fruit infestation in the range of 11.94 per cent (Arka Anamika) to the extent
of 18.72 per cent (P-8).
The varieties were categorized as highly resistant (<1% fruit
infestation), resistant (1-5%), moderately resistant (5.1-15%), moderately
susceptible (15.1-30%) and susceptible (>30% fruit infestation). Based on
the pooled statistics of 2 seasons, Tulsi was ranked as resistant, while
Varsha Uphar, Parbhani Kranti, Arka Anamika, Harbhajan and Panchaali as
moderately resistant. The moderately susceptible group included Shagun, P -
8, Pusa Makhmali and Pusa Sawani while none of the varieties fall in the
group of either highly resistant or susceptible (Table 4.24).

111
Table 4.24 Reaction of okra varieties to E . vittella with respect to

fruit infestation at Kachhiari (Kangra)
Mean rating Per cent Varieties(Pooled data)

fruit
infestation
Highly resistant <1 -
Resistant 1-5 Tulsi
Moderately resistant 5.1 – 15.0 Varsha Uphar, Parbhani Kranti,

Arka Anamika, Harbhajan,
Panchaali
Moderately 15.1 – 30.0 Shagun, P-8, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa

susceptible Sawani
Susceptible > 30 -
Population count
The data on relative susceptibility of okra varieties to Mylabris spp.
based on the population count i.e . beetles per 10 plants for 2005 and 2006
seasons at Palampur have been outlined in Table 4.25. The mean population
of blister beetles per 10 plants varied from 3.93 to 17.67 during 2005.
Among ten varieties, Varsha Uphar was the least preferred by blister beetles
recording the lowest mean population count of 3.93 beetles per 10 plants,
closely followed by Tulsi (4.60 beetles/10 plants), although both were equal
statistically (Table 4.25). Variety Pusa Sawani harboured highest beetle
population i.e . 17.67 per 10 plants which was appreciably higher to the
112
113
population observed on all other varieties. Pusa Makhmali (15.0 beetles/10
plants) was the next to follow in the lead of susceptible varieties. The rest of
the varieties recorded mean beetle population per 10 plants in the range of
6.20 (Arka Anamika) to 10.67 (Harbhajan).
Slightly lower population of Mylabris spp. was observed during
2006 crop season (Table 4.25) on all the varieties with the exception of
Panchaali, which recorded somewhat higher population (5.53 beetles/10
plants). During this season also, Varsha Uphar maintained its superiority and
yet another time, proved least susceptible with mean beetle population of
3.80 per 10 plants being significantly superior over the remaining varieties.
This was followed by Tulsi (4.07 beetles/10 plants), Panchaali (5.53/10
plants) and Arka Anamika (5.60/10 plants), the latter two being at par
statistically. Varieties Parbhani Kranti, P-8, Shagun and Harbhajan harboured
moderate levels of pest population with the corresponding values of 6.60,
6.87, 8.80 and 9.20 beetles per 10 plants. Substantially greater abundance
of beetles was reported on Pusa Makhmali (12.67/10 plants) and Pusa
Sawani (14.60/10 plants) varieties, the latter being the most susceptible in
the lot.
The statistics on mean beetle population (per 10 plants) at
Kachhiari has been depicted in Table 4.26 which revealed that following the
trend at Palampur, Varsha Uphar proved superior most with the lowest
114
beetle population of 4.80 per 10 plants during the crop season 2005
followed by Tulsi (5.87 beetles/10 plants). Highest beetle count was once
again observed on the variety Pusa Sawani (24.13/10 plants) closely
followed by Pusa Makhmali (21.67/10 plants). Others recorded beetle count
per 10 plants in the range of 7.80 (Panchaali) to 18.07 (Harbhajan).
Akin to 2005, the year 2006 exhibited a parallel trend with respect
to Mylabris population which however, was lower than that recorded during
2005 (Table 4.26). Maximum beetle count was again manifested on variety
Pusa Sawani (17.80/10 plants) and lowest on Varsha Uphar (4.20/10 plants).
The remaining eight varieties experienced mean beetle population varying
between 4.93 (Tulsi) and 15.33 (Pusa Makhmali) per 10 plants.
Per cent flower damage
The data embodied in Table 4.25 showed that the per cent flower
damage at Palampur varied from 5.14 to 19.35 during 2005 and 4.45 to
17.15 during 2006, on different varieties. Lowest per cent flower damage
during 2005 was noticed on Varsha Uphar (5.14) and Tulsi (5.39), both
being statistically at par. The highest flower damage was observed on Pusa
Sawani (19.35%) followed by Pusa Makhmali (15.96%) and Harbhajan
(13.65%). Moderate level of flower damage ranging from 6.71 to 11 .30 per
cent was recorded on the remaining five varieties during the season.
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116
The data presented in Table 4.25 for 2006 crop season revealed
that once again, Varsha Uphar stood on the top showing least flower
damage of 4.45 per cent being statistically similar to Tulsi (4.61%).
Rest of the varieties registered flower damage in the range of 6.57 per
cent (Arka Anamika) to the highest of 17.15 per cent exhibited by Pusa
Sawani.
The data on flower damage by Mylabris beetles outlined in Table
4.26 indicated that at Kachhiari, damage to flowers varied from a lowest
level of 5.67 and 5.04 per cent exhibited by Varsha Uphar to a highest of
24.05 and 18.51 per cent registered by Pusa Sawani during 2005 and 2006
crop seasons, correspondingly. Rest of the varieties recorded percentage
flower damage in 2005 and 2006 ranging from 6.25 and 5.39 (Tulsi) to
21.29 and 15.59 (Pusa Makhmali) for the respective seasons.
Based on the average of two seasons, the flower damage on
different varieties was rated as very low, low, moderate, high and very high
(Table 4.27). A perusal of this information indicated that at Palampur, the
varieties, Varsha Uphar and Tulsi were least susceptible showing the lowest
flower damage of less than 5 per cent whereas Arka Anamika, Panchaali,
Parbhani Kranti and P-8 fall in the category of 5.1-10 per cent flower
damage revealing low damage by the pest. Moderate level (10.1 -15%) of
flower damage was recorded on Shagun, Harbhajan and Pusa Makhmali
while Pusa Sawani recorded high level of mean flower damage (15.1-20%).
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None of the varieties, however, showed very high level of flower damage
(>20%) at Palampur. The pooled statistics (2005 and 2006) on flower
damage (%) registered by different varieties at Kachhiari depicted that
Varsha Uphar, Tulsi, Panchaali and Arka Anamika showed low level of flower
damage (5.1-10.0%) while a very high level of damage to flowers (>20%)
was noticed on Pusa Sawani (Table 4.27).
Table 4.27 Reaction of okra varieties to Mylabris spp. with respect

to flower damage
Mean rating Per cent Varieties (Pooled data)

flower
damage Palampur Kachhiari (Kangra)
Very low < 5 Varsha Uphar, Tulsi -
Low 5.1 – 10.0 Arka Anamika, Varsha Uphar, Tulsi,

Paanchali, Parbhani Panchaali, Arka
Kranti, P-8 Anamika
Moderate 10.1 – 15.0 Shagun, Harbhajan, P-8, Shagun, Parbhani

Pusa Makhmali Kranti
High 15.1 – 20.0 Pusa Sawani Harbhajan, Pusa

Makhmali
Very high > 20 - Pusa Sawani
4.3.5 Cotton leafroller, S. derogata
Larval population
The data on seasonal mean larval population of S. derogata on
different varieties at Palampur has been presented in Table 4.28. The mean
larval population on different varieties ranged from 9.80 to 25.53 per 10
plants during 2005. Varsha Uphar (9.80 larvae/10 plants) remained least
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119
preferred host of leafroller throughout the whole season followed by Tulsi
(12.47 larvae/10 plants). Varieties Harbhajan, P-8, Pusa Sawani and Pusa
Makhmali harboured higher mean larval population of 22.20, 22.60, 25.20
and 25.53 per 10 plants, in the respective order. The mean population on
rest of the 4 varieties varied from 16.27 (Panchaali) to 19.60 (Shagun)
larvae per 10 plants. The year 2006 witnessed higher incidence of the pest
compared to 2005 (Table 4.28) on all the varieties with mean larval
population varying from a lowest of 12.60 larvae per 10 plants recorded on
Varsha Uphar to the highest of 28.13 larvae per 10 plants recorded on Pusa
Makhmali, which was statistically akin to Pusa Sawani (27.40 larvae/10
plants). The mean larval population on remaining 8 varieties fall in the range
of 15.60 (Tulsi) to 25.47 (P-8) larvae per 10 plants.
It is obvious from the data embodied in Table 4.29 that at
Kachhiari, unsurprisingly once again, Varsha Uphar proved its superiority by
experiencing lowest mean larval population of 9.73 per 10 plants during the
crop season 2005. Tulsi was the next to follow, harbouring larval population
of 11.20 per 10 plants, and was not far behind Varsha Uphar as both were
found to be statistically equivalent. The varieties most preferred by S .
derogata with respect to larval population (per 10 plants) in the increasing
order were P-8 (20.80), Pusa Makhmali (25.20) and Pusa Sawani (25.73).
Moderate infestation levels were recorded on varieties viz. Arka Anamika,
Parbhani Kranti, Panchaali, Shagun, Harbhajan and P-8 registering larval
population in the range of 14.40 to 20.80 larvae per 10 plants.

120
121
The crop season 2006 experienced lower infestation levels of
leafroller in comparison to the year 2005 on all the varieties (Table 4.29).
Highest mean larval population was detected on Pusa Sawani (22.47
larvae/10 plants) which was reportedly at par with Pusa Makhmali (22.13
larvae/10 plants). Intermediate larval population per 10 plants was observed
on Arka Anamika (12.00), Parbhani Kranti (12.13), Panchaali (15.20),
Shagun (15.67), Harbhajan (18.40) and P-8 (19.40). Lower larval population
of 9.00 per 10 plants was observed on Tulsi which was only next higher to
the least susceptible variety, Varsha Uphar (7.33 larvae/10 plants during the
season.
Per cent rolled leaf infestation
The data pertaining to per cent rolled leaf infestation by S.
derogata on different varieties at Palampur has been depicted in Table 4.28.
It is obvious from the data that the rolled leaf infestation varied from 5.28 to
18.29 per cent during 2005 on various varieties. Lowest per cent rolled leaf
infestation was evident on variety Varsha Uphar (5.28) which was
significantly superior to the rest of the 10 varieties. On the opposite side,
Pusa Makhmali revealed highest rolled leaf infestation (18.29%) being
statistically at par with Pusa Sawani (17.47%). Remaining varieties
demonstrated per cent rolled leaf infestation in the range of 7.40 (Tulsi) to
15.32 (P-8).
122
In the year 2006, slightly higher rolled leaf infestation was
recorded varying from 7.64 to 19.89 per cent (Table 4.28). Variety Varsha
Uphar undoubtedly exhibited lowest rolled leaf infestation (7.64%) followed
by Tulsi (9.50%) while Pusa Makhmali once again proved inferior most
displaying the highest infestation (19.89%) although was statistically equal
to Pusa Sawani (19.66%). Intermediate infestation level varying between
10.50 and 17.74 per cent was noticed on the rest of the varieties.
At Kachhiari, Varsha Uphar proved to be the superior most
exhibiting the lowest rolled leaf infestation of 4.86 and 4.01 per cent during
the years, 2005 and 2006, respectively (Table 4.29). Conversely, highest
infestation levels were recorded on Pusa Sawani during both the crop
seasons with the rolled leaf infestation of 17.81 and 15.37 per cent during
2005 and 2006, correspondingly. However, it was at par statistically with
Pusa Makhmali representing infestation level of 17.51 and 15.03 per cent in
the respective seasons. Rest of the seven varieties manifested rolled leaf
infestation in the range of 6.28 to 14.90 and 5.42 to 14.14 per cent during
2005 and 2006, respectively.
On the basis of rolled leaf infestation (%), at Palampur and
Kachhiari, the mean rating of very low (<5), low (5.1-10), moderate (10.1-
15), high (15.1-20) and very high (>20) was given to the different varieties
as is indicated in Table 4.30. It is conspicuous from the data that at
Palampur, none of the varieties fall in the range of less than 5 and more
than 20 per cent rolled leaf infestation taking into account the pooled data
123
of 2 seasons. Varsha Uphar and Tulsi displayed low infestation level (5.1 -
10%) while a high degree of rolled leaf infestation (15.1-20%) was
illustrated by Harbhajan, P-8, Pusa Sawani and Pusa Makhmali. The
varieties viz. Arka Anamika, Panchaali, Parbhani Kranti and Shagun
represented moderate infestation level in the range of 10.1 to 15 per cent.
At Kachhiari, Varsha Uphar showed very low infestation in the range of less
than 5 per cent. Tulsi, Arka Anamika, Parbhani Kranti and Panchaali
displayed low infestation level in the range of 5.1 to 10 per cent while a high
level of rolled leaf infestation (15.1- 20%) was noticed on Pusa Makhmali
and Pusa Sawani.
Table 4.30 Reaction of okra varieties to S. derogata with respect to

rolled leaf infestation
Mean rating Per cent Varieties (Pooled data)

rolled leaf
infestation Palampur Kachhiari (Kangra)
Very low < 5.0 - Varsha Uphar
Low 5.1 – 10.0 Varsha Uphar, Tulsi Tulsi, Arka Anamika,

Parbhani Kranti,
Panchaali
Moderate 10.1 – 15.0 Arka Anamika, Shagun, Harbhajan,

Panchaali, Parbhani P-8
Kranti, Shagun
High 15.1 – 20.0 Harbhajan, P-8, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa

Pusa Sawani, Pusa Sawani
Makhmali
Very high > 20.0 - -

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4.4 Marketable yield (qha -1) of okra varieties
A look at the data presented in Table 4.31 revealed that during
2005, at Palampur, maximum healthy fruit yield (qha -1 ) of okra was obtained
in Tulsi variety (72.10) followed by Varsha Uphar (66.55), Arka Anamika
(61.78), Panchaali (58.86), Parbhani Kranti (54.27), Shagun (51.91),
Harbhajan (47.34), P-8 (41.21), Pusa Sawani (35.55) and Pusa Makhmali
(31.49). The data indicated that Arka Anamika was statistically a t par
Table 4.31 Marketable yield (q ha -1 ) of different okra varieties
Variety Fruit yield (q ha -1 )*

Palampur Kachhiari (Kangra)
2005 2006 2005 2006
Arka Anamika 61.78 54.94 75.81 70.47
Harbhajan 47.34 42.10 65.53 61.72
P-8 41.21 37.55 47.45 44.33
Panchaali 58.86 51.19 71.33 68.56
Parbhani Kranti 54.27 45.28 67.62 63.80
Pusa Makhmali 31.49 29.45 38.30 37.20
Shagun 51.91 47.52 68.92 65.68
Tulsi 72.10 67.47 93.03 87.72
Varsha Uphar 66.55 62.56 84.04 80.43
Pusa Sawani 35.55 31.34 45.34 42.95
CD (5%) 3.33 3.42 3.64 2.63
* Mean of 3 replications
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with Panchaali and Parbhani Kranti was statistically analogous to Shagun
During 2006 crop season, comparatively lower yield was recorded in all the
varieties (Table 4.31) with Tulsi once again registering the highest yield
of 67.47 qha -1, while the lowest yield was obtained in Pusa Makhmali variety
(29.45q ha-1 ). The remaining varieties recorded fruit yield (qha -1) in the
decreasing order of Varsha Uphar (62.56), Arka Anamika (54.94), Panchaali
(51.19), Shagun (47.52), Parbhani Kranti (45.28), Harbhajan (42.10), P -8
(37.55) and Pusa Sawani (31.34). The trend clearly indicated that during
2006, variety Shagun was statistically similar to Parbhani Kranti which in
turn was statistically equal to Harbhajan. Rest of the varieties were
significantly different from one another.
At Kachhiari, higher fruit yield of okra varieties were obtained
during both the seasons as compared to Palampur. From Table 4.31, it is
obvious that during 2005, variety Tulsi performed outstandingly well with
93.03 qha -1 fruit yield while Pusa Makhmali yielded the lowest (38.30 qha -1 ).
The second best variety with respect to fruit yield (qha -1) was Varsha Uphar
(84.04) followed by Arka Anamika (75.81), Panchaali (71.33), Shagun
(68.92), Parbhani Kranti (67.62), Harbhajan (65.53), P-8 (47.45) and Pusa
Sawani (45.34). A parallel trend in the performance of varieties with respect
to fruit yield was observed during 2006 crop season as well which is clearly
evident from the data presented in Table 4.31. Further, lower yield was
obtained in all the varieties, in comparison to 2005 crop season at Kachhiari.

126
The order of superiority of treatments in terms of healthy fruit yield (qha -1)
was Tulsi (87.72) > Varsha Uphar (80.43) > Arka Anamika (70.47) >
Panchaali (68.56) > Shagun (65.68) > Parbhani Kranti (63.80) > Harbhajan
(61.72) > P-8 (44.33) > Pusa Sawani (42.95) > Pusa Makhmali (37.20).

Field efficacy of different insecticides and biopesticides as well as
bioagent, T. chilonis was tested on the major insect-pests of okra crop alone
or in combination at both the locations viz., Palampur and Kachhiari and the
results obtained thereof are presented hereunder:
Palampur
Crop season 2005
The results obtained on percentage reduction in A. biguttula
biguttula population (nymphs + adults) in various insecticidal and
biopesticidal sprays including seed treatment and releases of bioagent at
Palampur are presented in Table 4.32. It is evident from the data that the
pre-treatment jassid population on okra varied between 40.33 and 120.33
per 5 plants (population sampled on 3 leaves on each plan t) in different
treatments which was reduced in all the treatments after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15
days of spraying.
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128
Maximum reduction (91.04%) in jassid population over untreated
check after 3 days of spraying was inflicted by application of cypermethrin
followed by endosulfan (87.55% reduction), although both were statistically
at par with each other. Malathion, azadirachtin and imidacloprid (seed
treatment) were also quite effective with corresponding population reduction
of 70.07, 67.58 and 64.84 per cent and these three treatments were
statistically equal. Next to follow were B. thuringiensis + endosulfan and T.
chilonis + endosulfan, both being at par, causing 56.72 and 53.07 per cent
reduction correspondingly. The least effective treatments observed on 3
days after spraying were T. chilonis + imidacloprid (36.12% reduction), B.
thuringiensis (18.31% reduction), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (12.41%
reduction) and T. chilonis (1.35% reduction).
After 6 days of spray, the treatments viz. cypermethrin and
endosulfan proved best causing 86.48 and 81.02 per cent reduction in jassid
population, respectively. Treatments comprising imidacloprid (seed
treatment), malathion and azadirachtin also proved effective with the
respective per cent reduction in jassid population of 62.82, 61.99 and 60.42,
the three being statistically at par. B. thuringiensis + endosulfan and T.
chilonis + endosulfan stood intermediate in effectiveness with 58.00 and
45.72 per cent reduction. Conversely, T. chilonis + imidacloprid, B.
thuringiensis , T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis and T. chilonis were least
effective illustrating reduction in the order of 33.86, 21.94, 14.19 and 1.80
per cent, respectively.

