Toxic

Release
and
Dispersion Models

Open
 Chapter 5: Dispersion Models

Wind---> <--Mixing with fresh air-->

Source Model for

Discharge thru hole

2
 Chapter Information

• Introduction
• Pasquill-Gifford Model
• Chapter Outline
• Toxic Effect Criteria
• Release Mitigation

After completing this chapter, students

should be able to do the following:
§ Understand air dispersion and the
parameters are required to describe it.
§ Instructional § Estimate downwind concentrations of
Learning Objectives toxic material using dispersion model
§ Predict impact/effect due to the released
of materials
§ Apply hazardous material release
prevention and mitigation.

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 Selection of
Release Incident

Selection of
Figure 4-1 Source Model
to Describe Chapter 4
Release Incident

Selection of
Dispersion Model Chapter 5

Flammable Flammable
Toxic
and/or Toxic?

Chapter 6 Selection of Selection of Chapter 2

Fire and Effect Model
Explosion Model

Mitigation
Factors

Consequence
Model
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 Introduction – Dispersion Model
§ Dispersion models describe the airborne transport of toxic materials
away from the accident site and into the plant and community.
§ After a release, the airborne toxic is carried away by the wind in a
characteristic plume or a puff

§ The maximum concentration of toxic material occurs at the release

point (which may not be at ground level).
§ Concentrations downwind are less, due to turbulent mixing and
dispersion of the toxic substance with air.
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 Introduction – Dispersion Model

What? Describe how vapors are transported downwind of a release.

Valid between 100 m to 10 km.
• Below 100 m use ventilation equations Chapt. 3.
• Above 10 km à almost unpredictable.
Why? To estimate
Results: Downwind concentrations (x,y,z)
Area affected
Downwind evacuation distances

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 Dispersion: Plume and Puff
wind
PLUME PUFF

place time & place

Continuous release Instantaneous release

DOWNWIND DILUTION BY MIXING WITH FRESH AIR

ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION:
- Wind speed - as the wind speed increases, the plume becomes longer
and narrower
- Atmospheric stability: vertical temp. profile, primarily a function of
wind speed.
difficult
- Roughness ground: buildings, structures, trees,
water
- Height of release above ground level
- Momentum and buoyancy: effective height 7
 Atmospheric stability

MAINLY DETERMINED BY VERTICAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENT

+ heat & radiation balance troposphere and surface
- convective air flows Figure 5-3
700
LOWER TROPOSPHERE
600

season
• incident sunlight 500
time of day
• cloud coverage

Height (meter)
night 400
• wind speed neutral
300

200
day
night
100

0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Temperature (Celsius)

Adiabatic temperature gradient for humid air: 0.5 oC / 100 m

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 Atmospheric stability
Unstable: Sun heats ground faster than heat can be removed
so that air temperature near the ground is higher than the air
temperature at higher elevations.
Neutral: The air above the ground warms and the wind speed
increases, reducing the effect of solar input.
Stable: The sun cannot heat the ground as fast as the ground
cools - temperature at ground is lower.

STABILITY CLASSES A - F
A Extremely unstable
B Moderately unstable
Table 5-1
C Slightly unstable
D Neutral
E Slightly stable
F Moderately stable 9
 Effect of Ground Conditions

Figure 4 Effect of ground conditions on vertical wind gradient.

Ground conditions (buildings, water, trees)
• Affect the mechanical mixing at the surface and the wind profile with height
• Trees and buildings increase mixing while lakes and open areas decrease
mixing
Open
 Release Height Effect
Figure 5-5
High stack

ground level
concentration

Wind-->
Reflected plume
As release height increases,
downwind concentration
decreases.
Height of release above ground level
• As the release height increases, the ground level
concentrations are reduced since the plume must disperse a
greater distance vertically 11
Coordinate system used for
dispersion models

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 Release Momentum and Buoyancy

Wind
direction MW > 29 --> Most hydrocarbons

Jet Heavier than air. Gas

Release becomes neutral
downwind as it mixes
with air.
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 Dispersion Models

Dispersion models are based on a mass balance.

