Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A brief review on factors affecting flow and pool boiling T

∗
Manish Dadhich , Om Shankar Prajapati
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Boiling is a phenomenon in which heat transfer causes liquid evaporation. Boiling phenomenon; when the liquid
Critical heat flux is imposed by a forced flow is termed as flow boiling and in pool boiling heating surface is submerged in stagnant
Thermal transport properties liquid. Suspended nanoparticles of small size and concentration dispersed in liquids like oil, water etc. are called
Heat transfer coefficient nanofluid and are heat transfer carrier due to their thermo physical properties. CHF and HTC in boiling are
Nanofluid
affected by enhanced surface, nanoparticles size, nanofluids concentration and its development, thermo physical
Surface modification
properties, like density, specific heat, thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids. Goal of this paper is to
review critical heat flux and heat transfer in nanofluid in flow and pool boiling and to understand in better way.
Compilation of equations for estimation of thermal conductivity, viscosity etc. from past research has been
briefly shown. These equations have adaptability for determination of nanofluid properties for various working
parameters. Different experimental procedures of pool and flow boiling, multiphase computational schemes,
computational modeling of bubble nucleation, growth and departure has been discussed. One and two stage
techniques for nanofluid formulation and approvals of numerical simulation against experimental data have
been represented. Current advances in flow and pool boiling of nanofluid to determine HT and CHF has been
discussed. CHF enhancement process by surface modifications in pool and flow boiling is accomplished. Finally,
for CHF enhancement in flow and pool boiling concluding remarks are given followed by future studies.

1. Introduction called boiling obstacle. Utilization of nanofluid is attractive scheme for

In numerous engineering applications boiling phenomenon is most
critical to understand. In case of heat exchange various scientists pur-
posefully look for procedure to enhance boiling heat transfer im-
plementation as far as practical applications and fundamental science,
the main logical and purposeful investigations regarding boiling can be
observed from 1960s [1]. In different segments like refrigeration and
air circulation and cooling, atomic reactors, synthetic building and
space ship makes heat transfer (HT) an important part. The heat
transfer coefficient (HTC) measures the HT force [2]. To make boiling
systems more capable; enhancement in boiling HTC is essential to
achieve significant decrease in energy consumption. Critical heat flux
(CHF) is an important issue in boiling heat transfer. Improvement in
basic critical heat flux (CHF) is necessary for system safety. CHF is also
called boiling crises, deteriorate heat flux, dry out, dependent upon the
condition it follows [3].
As far as possible thermal limit is shown by CHF. After the CHF
point, the controlled overheating of the heated surface takes place and
the HT productivity all of a sudden decreases. The physical burn out of
the materials of the heated surface is the most significant thing which is
the enhancement of CHF and boiling HT [4,5].
Almost half century back the pool boiling and hydrodynamic hy-
pothesis of burnout crises [6] were developed, but due to conditions of
burnout, there is restriction to maximum heat flux. When heat flux
reaches its critical point, immediate contact between the fluid and he-
ated surface is reduced as the rapid formation of vapor bubbles covers
the surfaces which are heated up. This causes extreme increase in the
temperature of the heater surface, bringing about burnout of the ma-
terial. Therefore, for the efficient management of thermal system it is
required to enhance the critical flux (CHF). Utilization of nanofluid is
attractive technique for the enhancement of CHF and boiling HT. Choi
and Eastman [7] carried out a detailed nanofluid test in later 90s. It was
a liquid designed with the help of scattering nano particles of size
varying from 1 to 100 nm in liquids like water; oil etc. boiling of nano
fluids came into notice in later 2000 and turned into a critical research
territory of nanofluids. The principle subjects of boiling of nanofluid
incorporate flow and pool boiling.
Dhir et al. [8] did numerical simulation on pool boiling and results
were compared with some of the previously done experimental tests.
From numerical simulations the concepts of single and multiple

∗
Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, India.
E-mail address: manish.ddh1988@gmail.com (M. Dadhich).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.016
Received 1 January 2018; Received in revised form 19 May 2019; Accepted 10 June 2019
1364-0321/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625

Nomenclature γ Fin apex angle, deg

ε Dissipation energy, m2/s3
General Symbols λ Thermal conductivity, W/m⋅K
μ Viscosity, Pa.s
Aa Actual micro fin tube surface area, m2 ν Kinematic viscosity, m2/s
Ar πDrL, m2 П Dimensionless variables used to develop new correlation
Bo Bond number ρ Density, kg/m3
C Concentration of nanoparticles σ Liquid vapor interface tension, Jm−2
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure (J/Kg K or J/mol K) ϕ Nanoparticles volume fraction
d Tube diameter, mm
dp Nano particle diameter size, nm Subscripts
Dn Dean number
Dr Fin root diameter of micro fin tube, m bf Base fluid
Ea Area enhancement factor Aa/Ar H2 Hydrogen
e Fin height, m l Liquid
G Mass flux, kg/m2s nf Nanofluid
Ga Galileo number p Particle
g Gravitational acceleration,m/s2 r Fin root
h Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K s Suspension
hlv Latent heat of vaporization, J/kg sub Subcooling
He Helical coil number tp Two phase
hfg Latent heat of evaporation, kJ/kg v Vapor
k Thermal Conductivity, W/mK w Water
L Heated length of micro fin tube, m
M Molecular mass, kg/kmol Abbreviations
nf Number of micro fins
Nu Nusselt number CHF Critical heat flux
P Pressure, Pa DNA Deoxy ribo nucleic acid
p Pitch ratio DIW De-ionized water
Δp Axial pressure drop, Pa DW Distilled water
Pr Prandtl number EDM Electrical discharge machining
q Wall heat flux, W/m2 EG Ethylene glycol
Re Reynolds number FCNT Functional carbon nano tubes
Ra Roughness, μm HEG Hydrogen exfoliated graphene
Su Suratman number HTC Heat transfer coefficient
T Operating temperature, K HT Heat transfer
To Reference temperature, K MWCNT Multi walled carbon nano tubes
ΔT Liquid subcooling temperature, K OBE Onset of bubble elongation
x Vapor quality ONB Onset of nucleate boiling
We Weber number pHEMA Poly hydroxyl ethyl meth acrylate
rGO reduced Graphene oxide
Greek symbols RSM Reynolds stress model
SANSS Submerged arc nanoparticle synthesis system
Δρ ρl − ρv , kg/m3 SDBS Sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate
α Polymorph of silicon carbide SST Shear stress transport
β Micro fin helix angle, deg TSP Tri sodium phosphate

bubbles, film and nucleate boiling with their significance were ex-
plained. Ciloglu and Bolukbasi [2] did the observations on pool boiling
of nanofluids and displayed how the improvement of nanofluids can be
done and later it was discussed how the different parameters effect the
pool boiling of nanofluids. A correlation was built up by Kandlikar [9]
for exchange of heat in vertical as well as horizontal tubes. The corre-
lation was developed for two phase saturated flow boiling utilizing an
extensive variety of experimental information and ten clear liquids.
Kamatchi and Venkatachalapathy [10] led an examination by including
parameters such as the material type, type of surfactant, nanoparticle
concentration and size, pressure of system, deposition of nanoparticle
and thermal properties of transport to see the effect of nanofluids on
enhancement of CHF during pool boiling.
Gorenflo et al. [11] simply compared the previously experimental
results of 55 individual liquids with semi-empirical and empirical pre-
dicted technique for nucleate pool boiling. It was declared that exact
test information for thermo-physical explanation was identified by
surface tension; moreover heaters effect played a major role. Celen et al.
[12] executed nano refrigerants related review in which the boiling
phenomenon of the flow and pool was included. Nanofluid in which the
refrigerant acts as a base fluid is called a nano refrigerant. A magnetic
nanofluids investigation was conducted by Bahiraei and Hangi [5]. A
magnetic nanofluid is composed of magnetic nanoparticles in non-
magnetic liquid and subjecting the fluids to magnetic field. The process
of particle movement, liquid stream and heat transfer process can be
controlled in the magnetic nanofluid. You et al. [13]conducted an ex-
perimental study in sub-atmospheric condition by using SiO2 and Al2O3
with water nanofluids. The copper plate was submerged into the hotter
nanofluids to carry out pool boiling and the phenomenon of heat
transfer was studied. The outcomes showed inclusion of Al2O3 with
water nanofluid enhanced CHF on round and hollow cylinder.
Milanova and Kumar [14] utilized SiO2 with water nanofluid having
0.5 vol. % and achieved a greatest improvement of 300% in CHF. Main
reasons for CHF improvement was mainly because of technique for

