CEB2093

REACTION ENGINEERING II

CATALYST MATERIALS

Content prepared by: Dr Mohd Hizami Mohd Yusoff Prof Ir Dr Suzana Yusup
Edited by: AP Dr Suriati Sufian

1
Topics:
• Physical structure of representative heterogeneous
catalysts
• Preparation and forming of catalysts
• Catalyst properties and characterization
 Learning Outcome
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to;
• Understand the porous materials
• Explain steps in catalyst preparation process
• Describe and apply selected catalyst characterization
methods
 Activity 1

Recall what you have learned so far..

Physical structure of representative
heterogeneous catalysts
 What are porous materials?
Porous solid: a solid with pores, i.e. cavities or channels
A catalyst that has a large area resulting from pores is called porous catalyst.

Non-porous solid Porous solid

• Low specific surface area • High specific surface area
• Low specific pore volume • High specific pore volume
• The porous structure enables the solid to
have a total surface much higher.

• Most common catalysts have a specific

surface area between 1 and 1000 m2/g,
while their external specific surface area is
in the range 0.01 – 10 m2/g.

• Sometimes pores are very small they will

prevent large ones from entering. This is
called molecular sieves.

• These sieves can form basis for quite

selective catalysts
 Mesoporous materials
• Mesoporous form (2 nm – 50 nm) of silica
• Used as catalyst support due to:
• High surface area
• Large pore size
• Uniform pore
• High stability SEM of SBA-15

• Common type of mesoporous silica

• SBA-15
• M41S family (MCM-41, MCM-48 and MCM-50)
*SBA = Santa Barbara Amorphous
*MCM = Mobil Composition of Matter

TEM of SBA-15
 M41S family
• MCM-41 HEXAGONAL CUBIC LAMELLAR

• MCM-48
• MCM-50

Different structures of the M41S family

Preparation and forming of
catalysts
 Preparation of
heterogeneous
catalyst

Bulk preparation Impregnation

Physical mixing
process process

Supports are first prepared by • Mixed agglomerated catalysts

Bulk preparation is mainly
done by the following bulk preparation methods and
then impregnated with the
methods :
catalytically active material. The
• Precipitation process
active materials can be deposited
• Sol gel process
on the supports by:
• aqueous solutions
• liquid solid interface.
are prepared by this method.
• Mixing the active substances
with a powdered support or
precursors of support in ball
mill.
• The final mixture is then
agglomerated and activated.
 Basic unit operations in
solid catalyst preparation
 Preparation of catalyst by impregnation

• Impregnation is achieved by filling the pores

of a support with a solution of the metal salt.

• The catalyst is prepared by adding the

support material to a solution of a suitable
metal salt, followed by drying, and activation
(calcination and reduction).
Impregnation, drying and activation
- Behavior of the solution and solute -

Porous support
Drying Drying

Filtration Drying-up Filtration Drying-up

Precursor
solution No adsorption Adsorption

Pore filling
 Impregnation, drying and activation

Activation =Calcination + Reduction

The purpose of calcination is to decompose the catalyst precursor to form oxides.
The decomposition temperature [ºC] of the precursors (salts) is as follows:

Group Element Hydroxide Carbonate Nitrate Sulfate

Group 11 – Copper family IB Cu (II) 60-80 220 170 650

Group 12 – Zinc family IIB Zn 125 140-300 NA 740
Group 6 – Chromium family VIB Cr (III)370 NA NA (II)850, (III)160
Group 7 – Manganese family VIIB Mn (IV)210 (II)100, 375 (II)200 NA
Fe (III)350-400, 190 (II)>200 NA (II)>170, (III)480
Group 8, 9, 10 – iron, cobalt,
nickel family VIII Co 300 (II)350, 250 (II)100-105 (II)>720, 700
Ni 230 300 (II)105-110 >700, 840

A. Ozaki et al., Catalyst Preparation Chemistry, Kohdan-sha (1980).

Impregnation, drying and activation
Support

Impregnation Ni(NO3)2 solution

Drying
Ni(NO3)2

Calcination NiO
Activation

Reduction
Ni
 Catalyst Forming
Mainly, solid catalysts are used in industrial
catalytic processes and these are formulated in
different forms such as pellets, extrudates,
granules or sphere form.