Two approaches:
1. Use eddy diffusivities, K, to represent turbulence.
Advantage: nice tidy theoretical model.
Disadvantage: K = K(x,y,z), and impossible to
measure.

2. Use dispersion coefficients which represent the

standard deviations in the concentration profiles.
Advantage: easy to measure and correlate.
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 Pasquill-Gifford Models

n Cases 1 – 10 all depend on the availability

of Kj
n Kj changes with position, time, wind velocity,
and weather conditions. It is difficult to get
the experimental value of Kj
n Alternative solution was suggested by
Sutton by using a dispersion coefficient
1
s = áC ñ 2 (ut )2-n
2
x
2
n Similar expressions given for σy and σz
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 Pasquill-Gifford Models

n Values for the σ are a function of atmospheric

conditions and the distance downwind from the
release
n The atmospheric conditions are classified
according to six different stability classes as
shown in Table 5-1.
n The σy and σz for continuous source are given
in Table 5-2 or alternatively available in Figure
5-10 and 5-11.
n σx can be assumed as equal to σy

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 Pasquill-Gifford Models -
Atmospheric stability
Atmospheric stability classes based on wind speed, time of day, and
cloud cover.

A : Extremely unstable D : Neutrally stable

B : Moderately unstable E : Slightly stable
C : Slightly unstable F : Moderately stable 17
 Gaussian form of plume equation Equation 5-49 (3rd)
5-8 (4th)
Qm
C ( x, y , z ) = ´
2ps ys z u
æ y 2 ö ìï é ( z - H r ) 2 ù é ( z + H r ) 2 ù üï
exp ç - ´ exp - ú + exp ê -
ç 2s 2 ÷÷ íï ê 2s z û
2
2s z û ïþ
2 úý
è y ø î ë ë
Top View of plume

Wind

C ( x, y, z ) = Ave. conc. (20-30 min ave)

Qm = Release rate (mass/time)
s y , s z = Dispersion coefficients = f(stability class, downwind distance)
u = Wind speed (length/time)
y, z = Coordinates (length)
H r = Release height (length)
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 Dispersion Coefficients for Plume

Fig. 5-10 (3rd)

5-7 (4th)

Dispersion coefficients for plume model for rural releases. See other
figures for urban releases.

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 Dispersion Coefficients for Plume

Fig. 5-11 (3rd)

5-8 (4th)

Dispersion coefficients for plume model for urban releases.

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 Dispersion Coefficients for Puff

Fig. 5-12 (3rd)

5-9 (4th)

Dispersion coefficients for puff model

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 Dispersion Coefficients for Plume
Table 5-2
Pasquill–Gifford
Stability Class sy (m) sz (m)
Rural conditions
A 0.22x(1 + 0.0001x)–1/2 0.20x
B 0.16x(1 + 0.0001x)–1/2 0.12x
C 0.11x(1 + 0.0001x)–1/2 0.08x(1 + 0.0002x)–1/2
D 0.08x(1 + 0.0001x)–1/2 0.06x(1 + 0.0015x)–1/2
E 0.06x(1 + 0.0001x)–1/2 0.03x(1 + 0.0003x)–1
F 0.04x(1 + 0.0001x)–1/2 0.016x(1 + 0.0003x)–1
Urban conditions
A–B 0.32x(1 + 0.0004x)–1/2 0.24x(1 + 0.001x)+1/2
C 0.22x(1 + 0.0004x)–1/2 0.20x
D 0.16x(1 + 0.0004x)–1/2 0.14x(1 + 0.0003x)–1/2
E–F 0.11x(1 + 0.0004x)–1/2 0.08x(1 + 0.0015x)–1/2