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M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati
nanofluids stable formation and nanoparticle size. Nanofluids stability
of dispersion can be enhanced by the use of surfactant in nanofluid
preparation. But most of the time it was forwarded that degradation of
CHF was observed by surfactant addition to nanofluids. Kathiravan
et al. [15] used a nanofluid which was made by copper and water
combination and further added surfactant into it and observed a de-
crease in the value of CHF by 75%, when results were compared with
de-ionized water (DIW). With the help of wetting features Kim et al.
[16] recognized that deposition of nanoparticle on the heated surface
was due to mechanism of evaporating micro layer. As the thickness of
deposited layer increases, corresponding to it increase in surface
wettability also takes place which also brings about up enhancement in
CHF.
Stutz et al. [17] investigated the enhancement of CHF for two
wetting liquid pentane and water respectively; the fluid outcome in-
dicated that increase in CHF was observed for water when compared
with pentane. Reduction in contact angle of deposition over heated
surface, which enhances the surface wettability due to which CHF was
improved, moreover it was seen that reduction in contact angle in-
creases CHF and decrease in CHF was due to reduction of surface ten-
sion. Magnificent effect was observed more for contact angle rather
than surface tension which is the main reason for enhancement in CHF
for Tri Sodium Phosphate (TSP) and nanofluids. With a goal to under-
stand the surface roughness, Harish et al. [18] utilized two types of
heater to carry out tests i.e. rough and smooth. Outcomes demonstrated
for similar concentration of volume; rough surface executed a superior
execution mainly because of development of many nucleation sites
though deterioration happened for heater which was smoother. In ad-
dition, average diameter of particles and surface roughness relative size
are the qualities of stable nanofluid boiling. For CHF enhancement ef-
fects of concentration of particles, size of particles and roughness of
surface have been examined. As the value of contact angle becomes
zero the wettability of surface enhances. For this Kim et al. [19] clar-
ified that there were some difficulties to investigate the major compo-
nent which was responsible for the enhancement of CHF. It was further
demonstrated that in nano porous layer the fluid can be accessed by the
capillary action.
Ho Seon Ahn et al. [20] used nanofluids made of grapheme oxide for
the test and showed that improvement in CHF was observed. This im-
provement was due to capillary action. However it didn't appear to be
satisfactory to investigate the mechanism of observed 320% CHF im-
provement. In this way, it was concluded that factors which were re-
sponsible for the improvement of CHF was capillary action of nano-
particle which were deposited on the surface. Barber et al. [21] sum-
marized about the variables that influenced heat transfer in pool boiling
using nanofluids. It was realized that utilization of nanofluids improves
CHF in pool boiling. However, the outcomes were scattered mostly
because of different variables. Hence this study tell about the details of
the variables which improves CHF from the recent literature outcomes
in view of parameters like surfactants, pressure of system, deposition
layers of nanoparticles, thermal properties of transport, nano-particle
material, size and concentration and additional information about re-
levance on these parameters towards the CHF enhancement.
In saturated FC-72 Chang and You [22] analyzed heat transfer in
pool boiling occurring on diamond particle surface coating. Uniform
porous coatings are characterized into two groups, i.e. micro porous
coatings and porous coatings, as per the superheated fluid layer thick-
ness, which is evaluated to be 100 μm for FC-72. A huge increment in
CHF was seen over the micro porous surface area. Thome et al. [23] did
a review of heat transfer in flow boiling, pressure drop in two phase and
different pattern of flow for hydro carbons and ammonia which are
frequently used in heat pumps, refrigeration and air conditioning sys-
tems. Vassallo et al. [24] played out an experiment under atmospheric
condition of 1 bar. The apparatus of experiment was made up of a Pyrex
dish in which the silica nanoparticles were arranged and wire made of
Ni–Cr which was submerged into the arrangement. For this experiment
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625
CHF expanded by 200% when compared with water.
Blast and Chang [25] researched the features of pool boiling on
horizontal flat surface with Al2O3 nanoparticles in water having various
concentration by volume was used during experiments. Outcomes in-
dicated when compared with pure water; Al2O3 nanofluid presented a
lower heat transfer as the concentration of particles increased; CHF
improvement of about 13% and 32% was observed for vertical and
horizontal surface respectively during pool boiling. As the concentra-
tion of particle increases the roughness of surface also increases. It was
cleared that nano-particle deposition caused increased CHF and HTC
was decreased in case of pure water. Due to deposition; nucleation site
density were decreased and due to this conduction became low because
of various values of roughness of surface. Coursey and Kim [26] per-
formed a process of pool boiling using nanofluids to analyze CHF. The
process was carried out on different surfaces. It was found that per-
formance was dependent on concentration of nanoparticles and wett-
ability of surface; additionally it was shown that regime of nucleate
boiling remains unaltered. With 0.5 g/L or more concentration CHF was
improved to 37%. Chopkar et al. [27] did an experimental investigation
using a tube made of borosilicate having diameter 150 mm and length
300 mm. A copper plate was located inside a tube in which the nano-
fluid made up of ZrO2 and water was taken and the process of nucleate
pool boiling was done. It was observed that at lower concentrations of
nanoparticles improvement in HTC of pool boiling and get decreased as
concentration of nano particles increases and lastly HTC becomes so
less, even lesser from pure water because of smooth coating. Ad-
ditionally it was revealed that heat transfer rate was increased by
adding surfactant, but significant heat transfer decrease was noticed in
nucleate boiling when surfactant were added to nanofluid.
The point of this investigation is to present significant findings of
boiling phenomenon of flow and pool which affects the performance of
heat transfer and these effects needs to be understood in a better way.
2. Research process
In this section the procedure adopted for literature review is de-
scribed. For the completion of the review process, the research tech-
nique adopted is literature review. By exploring the contributions
which are already done in the relevant field helped many researchers to
find the answers to many questions. Basically literature review is a
assembly of contribution of appropriate work in the relevant field.
Literature review is also research plan which picks, judges, examine,
arrange and reveals the existing studies within the range of framed
questions. The main point is to clear everything about the existing study
i.e. what is hidden and what is known about the studies by refining the
clarity, simplicity and validity. The scope of this research is to focus on
nanofluid heat transfer coefficient and critical heat flux in flow and pool
boiling. This review is carried out because boiling process plays a major
role in many industrial applications. Enhancement in boiling HTC plays
an important role in making boiling system efficient and decreasing the
consumption of energy. CHF enhancement makes the industrial system
safe which are running on critical heat flux. Addition of nanofluid is one
of the best methods to enhance HTC and CHF. In this study a brief
summary of results obtained from previous research is presented.
Denyer and Tranfield [28] developed a method which ensures that
literature review is clear and well examined. Steps adopted for the re-
view are mentioned below:
1. Formulation of research questions.
2. Locating the studies i.e. methods used to find out the studies from
database and other sources.
3. To select and evaluate the studies i.e. the formulation of criteria for
including or excluding papers to refine the research.
4. Process of analysis and synthesis is carried out to extract the results
from collected data and analyze them.
M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625

2.1. Formulation of research questions
The main inspiration of this literature review is to collect, examine
and inspect existing studies of pool and flow boiling all over the world.
The information obtained from this review is summarized to develop
some effective methods which can enhance the HTC and CHF in pool
and flow boiling. This review also gives the information about the
methods which are followed in existing studies which enhances HTC
and CHF in pool and flow boiling. A set of research questions is framed
to be followed during his literature review to achieve the objectives.
During the course of finding the answers to the framed research ques-
tions, many weakness in the existing research will be highlighted. For
finding, exploring and analyzing the available literature some questions
are framed which are mentioned below:
1. What are the main factors that affects thermal transport properties
of nanofluids?
2. What are the different investigations carried out on boiling of na-
nofluids?
3. What are the different methods for the preparation of stable nano-
fluids?
4. What is the effect on Heat Transfer Coefficient and Critical Heat Flux
during pool and flow boiling of nanofluids?
5. What is the effect of surface change on pool and flow boiling heat
transfer?
2.2. Locating the studies
formulated to retrieve the most relevant literature. These criteria are
applied for the selection of significant studies which can answer the
questions related to research of literature review. Inclusion and exclu-
sion criteria acts like boundaries which separates the relevant and ir-
relevant studies. For the current review the inclusion and exclusion
criteria selected are mentioned below:
2.3.1. Exclusion criteria
• Articles not related to boiling phenomena.
• Articles not written in English.
• Articles published before 2000 (5–7 relevant articles are included).
• Articles which are published as a short paper.
2.3.2. Inclusion criteria
• An article that provides thermal transport properties of nanofluid.
• An article that provides method of nanofluid preparation.
• An article that provides different investigations (experimental and
numerical) carried out on boiling of nanofluids.
• An article that provides the effect on Heat Transfer Coefficient and
Critical Heat Flux during boiling of nanofluids.
On the basis of discussion on above mentioned two criteria's.
Articles were removed from the final list that meet the exclusion criteria
and articles that met any one of the inclusion criteria were included in
the final list to get the desired information.