The techniques:
• Pellet formation
• Granulation
• Extrusion
• Spray drying
 Catalyst
granule

PELLET FORMATION GRANULATION

EXTRUSION
Spherical catalyst
SPRAY DRYING
 Activity 2

Based on the following published literature, draw a flowchart

to represent the preparation of the support/catalyst.

“Patel, A., Brahmkhatri, V. and Singh, N. (2013). Kinetic study of oleic acid esterification over 12-tungstophosphoric
acid catalyst anchored to different mesoporous silica supports. Fuel Processing Technology, 113, 141-149.”
• Synthesis of MCM-41
Surfactant (CTAB) was added to a very dilute solution of NaOH with
stirring at 60 °C. When the solution became homogeneous, TEOS was
added drop wise and the obtained gel was aged for 2 h. The resulting
product was filtered, washed with distilled water then dried at room
temperature. The obtained material was calcined at 555 °C in air for 5 h
and designated as MCM-41.
• Synthesis of SBA-15
In a typical preparation, 4 g of Pluronic P123 was dissolved in 30 ml
water and 120 ml 2M HCl with stirring at 35 °C. Then 8.5 g of TEOS was
added into the solution with stirring at 35 °C for 20 h. Then the mixture
was aged at 80 °C for 48 h without hydrothermal conditions. The solid
product was recovered, washed and air dried at room temperature.
The calcination was carried out at 500 °C for 6 h.
• Synthesis of catalyst (TPA anchored to MCM-41)
TPA anchored to MCM-41 was synthesized by impregnation. 1 g of MCM-41
was impregnated with an aqueous solution of TPA (0.3 g/30 ml of double
distilled water) and dried at 100 °C for 10 h. The obtained material was
designated as TPA3/MCM-41.

• Synthesis of the catalysts (TPA anchored to SBA-15)

TPA anchored to SBA-15 was synthesized by impregnation. 1 g of SBA-15 was
impregnated with an aqueous solution of TPA (0.3 g/30 ml of double distilled
water) and dried at 100 °C for 10 h. The obtained material was designated as
TPA3/SBA-15.
Catalyst properties
and
Characterization
 Characterization of heterogeneous catalyst
“Determination of its physical and chemical characteristics, which are
responsible for its performance in a reaction”

Characteristics
Physical of Catalyst Chemical
Properties Properties
• Surface area • Chemical composition
• Pore analysis Morphological • Acidity/basicity

Properties
• Internal structure (TEM)
• External structure (SEM)
 Example
• SBA-15 - Support
• ZrSBA-15 – Zirconia supported on SBA-15 support
• SZSBA-15 – Sulfated zirconia supported on SBA-15
 Physical Properties
Surface Area and pore analysis
• Determination of surface area and pore distribution of catalysts is
important to understand the extent of dispersion possible for the
active metals.
• Higher surface area of support results in higher dispersion of the
active metals.
• Hence supports of higher surface area are desirable.
• N2 adsorption-desorption analysis is commonly used.
• The specific surface area was measured using the Brunauer-Emmett-
Teller (BET) method
• Pore size distribution was measured using the Barrett-Joyner-
Halenda (BJH) model.
• The total pore volume was measured based on the nitrogen
adsorption at relative pressure (P/Po) of 0.98.
• The micropore area was estimated based on the correlation of t-
Harkins and Jura (t-plot method).
BET range?

N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms of SBA-15, ZrSBA-15 and SZSBA-15.

Determination of surface area using BET Equation

x 1 c −1
= + x From the linear plot, vm
v(1 − x) vm c vm c can be obtained.

From vm [cm3/g], the surface area can be calculated:

vm − 20
S= N A Am 10
22414
= 4.35vm
S = specific surface area [m2/g]
vm= the amount of adsorbate required to form one monolayer over the entire
adsorbent surface [cm3/g]
NA = the Avogadro number
Am = the surface area occupied by one molecule [Å2], 16.2 for N2
Pore analysis
• Pores are usually formed during drying or calcination of hydroxides
precipitates or gel.
• The size and number of pores determines the internal surface area.
• Pore size also determines the accessibility of reactants to the active
sites and the ability of diffusion of products back to the bulk fluid.
• Hence pore structure and surface area must be optimized to provide
maximum utilization of active sites for a given feed stock.
 Measurement methods
Definition
for pore size distribution