129
On 9 th day of spray, cypermethrin treated plots showed highest
reduction (83.29%) and proved significantly superior over the rest of the
treatments. Endosulfan was the next best (71.21% reduction) followed by
imidacloprid (58.84% reduction). Contrary to 6 th day, on 9 th day, B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan took the lead over azadirachtin and azadirachtin
in turn proved slightly better than malathion with corresponding population
reduction of 57.38, 54.99 and 52.62 per cent. These were followed by the
treatments viz., T. chilonis + endosulfan (40.75% decrease), T. chilonis +
imidacloprid (29.95% decrease), B. thuringiensis (21.99% decrease), T.
chilonis + B. thuringiensis (15.75% decrease) and T. chilonis (1.85%
decrease).
After 12 days of spray, the order of effectiveness of the treatments
was nearly similar to that observed during 9 th day except that B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan was slightly better than imidacloprid indicating
corresponding population decrease of 55.13 and 54.29 per cent, although
the two were statistically similar.
After 15 days of spray, the treatments behaved in a comparable
fashion like 12 th day, only difference being that T. chilonis + imidacloprid
and B. thuringiensis stood closely above T. chilonis + endosulfan inflicting
reduction in jassid count to the tune of 25.33, 24.87 and 24.40, respectively,
although the three were at par statistically.

130
Crop season 2006
A perusal of the data depicted in Table 4.33 revealed that the pre -
treatment jassid population varied between 26.33 and 62.33 per 5 plants (3
leaves/plants) and all the treatments reduced the pest population over
untreated check after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 days of spraying.
Application of cypermethrin and endosulfan resulted in maximum
reduction in jassid population i.e., 93.44 and 91.52 per cent, respectively
after 3 days of treatment, both being statistically equal and were followed by
malathion, azadirachtin, imidacloprid, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan and T.
chilonis + endosulfan with population reduction of 74.66, 70.48, 62.02,
57.74 and 52.54 per cent, respectively. However, T . chilonis + imidacloprid
(33.83% reduction), B. thuringiensis (18.89% reduction), T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (11.37% reduction) and T. chilonis (2.50% reduction) were
least effective.
After 6 days of application, cypermethrin and endosulfan again
proved most effective causing reduction of 87.88 and 83.10 per cent,
respectively. These were followed by malathion (64.68% reduction),
azadirachtin (62.06% reduction), imidacloprid (61.34% reduction), B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (60.02% reduction) and T. chilonis + endosulfan
(43.64% reduction). The treatments comprising B. thuringiensis , T. chilonis
+ B. thuringiensis and T. chilonis proved least effective.

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132
At 9 days after spray, cypermethrin unsurprisingly maintained its
superiority over the remaining 10 treatments causing 84.92 per cent
reduction followed by endosulfan (74.78% reduction) and imidacloprid
(58.80% reduction). However, the effectiveness of B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan (58.34% reduction) enhanced over azadirachtin (55.65%
reduction) and malathion (54.30%), although these three were at par. The
remaining treatments were comparatively less effective and showed
reduction to the level of 37.76 ( T. chilonis + endosulfan), 27.47 ( T. chilonis
+ imidacloprid), 25.69 ( B. thuringiensis ), 16.54 ( T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis ) and 1.46 per cent ( T. chilonis ).
After 12 days of spray, the order of effectiveness of treatments
with respect to per cent reduction in jassid population over untreated check
was cypermethrin (81.06) > endosulfan (67.35) > B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan (55.71) > imidacloprid (53.29) > azadirachtin (49.49) >
malathion (47.28) > T. chilonis + endosulfan (31.07) > B. thuringiensis
(26.23) > T. chilonis + imidacloprid (24.50) > T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis
(17.46) > T. chilonis (2.35).
On 15 th day of spray, the insecticides and biopesticides behaved in
an almost similar manner like that of 12 th day with cypermethrin providing
highest reduction (77.67%) and T. chilonis demonstrating the minimum
reduction (1.21%). The remaining treatments witnessed per cent reduction
in the range of 61.30 (endosulfan) to 17.77 ( T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis ).

133
The only exception was B. thuringiensis treatment revealing a bit higher
reduction (26.81%) than T. chilonis + endosulfan (25.85%) which lost its
effectiveness considerably by 15 th day.
Kachhiari
Crop season 2005
A glimpse of the data outlined in Table 4.34 illustrated that the
pre-treatment jassid populated ranged from 64.00 to 114.33 per 5 plants (3
leaves/plant) in different treatments and all the treatments reduced the
jassid count, in comparison to control after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 days of
treatment to varying degrees.
Cypermethrin was the most promising and significantly superior in
decreasing the jassid population after 3 days of treatment with 94.17 per
cent reduction followed by the treatments comprising endosulfan, malathion,
azadirachtin, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan, T. chilonis + endosulfan with the
corresponding reduction of 90.44, 73.69, 71.45, 57.61 and 53.65 per cent in
jassid population. Imidacloprid, however was not found much effective and
caused only 38.73 per cent reduction followed by T. chilonis + imidacloprid
(17.83% reduction), B. thuringiensis (16.72% reduction) and T. chilonis
(1.36% reduction).
After 6 days of treatment, cypermethrin and endosulfan provided
highest reduction to the tune of 88.27 and 82.14 per cent, respectively. The
least effective treatment was that of T. chilonis resulting in only 2.28 per
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135
cent reduction. The remaining treatments caused population reduction in the
range of 63.93 per cent (malathion) to 14.52 per cent ( T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis ).
On 9th day of application, 80.33 per cent reduction was inflicted by
cypermethrin followed by endosulfan which caused 72.17 per cent reduction.
This was followed by the treatments consisting of B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan, malathion, azadirachtin, T. chilonis + endosulfan, imidacloprid,
B. thuringiensis , T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis , T. chilonis + imidacloprid and
T. chilonis resulting in population decrease of 56.73, 51.50, 51.09, 38.13,
32.66, 25.02, 14.92, 11.53 and 2.70 per cent, respectively.
After 12 days of spray, again cypermethrin was found most
promising with 77.80 per cent reduction followed by endosulfan (66.07%
reduction), B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (53.85% reduction). The fourth
position was occupied by azadirachtin (45.06% reduction) which took the
lead over malathion (43.27% reduction) even though the two treatments
were statistically equal. Rest of the treatments pursued a similar trend like
that of 9 th day inflicting reduction varying from 32.51 per cent ( T. chilonis +
endosulfan) to 1.67 per cent ( T. chilonis ).
After 15 days of spray, undoubtedly cypermethrin maintained its
superiority resulting in 74.62 per cent reduction and was significantly better
than the remaining treatments. An alike tendency in the efficacy of other
treatments was observed on 15 th day also, exception being B. thuringiensis
which improved in its effectiveness (28.43% decrease) slightly over

136
imidacloprid (27.48% decrease) and T. chilonis + endosulfan (27.36%
decrease) although these three treatments were statistically at par among
themselves.
Crop season 2006
Jassid count before 72 hours of treatment varied between 52.33
and 95.00 per 5 plants (3 leaves/plant) which was reduced after 3, 6, 9, 12
and 15 days of application in all the treatments (Table 4.35). After 3 days of
application, highest reduction (93.44%) in population was recorded in
cypermethrin treated plots followed by endosulfan treated plots (89.79%).
Malathion, azadirachtin, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan and T. chilonis +
endosulfan also provided sizeable reduction i.e. 73.47, 70.08, 56.58 and
52.39 per cent, correspondingly, the former two and the latter two, being
statistically akin to each other. These treatments were followed by
imidacloprid (40.96% reduction), T. chilonis + imidacloprid (18.53%
reduction), B. thuringeinsis (17.72% reduction), T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (11.61% reduction) and T. chilonis (1.64% reduction).
The treatments behaved in an identical manner at 6 days after
spray with cypermethrin recording highest decline in jassid numbers
(88.56%) and T. chilonis showing the minimum efficacy (2.75%). Remaining
treatments registered percentage reduction varying between 83.37
(endosulfan) to 13.95 ( T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis ). On this day, contrary
to 3rd day after spray, the effectiveness of B. thuringiensis enhanced
(23.91% decrease) over T. chilonis + imidacloprid (16.78% decrease).

137
138
Cypermethrin again proved most effective after 9 days of
treatment causing 83.43 per cent reduction in jassid population over
untreated check. Next to follow were the treatments comprising endosulfan,
B. thuringiensis + endosulfan, azadirachtin and malathion which also
resulted in considerable reduction in population level in the order of 73.24,
57.88, 56.17 and 55.11 per cent, respectively. Comparatively less effective
treatments were those of T. chilonis + endosulfan (37.58% reduction),
imidacloprid (34.09% reduction), B. thuringiensis (25.58% reduction) while
the least effective ones were T. chilonis in combination with B. thuringiensis ,
T. chilonis in combination with imidacloprid and T. chilonis alone with the
respective percentage reduction of 15.37, 13.99 and 1.97 per cent.
On 12 days after application, cypermethrin and endosulfan still
maintained their positions standing first and second with corresponding
reduction to the tune of 80.32 and 65.86 per cent over untreated check. The
remaining treatments recorded per cent reduction in the order of B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (54.74) > azadirachtin (48.60) > malathion
(47.68) > imidacloprid (30.64) > T. chilonis + endosulfan (29.04) > B.
thuringiensis (25.73) > T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (17.69) > T. chilonis +
imidacloprid (11.53) > T. chilonis (0.00).
After 15 days of application, the treatments provided reduction in
jassid population in a similar mode like that of 12 th day with cypermethrin
proving best by causing highest reduction (75.50%) and T. chilonis proving

139
least effective by showing lowest reduction (1.52%). Per cent reduction
varying from 59.47 (endosulfan) to 11.78 ( T. chilonis + imidacloprid) was
observed in the remaining 9 treatments. The efficacy of B. thuringiensis
slightly enhanced (26.62% reduction) over T. chilonis + endosulfan (24.87%
reduction) on 15 th day of spray.
Palampur
Crop season 2005
A perusal of the data embodied in Table 4.36 revealed that the
population of A. gossypii 72 hours before spray ranged between 114.00 and
320.33 per 5 plants (population sampled on 3 leaves/plant). Significantly
higher reduction in aphid count was brought about by both cypermethrin
and endosulfan causing 96.53 and 94.63 per cent reduction, respectively at
3 days after application and both were statistically at par with each other.
Treatments viz. malathion, azadirachtin, imidacloprid, B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan and T. chilonis + endosulfan also inflicted appreciable decrease
in population to the corresponding levels of 75.62, 73.81, 63.71, 58.83 and
53.81 per cent. The treatments which showed lesser reduction in aphid
count over untreated check at 3 days after application were those of T.
chilonis + imidacloprid (35.86%), B. thuringiensis (20.27%), T. chilonis +
B. thuringiensis (12.71%) and T. chilonis (1.91%). On 6 th day after

140
141
application, similar trend in the effectiveness of treatments was noticed.
Cypermethrin and endosulfan brought about reduction to the tune of 91.95
and 89.00 per cent, respectively and both stood statistically at par with each
other. T. chilonis was the least effective depicting only 1.33 per cent
reduction while the remaining treatments witnessed population reduction in
the range of 69.59 per cent (malathion) to 15.23 per cent ( T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis ).
After 9 days of application, cypermethrin once again sustained its
superiority by providing highest reduction to the extent of 87.83 per cent,
being significantly advanced over the other 10 treatments. Endosulfan was
at second position with 79.95 per cent reduction while the third, fourth, fifth
and sixth positions were occupied by B. thuringiensis + endosulfan,
azadirachtin, malathion and imidacloprid with corresponding population
reduction of 61.09, 58.70, 58.06 and 57.30 per cent, and all four treatments
were found to be statistically analogous.
On 12 th day of spray, the trend of treatments with respect to per
cent reduction in aphid population over untreated check was in the order of
cypermethrin (82.18) > endosulfan (70.68) > B. thuringiensis + endosulfan
(56.17) > imidacloprid (54.21) > azadirachtin (47.03) > malathion (44.88) >
T. chilonis + endosulfan (35.52) > B. thuringiensis (32.31) > T. chilonis +
imidacloprid (25.84) > T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (19.72) > T. chilonis
(1.95).
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The 15 th day of spraying noticed an almost parallel trend in the
effectiveness of insecticides and biopesticides except that B. thuringiensis
proved slightly better (32.38% reduction) than T. chilonis + endosulfan
(30.91% reduction), of course, the two were statistically in parity with each
other. Again, cypermethrin was unmatching in its superiority causing
maximum reduction (77.91%) while T. chilonis was the inferior most causing
no reduction.
Crop season 2006
During 2006, the pre-treatment population of aphids varied
between 95.33 and 256.33 per 5 plants (3 leaves/plant) which declined to
various levels at 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 days of application (Table 4.37). Both
cypermethrin and endosulfan showed highest reduction to the extent of
95.20 and 93.11 per cent, respectively on 3 days after spraying and stood at
par with each other but were significantly better than the rest of the
treatments. Malathion and azadirachtin were the next to follow with 75.07
and 71.18 per cent reduction, correspondingly. Imidacloprid, B. thuringiensis
in integration with endosulfan and T. chilonis in integration with endosulfan
also caused considerable reduction in aphid numbers to the tune of 61.43,
56.98 and 51.13 per cent, respectively. On the contrary, T. chilonis +
imidacloprid (31.31% reduction), B. thuringiensis (17.89% reduction), T.
chilonis + B. thuringiensis (10.66% reduction) and T. chilonis (1.65%
reduction) proved less effective.

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At 6 days after application, analogous trend in the efficacy of
treatments was noticed However, on 9 th day, even though cypermethrin and
endosulfan maintained their effectiveness with respective per cent reduction
of 85.89 and 76.45 but azadirachtin and malathion proved slightly less
effective than imidacloprid and B. thuringiensis + endosulfan with reduction
of 55.13, 52.54, 57.92 and 57.38 per cent, correspondingly. This further
indicated that malathion lost its superiority over azadirachtin as well, on 9
days after treatment application.
At 12 days after application, insecticides and biopesticides alone
and in integration provided per cent reduction to the tune of 80.74
(cypermethrin) > 69.24 (endosulfan) > 54.73 ( B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan) > 53.15 (imidacloprid) > 47.50 (azadirachtin) > 43.65
(malathion) > 33.31 ( T. chilonis + endosulfan) > 28.27 ( B. thuringiensis ) >
24.97 ( T. chilonis + imidacloprid) > 16.38 ( T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis ) >
1.83 ( T. chilonis ). The trend signified that B. thuringiensis improved in its
efficacy when compared to T. chilonis + imidacloprid on 12 th day unlike 9 th
day of spray.
A more or less similar trend was detected on 15 th day also when
cypermethrin was responsible for highest reduction (76.67%) in aphid
population while T. chilonis resulted in lowest reduction (1.69%).
Nevertheless, by 15 th day, the effectiveness of B. thuringiensis reached at
par with T. chilonis + endosulfan providing reduction of 29.67 and 29.30 per
cent, respectively, while the remaining treatments maintained their positions
like that of 12 th day of application.

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Kachhiari
Crop season 2005
The results on the efficacy of different insecticides and
biopesticides against aphid population on okra at Kachhiari, during 2005
crop season have been presented in Table 4.38. It is obvious from the data
that the pre-treatment population(72 hours prior to spray) of aphids ranged
between 147.67 and 252.00 per 5 plants (3 leaves/plant) in different
treatments.
At Kachhiari also, cypermethrin established its supremacy over
other treatments in checking A. gossypii population inflicting a reduction of
97.08 per cent over untreated check after 3 days of treatment. Endosulfan
was next best with 94.15 per cent reduction in population, although it was
statistically at par with cypermethrin. Appreciable drop in aphid numbers
was also detected in malathion, azadirachtin, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan
and T. chilonis + endosulfan recording reduction to the extent of 76.54,
75.32, 60.92 and 53.94 per cent, respectively. However, unlike Palampur,
imidacloprid was not found much promising and caused only 39.20 per cent
reduction followed by B. thuringiensis (22.61% reduction), T. chilonis +
imidacloprid (20.70% reduction), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (13.68%
reduction) and T. chilonis (2.59% reduction).
By 6 th day of application, a maximum of 91.02 per cent reduction
was apparent in cypermethrin treated plots which was markedly superior
to the rest of the treatments and was narrowly followed by endosulfan

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(85.22% reduction). Malathion, azadirachtin and B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan were also not much behind and exhibited decrease in population
to the tune of 68.81, 68.04 and 64.65 per cent, respectively. The remaining
treatments witnessed per cent decrease over untreated check to the extent
of 47.25 ( T. chilonis + endosulfan), 36.85 (imidacloprid), 29.04 ( B.
thuringiensis ), 17.11 ( T. chilonis + imidacloprid), 16.36 ( T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis ) and 2.31( T. chilonis ).
After 9 days of application, nearly similar trend in the effectiveness
of treatments was evident with cypermethrin being significantly superior
recording the utmost reduction of 87.79 per cent and T. chilonis recorded
the lowest reduction of 1.72 per cent. In addition, azadirachtin and B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan gave higher reduction than malathion (which
slipped to fifth position) causing per cent decrease in aphid count of 60.62,
59.57 and 58.48, respectively, although three were statistically akin to one
another.
On 12 th day of treatment application, the per cent decrease in
different treatments varied between 81.97 (cypermethrin) and 0.00 ( T.
chilonis ). On this day, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan rose to third position
providing reduction of 56.18 per cent, while azadirachtin (50.08% reduction)
and malathion (47.22% reduction) occupied fourth and fifth positions,
correspondingly. B. thuringiensis also gave slightly more reduction (33.03%)
than imidacloprid (32.57%) although both remained statistically equal.

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After 15 days of spray, the effect of treatments was almost similar
to that observed on 12 th day with cypermethrin (77.14% reduction)
surpassing the remaining 10 treatments in checking aphid population. By
15 th day, B. thuringiensis showed improvement in its efficacy over T. chilonis
+ endosulfan and imidacloprid depicting 34.81 per cent reduction, compared
to 31.50 and 29.59 per cent in the corresponding treatments.
Crop season 2006
A look at the statistics available in Table 4.39 revealed that the
population of A. gossypii 72 hours before spray varied from 138.33 to 240.67
per 5 plants (3 leaves/plant) in different treatments. Significantly higher
reduction in aphid count was brought about by cypermethrin, endosulfan,
malathion and azadirachtin at 3 days after spray, causing respective
reduction of 96.47, 93.98, 77.42 and 75.57 per cent, the first two and the
last two being statistically analogous to each other. Intermediate
effectiveness to the extent of 59.63, 54.84 and 40.43 per cent was
manifested by B. thuringiensis + endosulfan, T. chilonis + endosulfan and
imidacloprid treatments, respectively. T. chilonis integrated with
imidacloprid, B. thuringiensis alone, T. chilonis integrated with B.
thuringiensis and T. chilonis alone exhibited lower reduction levels to the
tune of 21.07, 20.53, 12.87 and 2.46 per cent, correspondingly.
After 6 days of spray, the inclination of the treatments was parallel
to that observed on 3 rd day with cypermethrin recording highest reduction
(92.49%) and T. chilonis revealing the least reduction (1.34%).