The study reported that this topic is not present in some specified
journals. This topic is discussed in variety of journals such as heat
transfer journals, nanofluids journals, thermal engineering journals and
applied physics journals. So the papers cannot be selected on the basis
of journal titles. In order to find the desired papers keyword search was
done in major science publishers such as ScienceDirect, Taylor &
Francis, Wiley, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
SpringerLink and Google scholar. The majority of the papers related to
research were found in ScienceDirect, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, SpringerLink and Google scholar.
Boiling is considered to be a very common term in this research.
Very limited papers were found using this term. So in order to complete
the selection process of the papers a wide range of the search terms
were included. The below mentioned keywords were used for selecting
the papers: Nanofluid, Pool boiling, Heat transfer coefficient, Critical
heat flux, Nanoparticles, Flow boiling, Experimental, Numerical,
Thermo physical properties, Thermal Conductivity, Density, Viscosity,
Specific heat, Surface Tension, Preparation, Two phase, Concentration,
Heat transfer, Correlation and Bubble. The search was done using all
feasible combinations of above mentioned keywords in titles, abstracts,
keywords and all text.
2.3. To select and evaluate the studies
For the refinement of the search inclusion and exclusion criteria are
2.4. Process of analysis and synthesis
When the selection of relevant literature is completed, the first aim
is to split every included paper into components. A data extraction form
was framed in the first step and papers were grouped on the basis of
criteria shown in Table 1.
Synthesizing of findings is the second step. The process of synthesis,
groups the results of every paper and makes accurate arrangement
which is suitable to the fundamental point of the study with the goal
that it gives a comprehensive and distinctive view to the readers.
3. Thermal transport properties of nanofluids
In the heat transfer various thermal transport properties of nano
fluids like viscosity, thermal conductivity, surface tension etc assume a
significant part. In this section thermal properties of nanofluids have
been presented.
3.1. Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity enhancement is the primary goal by utilizing
nano particles and mixing them into the standard liquid. Different
studies showed that even when the concentration of nano particles in
the base liquid is low, higher value of thermal conductivity is displayed.
Philip et al. [29] founded that there was enhancement of about 25%

Table 1
Quantitative analysis criteria of the articles.
Grouping Details

Year Publication year

Source of publication Journals in which the papers published
Name of database Collections of online journals that publish thermo physical properties of nanofluid, nanofluid preparation, nanofluid boiling related studies
Boiling type The type of boiling investigated (Pool and Flow)
Method of research Categorization of methods used (experimental, numerical, case study, literature review)
Type of Data Categorization of type of data (qualitative and quantitative)
Research interest The main centre of attention of the study
Aim of research The objective of the paper

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M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625

in the value of thermal conductivity of nano fluid made up of Fe3O4 ρnf = ∅ρnanoparticle + (1 − ∅) ρbf (1)
nanoparticles in various base liquid having an average molecule size up
to 6 nm. The outcomes revealed that the material of base liquid plays a (ρcp)nf = ∅ (ρcp)nanoparticle + (1 − ∅)(ρcp)bf (2)
least important part in determining thermal conductivity. Altan and
where.
Bucak [30] by using various base liquids tentatively examined the
performance of thermal conductivity by effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles.
ρ and cp are density and specific heat.
With increase in magnetic particle concentration in the mineral oil,
ϕ is the nanoparticles volume fraction.
heptanes and other non polar solvent, thermal conductivity of this type
‘nf’ stands for nanofluid
of nanofluids increases linearly straight. In the various base liquid
‘bf’ stands for base fluid
outcomes of thermal conductivities of nanofluid comes out to be dif-
ferent, when nanofluids are made up of various base liquid and similar
Kedzierski [40] conditionally focused on the variety of density of
nanoparticles. The main cause is due to interaction of base liquid with
CuO nano lubricant with various nano-particle mass divisions (2.9%,
particles having surfactants. Rizvi et al. [31] in comparison to Hamilton
5.6% and 39.2%) for a temperature variation of 288–318 K with cir-
Crosser's model introduced another model that described the nano
cular nanoparticles of measurement of 30 nm diameter. Results dis-
particles and surfactants interactions and their effect on each other.
played that the density of the CuO nano lubricant decreases with
Outcomes revealed that the results of nanofluid thermal conductivity
temperature increase at atmospheric pressure. The author likewise as-
come out to be more precise from introduced model.
sumed that, density increases with an increase in the CuO mass fraction.
Rarely any examinations indicate that the higher thermal con-
Sekhar and Sharma [41] carried out the examinations by utilizing the
ductivity of suspended nanoparticles shows larger improvement in the
combination of Al2O3 and water nanofluids with 47 nm nanoparticle
thermal conductivity of nanofluid. With use of nanoparticles like Al2O3
diameter and working temperature variation from 25 °C to 45 °C. After
and CuO with base liquid like oil and ethylene glycol forms nanofluids
the experiments an equation was developed for nanofluids which were
which reveals that metallic nanofluids shows higher value of thermal
water based and this equation determine the specific heat is mentioned
conductivity when compared with oxide nanoparticles [32]. Gowda
below:
et al. [33] utilized nanoparticles of copper oxide and alumina dispersed
in the base liquid of ethylene glycol and examined the thermal con- Tnf −0.3037 ⎛ dp ⎞0.4167 ∅ 2.272 ⎤
ductivity of both nanofluid and the results revealed that CuO nanofluids Cp, nf = ⎡ ⎛
⎢0.8429 1 + 50
⎜
⎞ ⎟ 1+ ⎜ ⎛1 +
⎟ ⎞
⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 50 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦ (3)
shows higher thermal conductivity value when compared with alumina
nanofluids, whose thermal conductivity was noted to be lower. Zhu where: Ø = Nanoparticles volume fraction in per cent.
et al. [34] revealed the fact that the improvement in thermal con-
ductivity of ferro liquids is not effected by nanoparticles thermal con- Tnf = Temperature of nanofluids
ductivity. An examination was conducted taking nanofluids like Al2O3, dp = Nano particle diameter size
TiO2, CuO and Fe3O4 to determine the thermal conductivity. The out-
come results revealed that Fe3O4 has higher thermal conductivity when Vajjha and Das [42] determined the particular specific heat of
compared with Al2O3, TiO2 and CuO nanofluids even though mass Al2O3, ZnO2, and SiO2 nanoparticles. The nanoparticles of ZnO2 and
Fe3O4 has bring down thermal conductivity than the others. Al2O3 were dispersed in liquid blend having 60 to 40 ratios of ethylene
Ahmed et al. [35] noticed that the reason for enhancement of cri- glycol and water and SiO2 was dispersed in de-ionized water. ZnO2 and
tical heat flux was nanofluid thermal conductivity rather than surface Al2O3 have molecule size of 77 and 44; respectively. 315 K–363 K was
deposition rate of nanoparticle at very low concentration. This case the varying temperature range in which the evaluation was to be done.
needs advance investigation of nanofluid planning technique, nanofluid Volumetric concentration of nano molecule was taken up to a limit of
stability, nanoparticle shape and size for this type of enhancement in 10%. The best conditions that fits test information of three nanofluids
critical heat flux. Ho Seon Ahn et al. [36] notify that the critical heat made from two kinds of base fluids is given as:
flux enhancement was delayed due to little increment of rGO colloids
thermal conductivity. Yang and Liu [37] for silica nanofluid noticed an
immense increment in thermal conductivity. In any case, any effect on Cp, nf
⎡ (A × T ) + B ×
⎢
=⎢
( ) ⎤⎥ C
Cp, p
Cp, bf
p, bf
C+∅ ⎥
enhancement of critical heat flux was not indicated. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ (4)
Gavili et al. [38] applied electrically controlled magnetic field
outside the coil and examined the ferro nanofluids thermal con- The values of constant A, B and C for three nanofluids are given
ductivity. Inspection of saturation time and reversibility was done after below:
switching off the magnetic field. At 5% volume concentration ferro li-
quid indicated that the thermal conductivity enhancement over 200%. For ZnO the values are: A = 1.769*10−3; B = 1.1937;
Outcomes likewise showed that after switching off magnetic field re- C = 8.021*10−1
versibility in thermal conductivity was seen. For Al2O3 the values are: A = 8.911*10−4; B = 5.719*10−1;
C = 4.250*10−1
For SiO2 the values are: A = 4.604*10−4; B = 9.855*10−1;
3.2. Specific heat and density C = 2.990*10−1

An instant transformation was seen in specific heat and density by Where:

vast majority of examiners. By increasing concentration of nano parti-
cles a decrease in specific heat was observed. Still there was lack of Cpbf = Specific heat of base fluid
disciplined examination which tells about the effect of specific heat and Cpnf = Specific heat of nanofluid
density towards critical heat flux improvement. Deep investigation on Cpp = Specific heat of nano-particle
the effect of these parameters is required. Ø = Nanoparticles volume fraction in per cent
Pantzali et al. [39] determined nanofluids density and specific heat. T = Operating temperature
It was observed that the fluctuation of specific heat and density was 2%
and 5% respectively, hence utilizing the below mentioned equations; Teng and Hung [43] in the concentration limit ranging from 0% to
nanofluids specific heat and density can be calculated: 1.5% investigated density of nanofluid composed of water and Al2O3.