1)Macropore: >50 nm Mercury porosimetry

2)Mesopore: 2-50 nm Nitrogen adsorption

3)Micropore: 0.8-2 nm

4)Sub-micropore: <0.8 nm
Pore size distribution of SBA-15, ZrSBA-15 and SZSBA-15
catalysts.
Textural characteristics of SBA-15, ZrSBA-15 and SZSBA-15
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
• To determine:
• thermal stability
• content of moisture
• volatile material, if any,
• decomposition of inorganic and organic material in the catalysts.
• Analysis is carried out by raising the temperature (up to 1000oC) of
the sample gradually in a flow of air or inert gas such as N2.
• The change in mass of samples is monitored with an increase in
temperature at specified gas environment and heating rate.
 Morphological Properties
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
• Most widely used type of electron microscope for study of microscopic
structure.
• Image is formed by focused electron beam that scans over the surface
area of specimen.
 SEM images of SBA-15 at a
magnification of 5000 X (a) after
being incorporated with zirconia and
(b) after subsequent sulfation with
sulfuric acid.

SEM images of SBA-15 at a (a)

magnification of 20000 X and
(b) magnification of 3000 X.
SEM images of (a) 5SZSBA-15, (b) 10SZSBA-15, (c) 15SZSBA-15 and
(d) 20SZSBA-15 catalysts with magnification of 10000X.
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
• A microscopy technique where a beam of electrons is transmitted
through a specimen to form an image
• Capable of displaying magnified image of thin specimen with
magnification in range of 103 to 106.
• Information can be obtained:
• Topography : surface features , texture
• Morphology : shape and size of the particles
• Crystallographic arrangement of atoms
• Composition : elements and the their relative amounts
 TEM images of SBA-15 (a) in the
direction perpendicular to the pore
axis (b) SBA-15 in the direction of the
pore axis.

TEM images of SBA-15 after (a)

incorporation of zirconia and (b)
after sulfation.
 Chemical Properties
Temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia (NH3-TPD)
• Provide information about the strength of the acid sites (weak,
moderate, strong) present on the surface.
• Small molecular size allows NH3 to penetrate into all pores of the solid
• NH3 is basic in nature it adsorbs on the acidic sites on the surface.
• The acidic sites are quantified in terms of total ammonia molecules
adsorbing on the surface in μmol/gm of catalysts.
• However, ammonia adsorption cannot distinguish between Bronsted
or Lewis acid sites and only determines the total acidic sites
weak acid site = <200 oC
moderate acid sites = between 200 and 450 oC
strong acid sites = >450 oC

NH3-TPD profiles of 5SZSBA-15 catalyst.

Temperature-programmed desorption of carbon dioxide (CO2-TPD)
• To determine the basic strength of catalyst.
• CO2 is an acidic gas and can absorb on basic sites on the catalyst
surface.
• This technique gives the total basic sites quantified by total CO2
molecules adsorbed on the surface in μmol/g of catalyst
Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX)
• To identify the elemental composition of materials

EDX results of the catalyst and support

Element Weight% Atomic%

O 70249.55 77.13
Si 34222.39 21.40
S 867.41 0.48
Zr 5169.10 1.00

Totals 110508.50
 SZSBA-15 has higher activity
due to high acidity of catalyst.

SZ has the lowest activity due to

low surface area and low acidity
of catalyst.
Large pore size allowed the
formation of byproducts.

The agglomeration of the catalyst could

explain the formation of bulkier
molecules (di-and triglycerides) from the
reaction on the external surface and
Comparison of palmitic acid conversions and monopalmitin yield using within the voids of SZSBA-15.
SBA-15, ZrSBA-15, SZSBA-15 and without catalyst
 Catalyst properties and characterization

1. Whole catalyst (active component and support)

1) Size and shape
2) Densities
3) External surface area/volume
4) Parameters for pore
Porosity, specific pore volume, specific surface area and
average pore diameter
5) Specific surface area
6) Pore size distribution

2. Metal (active component) on support

1) Content and fraction of reduced metal
2) Particle size
3) Radial concentration profile of active component
 1. Whole catalyst
1) Size and shape
Category Reaction system Size Shape Machine Feed
Powders Suspension 0.1-80mm Crusher Lump
Granules Fixed bed 2-14mm Crusher Lump
Spray-
small Fluidized bed 20-100mm Slurry
dryer
Fluidized bed,
Spheres medium 0.5-5mm Fryer Sol
fixed bed
Fixed bed, moving Rotating
large 5-25mm pan
Powder
bed
Pellets, tablets & rings Fixed bed 3-20mm Pelletizer Powder