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On 9 th day of application, the effectiveness of treatments with
respect to per cent reduction was in the decreasing order of cypermethrin
(87.53) > endosulfan (79.69) > malathion (61.21) > azadirachtin (60.89) >
B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (60.42) > T. chilonis + endosulfan (43.66) >
imidacloprid (35.80) > B. thuringiensis (31.59) > T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (17.64) > T. chilonis + imidacloprid (16.55) > T. chilonis
(1.73).
Cypermethrin once again undeniably maintained its supremacy
over the rest of the treatments resulting in 82.31 per cent reduction in aphid
numbers at 12 days after spray followed by endosulfan causing 70.04 per
cent reduction. The efficacy of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (56.42%
decrease) enhanced by 12 th day over azadirachtin (48.11% decrease) and
malathion (46.67% decrease).
After 15 days of spray, one more time, cypermethrin treated plots
registered lowest population of the pest by providing 77.74 per cent
reduction while T. chilonis was the least effective showing only 1.13 per cent
reduction. Besides, by 15 th day, the efficacy of B. thuringiensis slightly
improved and it recorded higher reduction (35.20%) than T. chilonis +
endosulfan (32.54%). Also, azadirachtin showed somewhat higher reduction
(41.58%) than malathion (38.80%) although both were equal statistically.

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Kachhiari
Crop season 2005
A perusal of the data presented in Table 4.40 revealed that the
mean fruit infestation at the initiation of experiment ranged between 12.19
to 19.36 per cent in different treatments which was reduced at 7 and 14
days after treatment application.
At 7 days after spray, lowest mean fruit infestation by E. vittella
was evident in cypermethrin (5.27%) treatment being significantly superior
over the rest of the treatments closely followed by endosulfan (6.53%). B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan was the next best with 7.74 per cent infestation
followed by malathion (11.67%). The treatments comprising B. thuringiensis ,
azadirachtin, T. chilonis + endosulfan and T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis
recorded moderate level of mean fruit infestation with corresponding values
of 13.78, 14.32, 15.75 and 16.18 per cent as compared to untreated check
which recorded 28.77 per cent mean fruit infestation. On the contrary,
highest fruit infestation was apparent in imidacloprid (20.46%), T. chilonis +
imidacloprid (20.21 %) and T. chilonis (19.79%).
At 14 days after application, cypermethrin (5.98% fruit infestation)
lost its top position to B. thuringiensis + endosulfan which registered the
lowest mean fruit infestation of 5.63 per cent being significantly better than
the rest of the treatments. These were followed by endosulfan (8.29%), B.

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thuringiensis (10.98% reduction), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (12.60%),
azadirachtin (14.08%), malathion (14.77%), T. chilonis (14.91%), T. chilonis
+ endosulfan (16.82%), T. chilonis + imidacloprid (18.52%), imidacloprid
(19.59%) and untreated check (25.46%).
Crop season 2006
Data presented in Table 4.40 indicated that the mean fruit
infestation before spray varied between 11.07 and 17.42 per cent in various
treatments which was reduced at 7 and 14 days after spray in all the
treatments.
At 7 days after spray, all the treatments were significantly superior
over untreated check (26.89% fruit infestation) with cypermethrin proving to
be significantly superior over the rest of the treatments with the lowest
(4.77%) mean fruit infestation closely followed by endosulfan with 5.24 per
cent fruit infestation. Considerably lower per cent fruit infestation over
untreated check was also observed in treatments comprising B. thuringiensis
+ endosulfan (6.68%), malathion (10.69%), B. thuringiensis (12.21%),
azadirachtin (13.14%), T. chilonis + endosulfan (14.33%) and T. chilonis +
B. thuringiensis (14.38%). On the opposite side, the treatments showing
higher mean fruit infestation by E. vittella were T. chilonis (17.97%), T.
chilonis + imidacloprid (19.47%) and imidacloprid (20.07%).
At 14 days after treatment application, the efficacy of B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan improved exceptionally and it registered the least
mean fruit infestation to the tune of 5.08 per cent, and was significantly
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superior to the rest of the treatments. The order of effective ness of
remaining treatments was: cypermethrin > endosulfan > B. thuringiensis >
T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis > azadirachtin> T. chilonis > malathion > T.
chilonis + endosulfan > T. chilonis + imidacloprid > imidacloprid with mean
fruit infestation of 6.14, 7.72, 10.39, 11.73, 13.36, 14.11, 14.29, 16.42,
18.55 and 19.66 per cent, respectively as compared to untreated check
which registered 24.36 per cent mean fruit infestation.
Palampur
Crop season 2005
From the data depicted in Table 4.41, it is evident that the pre-
treatment beetle population on okra varied between 17.67 and 21.67 per 10
plants which was reduced in all the treatments after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 days
of treatment to varying levels.
Maximum reduction (90.71%) in population of Mylabris beetles
after 3 days was inflicted by application of cypermethrin closely followed by
endosulfan (89.56%), the two being statistically analogous. Malathion and
azadirachtin were also not far behind and caused appreciable reduction of
78.94 and 65.58 per cent, respectively. Combined application of B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan and T. chilonis + endosulfan exhibited
intermediate level of reduction over untreated check to the extent of 56.54
and 50.17 per cent correspondingly. Least reduction was evident in the
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treatments comprising B. thuringiensis (18.33%), T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (13.10%), imidacloprid (8.14%), T. chilonis + imidacloprid
(6.81%) and T. chilonis (3.19%).
At 6 days after spray, cypermethrin sustained its effectiveness and
provided highest reduction of 85.20 per cent while no reduction was
monitored in T. chilonis . The rest of the treatments witnessed the similar
trend except that azadirachtin (58.83% reduction) and B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan (58.56% reduction) stood statistically at par in comparison to 3 rd
day when they were significantly different from each other. This obviously
signified that the efficacy of azadirachtin slightly decreased while that of B .
thuringiensis + endosulfan slightly enhanced on 6 th day.
At 9 and 12 days after application, cypermethrin proved
significantly better than the rest of the treatments by registering 81.37 and
77.42 per cent reduction, respectively over untreated check. The efficacy of
endosulfan slightly reduced and it caused 68.08 and 59.97 per cent
reduction in beetle population on the corresponding days. On the contrasting
side, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan improved in its efficacy (58.80% and
55.28% reduction) over malathion (47.12 and 41.82% reduction) and
azadirachtin (40.94 and 34.06% reduction) on 9 th and 12 th day of
application, respectively. Remaining treatments behaved in an almost
identical manner.
At 15 days after application, the efficacy of treatments with respect
to reduction in beetle count was in the order of cypermethrin (75.82%) > B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (53.62%) > endosulfan (51.54%) > malathion

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(36.88%) > azadirachtin (30.96%) > T. chilonis + endosulfan (28.87%) >
B. thuringiensis (23.19%) > T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (19.58%) >
imidacloprid (3.95%) > T. chilonis + imidacloprid (3.62%) > T. chilonis
(1.77%).
Crop season 2006
Data presented in Table 4.42 revealed that pre-treatment beetle
population varied from 19.00 to 22.67 per 10 plants in different treatments.
At 3 days after application, both cypermethrin and endosulfan brought about
substantial check in beetle population depicting 89.34 and 88.06 per cent
reduction, respectively and were statistically comparable. Malathion,
azadirachtin, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan and T. chilonis + endosulfan also
proved their efficacy by registering corresponding reduction of 77.40, 69.51,
57.53 and 49.76 per cent. These were followed by B. thuringiensis (21.50%
decrease), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (13.22% decrease), imidacloprid
(10.75% decrease) > T. chilonis + imidacloprid (7.89% decrease) > T.
chilonis (2.58%). At 6 days after application, cypermethrin recorded highest
while T. chilonis recorded lowest reduction of 88.61 and 1.69 per cent,
respectively. Combination of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (60.26%
reduction) surpassed azadirachtin (58.99% reduction) and stood at fourth
position after malathion (69.15% reduction), although the former two were
statistically at par with each other. Remaining treatments experienced
population decline in the range of 45.11 per cent ( T. chilonis + endosulfan)
to 6.82 per cent ( T. chilonis + imidacloprid).

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At 9 days after application, 83.72 per cent reduction was brought
about by cypermethrin which was significantly superior over the remaining
10 treatments. These were followed by endosulfan (69.86% decrease), B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (62.19% decrease), malathion (47.99%
decrease), azadirachtin (41.78% decrease), T. chilonis + endosulfan
(37.94% decrease), B. thuringiensis (29.34% decrease), T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (19.28% decrease), imidacloprid (8.30% decrease), T. chilonis
+ imidacloprid (6.21% decrease) and T. chilonis (1.77% decrease).
After 12 days of spray, cypermethrin treated plots once again
registered highest reduction of 81.35 per cent followed by endosulfan (57.94
%) which was at par with B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (56.25%). Other
treatments manifested lower reduction in the range of 41.37 per cent
(malathion) to 2.10 per cent ( T. chilonis ) over untreated check.
After 15 days of treatment, the percentage reduction in beetle
population fall in the decreasing order of cypermethrin (78.25%) > B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (53.73%) > endosulfan (50.40%) > malathion
(35.79%) > B. thuringiensis (32.64%) > azadirachtin (31.59%) > T. chilonis
+ endosulfan (25.48%) > T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (22.70%) >
(0.00%) This clearly indicated that efficacy of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan
and B. thuringiensis treatments improved by 15 th day of spray.

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Kachhiari
Crop season 2005
A perusal of the data depicted in Table 4.43 revealed that the pre -
treatment beetle population at Kachhiari during 2005 varied between 23.00
and 28.33 beetles per 10 plants. It is quite discernible from the data that at
3 days after spray, both cypermethrin and endosulfan demonstrated highest
reduction in beetle count to the level of 89.75 and 88.71 per cent,
respectively and both were statistically at par with each other. Other
treatments which experienced noteworthy reduction in population over
untreated check were malathion (76.24%), azadirachtin (68.08%), B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (56.40%) and T. chilonis + endosulfan (50.26%).
The treatments which were not very effective in checking Mylabris
population were B. thuringiensis (18.67% reduction), T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (14.69% reduction), imidacloprid (9.40% reduction), T. chilonis
+ imidacloprid (8.42% reduction) and T. chilonis (0.00% reduction).
A parallel trend in the effectiveness of treatments was noticed on
6 th day of application when cypermethrin obtained the highest reduction
(85.64%) and T. chilonis showed the lowest reduction (1.98%). However,
the effectiveness of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (58.62% reduction)
improved over azadirachtin (55.49%) by 6 th day, even though both were
statistically akin to each other.

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At 9 days after spray, cypermethrin maintained its supremacy over
the remaining treatments and registered highest reduction of 82.50 per cent
and proved significantly superior over the rest of the treatments.
Nonetheless, endosulfan was not far behind and registered 70.72%
reduction in beetle population over untreated check. The efficacy of B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan further enhanced and it inflicted 61.18%
reduction while malathion and azadirachtin slipped down to fourth and fifth
positions with reduction of 49.15 and 43.10 per cent, respectively.
At 15 days after spray, the per cent reduction in beetle population
over untreated check in different treatments was 77.32 (cypermethrin) >
52.71 (endosulfan) > 52.53 ( B. thuringiensis + endosulfan) > 34.06
(malathion) > 29.39 (azadirachtin) > 27.36 ( B. thuringiensis ) > 27.17 ( T.
chilonis + endosulfan) > 21.99 ( T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis) >
(1.54%).
Crop season 2006
At Kachhiari, during 2006, the pre-treatment beetle population
varied between 16.33 to 20.00 per 10 plants in different treatments which
reduced to varying degrees at 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 days of spraying (Table
4.44).
At 3 days after spray, significantly higher reduction was brought
about by cypermethrin (90.19%), endosulfan (88.80%), malathion (76.51%)
and azadirachtin (66.82%). Intermediate level of effectiveness was provided
by the combined application of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (58.83%

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reduction) and T. chilonis + endosulfan (52.22% reduction). Whereas, the
least effective treatments with respect to per cent reduction were those
comprising B. thuringiensis (21.30), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (15.49),
imidacloprid (10.25), T. chilonis + imidacloprid (8.73) and T. chilonis (0.00).
At 6 days after spray, the trend of all the treatments was similar to
that observed during 3 rd day except that the efficacy of B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan improved over azadirachtin and it provided 59.91% reduction
compared to 54.78% reduction obtained in azadirachtin treated plots.
On 9 th day of application, cypermethrin obviously maintained its
efficacy in checking Mylabris population and showed 80.88 per cent
reduction followed by endosulfan (69.58% reduction), while T. chilonis
remained least effective with 1.17 per cent reduction only. By 9 th day, B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan stepped up to third position scoring 61.93%
decline in beetle count while malathion and azadirachtin were at fourth and
fifth positions with corresponding decrease of 47.40 and 41.66 per cent over
untreated check. The treatments which lagged behind and showed lower
levels of efficacy against Mylabris were those consisting of T. chilonis +
endosulfan (37.73% reduction), B. thuringiensis (26.50% reduction), T.
chilonis + B. thuringiensis (18.49% reduction), imidacloprid (7.02%
reduction), T. chilonis + imidacloprid (5.87% reduction) and T. chilonis
(1.17%).
The synthetic pyrethroid, cypermethrin did not lose its efficiency
and maintained its first position after 12 and 15 days of spray as well by
providing 78.94 and 76.73 per cent decrease in beetle population, whereas,
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T. chilonis proved to be the inferior most with 1.41 and 0.00 per cent
reduction on the corresponding days. Endosulfan (57.05, 50.79) and B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (55.40, 50.88) too gave significant per cent
reduction in blister beetle population on 12 th and 15th day, respectively. The
remaining treatments exhibited population decline in the range of 42.09
(malathion) to 4.57 ( T. chilonis + imidacloprid) and 36.36 (malathion) to
3.77 ( T. chilonis + imidacloprid) on the respective days of application.
Palampur
Crop season 2005
A glimpse of the data outlined in Table 4.45 indicated that the pre -
treatment larval population of leafroller, S. derogata varied between 12.33
and 17.67 per 10 plants in different treatments which was reduced at 3, 6,
9, 12 and 15 days after spraying in all the treatments to varying levels.
At 3 days after application, highest reduction in larval population
was noticed in both cypermethrin (90.88%) and endosulfan (90.65%)
treatments and both were statistically analogous to each other. Next to
follow were malathion (78.00% reduction), B. thuringiensis + endosulfan
(67.22% reduction), azadirachtin (63.29% reduction), T. chilonis +
endosulfan (56.02% reduction) and T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (48.57%
reduction). However, the treatments showing lower reduction were those
comprising T. chilonis , B. thuringiensis , T. chilonis + imidacloprid and
imidacloprid depicting reduction to the level of 39.03, 37.54, 25.69 and
11.20 per cent, correspondingly.

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At 6 days after spray, cypermethrin inflicted highest reduction to
the tune of 86.79 per cent closely followed by endosulfan with 83.94 per
cent reduction. The efficacy of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan treatment
enhanced on 6 th day causing 79.42 per cent reduction, and thus occupied
third position. Malathion and azadirachtin slipped to fourth and fifth
positions but still showed considerable reduction of 70.91 and 60.36 per
cent, respectively. Likewise, T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis and B.
thuringiensis illustrated appreciable improvement in their efficacy and
resulted in respective reduction of 58.67 and 57.36 per cent.
By 9 th day of application, integrated treatment of B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan surpassed all other treatments and caused maximum reduction of
81.46 per cent in larval population being statistically at par with
cypermethrin (80.13% reduction) which in turn was at par with endosulfan
(76.11% reduction). These were followed by the treatments comprising T.
chilonis + B. thuringiensis , malathion, B. thuringiensis , azadirachtin, T.
chilonis + endosulfan, T. chilonis , T. chilonis + imidacloprid and imidacloprid
with corresponding reduction of 62.96, 60.47, 60.26, 53.67, 45.85, 32.25,
20.30 and 6.70 per cent.
After 12 days of spray, the effectiveness of B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan further increased and it caused reduction of 84.68 per cent,
being perceptibly superior over the remaining 10 treatments. Least effective
treatment was that of imidacloprid with a mere 4.47 per cent reduction. The
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rest of the treatments decreased the larval population in the decreasing
order of cypermethrin (76.18%) > endosulfan (69.46%) > T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (65.68%) > B. thuringiensis (61.86%) > malathion (54.92%) >
T. chilonis + endosulfan (48.54%) > azadirachtin (48.32%) > T. chilonis
(38.93%) > T. chilonis + imidacloprid (25.41%).
On 15 th day of spray, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan remained the
superior most with 86.81 per cent reduction in larval population over
untreated check followed by cypermethrin (73.90%), T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (67.98%), endosulfan (67.50%) and B. thuringiensis (64.17%).
Moderate level of check in larval population was brought about by T. chilonis
+ endosulfan (50.02%), malathion (48.91%), azadirachtin (45.59%) and T.
chilonis (45.20%). On the other hand, T. chilonis + imidacloprid showed
lower efficacy of 32.53 per cent reduction while imidacloprid proved to be
the least effective with 3.32 per cent reduction.
Crop season 2006
The statistics available in Table 4.46 depicted that the pre-
treatment population of S. derogata fall in the range of 17.33 to 25.00
larvae per 10 plants which was reduced to varying degrees after 3, 6, 9, 12
and 15 days of spray.
After 3 days of treatment application, significantly higher reduction
was provided by cypermethrin (89.06%), endosulfan (87.95%), malathion
(78.19%), B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (67.43%) and azadirachtin

169
(64.94%). Intermediate level of reduction was recorded in T. chilonis +
endosulfan (53.16%) and T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (47.63%) treated
plots while the treatments viz. T. chilonis , B. thuringiensis, T. chilonis +
imidacloprid and imidacloprid witnessed lower efficacy with respective
reduction of 38.37, 37.44, 28.69 and 10.84 per cent.
After 6 days of spray, most effective treatments were those
consisting of cypermethrin (84.91% reduction), endosulfan (82.96%) and B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (78.16% reduction). This apparently signified
that the efficacy of integrated treatment of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan
increased by 6 th day over malathion (69.25% reduction). The treatments viz.
T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis , azadirachtin, B. thuringiensis and T. chilonis +
endosulfan too provided momentous level of check in leafroller larval
population by causing population reduction of 62.93, 59.98, 55.15 and 47.55
per cent, respectively.
On 9 th day, cypermethrin sustained its first position by registering
81.34 per cent reduction, but B. thuringiensis + endosulfan did not lag
behind and was statistically equivalent to cypermethrin with 80.33 per cent
reduction, closely followed by endosulfan (78.43% reduction). Appreciable
degree of decline in larval population was also obtained in treatments such
as T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (65.44%), malathion (59.09%), B.
thuringiensis (56.79%), azadirachtin (50.16%) and combined application of
T. chilonis + endosulfan (44.55%). Contrastingly, T. chilonis , T. chilonis +
imidacloprid and imidacloprid continued to be the least effective treatments
with per cent decrease of 25.69, 25.00 and 4.80, respectively.