x = downwind distance in meters 22

 Dispersion Coefficients for Puff

Table 5-3
Pasquill-Gifford
Stability Class sy (m) or sx (m) sz (m)
A 0.18x0.92 0.60x0.75
B 0.14x0.92 0.53x0.73
C 0.10x0.92 0.34x0.71
D 0.06x0.92 0.15x0.70
E 0.04x0.92 0.10x0.65
F 0.02x0.89 0.05x0.61

x = downwind distance in meters

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 Simplified Cases - Plume

Wind à
Ground Centerline Concentration: X

Qm é 1 æ Hr ö ù
2

< C > ( x,0,0) = exp ê- çç ÷÷ ú (5-51)

ps ys z u êë 2 è s z ø úû
Ground, centerline, release height Hr = 0

Qm (5-48)
< C > ( x,0,0) =
ps ys zu
Downwind distance, x, is implicit in the dispersion coefficients!

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 Maximum Concentrations - Plume

Always occurs at release point.

For releases above ground, max. concentration on ground

occurs downwind.

Hr 2Qm æç s z ö÷
(s ) = < C > max =
epuH r è s y ÷ø
z x ,max
2 2 ç

1. Use left equation to determine sz

2. Use Figures 5-10 or 5-11 to get x.
3. Determine sy from Figures 5-10 or 5-11.
4. Calculate <C> from right equation.
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 Puff Equation 5-54

Qm*
< C > ( x, y , z , t ) = ´
2p s xs ys z
3/2

é1 æ y ö
2
ù ì é æ - ö
2
ù é æ + ö
2
ù üï
ï 1 z H 1 z H
exp ê ç ÷÷ ú ´ íexp ê - ç r
÷ ú + exp ê - ç
r
÷ úý
ê 2 çè s y ø ú ï ê
ë
2è sz ø ú
û ê
ë
2 è s z ø úï
ûþ
ë û î

Hr
t =0
Side view with time

u, t not explicit in equation, implicit thru dispersion coefficients.

x is implicit thru dispersion coefficients.
Coordinate system moves with puff center at x=ut.
Assume sx =sy
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 Simplified Cases - Puff

Concentration on ground below puff center

Q * é 1 æ Hr ö ù
2

< C > (0,0,0) = expê- çç

m
÷÷ ú (5-56)
2p s xs ys z êë 2 è s z ø úû
3/ 2

Same as above, with Hr = 0. Puff center on ground.

Qm* (5-41)
< C > (0,0,0) =
2p 3 / 2s xs ys z

Puff center always at release height.

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 Location of Puff

y * Constant
* C C
*
* C
* C C
*
concentration
C
x

t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5

---> Wind = constant at u

Center of puff located at: x=ut

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Maximum Concentration - Puff

Always at puff center

Wind
X

On ground, max. concentration always

occurs directly below puff center.

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 Guidelines – Puff and Plume

• If release given in mass / time -> Plume

• If release given as a fixed mass -> Puff
• If mass is released over a period of time equal to or less
than 10 minutes -> Puff
• Plume Cmax = release position
• Puff Cmax = centre of cloud
• If atmosphere conditions not known, assume worst case
for highest C.
• Most chemical plants are located in the country, so default
condition is rural.

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 Pasquill-Gifford Models –
Implementation and Limitations

n Limitations to Pasquill-Gifford Model or Gaussian dispersion

n Applies only to neutrally buoyant dispersion of gases in

which the turbulent mixing is the dominant feature of the

dispersion.
n Typically valid for a distance of 0.1-10 km from the

release point.
n The predicted concentrations are time average.

n It is possible for instantaneous local concentrations to

exceed the average values predicted and may vary as
much as a factor of 2 compared to Gaussian models
n The models presented here assumed 10-minute time
average

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Example:
10 kg/s of H2S is released 100 m off of ground. Estimate the
concentration 1 km downwind on ground? It is a clear, sunny
day, 1 PM, wind speed = 3.5 m/s. Assume rural conditions.

Plume, due to continuous nature of release!