Extrusions Fixed bed 0.5-20mm Extruder Paste

Honeycomb Extruder
Fixed bed - etc
Paste etc
(monolith)
Weaving
Screen (gauze) Fixed bed - machine Wire
A. Ozaki et al., Catalyst Preparation Chemistry, Kohdan-sha (1980) etc.
 1. Whole catalyst
2) Densities
Solid (or material) density Particle density
m m m
Definition  solid = = (1)  particle = (2)
vsolid v particle − v pore v particle

 particle v partcile − v pore v pore

= = 1− = 1 −  particle (3)
 solid v particle v particle

Relationship  particle =  solid (1 −  particle ) (4)

m: Mass of one particle M: Total mass of the particles in the bed

vsolid: Volume of solid part of one particle
vparticle: Volume of one particle
vpore: Volume of pore in one particle
Vparticle: Total volume of the particles in the bed
Vbed: Bed volume Vvoid: Void volume of bed
particle: Particle porosity = 0.4-0.7 bed: Bed porosity = 0.4-0.45
 1. Whole catalyst
2) Densities
Particle density Bed (or Bulk) density

Definition m M
 particle =
m
= bed
=
M
=
M
(5)  bed = (6)
v particle v
bed
particle V particle Vbed − Vvoid Vbed

 bed V − Vvoid V
= bed = 1 − void = 1 −  bed (7)
 particle Vbed Vbed

Relationship bed =  particle (1 −  bed ) (8)

m: Mass of one particle M: Total mass of the particles in the bed

vsolid: Volume of solid part of one particle
vparticle: Volume of one particle
vpore: Volume of pore in one particle
Vparticle: Total volume of the particles in the bed
Vbed: Bed volume Vvoid: Void volume of bed
particle: Particle porosity = 0.4-0.7 bed: Bed porosity = 0.4-0.45
 1. Whole catalyst
3) External surface area / volume

Single particle or particles Bed

6
s particle / v particle = S particle / V particle = (9) Sbed / Vbed (10)
d particle

Relationship
6
Sbed / Vbed = ( S particle / V particle )(1 −  bed ) = (1 −  bed ) (11)
d particle

sparticle: External surface area of one particle

vparticle: Volume of one particle
dparticle: Diameter of particle
Sparticle= Sbed: Total external surface area of the particles in the bed
Vparticle: Total volume of the particles in the bed
Vbed: Bed volume
bed: Bed porosity = (Vbed-Vparticle)/Vbed = 0.4-0.45
(S/V)bed is an index indicating external surface area per bed volume.
We need to compare particle bed and honeycomb at the same S/V.

32 cm2/cm3

9 cm2/cm3
from Eq. 7 by
assuming bed =
0.5 12 cm2/cm3

9 cm2/cm3

Cells/in2

C. H. Bartholomew et al., Fundamentals of Industrial Catalytic Processes 2nd ed., Wiley Interscience (2006).
 1. Whole catalyst
4) Parameters for pore

Measurement methods
Definition
for pore size distribution

1)Macropore: >50 nm Mercury porosimetry

2)Mesopore: 2-50 nm Nitrogen adsorption

3)Micropore: 0.8-2 nm

4)Sub-micropore: <0.8 nm
 1. Whole catalyst
4) Parameters for pore

Particle porosity, p = pore vol of particle / vol of particle

(dimensionless)

Specific pore volume, Vsp = pore vol of particle / mass of particle

[cm3/g] etc

Specific surface area, Ssp = surface area of particle / mass of particle

[m2/g] etc

Average pore diameter, dpore [nm] etc

From Vsp and Ssp

From pore size distribution: (1) Modal
(2) Volume-weighed average =
 d dVpore

 dV
 1. Whole catalyst
4) Parameters for pore, relationships

Specific pore volume, Vsp = pore vol of particle / mass of particle

[cm3/g] etc

m m v particle − v pore
 solid = = −1
 solid =
vsolid v particle − v pore m

m v particle
 particle = −1
 particle =
v particle m

v pore
−1
 particle −  solid = −1
= Vsp
m
 1. Whole catalyst
4) Average pore size
Specific pore volume, Vsp = pore vol of particle / mass of particle