170
171
By 12 th day of application, the effectiveness of integrated
treatment viz. B. thuringiensis + endosulfan markedly enhanced and it gave
the utmost reduction of 84.92 per cent in larval population over untreated
check. The remaining treatments detected reduction in larval population of
S. derogata in the decreasing order of cypermethrin (79.56%) > endosulfan
(73.04%) > T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (67.53%) > B. thuringiensis
(61.91%) > malathion (52.24%) > T. chilonis + endosulfan (47.73%) >
azadirachtin (46.62%) > T. chilonis (36.43%) > T. chilonis + imidacloprid
(29.70%) > imidacloprid (3.31%). Such a trend pointed out that the efficacy
of B. thuringiensis enhanced over malathion while that of T. chilonis +
endosulfan enhanced over azadirachtin on 12 th day although the latter two
were statistically equivalent.
The 15 th day of application witnessed maximum reduction to the
tune of 87.68 per cent by the application of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan
which was significantly the superior most among all the treatments. Next to
follow were cypermethrin and endosulfan with 76.86 and 71.40 per cent
reduction, respectively over untreated check. The treatments viz. T. chilonis
+ B. thuringiensis and B. thuringiensis too obtained noticeable check in
larval population with corresponding per cent decrease of 69.90 and 65.82.
In addition, T. chilonis + endosulfan, malathion, T. chilonis and azadirachtin
also provided moderate levels of reduction to the tune of 51.52, 49.08,
46.03 and 43.25 per cent, in the respective treatments. The only treatments
which caused lower reduction in leafroller population were those of T.
chilonis + imidacloprid (35.93%) and imidacloprid (2.91%).

172
Kachhiari
Crop season 2005
It is quite perceptible from the data presented in Table 4.47 that
the pre-treatment larval population ranged from 16.00 to 26.00 larvae per
10 plants in different treatments at Kachhiari and all the treatments
decreased the larval population in comparison to control after 3, 6, 9, 12 and
15 days of treatment.
Cypermethrin was unmatching in its worth and significantly better
in reducing the larval population after 3 days of application with 85.38 per
cent reduction followed by treatments comprising endosulfan, malathion,
B. thuringiensis + endosulfan and azadirachtin with a reduction of 80.81,
71.72, 67.23 and 61.59 per cent in larval population which were significantly
different from one another. Moderate level of reduction was noticed in
treatments viz. T. chilonis + endosulfan (50.19%), T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (43.32%) and T. chilonis (42.06%) whereas those responsible
for lower reduction were B. thuringiensis (33.07%), T. chilonis +
imidacloprid (28.51%) and imidacloprid (10.24%).
At 6 days after spray, cypermethrin treated plots registered the
maximum efficacy followed by endosulfan and B. thuringiensis + endosulfan
treated plots with the respective reduction of 84.95, 77.93 and 75.89 per
cent. Substantial level of reduction was also exhibited by the treatments viz.
malathion (58.91%), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (58.64%), azadirachtin
(54.95%), B. thuringiensis (51.62%) and T. chilonis + endosulfan (45.52%).

173
174
At 9 days after application, cypermethrin once again proved most
effective with a reduction of 80.49 per cent which was statistically at par
with B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (78.19%) closely followed by endosulfan
(73.87%). The effectiveness of T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis and B.
thuringiensis increased noticeably by 9 th day with respective reduction to the
extent of 65.12 and 55.19 per cent as compared to malathion (54.17%
reduction) and azadirachtin (50.76% reduction).
By 12 th day, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan proved to be the
superior most with highest reduction of 82.98 per cent followed by
cypermethrin and endosulfan with corresponding decrease of 79.12 and
72.38 per cent, the former two being at par. T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis
and B. thuringiensis showed a perceptible increase in their effectiveness by
providing 69.99 and 60.58 per cent reduction, respectively.
On 15 th day of application, the order of superiority of treatments in
reducing larval population was B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (80.86%),
cypermethrin (76.19%), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (72.33%), endosulfan
(68.84%), B. thuringiensis (65.43%), T. chilonis + endosulfan (50.00%), T.
chilonis (48.59%), malathion (45.92%), azadirachtin (42.51%), T. chilonis +
imidacloprid (37.75%) and imidacloprid (3.63%).

175
Crop season 2006
A perusal of the data embodied in Table 4.48 revealed that before
72 hours of spray, the population of leafroller varied between 14.00 to 21.00
larvae per 10 plants in different treatments and all the treatments reduced
the population of the pest over untreated check after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 days
of application to varying levels.
The treatments behaved in an almost indistinguishable manner as
that observed during 2005 crop season. Cypermethrin recorded the utmost
reduction of 90.43 per cent in larval population closely followed
by endosulfan (86.09%) over untreated check at 3 days after spray. These
were followed by malathion, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan, azadirachtin and
T. chilonis + endosulfan which were responsible for causing ample reduction
to the extent of 76.03, 70.51, 64.79 and 53.33 per cent, correspondingly.
After 6 days of application, maximum reduction of 85.96 per cent
was obtained in cypermethrin followed by endosulfan (81.99%) and B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (80.65%). Malathion, T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis , azadirachtin and B. thuringiensis too witnessed appreciable
reduction in larval population by providing 65.02, 62.35, 58.64 and 55.36
per cent decrease, respectively indicating that T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis
and B. thuringiensis showed a considerable improvement in their efficacy on
6 th day.
176
177
At 9 days after spray, the order of efficacy of treatments in
checking larval population of S . derogata was cypermethrin (82.05%) > B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan (79.48%), endosulfan (75.93%) > T. chilonis +
B. thuringiensis (66.32%) > B. thuringiensis (57.63%) > malathion
(56.52%) > azadirachtin (49.16%) > T. chilonis + endosulfan (45.48%) > T.
chilonis (33.33%) > T. chilonis + imidacloprid (19.51%) > imidacloprid
(6.02%).
After 12 days of treatment application, B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan took the lead over cypermethrin and was at first position causing
82.39 per cent reduction over untreated check, proving significantly better
than the other treatments. The inclination of the remaining 9 treatments
with respect to their effectiveness in decreasing larval population of leaf
roller was parallel to that observed during 9 th day.
By 15 th day, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan was certainly the best of
the lot scoring 85.39 per cent reduction followed by cypermethrin (75.93%)
and T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (71.05%), the latter two being statistically
akin to each other. Endosulfan, B. thuringiensis and T. chilonis + endosulfan
treated plots too experienced noticeable reduction in larval population to the
tune of 68.62, 65.84 and 50.83 per cent, respectively. Comparatively lower
efficacy was detected in case of malathion (47.85% reduction), T. chilonis
(46.90% reduction) and azadirachtin (40.23%) on 15th day, while those
depicting least effectiveness were T. chilonis + imidacloprid and imidacloprid
with corresponding reduction of 30.21 and 2.99 per cent.

178
4.6 Effect of insecticides and biopesticides on

marketable yield (qha -1) of okra
The data with respect to healthy fruit yield as influenced by the
application of insecticides and biopesticides at Palampur and Kachhiari
during 2005 and 2006 are presented in Table 4.49. At Palampur during
2005, all the treatments were significantly superior over control (39.64qha -1 )
and maximum yield (101.59 qha -1 ) was obtained in cypermethrin treatment
closely followed by endosulfan (98.34 qha -1). The third best treatment was
that of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan (95.32 qha -1 ) followed by imidacloprid
(93.98 qha -1 ), azadirachtin (85.43 qha-1), malathion (83.55 qha -1), T. chilonis
+ endosulfan (77.35 qha -1), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (76.60 qha -1), T.
chilonis + imidacloprid (72.20 qha -1 ), B. thuringiensis (68.71 qha -1 ) and T.
chilonis (52.20 qha-1 ).
During 2006 also, all the treatments behaved noticeably superior in
comparison to untreated check (33.57 qha -1). Utmost yield of 100.29 qha -1
was obtained in cypermethrin treatment followed by B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan (97.31 qha -1 ), endosulfan (92.58 qha -1 ), imidacloprid (89.00 q
ha-1 ), azadirachtin (81.20 q ha -1 ), malathion (78.47 q ha -1), T. chilonis +
endosulfan (73.25 qha -1 ), T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis (70.51 qha -1 ), B.
thuringiensis (67.67 qha -1), T. chilonis + imidacloprid (63.83 qha -1 ) and T.
Data indicated in Table 4.49 showed that at Kachhiari, all the
insecticides and biopesticides treatments were markedly superior over
untreated check which recorded the lowest of 47.32 q ha -1 fruit yield of okra
179
Table 4.49 Effect of insecticides and biopesticides on marketable

yield (qha -1 ) of okra at Palampur and Kachhiari (Kangra)
Treatment Dosages Fruit yield (q ha -1)*

Palampur Kachhiari
2005 2006 2005 2006
Trichogramma 50000 ha -1 52.20 48.76 66.62 60.48
chilonis
Bacillus 3.96 x 10 7 IU ha -1 68.71 67.67 87.59 85.48

thuringiensis
Azadirachtin 0.00045% 85.43 81.20 107.20 100.71
Malathion 0.05% 83.55 78.47 100.43 95.54
Endosulfan 0.07% 98.34 92.58 116.46 111.19
Cypermethrin 0.01% 101.59 100.29 127.40 122.50
Imidacloprid 5 g kg -1 seed 93.98 89.00 102.35 98.87
T. chilonis + 25000 ha -1 + 1.98 x 76.60 70.51 97.33 94.36

B. thuringiensis 107 IU ha -1
T. chilonis + 25000 ha -1 + 2.5 g 72.20 63.83 84.36 80.43

Imidacloprid kg -1 seed
T. chilonis + 25000 ha -1 + 0.035% 77.35 73.25 92.79 90.50

Endosulfan
B. thuringiensis + 1.98 x 10 7 IU ha -1 + 95.32 97.31 120.62 118.56

Endosulfan 0.035%
Untreated check 39.64 33.57 47.32 43.37
CD (5%) 3.09 2.66 3.42 6.25

* Mean of 3 replications
during 2005. Cypermethrin treated plots registered the highest yield of
127.40 q ha -1 , whereas lowest yield of 66.62 q ha -1 was obtained in T.
chilonis treatment. The trend of the rest of the treatments with respect to
180
fruit yield (qha -1 ) was in the decreasing order of B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan (120.62) > endosulfan (116.46) > azadirachtin (107.20) >
imidacloprid (102.35) > malathion (100.43) > T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis
(97.33) > T. chilonis + endosulfan (92.79) > B. thuringiensis (87.59) > T.
chilonis + imidacloprid (84.36).
During 2006, the yield of okra ranged between 43.37 qha -1
(untreated check) and 122.50 qha -1 (cypermethrin) and all the treatments
were unquestionably superior over untreated check. B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan proved to be the second best treatment recording 118.56 qha -1
followed by endosulfan (111.19 qha -1), azadirachtin (100.71 q ha -1),
imidacloprid (98.87 qha -1 ), malathion (95.54 qha -1 ), T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis (94.36 qha -1 ), T. chilonis + endosulfan (90.50 qha-1 ), B.
thuringiensis (85.48 qha -1) > T. chilonis + imidacloprid (80.43 qha -1 ) > T.

Chapter V
DISCUSSION
The results obtained during the present investigation entitled,
“Integrated Pest Management in Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench”
are discussed hereunder:
5.1 Insect-pests associated with okra crop
For evolving an effective pest management strategy, it is
imperative to know the insect-pest complex attacking a crop in a particular
agro-climatic zone. Surveillance studies conducted on okra at Palampur
revealed 18 different pests‟ species belonging to 6 orders and 12 families
associated with A. esculentus (var. Pusa Sawani) from June to September
(Table 4.1). At Kachhiari (Kangra), 19 different pests‟ species belon ging to 6
orders and 12 families were associated with okra crop from May to
September (Table 4.2). At both the locations, Nodostoma spp. and Popillia
spp. were identified as new insects of okra from the state. Nodostoma spp.
were found to attack both foliage and flowers whereas Popillia spp. attacked
flowers only although both these insects were rated as minor pests.
Earlier Butani and Verma (1976) had reported as many as 30 insect
and non-insect pests attacking okra crop. Dhamdhere et al. (1984) have
listed 13 pests attacking okra at various stages of crop growth at Gwalior in
Madhya Pradesh. Eight species of insects were reported to feed on okra at

182
Raipur (Chhattisgarh) by Dubey et al. (1999). Our results are in close
consonance with Nath (1992) who reported 21 species of insects-pests
associated with okra crop at Solan, Himachal Pradesh and Singh and Joshi
(2004) who observed 15 pests associated with okra crop in Paonta valley of
Himachal Pradesh.
During the present investigation, the severity of pests was noticed
from June to September at both the locations. A number of workers have
also observed that the pests of okra are more serious from June to August
i.e . during warm and rainy season (Kashyap and Verma, 1982; Mahmood et
al., 1988; Kandoria et al ., 1989).
The present research revealed that out of 18 pest species recorded
on okra at Palampur, 4 were observed to cause major damage to crop.
These included jassid, A . biguttula biguttula , aphid, A . gossypii , blister
beetle, M. pustulata and leafroller, S . derogata . At Kachhiari, in addition to
these pests, shoot and fruit borer, E. vittella was also observed as the major
pest of okra.
A. biguttula biguttula and E. vittella have already been recognized
as most serious pests of okra crop in different parts of country by many
researchers (Mote, 1977; Radke and Undirwade, 1981; Dhamdhere et al .,
1984; Gajbhiye et al ., 1985; Chaudhary and Dadheech, 1989; Jamwal and
Kandoria, 1990; Kadam and Khaire, 1995; Bhagat and Bhat, 1999; Dubey et
al., 1999; Gogoi and Dutta, 2000; Mandal et al ., 2006c, Gupta et al ., 2007;
Singh, 2007; Singh et al ., 2007).

183
The current findings also find favour with Nath (1992) who
reported A. biguttula biguttula as major pest of okra from Solan valley of
Himachal Pradesh. Likewise, Bhatia and Gupta (2003) reported A. biguttula
biguttula as most serious pest of okra in Himachal Pradesh. The severity of
this pest on okra has also been described by Singh and Joshi (2004) from
Paonta valley of Himachal Pradesh and Kumar and Pathania (2006) from Una
in Himachal Pradesh.
A. gossypii has previously been reported to cause considerable
damage to okra crop in different parts of the country (Chaudhary and
Dadheech, 1989; Kandoria et al. , 1989; Jamwal and Kandoria, 1990;
Devasthali and Saran, 1997; Patel et al ., 1997a).
M. pustulata found as the major pest in current study has been
earlier observed feeding on floral parts of okra plant by Sharma et al.
(1964), Dhamdhere et al. (1984) and Sangha and Mavi (1995). The serious
infestation of blister beetle, M. phalerata on okra at Manipur has been
mentioned by Barwal and Rao (1988). Under mid hill conditions of Himachal
Pradesh, blister beetle has been reportedly observed attacking okra flowers
and thus lowering the yield (Kakar and Dogra, 1988; Anonymous, 2005b).
Even Nath (1992) observed Mylabris spp. to be causing principal damage to
okra in Solan valley of Himachal Pradesh. Sharma (2004) reported 4 species
of Mylabris associated with okra crop.

184
However, Singh and Joshi (2004) mentioned aphids and blister
beetle as minor pests of okra. This can be attributed to the difference in
weather conditions which leads to variation in intensity of damage caused by
a pest from one region to another. In addition to these pests, S. derogata
too caused substantial damage to okra crop in the current investigation. The
damage by S. derogata to okra crop has formerly been cited by Dhamdhere
et al . (1984), Ghosh et al . (1999) and Singh and Joshi (2004).
A deep insight into the insect-pests associated with okra crop at
two locations revealed that in summer, less incidence of different pests was
observed (except E. vittella ) as compared to the rainy months possibly
because of high temperature and low humidity prevalent in summers. This
view is supported by Sardana and Verma (1986) who based on their study
on cowpea concluded that in summer, low humidity and high temperature
are important factors in keeping insect population density at a low level in
comparison to rainy season.
In the current study, E. vittella was observed causing substantial
damage to okra fruits only at Kachhiari while at Palampur, it was present in
low numbers. This could be ascribed to the fact that at Kachhiari, the crop
was sown in the month of April and harvested in August/ September, thus
experiencing both summer and rainy seasons, whereas, at Palampur, the
crop was sown in end of May or beginning of June, which resulted in main
fruit bearing period during rainy season. Due to heavy rainfall in July -August
185
at Palampur, the pest was unable to multiply and thus remained in lower
proportion. Further, higher temperature and lower humidity prevailing at
Kachhiari during initial stages of fruit setting were found quite suitable for
the development of the pest.
Madav and Dumbre (1985) detected no incidence of shoot and fruit
borer on okra throughout the kharif season in Maharashtra. Even Singh and
Brar (1994) reported from Ludhiana (Punjab) that the late sown crop of okra
(in July) revealed quite low infestation of E. vittella . The adverse effect of
high relative humidity (> 60%) and rainfall (> 20 mm/week) on E. vittella in
okra has been previously quoted (Kadam and Khaire, 1995).
5.2 Seasonal incidence/population build-up of major

insect-pests on okra crop
The period of commencement of pest activity is known to fluctuate
depending on the prevalence of environmental conditions and availability of
suitable hosts.
Appearance of jassids on okra was first noticed in the fields at
Palampur during 1 st week of July during the two seasons whereas, at
Kachhiari, the pest was first seen in 4 th week of May during 2005 and 3 rd
week of May during 2006 (Tables 4.3 – 4.4). The early appearance of the
pest at Kachhiari was probably due to early sowing of the crop in the month
of April as compared to Palampur (May/June).