From Table 5-1, Stability Class B.
From Figure 5-10, s y = 130 m
From Figure 5-10, s z = 120 m
Use Equation 5-51 for a plume.

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Example: Apply Equation 5-51
Applies to ground concentration directly downwind of release:

Qm é 1 æ Hr ö ù
2

C ( x,0,0) = ´ exp ê- ç ÷ ú
ps ys z u êë 2 è s z ø úû
10.0 kg/s
C ( x, 0, 0) = ´
(3.14)(130 m)(120 m)(3.5 m/s)
é 1 æ 100 m ö2 ù
exp ê - ç ÷ ú
êë 2 è 120 m ø úû
C ( x,0,0) = 41.2 ´ 10-6
Use Equation 2-7 to get 29.7 ppm. TLV-TWA is 10 ppm.
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Example: Where is max. concentration?

Use Equation 5-53:

H r 100 m
(s z ) x,max = = = 70.7
2 1.414
Use equation in Table 5-3 to determine downwind distance:

s Z = 0.12 x
70.7 m = 0.12 x
Downwind location of max.
x = 590 m conc.

At this location, from Figure 5-10:

s y = 92 m
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Use Equation 5-52 to calculate max. concentration:

2 Qm æ sz ö
< C > max = 2 ç ÷
ep uH r è s y ø
=

(2)(100 kg/s)

(2.718)(3.14)(3.5 m/s)(100 m)
2 ( )
70.7 m

92 m

-4
< C > max = 5.14 ´ 10
3
= 514 mg/m = 370 ppm 35
Example: What is max. discharge to result in 10 ppm?

Hr
Maximum will occur at same location: (s z ) x ,max =
2
10 ppm = 13.9 mg/m3 (Equation 2-7)
Substitute into Equation 5-52:

2 Qmæ sz ö
2 ç ÷
< C > max =
ep uH r è s y ø

-6
13.9 ´ 10 kg/m =
3 2Qm

(2.71)(3.14)(3.5 m/s)(100 m)
2 ( 70.71 m

92 m
)
Qm = 2.7 Not very much!
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Example:

10 kg of H2S is released instantly on the ground. What is concentration

at fenceline 100 m away? Same conditions as before.

From Table 5-1, stability class is B.

At x = 0.1 km, from Figure 5-12: s y = 10 m s z = 16 m
Use Equation 5-41 for a ground release, centerline conc.:
*
Qm
< C > (0, 0, 0) =
3/ 2
2p s xs y s z
Assume sx =sy
* 6
Qm = 10 kg = 10 ´ 10 mg
3
<C> = 79.4 mg/m = 571 ppm 37
Example:
How long does it take for puff to reach fenceline?

x = ut
x 100 m
t= = = 28.6 s after release.
u 3.5 m/s

Very little time for an emergency response!

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Example:

What size release will result in 10 ppm at fenceline?

Same procedure as for plume.

Answer is 0.175 kg = 175 gm.

Conclusion about releases:

Don’t release it in the first place!

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 Toxic Effect Criteria

• The dispersion calculation are completed & hence: What

concentration is considered dangerous? What
concentration should we use for emergency releases?
• TLV-TWA is for worker exposures, and not design for
short- term exposures under emergency conditions.
• Recommended method by Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) is by using emergency response planning
guidelines (ERPGs) for air contaminants issued by the
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA)
• Three concentration ranges are provided as a
consequence of exposure to a specific substance:

Open 40
 ERPG: Emergency Response
Planning Guideline

ERPG-1: max. airborne concentration below which it

is believed nearly all individuals can be exposed for
up to 1-hr without experiencing effects other than mild
transient adverse health effects or perceiving a clearly
defined objectionable odor.
ERPG-2: max. airborne conc. below which it is
believed nearly all individuals can be exposed up to 1
hr without experiencing or developing irreversible or
other serious health effects or symptoms that could
impair their ability to take protective action.