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M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati
When the experimental values of density were compared with the cal-
culated density value from Equation (1), a deviation in the range of
1.50%–0.06% was seen. With the increase in concentration of nano-
particles more significant density deviation pattern is observed. Mahian
et al. [44] took nanoparticles of ZnO having a size of 20 nm and sus-
pended them into base blend of water and ethylene glycol mixed to-
gether in ratio of 60 to 40 by weight working in 25 °C–40 °C tempera-
ture range for most extreme concentration of about 4%. Deviation of
around 7% was observed in the density values when compared with
Equation (1) density values. Maximum value for density at 25 °C was
1328.72 kg/m3 for volume concentration of 4%.
Mariano et al. [45] carried out experiments using SnO2 nano-
particles and dispersing into ethylene glycol. The particle size was
17 nm. The whole experiment work was done in the 10 °C to 50 °C
temperature range and volume concentration in the range of 1%–5%.
At volume concentration of 5% and temperature 10.5 °C density at its
maximum value was observed. When compared with base fluid the
density of nanofluid was higher with concentration and decreases with
the increase in temperature. Wang et al. [46] showed that the specific
heat is affected by size of particles. For nanoparticles of CuO of size
50 nm the specific heat estimated values obtained from tests at tem-
perature below 225 K were very close to the theoretical values of spe-
cific heat. In any case, when size of particles lowered from 50 nm to
10 nm and temperature rises over 225 K, at that time the specific heat
theoretical values decreases. As the size of particles increases the value
of specific heat also get increases. But this is possible only for particles
below 10 nm.
The supporting understanding can be produced using the ex-
aminations attempted on specific heat of nanofluid. When compared
with base liquid the specific heat of nanofluid is found to be lower and
decreases with increase in concentration, and does not shift altogether
with temperature. The variation in nanofluids heat capacity value for
nanoparticles size is insignificant as the volume concentration rises,
because of base fluid heat capacity. This variation of capacity with
volume concentration is steady.
3.3. Viscosity
As regularly observed viscosities of nanofluids are comparatively
higher than the base liquid. Higher particle growth and collaboration
causes enlarged viscous distribution which is the primary reasons for
large viscosity in nanofluids. Accumulation of particle because of the
attractive intermolecular forces brings about higher viscosity of the
nanofluids.
Kadzierski [47] observed the kinematic viscosity of Al2O3 which is
utilized as a nano-grease. The author considered a temperature varia-
tion of 288–318 K with two different measurements of nanoparticles
diameters: 60 and 10 nm, respectively. Utilization of surfactant keeps
up appropriate dispersion of the nanoparticles which are circular in
shape. Nanoparticles mass fractions and surfactant both were utilized as
working factors. Furthermore, the author built up a model to predict the
kinematic viscosity, considering the nano-particle blend viscosities,
base liquid, surfactant utilized, component of mass fraction of nano-
particle, temperature, mass fraction of surfactant and diameter of na-
noparticle.
Ho and Gao [48] founded that paraffin emulsion with Al2O3 nano-
particle in various concentrations has nonlinear dynamic viscosity.
Moreover, the dynamic viscosity decreases with an increase in tem-
perature. Observations showed that the improvement of dynamic
viscosity was significantly higher than thermal conductivity enhance-
ment in similar condition. He et al. [49] clarified the reason of in-
creasing viscosity of BaCl2 fluid solution with TiO2 nano particles. As
the particle volume fraction grows, the separation between particles
decreases. The frictional strength among nanoparticles and amongst
nanoparticle and water molecule is enhanced rapidly. It shows the in-
crease in viscosity. Gallego et al. [50] used two nanofluid composed of
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625
CuO nanoparticles and water as base liquid and observed the viscosity
increase. Two CuO nanofluids were different in particle measurement.
One was having particle measurement of 8 nm–14 nm size and other
having 23 nm–37 nm size. Higher viscosity was observed for particle
having size of 8 nm–14 nm. Consequently, possible reason behind
viscosity rise was behavior of small size of particles which gathers the
particles without a repulsive force.
Timofeeva et al. [51] took α-SiC nanoparticles size varying from
16 nm to 90 nm and prepared the nanofluids of water and α-SiC, it was
found that nanofluid viscosity increases as particle measure decreases
working in temperature range of 15 °C–55 °C. Electrostatic attraction
becomes higher due to smaller nanoparticles larger surface area, so it is
supposed to be the main reason for viscosity increase of nanofluids
containing smaller nanoparticles sizes. Kwark et al. [52] measured
viscosity and found an insignificant difference among nanofluid and
pure water. They reported this may be because of low concentration of
nanofluid utilized as a part of their examination. For the shear rate Das
et al. [53] analyzed water alumina nanofluid viscosity. Outcomes re-
vealed as the concentration of particle increases viscosity also increase
and with variation of temperature it decreases. Additionally viscosity
increases along shear rate.
Kulkarni et al. [54] analyzed to decide the rheological conduct of
nanofluid composed of de-ionized water and nanoparticles of copper
oxide (CuO) having diameter size measuring 29 nm, volume con-
centration variation in the vicinity of 5 and 15% and temperatures
changing in the vicinity of 278 and 323 K. Their work yielded a fluid
viscosity correlation ship mentioned below:
1
ln μS = A ⎛ ⎞ − B
⎝T ⎠ (5)
where:
μs is viscosity of suspension, A and B are polynomials acting as
elements of volumetric concentrations of particle which can be calcu-
lated by below mentioned correlation ship:
A = 20587∅2 + 1587∅ + 1078.3∅3 with value of R2 = 0.99
B = −107.12∅2 + 53.548∅ + 2.8715 with value of R2 = 0.97
where:
Ø is the fraction of volume varying from 5*10−2 to 1.5*10−1.
Values obtained from experiments were compared with the com-
puted values obtained from above correlation ship. The variation
among the values was about lower than 10%, except at temperature of
278 K for 15% suspension of CuO.
Nguyen et al. [55] conducted examinations for the confirmation of
viscosity of nanofluid composed of water with CuO and Al2O3 nano-
particles at various concentrations, 22 °C to 75 °C temperature range
and finally the size of particles. Tests of CuO nanoparticles with size of
29 nm and Al2O3 nanoparticles with sizes of 47 nm and 36 nm; dis-
closed that nanofluid volume concentration and viscosity have a solid
dependency. Viscosity altogether is not affected by size of molecule for
below 4% concentration. For dynamic viscosity confirmation of Al2O3
and CuO nanofluid in light of concentration for 1.0 and 4.0%, respec-
tively, an equation is exhibited as:
μnf
μr = = (1.1250 − 0.0007T )
μw (6)
μnf
μr = = (2.1275 − 0.0007T + 0.0002T 2)
μw (7)
where:
μr = Relative viscosity (ratio of nanofluid-to-water viscosities)
μnf =Viscosity of nanofluid
M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati
μ w = Viscosity of water
T = Operating temperature
Sundar et al. [56] carried out an examination to decide the effect of
water/ethylene glycol based fluid blend on viscosity having percentage
weight ratio of 60:40, 40:60, and 80:20 with nanoparticles of Al2O3 in
20 °C–60 °C temperature range. Maximum enhancement ratio observed
was 2.58 and it was obtained with nanofluid concentration of 1.5% at
0 °C and ratio of 40:60% water/ethylene glycol when compared with
base fluid.
Presently, viscosity information from the boiling literature was ob-
served to be of pure water for every single test concentrations of na-
nofluid. However, this requires extra investigations like experimental
and theoretical to make nanofluid viscosity database, precise models
utilization and finally building up new correlation ship for investigation
of heat transfer in nanofluids.
3.4. Surface tension
For enhancement of critical heat flux of nanofluid, surface tension
plays an essential part and received many considerations. It is men-
tioned in previous literature as the temperature and concentration of
nanoparticles increases, decrease in surface tension occurs.
Vafaei et al. [57] did an experimental investigation by taking Bi2Te3
(Bismuth Telluride) nanoparticles. Concentration of nanoparticles and
the influence of their sizes were taken for successful study of surface
tension. Results revealed that as the concentration was increased up to
saturation point there was decrease in surface tension and after the
saturation point a turnaround in the process was seen. In addition nano
particle size of 10.4 nm shows higher surface tension when compared
with 2.5 nm size of nanoparticle under similar mass concentration.
Jeong et al. [58] indicated that as the concentration of water alumina
nanofluids and tri phosphate solution increases, a sharp decrease in
surface tension was observed. Actually, the decrease in surface tension
lowers CHF value. However, the effect of nano-particle surface de-
position causes increase in wettability and contact angle decrease. All
these factors were responsible for critical heat flux enhancement in
alumina water nanofluids and tri sodium phosphate. Interestingly, for
every single tested concentration, nanofluids surface tension was
practically similar to pure water.
Kumar and Milanova [59] showed that surface tension of nanofluids
becomes lower when compared with base liquid which was the main
reason for delay in critical heat flux occurrence in carbon nano tubes
nanofluids. Kathiravan et al. [15] showed that enhancement in critical
heat flux was suppressed due to insertion of surfactants particles in
nanofluids of water and copper which causes surface tension decrease.
J. Chinnam et al. [60] took four types of nanofluids and measured their
surface tension. Mainly three parameters like size of particle, particles
volume concentration and temperature were taken into consideration.
When compared with size of particle, temperature and volumetric
concentration, surface tension showed more dependency on the tem-
perature. For instance, a nanofluid having 1% concentration of Al2O3
nanoparticles and having a size of 45 nm, near about 12% lowering of
surface tension was seen for around 13% of temperature increase. A
decrease in surface tension of about 6.5% was observed for 0.5%–6%
volumetric concentration increase for very same nanofluid. Along these
lines as compared with two parameters the most effect was of tem-
perature. A correlation ship was developed for calculating nanofluids
surface tension using test results. The correlation ship is mentioned
below:
γnf T dp
= a1 ∅ + b1 ⎛ o ⎞ + c1 ⎜⎛ ⎟⎞ + D
γbf T
⎝ ⎠ d
⎝ bf ⎠ (8)
which works in the range of:
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625
Temperature: 303 K < T < 343 K
Particle concentration: 0.005 « 0.06
Diameter of nanoparticle: 15 nm < dp < 50 nm.
And the values of constant are:
a1 has the value of 1.02219
b1 has the value of 0.27706
c1 has the value of 0.00063558
Overall D has the value of = (a1+b1+c1) = 1.17344
γnf = nanofluid surface tension, N/m
γbf = base fluid surface tension, N/m
Ø particle volumetric concentration, %
T = Measured absolute temperature, K
To = reference room temperature, 26 °C (299 K)
dp = Nano particle diameter size, nm
dbf = molecule size of base fluid, nm
M.H.U. Bhuiyan et al. [61] examined the effect of nanoparticles
concentration and the effect of variety of nanoparticles alongside with
the size of nanoparticles. Nanofluids were compared with distilled
water (DW) and dispersing nanoparticles like TiO2, SiO2 and Al2O3. The
varying size of nanoparticles was taken as TiO2 is of 21 nm, SiO2 varies
from 5 nm to 20 nm and Al2O3 have 50 nm and 13 nm. Utilizing a
programmed surface tensiometer and strategy called Du-Nouy ring
nanofluid surface tension was calculated. Outcomes indicated that with
the increase in size of particles and concentration; nanofluids surface
tension also increases. When all three nanofluids water-SiO2, water-
Al2O3 and water TiO2 were compared; higher surface tension is dis-
played by distilled water TiO2 nanofluid.
4. Different investigations on boiling of nanofluids
In the current section the review of the experimental and numerical
studies has been carried out from the past research. In this various
experimental and numerical methods to calculate heat transfer as well
as critical heat flux of nanofluids in flow and pool boiling are explained.
Various commercial and open source software's which helps in per-
forming numerical based studies are explained.
4.1. Experimental investigations
Under turbulent flow in plain and helically dimpled tube Suresh
et al. [62] investigated the characteristics of friction factor as well as
convective heat transfer. Thermal boundary condition used during the
investigation was steady state heat flux. The working fluid that was
considered for the complete process was nanofluid composed of CuO
nanoparticles and water. By solgel technique CuO nano particles of
15.3 nm size were mixed. During examination the effects of dimples and
concentration of particles were seen. Reynolds number worked in the
range of 2500–6000 for the investigation. Outcomes revealed that for
the tube with dimples and nanofluids was having higher Nusselt
number when compared with tube without dimples and water, Nusselt
number increases around 19% for 0.1% nanoparticle volume con-
centration, 27% for 0.2% nanoparticle volume concentration, 39% for
0.3% nanoparticle volume concentration. Similarly nanofluid pressure
increases marginally when compared with distilled water. Finally for
Nusselt number a correlation ship was proposed:
p 2.089
Nu = 0.00105Re 0.984Pr 0.4 (1 + ∅)−80.78 ⎛1 + ⎞
⎝ d⎠ (9)
where:
Φ volume concentration of nanoparticles
p = pitch ratio
d = diameter of tube (m)
Re = Reynolds number
Nu = Nusselt Number
M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati
Pr = Prandtl Number
Kahani et al. [63] presented a report of nano powders of oxide of
metals and nanofluid thermal qualities flowing in helical tubes.
Boundary condition of constantly changing heat flux was applied. Al2O3
& TiO2 nanoparticles along with water with diameters of 35 nm and
50 nm respectively were utilized for working fluids. Experiments were
done for Reynolds number in the range of 500–4500 and concentration
of nanoparticles varying from 0.25 vol% to 1 vol%. Outcomes showed
that as the concentration of nanoparticles increases; pressure drop and
convective coefficient of heat transfer gets increases. Nanofluids com-
posed of water with Al2O3 nanoparticles indicated better enhancement
compared with nanofluid composed of water with TiO2 nanoparticles.
At last for drop of pressure and Nusselt number two correlation ships
were proposed:
For nanofluids consisting of TiO2 nanoparticles and water correla-
tion ship of Nusselt number was:
Nu = 0.5He 0.522Pr 0.613∅0.0815 (10)
For nanofluids consisting of Al2O3 nanoparticles and water corre-
lation ship of Nusselt number was:
Nu = 0.7068He 0.514Pr 0.563∅0.112 (11)
Significant in the range:
0.25 % « 1%
115.3 < He < 1311.4
5.89 < Pr < 8.95
Correlation ship for pressure drop:
Δp = 5.584He1.36∅0.446dp0.163 (12)
Above correlation ship is valid for nanoparticles having spherical
shape and are oxides of metals.
With.
∅ < 1:0%
115.3 < He < 1311.4
35 nm < dp < 50 nm.
Where:
He = Helical coil number
∅ = nanoparticle volume fraction (%)
Nu = Nusselt number
Pr = Prandtl number
Δp = drop of pressure axially (Pa)
dp = Nano particle diameter size, nm
Under different pressures and nanoparticles concentrations Liu et al.
[64] performed a work to investigate heat transfer in nucleate boiling of
CuO/water nanofluids. For thermal surface a grooved cut block of
copper was used. For the nucleate boiling qualities; the working pres-
sure plays an important role. It was additionally discovered that as the
pressure decreases, the nanofluids heat transfer coefficient and critical
heat flux increases when compared with pure water. Ideal values of
concentration at every testing pressure come to be 1 wt%, which re-
vealed that critical heat flux and heat transfer coefficient increases
gradually. However, value of critical heat flux practically remains un-
changed while values of heat transfer coefficient fall down for those
values. For clarification of above results, the authors did two activities.
Firstly is the effect of characteristics of surfaces which was changed,
secondly is nanofluids thermo-physical properties. Values of nanofluid
thermal conductivity, nanofluids surface tension and nanofluid visc-
osity were measured. When compared with water, 102%, 88% and
101% increment in the values for nanofluid was noted. This
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625
information was utilized as a part of the Kutateladze correlation:
h σ
= 7.0 × 10−4Pr10.35
λ g (ρ1 − ρv )
0.7 0.7
⎡ q σ ⎤ ⎡P σ ⎤
×⎢
⎣ ρv hfg υ1 g (ρ1 − ρv ) ⎥ ⎢
⎦ ⎣σ g (ρ1 − ρv ) ⎥
⎦ (13)
where:
σ vapor-liquid interface tension
ρl and ρv = fluid and vapor density
νl = fluid kinematical viscosity
P = pressure
g = acceleration due to gravity
λ liquid thermal conductivity
hfg = latent heat of vaporization
Prl = Saturated fluid Prandtl number
h = coefficient of heat transfer
q = heat flux of wall
Therefore, it was concluded that modification in the liquid thermo
physical properties was the explanation behind HTC decrease in na-
nofluids. In first case, surface becomes rougher by nanoparticles de-
position. Decrease of contact angle as well as roughness of surface
causes increase in nanofluid critical heat flux and decrease in heat
transfer coefficient.
Sheikhbahai et al. [65] used a test pool of barrel shaped having
diameter 130 mm and length 180 mm with wire of NiCr placed in
horizontal way to examine boiling heat transfer under atmospheric
pressure of nanofluid composed of ethylene glycol, water Fe3O4 nano-
particles. Outcomes showed the decrease in heat transfer coefficient
with the increase in concentration of nanoparticles. For 0.1 vol% of
concentration of nanofluid CHF improved around 100%. The principle
purpose behind these outcomes was change of surface in pool boiling by
deposition of nanoparticles. Improved roughness of surface as well as
wettability causes enhancement in CHF because of delay in vapor film
coating and HTC decreases because of a porous layer having poor
surface thermal conduction.
Nikkhah et al. [66] with nanoparticles concentrations of
0.001–0.004 wt% investigated heat transfer coefficient in flow boiling
occurring in heat exchanger of vertical type using nanofluid composed
of water and CuO2 nanoparticles. Results indicated that as mass fluxes
and heat increase; heat transfer coefficient increases broadly in regions
of nucleate boiling as well as single stage convective boiling. However
increase in concentration increases heat transfer coefficient in con-
vective area of single stage; however decreases in the region of nucleate
boiling. It was shown that wettability as well as properties of surface is
changed on the segment of heating by nanoparticles in the region of
nucleate boiling. Dynamic nucleation sites and depressions cause de-
crease in heat transfer. Inside horizontal helically coiled pipe Hashemi
and Akhavan-Behabadi [67] studied characteristics of heat transfer and
drop of pressure. Boundary condition of heat flux was applied. As
working liquid blend of copper oxide nanoparticles and oil was utilized,
with variation in weight concentrations varying from 0.5% to 2% and
Reynolds number in the range of 10–100 tests were performed for na-
nofluids. To locate the ideal work states of two upgraded procedures of
heat transfer, a parameter called performance index was characterized
using a pipe of helical shape and nanofluid. Outcomes revealed that
nanofluids flowing in the helical tube have much better characteristics
of heat transfer as compared with fluid flowing in straight tube. Na-
nofluid flowing in helical as well as straight tube with weight con-
centration of 2% has enhancement of heat transfer of about 30% and
18% respectively when compared with base oil flow. Another Nusselt
number correlation ship was built up and given as:
Nu = 41.730Re 0.346Pr −0.286 (1 + ϕ)0.180 (14)
M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625