Specific surface area, Ssp = surface area of particle / mass of particle

Average pore diameter, dpore From Vsp and Ssp

L Liq. nitrogen filling


Vsp = 2
d pore L
4 Vsp
d pore d pore = 4
S sp
S sp = d pore L
The BET method
 1. Whole catalyst
4) Average pore size

Average pore
diameter

Y. Uemura et al., “Formation of Nickel Concentration Profile in Nickel/Alumina Catalyst during Post-Impregnation
Drying,” J. Chem. Eng. Japan, 20 (2), 117-123 (1987).
 1. Whole catalyst
5) Specific surface area by nitrogen adsorption at 77K

The BET equation

 p
vm c 
v=  p0  0.05<p/p0<0.35

  p    p   p 
1 −   1 −   + c 
  p0     p0   p0  
v = the amount of adsorbate on adsorbent at equilibrium [mol/kg] or [cm3/g] etc.
vm= the amount of adsorbate required to form one monolayer over the entire
adsorbent surface [mol/kg] or [cm3/g] etc.
c = system constant (function of kinetic constants and heats of adsorption), ≈100
p = partial pressure of adsorbate (subscript 0 denotes saturation)
S. Brunauer, P.H. Emmett na dE. Teller, J. Am. Chem.Soc., 60, 309 (1938).
 1. Whole catalyst
5) Specific surface area by nitrogen adsorption at 77K

x 1 c −1
= + x From the linear plot, vm

v(1 − x) vm c vm c can be obtained.

From vm [cm3/g], the surface area can be calculated:

vm − 20
S= N A Am 10
22414
= 4.35vm
S = specific surface area [m2/g]
vm= the amount of adsorbate required to form one monolayer over the entire
adsorbent surface [cm3/g]
NA = the Avogadro number
Am = the surface area occupied by one molecule [Å2], 16.2 for N2
 1. Whole catalyst
6) Pore size distribution by nitrogen adsorption at 77K

Lower
nitrogen
The Kelvin equation for pressure
capillary condensation

p − 2 Vliq cos 
ln( ) = Pores filled with
liquefied N2
2r k
Empty pores
p0 rk RT p
p0
At p, the pores less than rk are
filled with liquid nitrogen.
Higher
nitrogen
pressure
2r k
p = the pressure of nitrogen (subscript 0 denotes saturation)
= the surface tension of liquid nitrogen [N/m] Vliq = the molar volume of liquid nitrogen [m3/mol]
= contact angle between liq and solid rk = the Kelvin radius [m]
R = the gas constant [J/mol•K] T = the absolute temperature [K]
 1. Whole catalyst
6) Pore size distribution by nitrogen adsorption at 77K

Gas vol to liq vol

Accumulated amount

dVsp/d(logdpore)
of nitrogen, Vsp
[cm3/g]
Pore diameter, dpore [nm]
(log scale)

P/P0 to rk, rk to dpore

 1. Whole catalyst
6) Pore size distribution by nitrogen adsorption at 77K

The modal pore diameter

Seon-Ju Park et al., “Influence of bimodal pore size distribution of Ru/Co/ZrO2–Al2O3 during Fischer–Tropsch
synthesis in fixed-bed and slurry reactor,” Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical, 298, 81-87 (2009)
 2 Metal (active component)
1) Content and fraction of reduced metal

Metal content
a) Dissolving the catalyst (whole or metal part) and analyzing the
concentration of ion (Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer or Induction
Coupled Plasma Spectrophotometer)
b) Estimation from the preparation condition
b-1) Impregnation: from the precursor concentration used and the pore
volume of the support
b-2) Co-precipitation: from the amounts of precursors for co-precipitation

Fraction of reduced metal

a) Measuring the consumption amount of air or oxygen during oxidation
of the catalyst
a-1) Breakthrough of oxidation agent pulse
a-2) Thermo-gravimetry
 2 Metal (active component)
2) Particle size
a) Transmission electron microscopy
b) Powder X-ray diffraction
c) Hydrogen adsorption

2.5wt% Pt/SiO2 (TEM)

The surface-average is recommended.

 i
d 3

d 32 = i

 i
d
i
2

J.R. Anderson, Structure of Metallic Catalysts, Academic Press (1975).