186
The population, after attaining an increasing trend through the
months of July and August with a population range of 2.25-46.20 jassids per
3 leaves at Palampur and 0.60-51.02 jassids per 3 leaves at Kachhiari
varying through the two seasons declined towards the end of crop growth
period but did not cease completely. These results are in agreement with
Patel et al. (1997a) who also observed that the jassid population on okra
amplified during the monsoons. The present findings are broadly in
corroboration with the research results of few workers (Mahmood et al .,
1990; Anonymous, 2005a) who observed the emergence of jassids on okra
in June-July, which remained active till the end of crop growth.
The existing results are also supported by those of Patel et al.
(1997a) who observed that the period of incidence of A. biguttula biguttula
lasted from July to September on okra under Gujarat conditions. Earlier also,
increased population of jassids on okra has been reported during the months
of July to September by Jayaraj and Basheer (1964), Uthamasamy et al.
(1973) and Uthamasamy (1988). Higher population of okra jassids in rainy
season as compared to summer season witnessed during the present study
get support from reports by Mohan et al. (1983) and Mishra and Senapati
(2003).
The peak of jassid population was observed in 3 rd to 4 th week of
August at Palampur (45.86 and 46.20/3 leaves) and 4 th week of July to 1 st
week of August at Kachhiari (39.21 and 51.02/3 leaves) during the two
seasons. Similarly, highest population of 18.00 jassids per okra leaf (Bhat,
187
1999) and 10.34 jassids per okra leaf (Anonymous, 2005a) has been
observed in the last week of August at Jammu and Varanasi, respectively,
thus justifying the present findings. On the other hand, Krishnananda (1973)
and Balasubramaniam et al. (1977) reported a rise in the population of A.
biguttula biguttula during November-December. The difference in peak
activity period could be attributed to variation in weather conditions
prevailing over a particular place, the cropping season, time of sowing and
variety of crop grown.
The peak of jassid population was observed when the
meteorological conditions were 27.4-29.7 oC (maximum temperature), 18.8-
25.3 oC (minimum temperature), 75-80 per cent (relative humidity), 5.9-7.5
hours (bright sunshine hours) and 64.4-115.0 mm (total rainfall). The
meteorological range prevalent during the peak activity in the present
investigation has been reported to be favourable for the development of this
pest by earlier workers also.
Murugesan (1985) and Gupta et al. (1997) found peak population
of jassid when the minimum and maximum temperature ranged between
24.8 to 32.6 oC. Further, Gupta et al. (1997) found relative humidity of 78
per cent conducive for multiplication of jassids which is in close harmony to
that found in the present study. Singh and Sekhon (1998) also substantiate
the present findings by reporting mean temperature of 30 oC coupled with
less than 8.6 hours of bright sunshine (preferably 5 hours/day) favourable
for increase in jassid numbers.

188
At Palampur, the aphid activity commenced in 1 st week of July
whereas at Kachhiari, it was evident in last week of June during both the
seasons. The population witnessed an increasing trend throughout the
months of July, August and September at Palampur and Kachhiari,
diminished a bit towards the end of crop maturity but was still present in
ample numbers at the time of final harvest (Tables 4.6-4.7). In the present
study, negligible incidence of aphids was observed in the month of June at
Kachhiari which augmented on the onset of monsoon. Kandoria et al. (1989)
also reported reduced population of aphids on okra during the summer
months (May-June) because of high temperature prevalent during that
period.
The existing results fairly match with those of Jamwal and
Kandoria (1990) who noticed the activity of A. gossypii on okra from 4 th
week of July to 3 rd week of October. In the present study, aphid population
sustained all throughout the cropping seasons and was present in substantial
numbers even towards the end of crop growth. Similar observations were
made by Ghosh et al. (1999) while studying seasonal incidence of aphids on
okra at Pundibari (West Bengal). On the contrary, aphids were most active
on okra during September-October in Punjab (Kandoria et al ., 1989). The
variation in seasonal incidence is due to prevailing weather conditions which
differ from one region to other.

189
At Palampur, peak aphid population was observed in 2 nd to 3rd
week of August (85.27 and 94.65/3 leaves) whereas, at Kachhiari, it was
maximum during 2 nd to 4 th week of July (54.75 and 68.25/3 leaves). These
results broadly match with Ghosh et al. (1999) who viewed initiation of A.
gossypii activity on okra in mid June which reached in peak in the last week
of July and also with Al Eryan et al. (2001) who noticed appearance of
aphids on okra in the month of July which reached its peak in late August.
During the present investigation, peak population of aphid ( A.
gossypii) was observed when mean maximum temperature ranged between
25.1-28.3 oC, mean minimum temperature ranged between 19.2-25.4 oC,
mean relative humidity ranged between 85-89 per cent, mean bright
sunshine ranged between 2.5-3.1 hours with total rainfall of 100.4-212.5
mm.
The present results regarding the favourable meteorological range
for A. gossypii is in harmony with the findings of Murugesan (1985) who
reported humid weather conditions highly favourable for cotton aphid. These
findings also find favour with Dhamdhere et al. (1995) who observed that
moderate temperature (27.3-28.2 oC) and high humidity (73 %) favoured
build-up of A. gossypii on brinjal at Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh. Further,
Gupta et al . (1997) based on their two year study at Harda in Madhya
Pradesh found moderate range of minimum and maximum temperature
(24.8-30.1oC), high humidity (87-89 %) and drizzling rainy days quite
conducive for rapid build-up of aphid population on cotton, thus backing up
the current results.

190
Critical appraisal of jassid and aphid incidence in relation to
weather parameters on okra in the present research indicated that the jassid
multiplication was favoured by higher maximum temperature (27.4 -29.7 oC)
and lower relative humidity (75-80%) as compared to that of aphid
population which was favoured by comparatively lower maximum
temperature (25.1-28.3 oC) and higher relative humidity (85-89%). Similar
observations on the incidence of jassids and aphids were made by Gupta et
al. (1997) on cotton crop in Madhya Pradesh. They reported that higher
maximum temperature (32.6 oC) and lower relative humidity (78%) were
conducive for the multiplication of A . biguttula biguttula whereas, lower
maximum temperature (26.1-30.1 oC) and higher relative humidity (87%)
were found favourable for rapid build up of A. gossypii population.
Prevalence of higher humidity at Palampur as compared to
Kachhiari also explains the presence of higher aphid population at Palampur
during the current investigation. Although high rainfall was received during
the study period even then the aphids were present in considerable
numbers. This could be because of the fact that aphids have developed
several modes of reproduction such as viviparity, paedogenesis,
parthenogenesis etc. for their survival as has been mentioned by Dhaliwal
(2006).
The appearance of E. vittella on okra fields was first noticed in 3 rd
to 4 th week of May at Kachhiari during the two seasons. A low incidence on
shoots varying between 0.82-2.24 per cent was observed initially for two
191
weeks. As soon as the fruit setting started, the pest started infesting fruits
and by 1 st week of June and thereafter, no damage on shoots was observed
(Table 4.9). The pest continued infesting fruits till 2 nd week of July to 1 st
week of August varying between 1.23-35.85 per cent and the larval
population varied between 0.37 to 2.35 per fruit during the two seasons.
Ambekar et al. (2000a) also observed negligible incidence of E.
vittella on okra shoots at Pune in Maharashtra. Analogously, Mandal et al.
(2006b) reported lower damage of shoot and fruit borer on okra shoots
varying between 0.3 to 3.46 per cent at Samastipur (Bihar). They also
observed that after fruit setting, there was no damage on shoots and the
pest shifted its activity exclusively on fruits, which corroborates the present
results.
Varying levels of fruit damage by E. vittella on okra crop ranging
between 32.1-100.0 per cent have been reported by various workers (Radke
and Undirwade, 1981; Dhawan and Sidhu, 1984; Madav and Dumbre, 1985;
Chaudhary and Dadheech, 1989; Kadam and Khaire, 1995; Gupta et al .,
1998; Mathur et al ., 1998; Mandal et al., 2006b) depending on prevailing
agro-climatic conditions in their respective areas of study.
Peak fruit infestation (29.64 and 35.85%) during the current study
was noticed during 3 rd to 4th week of June which in the following weeks
declined and ceased completely by 3 rd week of July to 2 nd week of August
because of heavy rainfall received during the later period. Almost similar
192
pattern of fruit infestation on okra was observed by Mote (1977) at Rahuri in
Maharashtra, according to whom, E. vittella infestation started as soon as
the fruits set (6 weeks after germination), attained a maximum 3-4 weeks
later during summer after which it declined.
The peak activity of the pest noticed during the month of June is in
accordance with Shukla et al. (1997) from Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) who
reported peak fruit damage by E. vittella in 1 st fortnight of June. The peak
period of activity of E. vittella in India has been known to vary from region
to region i.e . late October in Punjab (Dhawan and Sidhu, 1984), November-
December in Maharashtra (Kadam and Khaire, 1995), 4 th week of July in
Bihar (Gupta et al ., 1998), 2 nd fortnight of August in West Bengal (Ghosh et
al., 1999), 4th week of September in Gujarat (Zala et al ., 1999) and 4 th week
of October in Uttar Pradesh (Anonymous, 2005a). The variation in peak
activity may be ascribed to difference in meteorological conditions prevailing
over a particular place, cropping season, time of sowing and variety of crop
grown.
More severity of E. vittella on okra crop sown in the summer
months as compared to one sown in rainy season was noticed by Mohan et
al. (1983) and Kumar and Urs (1988). Related observations were also made
by Dhawan and Sidhu (1984) who reported from Punjab that maximum
damage to okra fruits by E. vittella was evident in spring crop and that
heavy rainfall adversely affected population build-up of this pest. Lower

193
incidence of E. vittella because of heavy rainfall has also been documented
by Kadam and Khaire (1995) at Ahmednagar, Maharashtra. They observed
high damage by E. vittella during summer months and low damage during
rainy months.
The lower damage recorded during the rainy season could be
because of dislodgement of eggs and neonate larvae of shoot and fruit borer
by the rains as well as the prevalence of high humidity. According to Kadam
and Khaire (1995), the adverse effect of high relative humidity (> 60%) and
rainfall (>20 mm/week) could form a component of eco-friendly
management of Earias species. Further, they reported that infestation could
be reduced to a greater extent by growing okras during the rainy season.
The mean meteorological conditions present during the peak pest
activity were maximum temperature of 34.6-35.3oC, minimum temperature
of 21.9-26.9 oC, relative humidity of 36-47 per cent and 12.1-31.2 mm of
total rainfall. These observations are substantiated by Radke and Undirwade
(1981) who found peak infestation on okra fruits (100%) by Earias spp.
when average weekly maximum temperature was 30.8 oC, minimum
temperature was 21.1 oC and relative humidity was 49 per cent. In the past,
a number of workers have reported temperature of about 35 oC to be
congenial for the development of this pest which supports the present
findings (Ahmad and Ullah, 1941; Pradhan and Menon, 1945; Kashyap and
Verma, 1982).
194
Seasonal incidence studies on okra revealed that Mylabris beetles
emerged in okra fields in 4 th week of July to 1 st week of August at Palampur
and 1st to 3 rd week of July at Kachhiari (Tables 4.11-4.12). These results are
in corroboration with Sharma et al. (1964) who reported that the blister
beetles appeared in July in Himachal Pradesh on various crops including
okra. Similar observations were made by Sangha and Mavi (1995) from
Ludhiana (Punjab) who reported that M. pustulata appeared in 2 nd fortnight
of July on okra.
The peak activity of the pest was observed in 3 rd week of August to
1st week of September at Palampur with maximum population of 24.5 -29.6
beetles per 10 plants and maximum flower damage of 26.90-31.15 per cent.
At Kachhiari, peak activity was observed in 2 nd to 3 rd week of August with
maximum beetle population varying between 31.8-35.6 per 10 plants and
flower damage varying from 32.69-38.52 per cent. A declining trend was
then set in and low beetle incidence was observed in 2 nd to 4 th week of
September at Palampur and 4 th week of August to 1 st week of September at
Kachhiari.
During the present study, maximum beetle population and flower
damage were viewed when the mean meteorological conditions of 27.7 -
29.1 oC (maximum temperature), 20.2-25.8 oC (minimum temperature), 75-79
per cent (relative humidity), 7.1-7.9 hours (bright sunshine) and 37.8-80.5
195
mm (total rainfall) were prevalent. These findings are supported by reports
of Sharma et al. (1964) from Himachal Pradesh and Sangha and Mavi (1995)
from Punjab who observed peak activity of blister beetle on okra during the
month of August. The present results also find favour with Dutta and Singh
(1989) who reported that M. phalerata population peaked in August at the
time of flowering in pigeon-pea in Uttar Pradesh.
The favourable range of meteorological parameters for blister
beetle multiplication observed during the present study is validated by
Sardana and Verma (1986). They found that blister beetle, M. pustulata
showed its peak on cowpea between last week of August to 1 st week of
September at Delhi when maximum temperature varied between 25 -32 oC
and relative humidity varied between 60-92 per cent with total rainfall
ranging from 20 to 90 mm. The existing findings are also in line with
Bhardwaj (1996) who reported that on black gram, peak blister beetle
population was noticed in 4 th week of July to 1 st week of September in
Himachal Pradesh when mean temperature and relative humidity were 23.3-
25.0 oC and 72-85 per cent, respectively, with total rainfall of 16.2 mm-273.4
mm.
The present studies revealed that the leafroller activity was first
evidenced on okra plants during 2 nd to 4 th week of July at Palampur while at
Kachhiari, it was first observed in last week of June to 1st week of July
196
(Table 4.14 - 4.15). The highest incidence of S. derogata on okra was
observed in 1 st to 3rd week of August at Palampur with maximum larval
population of 34.7-38.1 per 10 plants as well as maximum rolled leaf
infestation of 26.97-29.21 per cent. At Kachhiari, maximum population of
33.8-36.3 larvae per 10 plants and maximum rolled leaf infestation of 25.70 -
27.16 per cent were observed during last week of July during both the
seasons. During the peak activity, the meteorological conditions prevalent at
the two locations were mean maximum temperature in the range of 25.8 -
28.4 oC, mean minimum temperature in the range of 20.1-25.4 oC, mean
relative humidity in the range of 80-89 per cent, mean bright sunshine in the
range of 2.3-3.1 hours and total rainfall of 100.4-211.2 mm.
Literature regarding the seasonal incidence of S. derogata on okra
is meagre. However, Lal and Singh (1951) reported low temperature and
high humidity coupled with rainy days favourable for the development of leaf
roller which is in accordance with the present results. These findings are also
in consonance with Ghosh et al. (1999) who observed that population of
okra leafroller initiated in 1 st week of July at Pundibari (West Bengal) and
higher population (0.80 larva/plant) was maintained till August which
decreased gradually thereafter. They noticed maximum population of the
pest at mean maximum temperature of 29.3 oC, mean minimum temperature
of 24.0oC and mean relative humidity of 90-97 per cent, thereby broadly
validating the present findings.

197
5.3 Correlation of abiotic factors with population build-

up of major insect-pests on okra
5.3.1. Cotton jassid, A. biguttula biguttula
At Palampur during 2005, rainfall exhibited a significant negative
outcome while bright sunshine hours showed a significant positive
relationship with population count of the pest. During 2006, none of the
weather factors showed a significant correlation with pest population (Table
4.5). Interestingly, at Kachhiari, maximum temperature negatively but non-
significantly influenced pest activity while relative humidity had a significant
positive impact on jassid population during both the years of study. Besides,
minimum temperature influenced pest activity significantly and positively at
Kachhiari during 2006 (Table 4.5).
The present results are in line with those of Reddy et al. (1983),
Dhuri et al. (1984) and Faleiro and Singh (1985) who observed positive
correlation of minimum temperature and relative humidity with jassid
population on a variety of crops. The positive correlation of A. biguttula
biguttula with relative humidity is in conformity with Jayaraj and Basheer
(1964) who observed humid season quite conducive for population build-up
of this pest.
The positive correlation of the jassid density with minimum
temperature is in accordance with Mahmood et al. (1990). These workers,
however, contrary to the present results, observed no significant
contribution of relative humidity and rainfall in influencing the pest numbers.

198
This is because of the difference in climatic conditions which vary from one
place to another. The significant negative correlation of jassid count with
rainfall at Palampur (2005) could be attributed to comparatively higher and
almost incessant rainfall received during 2005 as compared to 2006 which
would have led to the splashing of mud on to the underside of leaves,
resulting in mortality of jassids. Similar reports are available from Sudan
where good suppression of jassid population on cotton was brought about by
heavy rainfall (Hanna, 1970).
The significant negative correlation of jassid count with maximum
temperature and positive correlation with bright sunshine has earlier been
illustrated by Patel et al. (1997a) on okra. Likewise, positive correlation of
population count of jassids with average relative humidity has been
previously mentioned by Sharma and Sharma (1997). Bhat (1999) while
correlating A. biguttula biguttula population and abiotic factors at Jammu on
okra revealed that the population was negatively correlated with rainfall
while significantly and positively correlated with bright sunshine hours which
is in complete agreement with the present results.
The wide variation in correlation coefficients obtained between
abiotic factors and jassid population at Palampur and Kachhiari could be
ascribed to the fact that at Kachhiari, the crop passed through the hot
summer months as well as rainy season whereas, at Palampur, the crop
underwent through the rainy season only, thus the pest experienced wide
199
variation in maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity and
rainfall at the two locations but multiplied only when the favourable range of
meteorological conditions were available. Dhaliwal and Arora (2003) also
mentioned that the degree of influence of environmental factors determines
the magnitude of increase or decrease in numbers of a pest population and
that every insect species multiplies only when the favourable range of
meteorological conditions are approached.
The population of aphids on okra illustrated a positive significant
correlation with relative humidity at both the locations during both the years
(Table 4.8). In addition, pest numbers were significantly and negatively
correlated with maximum temperature at Palampur during 2005 and at
Kachhiari during both the seasons. Conversely, minimum temperature
correlated positively and significantly with aphid density at Kachhiari during
2006.
The present results are in concordance with Feleiro et al. (1990)
who revealed that on cowpea, population of A. gossypii was negatively
correlated with maximum temperature and sunshine hours and positively
correlated with minimum temperature and relative humidity in Delhi.
Likewise Gupta et al. (1997) observed significant positive relationship
between aphid density and relative humidity and significant negative
relationship with maximum temperature on cotton in Madhya Pradesh. These
results are also in tune with Ghosh et al. (1999) who reported negative and
200
non-significant correlation of aphid count with maximum temperature and
non significant and positive correlation with relative humidity on okra in
West Bengal.
At Kachhiari, maximum temperature exhibited a significant positive
correlation with fruit infestation as well as larval population during both the
seasons while relative humidity illustrated a significant negative relationship
with fruit infestation during 2005. Besides, rainfall had a significant negative
correlation with larval population during 2005 (Table 4.10). Radke and
Undirwade (1981) have also observed higher incidence of E. vittella on okra
with increase in temperature. The adverse effect of rainfall on population
build-up of E. vittella has been observed by Dhawan and Sidhu (1984) at
Ludhiana, Punjab.
The present correlation analysis is also supported by Kumar and
Urs (1988) from Bangalore and Zala et al. (1999) from Gujarat who noticed
that temperature had a positive and significant association with incidence of
E. vittella while relative humidity was negatively related with pest incidence.
Parallel results were obtained by Kadam and Khaire (1995) from Rahuri,
Maharashtra who observed a significant and negative correlation between
relative humidity, rainfall and E. vittella infestation on okra. Likewise, Bhat
(1999) viewed negative correlation of rainfall and fruit infestation by E.
vittella on okra in Jammu which is in close agreement with the present
findings.
201
However, on the contrasting side, a significant negative correlation
between okra fruit infestation by E. vittella and maximum temperature while
significant positive relationship with total rainfall was analyzed by Gupta et
al. (1998) and Mandal et al. (2006b) in Bihar. This difference could be
ascribed to the variability in weather conditions from one place to another.
During 2005, at Palampur as well as Kachhiari, none of the
weather factors influenced beetle population as well as flower damage
significantly (Table 4.13). Nonetheless, during 2006 at Palampur, there was
a significant positive correlation between beetle population, flower damage
and maximum temperature. In addition, relative humidity had a significant
negative bearing while bright sunshine hours had a significant positive
bearing on flower damage at Palampur in 2006. Further, minimum
temperature exerted a significant negative impact on flower damage by
Mylabris spp. at Kachhiari during 2006.
There are no reports available on okra to validate the present
results. However, some reports are available in the literature pertaining to
the effect of weather factors on blister beetle population in pigeon -pea.
Sekhar (1991) reported that daily temperature and sunshine hours had a
significant positive effect while relative humidity showed a non-significant
negative correlation with blister beetle activity, which corroborates present
results. Identical reports are available from New Delhi in which, positive
correlation of M. pustulata population with maximum temperature and bright

202
sunshine hours have been illustrated (Reddy et al., 2001). Even Sandal
(2007) reported a significant and positive correlation of Mylabris population
with maximum temperature on pigeon-pea at Palampur in Himachal Pradesh,
thus supporting present results.
The present studies revealed that S. derogata larval population
positively and significantly correlated with relative humidity at Kachhiari
during both the crop seasons while at Palampur during 2006 only (Table
4.16). Contrastingly, bright sunshine hours exercised negative and
significant effect on larval population as well as per cent rolled leaf
infestation at Palampur during 2006. In addition at Kachhiari during 2006,
maximum temperature displayed a significant negative association with
larval population.
Low temperature and high humidity have earlier been found
favourable for the development of S. derogata on okra by Lal and Singh
(1951). The significant negative influence of bright sunshine hours on leaf
roller activity can be substantiated by the work of Lal and Singh (1951) and
Butani and Verma (1976) who have mentioned cloudy weather and rainy
days congenial for the activity of this pest. Ghosh et al. (1999) also support
the current findings by obtaining negative and non-significant correlation of
leafroller larval population with maximum temperature and positive and
significant correlation with minimum temperature and relative humidity on
okra at Pundibari (West Bengal).