This works in range of:
ϕ < 2:0%
Re < 125
700 < Pr < 2050
ϕ = volume concentration of nanoparticles
Nu = Nusselt number
Pr = Prandtl number
Re = Reynolds number
Setoodeh et al. [68] focused on the effect of surface roughness in the
phenomenon of flow boiling heat transfer of nanofluid composed of
water and Al2O3 nanoparticles moving through the flat channel. The
outcomes revealed that with increasing the surface roughness and mass
flux the heat flux increases, and with including nanoparticles the flow
boiling HTC was enhanced.
In a heat exchanger consisting of double helical pipe Wu et al. [69]
examined transfer of heat and drop of pressure. With 40 nm mean
diameter of Al2O3 nanoparticles and water were utilized as working
liquid. Examinations were performed on various weight concentrations
of nanoparticles varying from 0.78% to 7% in laminar as well as tur-
bulent flow. For steady velocity of flow in laminar and turbulent region
enhancement in heat transfer was observed for nanofluids in the range
of 0.37%–3.43% when compared with water. At last, another correla-
tion ship in the laminar region of flow for Nusselt number is mentioned
below:
Nu = 0.089Dn0.775Pr 0.4 (15)
Working in the range:
coefficient decreases for roughness of surface at every stage. In case of
aluminium, deterioration of heat transfer coefficient occurs for every
level of roughness and concentration of particles. Nucleation site de-
clination and thermal resistant enlargement occurring between liquid
and heated surface are the cause of above mentioned deterioration.
Aluminium showed better heat transfer coefficient than copper for e.g.
at roughness 0.2 μm around 30% better. Then again as surface rough-
ness for copper increases, 13% increase in heat transfer coefficient was
obtained due to fact that rough surface incorporate many nucleation
sites and pits.
For boiling of pure refrigerants and their mixtures flowing in micro
fin tubes Mehendale [72] developed a correlation which determines
their heat transfer coefficient. Development of correlation was done in
two steps, by taking thirty eight dimensionless parameters in first step
followed by multi variable regression analysis in second step to re-
cognize the important variable which affects the Nusselt number during
flow boiling. It was found that new correlation was better than existing
six correlations. So this correlation was reliable to use for many re-
frigerants under varying operating conditions. The correlation is men-
tioned below:
htp Dr
Nutp = = C0. ΠC341 . ΠC352 . Π1C3 . ΠC264 . ΠC7 5 Π5C6 . ΠC247 . ΠC218 . ΠC6 9 . ΠC810 . Π33
C11
kl
(16)
qDr
Π34 =
hlv μl (17)
q
Π35 =
hlv1.5 Δρ (18)