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 ERPG: Emergency Response
Planning Guidelines

ERPG-3: max. airborne concentration below which it

is believed nearly all individuals can be exposed for
up to 1-hour without experiencing or developing life-
threatening health effects.
Table 5-6 ERPG-1 ERPG-2 ERPG-3
Ammonia 25 ppm 150 ppm 750 ppm
Chlorine 1 ppm 3 ppm 20 ppm
Monomethylamine 10 ppm 100 ppm 500 ppm
Toluene 50 ppm 300 ppm 1000 ppm
 EEGL: Emergency Exposure Guidance
Levels

A concentration of a gas, vapor, or aerosol that is

judged acceptable and allows exposed individuals to
perform specific tasks during emergency conditions
lasting from 1 to 24 hours.
Table 5-7 1-hr EEGL 24-hr EEGL
Ammonia 100 ppm
Chlorine 3 ppm 0.5 ppm
Toluene 200 ppm 100 ppm

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IDLH: Immediately Dangerous to Life and
Health
A concentration that poses a threat of exposure to
airborne contaminants when that exposure is likely to
cause death or immediate or delayed permanent
adverse health effects or prevent escape from such
an environment.
Available from OSHA (osha.gov) or
NIOSH Pocket Guide: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/

Ammonia 300 ppm

Chlorine 10 ppm
Toluene 500 ppm
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Proposed Hierarchy to Estimate
Values
Primary Secondary

ERPG-3: EEGL (30-min)

IDLH

ERPG-2: EEGL (60 min)

LOC
PEL-C Table 5-9 (3 rd)

TLV-C 5-8 (4 th)

5 x TLV-TWA

ERPG-1: PEL-STEL
TLV-STEL
3 x TLV-TWA
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 Release Mitigation

Release mitigation is defined as “lessening” the risk

of a release incident by acting on the source (at the
point of release) either:
1. in a preventive way by reducing the likelihood of
an event which could generate a hazardous vapour
cloud; or
2. in a protective way by reducing the magnitude of
the release and/or the exposure of local persons or
property.

Open
 Release Mitigation

The release mitigation design procedure is shown as below:

Open
 Release Mitigation

Best: prevent the accident leading to the release.

In the event of an accident. Release mitigation involves -
1. Detecting the release as quickly as possible;
2. Stopping the release as quickly as possible; and
3. Invoking a mitigation procedure to reduce the impact of the
release on the surroundings.
Once a release is in vapour form, the resulting cloud is nearly
impossible to control. Thus, an emergency procedure must strive to
reduce the amount of vapour formed.
Table 4 provides additional methods and detail on release mitigation
techniques.

Open
 Release Mitigation

Table 4 Release mitigation approaches

Major Area Examples

Inventory reduction: Less chemicals
inventoried or less in process vessels.
Chemical substitution: Substitute a less
Inherent Safety hazardous chemical for one more
hazardous.
Process attenuation: Use lower temperatures
and pressures.
Plant physical integrity: Use better selas or
materials of construction.
Process integrity: Insure proper operating
Engineering Design conditions and material purity.
Process design features for emergency
control : Emergency relief systems.
Spill containment: Dikes and spill vessels.

Open
 Release Mitigation

Major Area Examples

Operating policies and procedures.
Training for vapor release prevention and
control.
Audits and inspections.
Management Equipment testing.
Maintenance program.
Management of modifications and changes to
prevent new hazards.
Security.
Early Vapor Detection Detection by sensors.
and Warning Detection by personnel.

Open
 Release Mitigation

Major Area Examples

Water sprays.
Water curtains.
Steam curtains.
Countermeasures Air curtains.
Deliberate ignition of explosive cloud.
Dilution.
Foams.
On-site communications.
Emergency shutdown equipment and
procedures.
Site evacuation.
Emergency Response Safe havens.
Personal protective equipment.
Medical treatment.
On-site emergency plans, procedures,
training and drills.

Open
 Tutorial

• Solve problems: 5-3, 5-18, 5-24 and

5-25.