203

against major insect-pests
Development and cultivation of resistant varieties to pests provides
a suitable and desirable means of pest management. The success of such
programme depends upon the extent of variability in the germplasm.
Further, in crops such as okra, frequent pickings, high operational cost and
residual effect of insecticides are the limiting factors for the management of
insect-pests through chemicals. Therefore, the most effective and
economical management of okra pests is the use of resistant varieties but a
variety resistant to a pest in one region may become susceptible in other
region. Hence, ten okra varieties/hybrids (including 3 recommended
commercial varieties for Himachal Pradesh) were evaluated for their rela tive
susceptibility against major insect-pests at two locations viz. Palampur and
Kachhiari.
The mean jassid population (nymphs + adults) varied from 8.52 to
36.12 per 3 leaves on different varieties during the two seasons at two
locations (Table 4.17-4.19). Variety Tulsi (8.52-10.71 jassids/3 leaves) and
Varsha Uphar (8.83-11.93 jassids/3 leaves) showed lower population of the
pest at Palampur. At Kachhiari also, Tulsi revealed lowest jassid population
(11.33-11.61/3 leaves) while Varsha Uphar (14.74-15.25/3 leaves) was rated
as one having moderate population. Other varieties which recorded
moderate pest numbers at Palampur were Arka Anamika, Parbhani Kranti
and Panchaali while at Kachhiari, the same varieties were categorized in the
group of high population.

204
The variation in susceptibility among varieties could be due to
certain inherited characters as well as due to variable environmental
conditions from region to region and year to year. These findings get
support from those of Kashyap and Verma (1986) who reported similar
reasons for difference in susceptibility among genotypes. The wide variation
with respect to rating of varieties at the two locations could be allotted to
the wide variation in overall pest pressure which was lower at Palampur as
compared to Kachhiari.
Variation in morphological characters as well as biochemical
components must have contributed to differential response of varieties
(Taylo and Bernardo, 1996; Dhaliwal and Arora, 2003) to jassids.
Uthamasamy et al. (1973) obtained a positive correlation of jassid incidence
with plant height and stem thickness in okra. It is known that the varieties
viz. Pusa Makhmali, P-8, Harbhajan and Parbhani Kranti are tall (Singh,
2007) and accordingly must have harboured more jassid population in the
current study. Teli and Dalaya (1981b) reported that Pusa Sawani showed
lower hair density (3.80/25mm 2 ) on leaf lamina as compared to other
varieties and was more preferred for oviposition by jassids. It has also been
observed that okra varieties having more and longer hairs on the mid-rib and
leaf lamina are resistant to jassid (Uthamasamy, 1985; Singh, 1988; Singh
and Agarwal, 1988; Lal et al ., 1997).

205
Soft stem hair present in Parbhani Kranti, Pusa Sawani and P-8 and
lower hair density on mid veins of Pusa Sawani leaves (Mahal et al ., 1993b;
Sharma and Arora 1993; Gill et al ., 1997; Hooda et al ., 1997; Dhankhar and
Mishra, 2001; Thakur et al ., 2003) can partly explain higher jassid
population harboured by these varieties.
Even though Pusa Makhmali has hairy stem and leaves (Sharma
and Arora, 1993; Dhankhar and Mishra, 2001), it was reported as susceptible
variety in the present investigation. This could be because of the fact that
for an okra variety to be resistant to jassids, the complete complement of
hair characters viz. long, dense and erect are required as has been
mentioned by Singh and Taneja (1989) plus the composition of right amount
of different biochemicals, which could be lacking in this variety, thus proving
susceptible. Teli and Dalaya (1981b) too observed White Velvet variety of
okra as susceptible to jassid even though it had highest hair density
(9.30/25mm2) among the 6 varieties tested.
The existing findings are also supported by those of Bhat (1999)
who observed Varsha Uphar and Arka Anamika to be less preferred by
jassids (6-10/okra leaf) as compared to Shagun and Parbhani Kranti (15-
20/leaf). He has ascribed more trichome length (0.57-0.80 mm) and
trichome density (13.63-21.36/cm2 ) in less preferred varieties (Varsha
Uphar, Arka Anamika) responsible for providing resistance against jassids by
impeding feeding, oviposition and adult emergence.

206
Among the different biochemical components, varieties of okra
having higher tannins, phenols, epicuticular waxes, silica and potassium and
lower moisture, proteins and total sugars in leaves have been reported to be
resistant to jassid (Singh, 1988; Singh and Agarwal, 1988, Singh and Taneja,
1989; Kaur et al ., 1996). Comparatively lower proteins (12.81-13.21%),
moisture (64.15-69.22%) and sugar content present in leaves of Arka
Anamika and Varsha Uphar and more proteins (16.40-18.52%), moisture
(78.00-89.20%) and sugars in leaves of Parbhani Kranti, P-8, Pusa Sawani
and Shagun (Chavan et al ., 1991; Reddy et al ., 1997; Bhat, 1999) are
accountable for the relative resistance and susceptibility of these varieties.
The susceptibility of Pusa Makhmali and Harbhajan varieties to
okra jassids has been previously quoted in the literature (Sandhu et al.,
1974; Gill et al ., 1997). The relatively low susceptibility of variety Varsha
Uphar to jassid noticed during the present investigation was also reported by
Dhankhar and Mishra (2001). Likewise, moderate susceptibility of Parbhani
Kranti (Bhat, 1999; Dubey et al ., 1999) and higher susceptibility of Shagun
to A. biguttula biguttula (Bhat, 1999) have been earlier illustrated. High level
of susceptibility to jassid reported in Pusa Sawani is in consonance with the
work of Sandhu et al . (1974), Uthamasamy and Subramaniam (1980), Mahal
et al. (1993b), Gill et al ., (1997), Hooda et al., (1997), Sharma and Sharma,
(1998) and Kumar and Singh (2002) who obtained similar results from their
respective areas of study.

207
The mean seasonal population of aphids on okra ranged from
18.96-70.54 individuals per 3 leaves on different varieties at the two
locations (Table 4.20-4.22). Among the different varieties, Tulsi (31.29-
39.44/3 leaves) and Varsha Uphar (35.81-43.94/3 leaves) showed moderate
level of aphid infestation on okra leaves at Palampur during the two seasons.
At Kachhiari, lower infestation by the pest was noticed on varieties Tulsi
(18.96-20.85/3 leaves), Varsha Uphar (21.15-24.61/3 leaves), Arka Anamika
(26.15-29.72/3 leaves) and Parbhani Kranti (25.93-30.08/3 leaves) while at
Palampur, the latter two varieties fall in the mean rating of high population.
This fluctuating trend, varying through seasons and locations is
ascribed to inherited characters of varieties as well as environmental
conditions. Ghosh et al. (1999) reported moderate level of infestation of A.
gossypii on Parbhani Kranti (14.64/leaf) and Arka Anamika (21.58/leaf)
which corroborate present results.
Certain morphological characters might have been responsible for
differential aphid attack. Roy (1990) mentioned thick okra leaves to be a
criterion for aphid resistance. Khan et al. (2000) reported that genotypes of
ashgourd having higher trichome density were least infested by A. gossypii
and thus provide a first line of defence in reducing aphid infestation. Lower
trichome density has been reported in leaves of Parbhani Kranti, Shagun and
Pusa Sawani (Teli and Dalaya, 1981b; Mahal et al ., 1993b; Bhat, 1999)
208
making these varieties more susceptible to aphids. Likewise, V arsha Uphar
and Arka Anamika exhibit higher trichome density and length (Bhat, 1999),
thus proving to be less preferable for aphids as noticed in the present
results.
According to Dhaliwal and Arora (2003), the stem tips of cotton
varieties tolerant to A. gossypii were nearly twice as stiff as those of
susceptible cultivars and they indicated difficulty for piercing proboscis into
hard stems of tolerant varieties as one of the main causes for non -
preference by aphids. Among the biochemical constituents, Du et al . (2004)
reported that high gossypol content in cotton genotypes had an antibiotic
effect on A. gossypii by reducing adult longevity and lowering fecundity.
Comparatively higher population of A. gossypii on all the okra
varieties at Palampur as compared to Kachhiari can be attributed to the
availability of more humid weather at Palampur, in comparison to Kachhiari
which was found highly conducive for aphid multiplication. The humid
weather has previously been found favourable for rapid build-up of aphid
population by Murugesan (1985) and Gupta et al. (1997).
The pest was reported as major only at one location i.e . Kachhiari.
The mean per cent fruit infestation varied between 3.79 and 24.02 during
the two years on different varieties (Tables 4.23-4.24). Varieties were
grouped according to the mean rating given by Bhalla et al . (1989) for fruit
209
infestation by E. vittella. Lowest fruit infestation (3.79-4.59%) was recorded
on Tulsi which was rated as resistant while a high level of fruit infestation
was recorded on Pusa Sawani (23.41-24.02%) during the two seasons which
was rated as susceptible. Other varieties viz. Varsha Uphar, Parbhani Kranti,
Arka Anamika, Panchaali and Harbhajan also revealed lower fruit damage by
E. vittella with respective mean per cent infestation of 6.65-7.41, 8.22-9.53,
11.80-11.94, 12.77-14.58 and 13.36-13.91 during the 2 seasons and were
categorized as moderately resistant.
High level of susceptibility to E. vittella reported in Pusa Sawani
variety in the present study has earlier been demonstrated by a number of
workers (Raut and Sonone, 1979; Kashyap and Verma, 1983; Madav and
Dumbre, 1985; Sharma and Dhankhar, 1989, Vyas and Patel, 1990; Vyas
and Patel, 1991). Kashyap and Verma (1983) recorded higher fruit
infestation (20%) on Pusa Makhmali variety, thus supporting the existing
findings. Sharma and Dhankhar (1989) viewed 13.42, 17.38 and 24.52 per
cent fruit infestation on P-8, Pusa Makhmali and Harbhajan, respectively,
which is in close agreement to that found (13.36- 21.71%) in the present
investigation. Similarly, Raj et al . (1993) observed 9.89 per cent fruit
infestation by E. vittella on Parbhani Kranti and 12.87 per cent on Harbhajan
at Jachh (Himachal Pradesh), which is in complete line to that noticed (8.22-
13.36%) in the current investigation.

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Earlier Bhat (1999) had rated Varsha Uphar as fairly resistant (6 -
10% fruit infestation) while Shagun as highly susceptible (>20 % fruit
infestation) to E. vittella which is in tune to the present results. Moderate
level of resistance of Parbhani Kranti and Arka Anamika with respect to fruit
damage by borer in the present study is substantiated by the findings of
Ghosh et al. (1999) who revealed that Parbhani Kranti (9.05%) and Arka
Anamika (10.10%) had low fruit infestation by E. vittella .
According to Teli and Dalaya (1981a), varieties of okra having hard
skin with tough hairs were least susceptible to E. vittella attack. Certain
morphological characters such as increased hair density on leaf lamina was
related to fruit borer resistance in okra by Kumbhar et al. (1991). Sparse
pubescence present on fruits of Pusa Sawani and P-8 (Dhankhar and Mishra,
2001; Thakur et al ., 2003) and spineless fruits of Harbhajan and Arka
Anamika (Sharma and Arora, 1993; Devdas et al., 1998) could be the cause
for more preference of these varieties to fruit borer. Bhat (1999) attributed
more thickness of fruit rind in Varsha Uphar (0.33-0.35mm) and higher
trichome density on fruits (23.66-29.33/cm2 ) and less rind thickness and
lower trichome density in Shagun responsible for imparting relative
resistance and susceptibility of these two varieties to E. vittella as has been
observed in the present study.
Certain biochemical constituents must have also served as
defensive mechanisms against E. vittella resulting in lower incidence of the
pest in less susceptible varieties. Higher sugar content (6.96-9.88%) and

211
lower total fibre content (5.47-5.74%) in Pusa Sawani (Rao and Sulladmath,
1977) could be accountable for susceptibility of this variety to shoot and fruit
borer. Singh and Singh (1987) mentioned higher tannin content in fruit
pericarp of fruit borer tolerant okra genotypes than susceptible genotypes.
Likewise, lower proteins (11.95-12.52%), sugar (5.03-5.40%), moisture
content (88.16-88.23%), ascorbic acid (100-115 mg/100g dry fruit weight),
pH level (5.4-5.8) (Devdas et al ., 1998; Bhat, 1999, Yadav et al ., 2006) and
more fibre, tannin and potassium content in fruits of Varsha Uphar and Arka
Anamika (Bhat, 1999) must have been the parameters for comparatively
lower fruit infestation by E. vittella observed in these varieties.
The present results are however, opposite to those obtained by
Kashyap and Verma (1983) who observed low damage (< 10%) by fruit
borer on Harbhajan variety at Hisar and Raj et al . (1993) who reported less
incidence of fruit damage by E. vittella on Pusa Sawani (6.42%) at Jachh
(H.P.) as compared to Parbhani Kranti (9.81%) and Harbhajan (12.87%).
This could be allocated to the ecological differences, variation in climate and
date of sowing of crop from region to region.
The mean seasonal population of Mylabris beetles per 10 plants
varied between 3.80 to 24.13 and flower damage ranged between 4.45 to
24.05 per cent at the two locations on different varieties (Tables 4.25 -4.27).
Least beetle count was observed on Varsha Uphar (3.80-3.93/10 plants) at

212
Palampur with minimum flower damage of 4.45-5.14 per cent. At Kachhiari
also, same variety proved to be least susceptible with pest population of
4.20-4.80 beetles per 10 plants and flower damage varying from 5.04 to
5.67 per cent during the two seasons.
The highest population of beetles (14.60-24.13/10 plants) as well
as the maximum damage to flowers (17.15-24.05 per cent) were registered
by Pusa Sawani during the two years at both the locations. Other varieties
which experienced lower pest infestation were Tulsi, Arka Anamika and
Panchaali which revealed slight variations in their differential res ponse to
pest attack at the two locations.
On all the varieties, the overall pressure of blister beetles was
lower during 2006 as compared to 2005 crop season at both the locations.
This could be explained partly on the basis of environmental conditions and
partly on the basis that during 2006, at both the locations, pulse crops such
as pigeon-pea and cowpea were grown in the adjoining fields and this pest,
being polyphagous, damaged these crops also besides attacking okra, which
reduced population of Mylabris beetles on okra.
Literature pertaining to blister beetle incidence on okra is scanty as
this pest has been reported minor in most of the earlier reports (Dhamdhere
et al., 1984; Singh and Joshi, 2004). However, according to Dent (2000),
glandless cotton varieties are more susceptible to blister beetles. Lale and
Sastawa (2000) evaluated 6 pearl-millet varieties viz. Ex-borno, Wame,

213
Zongori, Gargasori, Mboderi and GB 8735 for their relative susceptibility to
Mylabris beetles in Nigeria and found significant differences among them
with respect to damage caused by the beetles as was observed in the
present investigation on okra.
The mean larval population of leafroller varied from 7.33 to 28.13
per 10 plants on ten varieties during the two seasons at the two locations
(Tables 4.28-4.30). Variety Varsha Uphar showed lowest number of larvae at
both the locations varying between 9.80-12.60 per 10 okra plants at
Palampur and 7.33-9.73 per 10 plants at Kachhiari throughout the two
seasons. Tulsi also registered lower larval population i.e. 12.47-15.60 per 10
plants at Palampur and 9.00-11.20 per 10 plants at Kachhiari. Likewise, the
rolled leaf infestation was minimum in Varsha Uphar i.e. 5.28-7.64 per cent
at Palampur and 4.01-4.86 per cent at Kachhiari followed by Tulsi at both
the locations. At Palampur, Pusa Makhmali recorded highest larval
population of leafroller (25.53-28.13 per 10 plants) as well as maximum
rolled leaf infestation (18.29-19.89%) followed by Pusa Sawani. Reverse was
true at Kachhiari, where maximum larval population (22.47-25.73/10 plants)
and rolled leaf infestation (15.37-17.81%) were observed on Pusa Sawani
followed by Pusa Makhmali.
At Palampur, comparatively higher incidence of the pest was
apparent on all the varieties than Kachhiari. This could be credited to the
availability of more humidity and lower temperature at Palampur during the

214
pest activity as compared to Kachhiari. Even Lal and Singh (1951) reported
that low temperature and high humidity coupled with number of rainy days
favour development of S. derogata . Other varieties which manifested low to
moderate infestation of leafroller were Arka Anamika, Parbhani Kranti and
Panchaali. Parallel results were obtained by Ghosh et al. (1999) who
reported moderate level of resistance in Arka Anamika and Parbhani Kranti
to S. derogata as compared to other varieties in West Bengal. There are no
other reports available in literature to confirm the present findings.
5.5 Marketable yield of okra varieties
Variety Tulsi registered highest yield at Palampur (67.47-72.10 q
ha-1 ) as well as at Kachhiari (87.72-93.03 q ha -1 ) and was significantly
superior to rest of the varieties. It was closely followed by Varsha Uphar
which recorded 62.56 to 84.04 q ha-1 yield at the two locations during the
two seasons. Other varieties which registered considerably higher yield at
both the locations were Arka Anamika, Panchaali, Parbhani Kranti and
Shagun. Lowest yield was however, obtained in Pusa Makhmali i.e . 29.45 to
31.49 q ha -1 at Palampur and 37.20 to 38.30 q ha -1 at Kachhiari (Table
4.31).
The variation in yield among the varieties could be accredited to
the genotypic variations, environmental difference and relative susceptibility
of different varieties to various insect-pests and diseases. Higher yield
obtained in all the varieties at Kachhiari as compared to Palampur could be

215
because of the difference in climate and soil type at the two locations.
Further, at Kachhiari more number of pickings were carried out as the crop
was of longer duration (April-August/September) than Palampur, where the
crop was of relatively shorter duration (May/June-September).
In the present study, although Shagun recorded higher incidence
of almost all the major pests, yet it gave higher yield. This can be attributed
to the tolerance phenomenon and higher yield potential of this variety.
Analogous observations were made by Shukla et al. (1998) at Jabalpur
(Madhya Pradesh) who described that even though varieties Ankur 35 and
Parbhani Kranti of okra registered significantly higher damage by E. vittella ,
yet produced higher fruit yields.
Sharma and Dhankhar (1989) recorded lower yield from Harbhajan
and Pusa Makhmali as compared to other varieties at Hisar, thus
substantiating the current findings. Likewise, Raj et al . (1993) from Himachal
Pradesh obtained lower yield from Pusa Sawani variety as compared to other
varieties which is in agreement to the present results and ascribed the
severity of mosaic on Pusa Sawani variety responsible for its lower yield.
The data regarding higher yield of Varsha Uphar as compared to
Arka Anamika, Pusa Makhmali, Parbhani Kranti, Shagun and Harbhajan
recorded during the current investigation is in consonance with a study
carried out at Dhaulakuan, Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1999). At
Hamirpur (Himachal Pradesh), Arka Anamika recorded highest yield followed
by Tulsi, Varsha Uphar, Shagun, Panchaali, Parbhani Kranti, Harbhajan and

216
P-8 (Anonymous, 2004a) which is in close harmony to the existing results
although comparatively lower yield was recorded on all the varieties in the
present study. This could be because of the difference in time of sowing,
variety grown, environment, fertility status of the soil, pest and disease
pressure and agronomic practices carried out for the crop.

The indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides in agriculture has led
to adverse effects, such as the development of pesticide resistance, pest
resurgence, emergence of new pests, pollution and health hazards. In view
of such adverse effects, present studies were carried out to evaluate the
effectiveness of some insecticides alone or in combination with the microbial
pesticides and a parasitoid, T. chilonis for the management of major insect-
pests infesting okra at two locations i.e. Palampur and Kachhiari during the
two seasons.
The results showed that cypermethrin proved most superior in
reducing the population of jassids on okra followed by endosulfan at both
the locations during both the seasons (Table 4.32-4.35). Both these
insecticides have proved their worth in the past in checking jassid population
on okra (Babu and Azam, 1982; Mohan and Mohan, 1985, Yadav et al.,
1988; Dahiya et al., 1990; Singh et al., 1991; Adiroubane and
Letchoumanane, 1998; Patel and Patel, 1998; Singh and Chaudhary, 2001;
Singh, 2007; Sinha and Sharma, 2007).

217
The treatments comprising azadirachtin and malathion showed
their effectiveness upto 9 days and were less effective than cypermethrin
and endosulfan. Dahiya et al. (1990) also reported the efficacy of malathion
against jassids on okra for a week whereas Jat (1981) observed malathion‟s
effectiveness upto 12 days on okra. Malathion‟s efficacy against okra jassids
has also been demonstrated by Singh (2007). Results in respect of lower
mortality of jassids afforded by malathion than synthetic pyrethroids in the
present study is in accordance with findings of Sucheta and Khokhar (1996).
Lower efficacy of neem based insecticide than synthetic
insecticides against A. biguttula biguttula in the present study is in
compliance with Thakur and Singh (1998) and Satpathy and Rai (1999).
However, Kumar and Singh (2001) and Mandal et al. (2006c) observed neem
based insecticides efficacious against jassid population on okra. This could
be because of the fact that the efficacy of an insecticide is related to the
number of its applications made, formulation and dosage used. The
moderate level of reduction because of azadirachtin in the current study
could be because of oviposition deterrent, repellent and growth inhibitory
action as has also been reported by Patel and Patel (1996) against okra
jassids.
Imidacloprid seed treatment and the combination treatment, B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan too showed consistently good performance in
suppressing A. biguttula biguttula population at different days after spray,

218
however, the former was found effective only at Palampur. This could be
because of the reason that seed treatment with imidacloprid has been
known to be effective against early sucking pests, since jassid population
appeared later at Kachhiari (in relation to date of sowing of crop), therefore,
by that time, the efficacy of seed treatment might have been reduced.
A number of workers have reported the efficacy of imidacloprid
seed treatment against sucking pests for variable period i.e. upto 60 days
after germination by Mote et al. (1993) in cotton, upto 35 days after
germination by Sreelatha and Divakar (1997) in okra, upto 40 days after
germination by Patil et al. (1999) in cotton, , upto 50 days after germination
by Bhargava and Bhatnagar (2001) in okra whereas, Singh et al . (1996)
observed the effectiveness of the same insecticide in cotton upto 121 days.
The effectiveness of imidacloprid seed treatment against okra
jassids has been acknowledged in the past (Mote et al ., 1993; Mote et al .,
1994; Sharma and Kalra, 1996; Sreelatha and Divakar, 1997; Patil et al .,
1999; Bhargava and Bhatnagar, 2001; Kumar and Singh, 2001; Kumar et al .,
2001; Lal et al., 2001; Anonymous, 2005a; Sinha and Sharma, 2007).
The synergistic effect of B. thuringiensis with sub-lethal doses of
safer insecticides has been earlier demonstrated against a number of pests
by a number of workers (Puri et al ., 1988; Dabi et al ., 1989; Butter et al.,
1995; Sharma and Odak, 1996; Tomar, 1998; Patel and Vyas, 1999; Sharma,
219
2006). Mandal et al. (2006a) recorded minimum jassid population on okra in
B. thuringiensis + endosulfan treatment as compared to integration
treatment of B. thuringiensis with cartap, chlorpyriphos and amrutguard.
However, integration of imidacloprid with T. chilonis (both at half
dosages) did not prove effective. Mote et al. (1993) and Kumar and Singh
(2001) also observed that lower dose of imidacloprid (2.5 g kg -1 seed) was
not effective against A. biguttula biguttula. Moreover, T. chilonis is an egg
parasitoid of lepidopterous pests, therefore, it is quite obvious, that it must
have not parasitized eggs of jassids which is a homopteran pest. Also, T.
chilonis releases, B. thuringiensis , T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis and T.
chilonis + endosulfan were not found effective. The integrated treatment of
T. chilonis with B. thuringiensis and endosulfan did not show synergistic
effect since T. chilonis parasitizes eggs of only lepidopterous pests.
In the present study, cypermethrin was the most effective
insecticide against okra aphids followed by endosulfan and B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan. Even azadirachtin and malathion were found effective but only
upto 9 days. Imidacloprid seed treatment also proved its efficacy but only at
Palampur (Tables 4.36-4.39). This is because of the early appearance of the
pest at Palampur (in relation to date of sowing of the crop) as compared to
Kachhiari, due to which the seed treatment might have been more
efficacious at the former location.

220
The effectiveness of cypermethrin and endosulfan against A.
gossypii on okra has been acknowledged previously by many researchers in
their respective areas of study (Babu and Azam, 1982; Mohan and Mohan,
1985; Rai, 1985; Yadav et al. , 1988; Rao et al., 1991; Bodhade et al ., 1992;
Sosamma and Sheila, 1996; Patel et al ., 1997b; Mishra, 2002; Sharma,
2004). Further, Ghosh et al. (1999) inferred high mortality of A. gossypii
(66.19%) on okra due to malathion.
Earlier also, imidacloprid seed treatment has been found effective
against okra aphids (Mote et al ., 1993; Sreelatha and Divakar, 1997;
Anonymous, 2005a). A number of research workers (Dreyer and Hellpap,
1997; Chinniah and Ali, 2000; Mishra, 2002; Panickar et al., 2003; Mudathir
and Basedow, 2004) have reported the effectiveness of neem based
insecticides against A. gossypii on okra. In all these studies, 2 or more
applications of neem insecticides were made which resulted in good
suppression of aphid population. The lower efficacy of azadirachtin (upto
only 9 days) in the present investigation could be because of only single
spray made against this pest as against 2 or more sprays made by former
workers. Moreover, the effectiveness of a compound also varies with its
formulation, percentage of active ingredient, dosage, type of nozzle and
sprayer used.
The treatments which showed least worth against aphids in the
present study were T. chilonis, T. chilonis + imidacloprid, T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis , B. thuringiensis and T. chilonis + endosulfan. Lower reduction

221
evident in T. chilonis treatment either alone or in integration with B.
thuringiensis , endosulfan or imidacloprid was certainly because of the fact
that T. chilonis is an egg parasitoid of only lepidopterous pests, so obviously
it did not exhibit significant reduction either singly or in combination against
aphids. Also B. thuringiensis alone or in combination treatment did not prove
efficacious as B. thuringiensis has been known to infect mostly lepidopteran,
coleopteran and dipteran pests (Jaques, 1988; Biswas et al., 1996; Sharma
and Odak, 1996; Elanchezhyan et al ., 2007) and A. gossypii , being a
homopteran pest experienced lower reduction in its population. Ghosh et al.
(1999) observed 35.35 per cent mortality of aphids on okra due to B.
thuringiensis.
In the present study, cypermethrin and B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan showed least mean per cent fruit infestation by E. vittella at both
the locations during both the years (Table 4.40). The efficacy of
cypermethrin in checking population of shoot and fruit borer of okra is
corroborated by the findings of a number of earlier workers (Babu and
Azam, 1982; Krishnakumar and Srinivasan, 1984a; Krishnakumar and
Srinivasan, 1984b; Prasad et al ., 1986; Gandhale et al., 1987; Singh and
Mishra, 1988; Peter and David, 1989; David and Kumaraswami, 1991; Shukla
et al ., 1996; Rai and Satpathy, 1999; Ambekar et al ., 2000b).

222
The combination treatment of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan has
been found to be promising against E. vittella on okra by Tomar (1998) and
Mandal et al. (2006a). The present investigation also revealed the
effectiveness of endosulfan (although lower than cypermethrin) in lowering
the fruit infestation by shoot and fruit borer. This insecticide has been
reported effective against E. vittella in the past by many workers (Satpathy
and Mishra, 1970; Mote and Pokharkar, 1974; Uthamasamy and
Subramaniam, 1976; Verma et al ., 1980; Sarkar and Nath, 1989;
Samuthiravelu and David, 1991; Pawar and Lawande, 1993; Gowri et al. ,
2002; Manjanaik et al., 2002; Singh, 2007).
Other treatments which showed lower mean fruit infestation by E.
vittella were B. thuringiensis , T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis , azadirachtin and
malathion. The efficacy of B. thuringiensis and T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis
enhanced more by 15 th day of spray, whereas that of azadirachtin and
malathion remained more effective for a week and their efficacy declined
thereafter. Taylor (1974), Krishnaiah et al. (1981), Mohan et al. (1983),
Singh et al . (1998), Tomar (1998), Ghosh et al. (1999), Patil et al. (2002)
and Gupta and Mishra (2006) have also observed the effectiveness of B.
thuringiensis against E. vittella on okra. The effectiveness of B. thuringiensis
upto 15 days after treatment against shoot and fruit borer on okra has been
formerly established by Satpathy and Panda (1997) thus, validating present
findings.
223
The combination treatment of T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis was
found effective by Balakrishnan et al. (2004) in reducing the fruit damage by
another borer, H. armigera on cotton. The releases of T. chilonis against
shoot and fruit borer were not found much promising in the present study.
Similar observations regarding the lower efficacy of this parasitoid have been
made by Rao et al . (1978) and Sharma (2006). This could be ascribed to the
lower release rate (50,000 ha-1 ) of the parasitoid in the present study which
might have resulted in lower parasitism of eggs ultimately leading to
incomplete check in pest population. Sharma (2006) also mentioned similar
reasons for lower efficacy of T. chilonis against H. armigera on tomato.
Neem based insecticides have also shown their worth in checking
E. vittella incidence on okra formerly by Shukla et al. (1996) and Gajmer et
al. (2002). However, according to Sarode and Gabhane (1998), azadirachtin
was relatively ineffective in suppressing this pest. The difference in
efficiency of an insecticide could be ascribed to its formulation, percentage
of active ingredient, number of sprays and dosage used against the pest.
Malathion was reported effective earlier against E. vittella by Gupta and
Dhari (1978), Radke and Undirwade (1981), Verma (1985), Sarkar and Nath
(1989), Konar and Rai (1990), Shukla et al. (1996) and Singh (2007). The
comparatively higher performance of synthetic chemicals than neem based
insecticides against E. vittella as observed in the present study is in
accordance with the findings of Appaya (1990), Rao et al. (1991) and Shukla
et al. (1996).
224
Imidacloprid seed treatment either alone or in integration with T.
chilonis at half dosages demonstrated poor performance against shoot and
fruit borers on okra. The present results find favour with Krishnaiah et al.
(1976) who noticed that okra seed treatment protected the crop from the
attack of E. vittella till the initiation of fruit set only which afterwards was
not found effective. Even Kumar et al. (1996) observed better reduction in E.
vittella infestation on okra by foliar applications rather than seed treatment.
In the current investigation, the synthetic pyrethroid, cypermethrin
undoubtedly proved to be the best in reducing Mylabris population on okra
followed by endosulfan. Even the integrated treatment of B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan performed consistently well against blister beetle. Moderate level
of protection (upto 9 days) was afforded by application of malathion and
azadirachtin. However, the remaining treatments viz. T. chilonis , B.
thuringiensis , imidacloprid, T. chilonis + imidacloprid, T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis and T. chilonis + endosulfan illustrated lower efficacy against
this pest (Tables 4.41-4.44).
Literature pertaining to the effectiveness of synthetic chemicals
and biopesticides against blister beetle on okra is relatively scantly.
However, Kakar and Dogra (1988) and Kakar et al. (1990) validate the
present findings by reporting cypermethrin quite effective in reducing blister
beetle population in Himachal Pradesh on okra and French bean,

225
respectively. Likewise, Chandel and Sood (1996) and Degri and Hadi (2000)
found cypermethrin highly efficacious against Mylabris beetles on cowpea
and rajmash, respectively. The efficacy of another synthetic pyrethroid viz.
lambda cyhalothrin has been illustrated by Sandal (2007) against M.
pustulata on pigeon-pea at Palampur (Himachal Pradesh).
Even the insecticide, endosulfan has been found to be promising in
suppressing blister beetle population previously by Kakar et al. (1990),
Chandel and Sood (1996) and Durairaj and Ganapathy (1999) on diverse
crops. The lower efficacy of malathion reported in the present stu dy in
comparison to cypermethrin and endosulfan is corroborated by the findings
of Kakar et al. (1990), Chandel and Sood (1996), Degri and Chaudhary
(1998) and Degri and Hadi (2000).
The present investigation revealed that the synthetic pyrethroid
cypermethrin proved best upto 9 days after spray, after which B.
thuringiensis + endosulfan was found more efficacious in reducing larval
population of S. derogata and remained effective even on 15 th day of spray.
In addition, other effective treatments were endosulfan, T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis , B. thuringiensis , azadirachtin and malathion, the latter two
were effective upto 9 days of spray. On the other hand, the efficacy of T.
chilonis + B. thuringiensis , B. thuringiensis and B. thuringiensis + endosulfan
enhanced after 9 days of spray (Tables 4.45-4.48).

226
The higher efficacy of cypermethrin than azadirachtin in checking
leafroller population on okra has been established earlier by Mishra et al.
(2002) in field trials conducted in Orissa. Sidhu and Dhawan (1979), Dhawan
et al. (1988) and Jafri et al. (1988) found endosulfan effective against
leafroller on cotton crop, thus supporting the current results.
The effectiveness of B. thuringiensis in suppressing S. derogata
population on okra has also been acknowledged earlier by Taylor (1974) and
Obeng and Sackey (2003). Neem based compounds have also proved their
capability in suppressing leafroller population in the past as reported by
Cobbinah and Owusu (1988), Anaso and Lale (2002) and Obeng and Sackey
(2003).
5.7 Effect of insecticides and biopesticides on

marketable yield of okra
All the insecticidal and biopesticidal treatments gave significantly
higher yield of okra over untreated check. The two year data at two
locations (Table 4.49) revealed that cypermethrin registered highest
marketable yield (100.29 to 127.40 q ha -1) whereas T. chilonis registered
lowest yield (48.76 to 66.62 q ha -1 ) of okra fruits. The other treatments
which recorded higher fruit yield were endosulfan, B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan, azadirachtin, imidacloprid and malathion (78.47 to 116.46 q
ha-1 ).
A number of research workers have reported higher yield of okra
fruits by the application of cypermethrin through reduction in the population
of various pests on this crop (Babu and Azam, 1982; Patel et al ., 1984; Rai,
227
1985; Gandhale et al ., 1987; Narke and Suryawanshi, 1987; David and
Kumaraswami, 1991; Shukla et al. , 1996; Singh and Chaudhary, 1999).
Likewise, worth of endosulfan in checking pest population on okra and giving
higher yields has been illustrated previously by Uthamasamy and
Subramaniam (1976); Jadhav and Nawale (1980); Verma et al . (1980);
Khaire and Naik (1986); Rao et al. (1991); Samuthiravelu and David (1991);
Singh et al . (1991); Patel et al. (1997b); Kumar and Singh (2001) and
Manjanaik et al. (2002).
The integrated treatment of B. thuringiensis + endosulfan was
reported effective in suppressing population of borers and jassids on okra
leading to higher fruit yield (Tomar, 1998; Mandal et al ., 2006a). The higher
okra yield obtained from malathion treatment is in line with the findings of
Sarkar and Nath (1989), Konar and Rai (1990) and Borah (1995) because of
its efficacy in checking population of sucking, foliage and fruit pests. The
results pertaining to higher marketable yield obtained from endosulfan as
compared to neem based products is in consonance with research results of
Rao et al. (1991) and Patel et al . (1997b).
According to Mohan et al. (1983), Singh et al. (1998) and Gupta
and Mishra (2006), B. thuringiensis treatment checked borer incidence and
registered higher yield of okra, thus substantiating the current findings. Even
the imidacloprid seed treatment was found effective in enhancing okra yield
in the present study, by causing reduction in the population of sucking
pests. In the past also, comparable observations regarding efficacy of