100 < Dn < 1300 2. e . nf ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 1 γ γ ⎞

Π1 = Ea = ⎛ ⎜ . ⎜ ⎟ + tan 2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎞⎟ − tan ⎛ ⎞ + 1
⎜ 2
⎝ 2 ⎠⎟
4.0 < Pr < 7.0 ⎝ πDr ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ cos β ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
⎠ (19)
ϕ < 2:0%
Dr (G. x )2
Π26 =
Where: ρv σ (20)
1−x
Φ volume concentration of nanoparticles Π7 =
x (21)
Re = Reynolds number
Pr = Prandtl number ρv g ΔρDr3
Dn = Dean number Π5 = Ga v =
μ v2 (22)
Edel and Mukherjee [70] examined flow boiling in a single rec- ρv σDr
tangular micro-channel using nanofluids made by composition of water Π24 = Su v =
μ v2 (23)
and Al2O3 nanoparticle having 10−3 vol% concentration. As deposition
of nanoparticle on surface of channel is increased, onset nucleate G 2Dr
Π21 = Wel =
boiling i.e. ONB gets decreased. Reason for this was surface cooling of ρl σ (24)
channel due to larger mass transfer into areas of thin film. This cooling
raised the temperature of neighboring surface in flow of two phases. In Δρ
Π6 =
case of nanofluids OBE (onset bubble elongation) location gradually ρl (25)
advances in direction of upstream. Reason for this is wettability en-
M
hancement due to deposition of nanoparticle on the surface of channel Π8 =
MH2 (26)
and fluid wicking by capillary action in smaller scale layer region of
evaporating concave meniscus, which causes a very slow rise in tem- g ΔρeDr3
perature of local wall. The process of evaporation was stabilized by very Π33 =
σnf (27)
slow movement of area of OBE in upward direction and with the pro-
gress in transition of flow regime a very little fluctuation in temperature The calculated values exponents are:
was observed. With nanoparticle addition bubble nucleation and finally
its development was balanced, moreover in regions of the thin film heat C0 = 0.03771, C1 = 1.459, C2 = −1.139, C3 = 0.6214,
transfer was increased. Suriyawong and Wongwises [71] carried out an C4 = 0.2249, C5 = 0.2253, C6 = −0.1209, C7 = −0.6149,
investigation on heat transfer of nanofluids composed of water and TiO2 C8 = −0.04878, C9 = 1.661, C10 = −0.04224, C11 = 0.1121
nanoparticles in the nucleate pool boiling. In the test round aluminium
and copper plates were utilized as heating surfaces. The plates were flat The details of the above correlation are given in nomenclature.
placed in horizontal direction. When compared with pure water a 15% Anwar et al. [73] carried out the flow boiling experiments in a
enhancement in heat transfer coefficient was obtained for 10−4 vol % vertical stainless steel section to calculate pressure drop, boiling heat
concentration of particle and 0.2 μm roughness on surface of copper. transfer and dry out characteristics of two refrigerants: R123yf and
However increasing of concentration after this level, heat transfer R134a respectively and later on thermal performance of two