52
 Toxic Release
and
Dispersion Models
New Info on Assessment:
1. Online Quiz 1 (5%) – 31st Oct from 9am – 9.30am
2. Online Test 1 (10%) – 31st Oct from 9.45am – 12.45pm
3. Online Assignment 1 (10%) – 24th Oct from 9am – 5pm

Open
Reference for Pasquill-Gifford
Models
Case 11 – Case 15
Case 11: Puff with instantaneous point source at ground level,
coordinates fixed at release point, constant wind only in x direction with
constant velocity u

Q*m = instantaneous release of a fixed mass of material (unit in mass)

Case 12: Plume with continuous steady-state source at ground level and
wind moving in x direction at constant velocity u

Qm = continuous mass release rate(unit in mass/time)

Case 13: Plume with Continuous steady-state source at height Hr above
ground level and wind moving in x direction at constant velocity u

Qm = continuous mass release rate(unit in mass/time)

 Case 14: Puff with instantaneous point source at height Hr
above ground level and a coordinate system on the ground that
moves with the puff
14. Puff, height Hr, coordinate on the ground
moves with puff
• Ground level concentration, z = 0
*
Q æ 1æ y ö
2
æ ö
2 ö
C (x, y,0, t ) = m
expç- ç ÷ - 1 ç Hr ÷÷ ÷
2p 3 / 2s xs ys z ç 2 çs ÷ 2 çs ÷
è è y ø è z ø ø
• Ground level centerline concentration, y = z = 0
Q * æ 1æH ö
2
ö
C (x,0,0, t ) = m
expç- ç r ÷÷ ÷
2p 3 / 2s xs ys z ç 2 çè s z ø ÷
è ø
The total integrated dose at ground level

Q * æ æ ö
2
1 ç y ÷ 1 æ Hr ö ÷
2ö

Dtid (x, y,0) = m ç

expç - - çç ÷÷
ps ys z u 2 çè s y ÷ø 2 è s z ø ÷
è ø
Open 59
 Case 15: Puff with instantaneous point source at height Hr
above ground level and a coordinate system fixed on the ground
at the release point
15. Puff, height Hr, coordinate fixed on the
ground at release point
• The center of the puff is found at x = u t.
*
Q æ 1 ç y ÷ ö÷
æ ö
2

C ( x, y , z , t ) = m ç
expç - ´
(2p ) s xs ys z è 2 è s y ø ø
3/ 2 ç ÷ ÷

é é 1 æ z - H ö2 ù é 1 æ z + H ö2 ùù é 1 æ x - ut ö 2 ù
êexpê- çç r
÷÷ ú + expê- çç r
÷÷ ú ú ´ expê- çç ÷÷ ú
ê ê 2è sz ø ú ê 2 è s z ø úú ê 2è sx ø ú
ë ë û ë û û ë û

• Ground level concentration, z = 0

æ æ ö
2 2 ö æ 1 æ x - ut ö 2 ö
ç - 1 ç y ÷ - 1 æç H r ö
*
Q ÷ ´ expç - ç ÷
C (x, y,0, t ) = m
expç 2 çs ÷ 2 ç s
÷÷ ÷
2p 3 / 2s xs ys z è z ø
÷ ç 2 çè s x ÷ø ÷
è è yø ø è ø

Open 60
 Case 15: Puff with instantaneous point source at height Hr
above ground level and a coordinate system fixed on the ground
at the release point

15. Puff, height Hr, coordinate fixed on the

ground at release point

• Ground level centerline concentration, y = z = 0

é Qm* æ 1æH ö
2
öù æ 1 æ x - ut ö 2 ö
C (x,0,0, t ) = ê expç- ç r ÷÷ ÷ú ´ expç - ç ÷ ÷
ê 2p 3 / 2s xs ys z ç 2 çè s z ø ÷ú ç 2 çè s x ÷ø ÷
ë è øû è ø

Open 61