228
imidacloprid seed treatment have been made (Jotwani and Sarup, 1966;
Mote et al ., 1993, Mote et al ., 1994; Sreelatha and Divakar, 1997; Bhargava
and Bhatnagar, 2001; Dikshit et al ., 2002; Anonymous, 2005a; Sinha and
Sharma, 2007).
Chapter VI
SUMMARY
The current investigation entitled, “Integrated Pest Management in
Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench” was undertaken during 2005 and
2006 crop seasons at the experimental farm of the Department of Entomology,
CSK HPKV, Palampur and farmer‟s fields in village Kachhiari (Kangra). The
findings of the investigation are summarized as under:
The surveillance studies revealed that 18 different pest species were
associated with okra, A. esculentus at Palampur while 19 different pest species
were associated with okra at Kachhiari. Out of these pests, 4 were identified as
the major pests of okra crop at Palampur. These included cotton jassid, A.
biguttula biguttula, cotton aphid, A. gossypii, blister beetle, M. pustulata and
cotton leafroller, S. derogata. At Kachhiari, in addition to these 4 pests, shoot
and fruit borer, E. vittella was also observed to cause major damage to the crop.
The activity of A. biguttula biguttula started in 1st week of July at
Palampur during 2005 and 2006 whereas, at Kachhiari, it initiated much earlier in
the month of May (3rd to 4th week) during both the seasons. The jassid
population ranged from 0.60 to 51.02 per 3 leaves at both the locations with
peak population (39.21 to 51.02/3 leaves) appearing in 3rd to 4th week of August
at Palampur and 4th week of July to 1st week of August at Kachhiari. The
infestation index varied from 25.88 to 39.29 during the peak activity of the pest.
230
The appearance of A. gossypii was first noticed during 1st week of July
at Palampur and 4th week of June at Kachhiari during both the seasons. The
aphid population varied between 2.15 and 94.65 per 3 leaves at the two
locations with peak population (54.75 to 94.65/3 leaves) observed in 2 nd to 3rd
week of August at Palampur and 2nd to 4th week of July at Kachhiari. The
infestation index varied from 32.85 to 68.15 during the peak period of pest
activity.
The incidence of E. vittella commenced during 3rd to 4th week of May
at Kachhiari with low damage on shoots varying between 0.82 to 2.24 per cent
during the 2 seasons. After initial infestation on shoots for just 2 weeks, the pest
shifted its activity completely on fruits immediately after fruit set and remained
active till 3rd week of July to 2nd week of August after which the activity ceased
altogether. The fruit infestation varied from 1.23 to 35.85 per cent and the larval
population varied from 0.37 to 2.35 per fruit during the 2 seasons with the
maximum fruit infestation (29.64 to 35.85%) and larval population (2.33 to
2.35/fruit) recorded in 3rd to 4th week of June.
Mylabris spp. showed its appearance in okra fields at Palampur in the
last week of July to 1st week of August, while at Kachhiari, the beetle activity
initiated in 1st to 3rd week of July. The beetle population varied from 1 to 35.6
per 10 plants and the flower damage varied from 1.18 to 38.52 per cent at the 2
locations during the 2 seasons. The maximum beetle population (24.5 to 35.6/10
plants) as well as flower damage by the pest (26.90 to 38.52 %) were observed
231
in 3rd week of August to 1st week of September at Palampur and 2nd to 3rd week
of August at Kachhiari. During the peak pest activity, the infestation index
ranged between 1.03 and 2.46.
The activity of S. derogata initiated in 2nd to 4th week of July at
Palampur and last week of June to 1st week of July at Kachhiari. The rolled leaf
infestation varied from 0.86 to 29.21 per cent and larval population varied
between 1.4 and 38.1 per 10 plants at the 2 locations during the 2 seasons. The
peak rolled leaf infestation (25.70 to 29.21 %) as well as larval population (33.8
to 38.1/10 plants) were recorded during 1st to 3rd week of August at Palampur
and in the last week of July at Kachhiari. The infestation index varied from 2.10
to 2.67 at the time when peak activity of the pest was detected.
The simple correlation coefficients obtained between
population/infestation of the major pests and various abiotic factors revealed a
significant negative relationship of A. biguttula biguttula population with rainfall
(-0.6187) and a significant positive correlation with hours of bright sunshine
(0.5551) at Palampur during 2005. At Kachhiari, relative humidity had a
significant positive correlation with pest population (0.6805, 0.7483) during 2005
and 2006, respectively, and minimum temperature too influenced the population
significantly and positively at Kachhiari (0.7148) during 2006.
The correlation analysis between A. gossypii population and maximum
temperature revealed a significant negative correlation at Palampur during 2006
(-0.6047) and at Kachhiari during 2005 (-0.6910) as well as 2006

232
(-0.7023). Further, relative humidity positively and significantly influenced
population count both at Palampur (0.5536, 0.6898) and Kachhiari (0.7005,
0.7556) during 2005 and 2006, respectively. Minimum temperature too
registered a significant positive association with aphid population at Kachhiari
(0.6604) during 2006.
At Kachhiari, the per cent fruit infestation (0.7793, 0.6918) and larval
population of E. vittella (0.6726, 0.7687) exhibited significant positive correlation
with maximum temperature during 2005 and 2006, correspondingly while a
significant negative association of fruit infestation with relative humidity
(-0.6066) and larval population with rainfall (-0.6235) were recorded during
2005.
The data on per cent flower damage and beetle population of Mylabris
spp. at Palampur displayed a significant positive relationship with maximum
temperature during 2005 (0.8927) and 2006 (0.8609), whereas, a significant
negative correlation of flower damage with relative humidity (-0.7069) and
a significant positive correlation with bright sunshine hours (0.7048) was noticed
during 2006. At Kachhiari, during 2006, minimum temperature was the only
significant factor to affect the flower damage by the pest negatively
(-0.7157).
The larval population of S. derogata showed a significant positive
relationship with relative humidity at Palampur during 2006 (0.6390) and at
Kachhiari during 2005 (0.6919) as well as 2006 (0.7089). Further, bright

233
sunshine hours illustrated a significant negative impact on rolled leaf infestation
(-0.6638) as well as larval population (-0.6748) at Palampur during 2006.
Besides, a significant negative correlation was obtained between maximum
temperature and larval population (-0.6402) at Kachhiari during 2006.
The studies on the relative susceptibility of okra varieties to the major
pests revealed variety Tulsi to be the least susceptible to A. biguttula biguttula,
A. gossypii and E. vittella and variety Varsha Uphar to be the least susceptible to
Mylabris spp. and S. derogata at both the locations during both the seasons. In
addition, other varieties viz. Arka Anamika, Parbhani Kranti and Panchaali also
revealed lower levels of infestation by all the major pests. Further, highest
marketable yield of okra fruits was registered by variety Tulsi followed by Varsha
Uphar at both the locations during both the seasons.
The sucking pests viz. A. biguttula biguttula and A. gossypii were
effectively managed by foliar sprays of cypermethrin (0.01%) and endosulfan
(0.07%). The performance of malathion, azadirachtin, T. chilonis + endosulfan,
B. thuringiensis + endosulfan and seed treatment with imidacloprid was rated as
moderate, the latter found effective only at Palampur. The egg parasitoid, T.
chilonis, T. chilonis + imidacloprid, B. thuringiensis and T. chilonis + B.
thuringiensis resulted in lower reduction in population of sucking pests and thus
were not effective.
In case of lepidopterous pests viz. E. vittella and S. derogata, the
highest reduction was brought about by application of cypermethrin followed by

234
endosulfan. In addition, B. thuringiensis + endosulfan also proved quite effective
and their efficacy enhanced substantially by 15th day of spray thus checking
population of these pests for longer duration. Other treatments which decreased
the population of shoot and fruit borer and leafroller conspicuously were B.
thuringiensis and T. chilonis + B. thuringiensis. Malathion and azadirachtin were
effective only upto a week. The treatments comprising T. chilonis, T. chilonis +
endosulfan, imidacloprid and T. chilonis + imidacloprid were not found much
promising against these pests.
The coleopteran pest, Mylabris spp. was best suppressed by
application of cypermethrin, followed by endosulfan. Also, B. thuringiensis +
endosulfan proved quite effective in suppressing this pest even after 15 days of
spray. Malathion and azadirachtin, though initially effective lost their efficacy
after a week. Other treatments viz. T. chilonis, B. thuringiensis, imidacloprid, T.
chilonis + B. thuringiensis, T. chilonis + imidacloprid and T. chilonis + endosulfan
demonstrated poor performance against this pest.
On the basis of these findings, following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Four species of insects viz. cotton jassid, A. biguttula biguttula, cotton
aphid, A. gossypii, blister beetle, M. pustulata and cotton leafroller, S.
derogata were identified as major pests of okra crop at Palampur. At
Kachhiari, one more species, shoot and fruit borer, E. vittella was also
recorded as the major pest of okra besides these 4 pests.

235
2. The appearance as well as the peak activity periods of these 5 pests
varied through seasons and locations. Therefore, the initiation of
management measures should be decided based on the actual
incidence of the pest(s) and not on the basis of pre determined
periods of their occurrence.
3. The population/infestation of major pests revealed significant
correlation with one or the other abiotic factors emphasizing that the
combined effect of weather parameters played an important role in
influencing the pest incidence at both the locations during the two
seasons.
4. Varieties Tulsi and Varsha Uphar were least susceptible to all the major
pests and also registered higher marketable yield.
5. Sucking pests viz. A. biguttula biguttula and A. gossypii were
successfully managed by foliar application of cypermethrin (0.01%),
endosulfan (0.07%) and B. thuringiensis (1.98 x 107 IU ha-1) +
endosulfan (0.035%). Seed treatment with imidacloprid (5g kg-1 seed)
provided moderate level of protection only when the sucking pests
appeared earlier in the season. Therefore, it should be used in
integration with foliar sprays for better results.
6. Lepidopterous pests viz. E. vittella and S. derogata were effectively
suppressed by the application of cypermethrin (0.01%), endosulfan
(0.07%), B. thuringiensis (1.98 x 107 IU ha-1) + endosulfan (0.035%),

236
B. thuringiensis (3.96 x 107 IU ha-1) and T. chilonis (25000 parasitized
host eggs ha-1) + B. thuringiensis (1.98 x 107 IU ha-1).
7. The population of Mylabris beetles was successfully managed by
application of cypermethrin (0.01%), endosulfan (0.07%) or B.
thuringiensis (1.98 x 107 IU ha-1) + endosulfan (0.035%).
8. Six releases of T. chilonis (50000 PE ha-1) at Kachhiari and four
releases at Palampur could not yield desirable results, however, when
the parasitoid (25000 PE ha-1) was used in combination with B.
thuringiensis (1.98 x 107 IU ha-1) proved a success in the management
of lepidopterous pests on okra.
9. It is suggested that seed treatment with imidacloprid (5g kg-1)
followed by foliar sprays (frequency depending on the pests‟
prevalence) with cypermethrin (0.01%), endosulfan (0.07%) or
integrated treatment of B. thuringiensis (1.98 x 107 IU ha-1) +
endosulfan (0.035%) can be applied for the effective management of
insect-pest complex of okra.

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nitrogen levels on growth, yield and quality of okra. Indian Journal of
Horticulture 63(2): 215-217.
Zala, S. P., Patel, J. R. and Patel, N. C. 1999. Impact of weather on magnitude of
Earias vittella infesting okra. Indian Journal of Entomology 61(4): 351-
355.
Appendix-I
Mean weekly weather data of Palampur during 2005
Period Temperature (oC) Relative Rainfall Bright

Humidity (mm) sunshine
(%) (hours)
Maximum Minimum
June 5 32.5 19.9 55 0.0 11.6
12 32.1 18.2 49 11.5 9.6
19 33.2 20.3 48 13.2 9.1
26 35.1 22.4 51 8.9 9.5
July 3 28.9 19.8 80 190.6 3.0
10 25.4 19.0 85 190.8 3.0
17 26.1 19.9 91 344.1 2.2
24 26.8 20.2 81 69.3 4.1
31 27.9 19.9 86 88.9 4.3
August 7 28.1 20.0 88 100.1 3.5
14 27.5 18.5 80 14.3 4.6
21 25.8 20.1 89 196.7 3.1
28 27.4 18.8 79 64.4 5.9
September 4 27.7 21.4 79 79.1 7.1
11 27.0 19.8 86 132.3 3.4
18 24.6 17.3 87 350.0 0.7
25 26.2 15.7 75 53.4 6.1
October 2 26.9 15.9 72 29.6 7.9
9 27.3 16.5 71 0.0 8.6

265
Appendix-II
Mean weekly weather data of Palampur during 2006
Period Temperature (oC) Relative Rainfall Bright

Humidity (mm) sunshine
(%) (hours)
Maximum Minimum
May 27 30.0 20.3 61 28.5 6.9
June 3 31.0 19.9 55 134.7 9.3
10 29.7 18.9 53 21.5 9.9
17 31.6 20.2 50 9.0 7.5
24 28.3 18.5 50 16.0 6.2
July 1 28.2 19.0 79 225.1 5.0
8 28.6 20.7 75 519.4 6.9
15 26.2 20.5 86 184.8 2.3
22 27.1 20.4 83 141.4 3.6
29 24.7 23.2 91 247.1 1.8
August 5 26.3 20.3 85 151.2 2.3
12 25.1 19.2 85 152.6 2.5
19 28.5 20.2 79 80.5 7.5
26 26.4 20.5 90 230.3 2.8
September 2 25.3 15.8 85 280.7 3.0
9 26.5 18.6 81 45.5 6.6
16 24.6 17.5 88 196.2 1.8
23 26.5 18.1 76 87.8 6.3

266
Appendix-III
Mean weekly weather data of Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2005
Period Temperature (oC) Relative Rainfall

Humidity (mm)
(%)
Maximum Minimum
April 5 25.3 14.5 42 0.0
12 24.8 18.1 52 0.0
19 24.4 14.6 51 2.2
26 29.9 17.2 59 0.0
May 3 28.2 20.8 66 3.0
10 26.4 20.2 54 26.0
17 27.3 22.6 44 0.0
24 30.8 23.8 41 10.0
31 32.6 22.7 35 0.0
June 7 29.7 20.6 54 0.0
14 32.4 25.1 43 8.0
21 34.9 24.4 38 0.0
28 34.6 26.9 47 31.2
July 5 27.7 23.8 78 80.4
12 30.0 24.6 77 173.5
19 26.8 24.4 82 121.4
26 27.0 25.4 85 100.4
August 2 29.7 25.3 75 75.7
9 27.4 24.8 81 211.2
16 29.1 25.8 76 37.8
23 28.4 24.9 78 129.8
30 28.6 24.8 62 11.0
September 6 29.4 25.8 72 1.3
13 27.2 23.7 74 64.7
267
Appendix-IV
Mean weekly weather data of Kachhiari (Kangra) during 2006
Period Temperature (oC) Relative Rainfall

Humidity (mm)
(%)
Maximum Minimum
March 31 25.1 10.7 38 8.1
April 7 29.4 13.4 35 0.0
14 29.1 12.0 33 17.1
21 27.2 10.7 28 2.5
28 33.4 14.9 28 0.0
May 5 33.7 16.9 33 0.0
12 36.4 19.7 29 0.0
19 27.3 20.8 46 10.0
26 31.3 21.4 46 17.5
June 2 35.5 21.9 39 2.1
9 33.7 20.4 44 53.7
16 35.3 21.9 36 12.1
23 31.5 20.1 44 18.3
30 32.1 22.0 62 145.6
July 7 32.2 24.6 67 72.3
14 28.3 24.4 85 212.5
21 29.6 24.4 76 230.7
28 28.4 23.6 80 115.0
August 4 28.9 23.0 77 131.4
11 28.0 22.3 75 70.9
18 30.9 22.9 77 150.3
25 30.0 22.9 74 336.4
September 1 28.6 22.2 77 92.2

OKRA, Abelmoschus Esculentus (PDFDrive)

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INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN

OKRA, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)

CHAUDHARY SARWAN KUMAR

This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Integrated Pest

This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Integrated Pest

Dr. Desh Raj External Examiner

Dr.(Mrs.) Nirmala Devi Dr. D. C. Sharma

Dr. A.S. Kapoor Dr. C. K. Oberoi

Chapter Title Page

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-48

III MATERIALS AND METHODS 49-58

LITERATURE CITED 237-263

3.1 Schedule of spraying at Palampur and Kachhiari (Kangra) 56

4.35 Field efficacy of insecticides and biopesticides against A. 137

4.1 Population build up of A. biguttula biguttula on okra in 63-64

4.2 Population build up of A. biguttula biguttula on okra in 63-64

4.3 Population build up of A. biguttula biguttula on okra in 65-66

4.4 Population build up of A. biguttula biguttula on okra in 65-66

4.5 Population build up of A. gossypii on okra in relation 70-71

4.6 Population build up of A. gossypii on okra in relation 70-71

4.7 Population build up of A. gossypii on okra in relation 72-73

4.8 Population build up of A. gossypii on okra in relation 72-73

4.9 Population build up of E. vittella on okra in relation to 78-79

4.10 Population build up of E. vittella on okra in relation to 78-79

4.11 Population build up of Mylabris spp. on okra in 82-83

4.12 Population build up of Mylabris spp. on okra in 82-83

4.13 Population build up of Mylabris spp. on okra in 84-85

4.14 Population build up of Mylabris spp. on okra in 84-85

4.15 Population build up of S. derogata on okra in relation 90-91

4.16 Population build up of S. derogata on okra in relation 90-91

4.17 Population build up of S. derogata on okra in relation 92-93

4.18 Population build up of S. derogata on okra in relation 92-93

1. Field trial on okra, A. esculentus at Palampur 50

2. Field trial on okra, A. esculentus at Kachhiari 50

3. Infestation of A. biguttula biguttula on okra 68

4. Infestation of A. gossypii on okra 68

5. Larva of E. vittella inside okra fruit 76

8. Fruits of okra infested by E. vittella 80

9. M. pustulata damaging okra flower 80

10. Infestation of S. derogata on okra 89

11. Larva of S. derogata 89

12. Pupa of S. derogata 90

13. Adult of S. derogata 90

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench), frequently known as

lady‟s finger or bhendi belonging to family Malvaceae, is an important warm

season vegetable crop cultivated comprehensively in tropical and sub-tropical

regions of the world. Okra is native to Ethiopia (Vavilov, 1951). It is a short

scrumptious green fruits used in curries, soups or in canned, dehydrated or

useful against genito-urinary disorders, spermatorrhoea and chronic dysentery

Okra has occupied a prominent position among the export oriented

and Mishra, 2001). At present, it is being exported to the neighbouring countries

Lanka and Bangladesh.

In India, okra is cultivated in an area of 0.37 million hectare with an

annual production of 3.53 million tons (Anonymous, 2004b). In Himachal

occupying an area of 357 hectare with an annual production of 4114 tons

crop is ravaged by as many as 45 species of insect-pests throughout its growth

throughout vegetative as well as reproductive stages causing ample reduction in

yield (Satpathy and Rai, 1999).

Narayanaswamy, 1960; Rawat and Sahu, 1973; Krishnaiah et al., 1976;

Srinivasan and Krishnakumar, 1983; Chaudhary and Dadheech, 1989; Mandal et

important pests recorded on okra at various stages of growth include cotton

Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Chelliah et al., 1976), mite, Tetranychus sp.(Rai,

Singh and Joshi (2004) reported 15 species of insect-pests associated