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M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati
refrigerants were compared. The operating conditions of the experi-
ments were: mass fluxes varying from 100 to 500 kg/ms2, heat flux in
the range of 5–130 kW/m2 and saturation temperature of 27 °C and
32 °C. For measuring dry outs characteristics experiments were per-
formed by increasing heat flux gradually till complete dry out. Results
showed that operating pressure and heat flux significantly controlled
boiling heat transfer rather than vapor quality and mass flux. R134yf
demonstrated lower value for dry out heat flux and both refrigerants
showed the same heat transfer performance. Increment was seen in
pressure drop with increasing vapor quality and mass flux and decre-
ment was seen as saturation temperature was increased. Results of ex-
periments were compared with some popular correlations.
4.2. Numerical investigations
Li et al. [74] utilizing rectangular shape cells in a computational
domain of two dimensions carried out numerical investigation of nu-
cleate pool boiling HT. The experimental results were in good valida-
tion with numerical model of two-fluid. Correlation ship for heat
transfer, nucleate site density and bubble diameter during departure in
pool boiling due to nanoparticle Brownian movement were taken into
picture. Simulation based outcomes showed that precision in nucleate
boiling procedure of nano based fluids is enhanced by nucleate site
density, nanoparticle Brownian movement because of change in mor-
phology of surface. Akbaridoust et al. [75] utilized dispersion numer-
ical model to examine pressure drop and heat transfer through con-
vection in helical tubes. Experiments were also performed to examine
the both above given factors. Numerical studies were performed under
steady condition with temperature at wall to be steady. Nanofluid
composed of nanoparticle of CuO having 68 nm diameters dispersed
into water with volume concentration of 0.1% and 0.2% were utilized
for working. The results from numerical models recognizably showed a
very little enhancement in heat transfer when compared with the re-
sults obtained from the experiments. So for numerical investigation in
helical tubes a relevant model was chosen which gave the satisfactory
results. It was observed as the concentration of particles increases the
pressure drop and co-efficient of heat transfer increases. Wang and Wu
[76] performed simulation for flow boiling of pure water and water-
Al2O3 nanofluid. In the simulation the development & departure of
bubbles were observed. For the same concentration of nanoparticles, an
ideal measurement of nanoparticles was an important finding for im-
provement in heat transfer during flow boiling.
Zachár [77] examined the effect of the different geometrical pat-
terns on inward side of helical tube working in the range of 100–7000
Reynolds number. Rate of heat transfer in heat exchanger of helical
tube was examined numerically. Pure water and blend of water and
ethylene glycol with 50% by 50% volumetric ratio were used as
working liquid. Outcomes revealed that spirally corrugated wall design
in tubes of heat exchanger gives higher heat transfer when compared
with smooth tube heat exchangers. Correlation ship for Nusselt number
was built up during the examination and mentioned below:
h 0.166 p −0.192
Nu = 0.5855Dn0.6688Pr 0.408 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
d
⎝ ⎠ ⎝d⎠ (28)
Which is valid for 30 < Dn < 1400 and 3 < Pr < 30.
Where:
d = tube diameter (mm)
p = pitch ratio
h = coefficient of heat transfer of liquid (W/m2 K)
Dn = Dean Number
Nu = Nusselt number
Pr= Prandtl number
Utilizing the ANSYS CFX code Di Piazza and Ciofalo [78] performed
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625
simulation on coiled pipes of helical shape to simulate the heat transfer
and turbulent flow. For simulations Reynolds and Prandtl number were
kept in the range of 14000–80000 and 0.7 to 5.6 respectively. The
authors utilized various turbulence models, in particular (RSM) Rey-
nolds stress model-ω, k-epsilon and shear stress transport (SST) k-ω.
The outcomes revealed that the Reynolds stress model-ω and shear
stress transport k-ω give practically identical outcomes for Nusselt
number and friction coefficient. Profiles of temperature and velocity
were marginally better than direct numerical simulation. Results of
Nusselt number and friction factor were obtained using k-ε turbulent
model, with wall treatment. Utilizing wall function predicted more
serious results. Conté and Peng [79] numerically researched behavior of
flow and heat transfer effects in coiled pipes of rectangular shape.
Different straight tubes having inclination angle of 9°, 15°, 30° and 45°
and Reynolds number working in range of 300, 700 and 14000 were
taken for simulation on four coiled channel of rectangular shape. Re-
sults revealed that coil having small inclination angle for straight tube
exhibits high heat transfer. Sasmito et al. [80] took four types of
straight square, straight square helical spiral, straight square in plane
spiral and straight square conical spiral tubes. Nanofluids flowing in
these tubes were numerically examined. Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles
along with water having concentration of 3% and 1% respectively were
utilized as working nanofluids. Outcomes showed that enhancement of
heat transfer was due to nanoparticles concentration of 1% and these
results were valid for above mentioned tubes. Heat transfer results of
water with Al2O3 nanoparticle were better than water with CuO na-
noparticles.
Jayakumar et al. [81] investigated effect of different parameter of
helical pipes like diameter of pipe, void fraction, pitch of coil, diameter
of pitch circle etc. on drop of pressure and heat transfer utilizing
FLUENT software. Results showed that diameter of pipe, measurement
of pitch circle and void fraction has important effect on drop of pressure
and heat transfer. Thus a correlation ship needs to be set up between
the parameters, pressure drop and heat transfer. Lin et al. [82] utilized
various turbulence models like low-Reynolds k-ε, realizable k-ε and
Reynolds stress turbulence models along Navier's Stokes equation to
numerically examine pattern of flow and qualities of heat transfer in
heat exchangers having helical coils and varying number of turns. These
heat exchangers are connected to gas reactors operating at high tem-
perature. Straight tubes were converted into coiled tubes having turns
and pitch varying 7 turns with 112 mm pitch, 10 turns with 78.5 mm
pitch and 15 turns with 52 mm pitch respectively. Simulations were
performed on heat exchangers in which helium was flowing in shell
while water was flowing in tube. Mass flow rate and operating tem-
perature for helium was 0.143 kg/s and 973 K while for water was
0.116 kg/s and 377 K. Operating Reynolds number for helium was
14800 while for water was 28–900. Outcomes showed that enhance-
ment in heat transfer were observed for larger pitch value between coils
in heat exchanger. In coil tubes, turbulence intensity was higher for low
Reynolds model which upgrades thermal productivity strongly. Ak-
barinia and Behzadmehr [83] investigated numerically effects of con-
centration of nanoparticles on the thermodynamic and hydrodynamic
parameters of nanofluid convection phenomena in curved tubes
standing in horizontal manner. Nanofluid composed of Al2O3 (alumina)
and water having volumetric concentration in the range of 1%–4% were
utilized as working liquids. They assumed that increasing nanoparticles
concentrations positively affected the heat transfer enhancement. Two
phase method and scheme of control volume were used during nu-
merical simulation. Akbarinia and Laur [84] investigated numerically
effect of diameters of particles on nanofluid flowing through the curved
tube in laminar pattern. Diameters of the particles considered were
30 μm, 3 μm, 10 nm, 80 nm and 300 nm. The outcomes showed that
flow behavior was not affected by increasing nanoparticle diameter.
M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625