 2 Metal (active component)
2) Particle size
a) Transmission electron microscopy
b) Powder X-ray diffraction
c) Hydrogen adsorption

Signal intensity

Bobserved

Bragg angle, 2
C. H. Bartholomew et al., Fundamentals of Industrial Catalytic Processes 2nd ed., Wiley Interscience (2006).
 2 Metal (active component)
2) Particle size
a) Transmission electron microscopy
b) Powder X-ray diffraction
c) Hydrogen adsorption

d i
4
K
d 43 = i
=
di
i
3
Bd cos 

B =B
2
d
2
observed −B 2
instrument Silicon powder

d 43 = the volume-mean diameter of metal particles [Å]

d i = the diameter of particle i [Å]
K = the Scherrer constant (0.84-0.89)
 = the X-ray wave length [Å]
 2 Metal (active component)
2) Particle size
a) Transmission electron microscopy
b) Powder X-ray diffraction
c) Hydrogen adsorption

H2
Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt
Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt
Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt
Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt
Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt Pt

Support Support

Metal dispersion (fraction of metal exposed)

N S (number of surface metal )

DM = 0  DM  1
NT (number of total metal )
 2 Metal (active component)
2) Particle size
a) Transmission electron microscopy
b) Powder X-ray diffraction
c) Hydrogen adsorption

d i
3
V i
vM N T vM 1
d 32 = i
=6 i
=6 =6
d
i
i
2
S i
i sM N S sM DM

d 32 = the surface-mean diameter of metal particles [m]

d i = the diameter of particle i [m]
vM = the volume per metal atom in the bulk [m3]
sM = the effective average area occupied by one metal atom in the surface [m2]
 2 Metal (active component)
2) Particle size

DM vs. d32 for Ni and Pt

DM

d32 for Ni
d32 for Pt
J.R. Anderson, Structure of Metallic Catalysts, Academic Press (1975).
 2 Metal (active component)
2) Particle size
a) Transmission electron microscopy
b) Powder X-ray diffraction
c) Hydrogen adsorption

d i
3
V i
vM N T vM 1
d 32 = i
=6 i
=6 =6
di
i
2
S i
i sM N S sM DM

Calculate the relationship between d32 [nm] and DM(dimensionless) for Ni.
Pay attention to the consistency among the units.

atomic weight
vM = Ni atomic weight = 58.69
density  Avogadro number Ni density = 8.90 g/cm3
The Avogadro number = 6.02x1023
sM = 6.49  10 − 20 [m 2 / Ni atom]
 2 Metal (active component)
2) Particle size Comparison of the methods

From hydrogen adsorption

From XRD, TEM and so forth

C. H. Bartholomew et al., Fundamentals of Industrial Catalytic Processes 2nd ed., Wiley Interscience (2006).
 2 Metal (active component)
3) Radial concentration profile of active component
a) Electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA)

Probe: electron beam

Signal: X-ray
from the metal
Detection depth
= 1mm
Catalyst

b) Optical photography (qualitative observation)

* In both cases of a) and b), the cross-section must be exposed.

Y. Uemura et al., “Effect of Nickel Concentration Profile on Selectivity of Acetylene Hydrogenation,” J. Chem. Eng.
Japan, 22, 287-291 (1989).
 2 Metal (active component)
3) Radial concentration profile of active component
Radial profile control is sometimes useful for:
1) Avoiding the decay by poisoning or coking
2) Controlling the selectivity of successive reaction
3) Improving net effectiveness factor

The keys for S1, S2, U and

Y are corresponding to the
profiles in the last sheet.

Y. Uemura et al., “Effect of Nickel Concentration Profile on Selectivity of Acetylene Hydrogenation,” J. Chem. Eng.
Japan, 22, 287-291 (1989).
Composite membrane catalyst

EPMA results of LaNi5 membrane (cross section) after reaction

SEM image 2D copper signal (EDX)
 1600
1400

Intensity　[cps]
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2θ[°]

2500
Cu
2000
Intensity　[cps]

1500

1000

500

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2θ[°]

1200
1000 　　C
Intensity　[cps]

　　Ni
800
　　Cuprite
600
400
200
0
Powder XRD spectra of LaNi5; fresh
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(top), Cu-plated (center) and after
2θ[°]
reaction (bottom)
 Further reading

C. H. Bartholomew et al., Fundamentals of Industrial Catalytic Processes 2nd ed., Wiley Interscience (2006).