5. Nano-fluids preparation methods maximum researchers are attracted towards chemical techniques.

The maintenance of colloidal stability is the greatest challenge in

5.2. Two stage technique
nanofluid revolution. Due to the appealing Vander Waals forces nano-
materials tend to agglomerate when dispersed in fluids. A few devices
For the preparation of nanofluids two stage technique is one of the
utilize mechanical energy to disperse nanomaterials in fluids, for ex-
most widely used technique. In this technique firstly the nanoparticles
ample, test probe ultrasonication, shower bath ultrasonication, me-
are produced in the form of dry powders with the help of some me-
chanical mixing, magnetic blending and shear homogenization.
chanical, chemical and physical methods. In the next step this nano
Keeping in mind the final goal to limit particle–particle interactions and
powder is dispersed into the base fluid by the help of processes like
accomplish colloidal strength unique systems including surface chem-
ultrasonic vibrator stirring, high shear mixing, agitation by magnetic
istry, for example, electrostatic stabilization and steric/electrosteric
force and ball milling etc. For the large scale production two step
stabilization. In electrostatic stabilization, by changing the dispersing
methods is considered to be economical as the nano powders have al-
pH; the surface charge of the nanomaterials are modified in such a way
ready been manufactured in the industry. It can also be used for pre-
that forces of repulsion comes into play because of which surface charge
paring nano fluids based on carbon nano tubes. Stability of nanofluids
of particles affect up the attractive forces existing between the mole-
by using this method is a big issue as the accumulation of powder takes
cules which bring about stability in dispersion. For keeping the stea-
place due to strong Vander wall forces acting between the nano-
diness of colloidal in the process of steric stabilization the atoms of
particles. But still this process is popular from economic point of view.
surfactant which are added to dispersion gets adsorb on the surface of
With the use of surfactants stability can be enhanced.
particles and causes a force which is of repulsive nature and is re-
In outline, because of enhanced dispersion stability one stage
sponsible for the complete process. In the process of electrosteric sta-
technique has a higher number of points of interest than two stage
bilization which gives higher surface charge to the particles, the sur-
technique. The disadvantages of one stage technique are reactants
factants added to the dispersion separate into particles and adsorb on
which are left over in nanofluids due to incomplete reaction and at high
the particles' surface.
temperature the usage of stabilizers. Along these lines, as two stage
The formation of nanofluids includes two procedures: two stage
techniques for nanofluid definition is basic and adaptable, two stage
technique also called top to down application which occurs through the
techniques for nanofluid plan has been generally utilized by researchers
decrease of size where as the other is bottom to up application in which
compared with one stage technique.
synchronous generation of nano particle as well as dispersion takes
Some mechanism for preparation of nanofluids by one stage tech-
place which is also called one stage technique. In two stage technique
nique and two stage technique are listed below in Tables 2 and 3 re-
manufacturing of nano particles takes place in the initial step and there
spectively.
after dispersed independently in liquid base as final step. On the other
Much more attention has been aimed towards nanofluids prepara-
hand nano fluid manufacturing and dispersion in fluid takes place si-
tion in the past decade. Applications in the vast area are the reason
multaneously in one stage technique. At present to set up the nano
behind the research of nanofluids preparation. In the above section
fluids, various number of two stage technique exits for example scan-
various method of preparation are discussed and in future some re-
ning lithography, electron beam lithography etc. and examples of one
search should be carried out for the stability of nanofluids.
stage technique are sub-atomic affection, deposition of nuclear layer,
DNA scaffolding etc. However, the formation of nanofluids mostly relies
upon the properties of base liquid, particle measure, use of surfactant 6. Effect on heat transfer coefficient and critical heat flux during
and concentration of nanofluid. Finally, properties on which the na- boiling of nanofluids
nofluid stability relies upon are surface tension, pH values, viscosity etc.
Utilization of heat transfer during boiling plays an important part in
various mechanical areas, for example, aerating and cooling, re-
5.1. One stage technique frigeration, power plant, atomic power plant, chemical engineering
mixtures, flying aircraft machine and space craft thermal management,
Advantages of the one stage technique over the two stage technique and high-control sections of refrigeration. Power of heat transfer is
are stability growth and accumulation reduction. One stage technique measured by coefficient of heat transfer regularly. Improvement of heat
uses simultaneous manufacturing along with nanoparticles dispersion transfer coefficient during phenomena of boiling is necessary to make
in base liquid and the procedure avoid accumulate and drying. One boiling system energy efficient. A very serious issue in boiling systems is
stage strategy has a principle advantage that it works fairly well with critical heat flux enhancement to perform the operations safely in high
the liquids which are at lower vapor pressure. There are two category of heat fluxes.
one stage technique: chemical and physical. The physical technique has Depending upon situation the CHF is additionally called boiling
high manufacturing cost and produces narrow range nanoparticles. Due crises, heat flux burn out, and dry out. During heating generally the
to improved dispersion stability and higher thermal conductivity thermal limit is shown by CHF. During the experiments of boiling,

Table 2
One stage technique: mechanism for preparation of nanofluids.
Nanofluid system Concentration of Nanoparticle Preparation mechanism

Water with Ag [85] 5*10−1 by volume % Submerged arc nanoparticle synthesis system (SANSS)
Water with Au [86] 2.6 *10−1 by volume % By the method of chemical reduction
Water with Al2O3 [87] 1 to 4.3 by volume % Inert gas condensation
Water with Au [88] 1.8*10−2 by volume % Pulsed laser ablation in liquids technique
Water with Al2O3 [89] 3 by weight % Plasma arc system
Diethylene glycol with Ag [90] 1.1*10−1 to 4.38 by volume % Sputtering on running liquid technique
Water with Ag [91] 1 *10−2 by volume % Multi-pulse laser ablation technique
Water with CuO [92] 10 by volume % Microwave irradiation
Water with Ag 1*10−3 by volume % Citrate reduction method
Water with Au [93] 2.6*10−4 by volume %

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Table 3
Two stage technique: mechanism for preparation of nanofluids.
Nanofluid system Concentration of Preparation mechanism
Nanoparticle

Ethylene-glycol with Fe3O4 and Ag [94] 0 to 1.2 by volume % Magnetic stirring was done for 2.5 h followed by ultrasonic processor with the power of 400 W
and frequency of 24 kHz for 6 h
Water with Al2O3 [95] 5*10−1 to 6 by volume % For 90 min bath sonication was performed
Water with Al2O3 [54] 15 and 22 by volume % A vigorous stirring was done and the finally the surfactant were used for the better results
Water with graphene and Al2O3 [96] 10−1 by volume % In the base fluid to improve the uniformity and stability of the nanoparticles an ultrasonic
homogenizer is used without adding any surfactant.
DI base fluid with CuO/HEG Ethylene glycol 5*10−2 by volume % Ultrasonication was performed for the optimized time period of 45 min to 1 h
(Binary mixture) [97]
Water with Al2O3 [98] 1 to 4 by volume % For 24 h ultrasonic vibration were given for formation of stable nanofluid
Water with CuO [55] 14 by volume % A vigorous stirring action was performed and surfactant were used for stability of nanofluid
Distilled water with rGO and Fe3O4 [99] 5*10−1 by weight % Homogenized by performing stirring action
Water and ethylene glycol with Fe and CuO 5 *10−2 to 1.5 by volume % An ultrasonic processor was used for stable nanofluid formation. The specification of processor
[100] was power of 400 W and frequency of 24 kHz for 5–6 h
DI base fluid with Al2Cu/Ag2Al and ethylene 2*10−1 to 1.5 by volume % At room temperature mechanical alloying using a planetary ball mill operating at 300 rpm and
glycol [101] mechanism was performed for 10:1 ball to powder weight ratio
Water with TiO2 [102] 2.7*10−1 to 1.39 by volume Stirred bead milling and ultrasonication for 0–7 h nanofluid formation
%
De-ionized water with Hybrid TiO2 [103] 1*10−1 to 3*10−1 by weight A magnetic stirrer was used and ultrasonic agitation was done using an ultrasonic cleaner for
% 30 min.
Water with TiO2 [104] 1 to 6 by volume % A process of probe ultrasonication was carried out
Sodium-lauryl sulphate with Al2O3 and Cu 1*10−1 by volume % Nanofluids were kept under ultrasonic vibration for 6 h by using an ultrasonic vibrator
[105] generating ultrasonic pulses to get a uniform dispersion and stable suspension
Oil with SiC and TiO2 [106] 1*10−1 to 1 by volume % Magnetic stirring apparatus for 30 min continually stirring and finally using an ultra-sonication
homogenizer Sonifier 250 for 2 h to obtain uniform nanofluids

physical wear out of material of heated surface takes place, which is the
most difficult issue which need to be specifically identified and needs to
be resolve. For this, it is to make sure that the value of critical heat flux
does not exceed in order to maintain system security. Current in-
vestigation concentrates on the nanofluid boiling in which the effect of
nanoparticle on critical heat flux and heat transfer has been studied.
After the inclusion of nanofluids in the boiling process of flow and pool
boiling, the improvement in critical heat flux and heat transfer are the
principal thing of research. On the basis of this research these two
systems can be differentiated. In view of the research, important out-
comes and logical contradiction are differentiated, and future research
directions are proposed.
6.1. For pool boiling
Enhancement and decreasing of critical heat flux and heat transfer
coefficient in the process of pool boiling depends upon inclusion of
nano particles in the base liquids. The related test outcomes are out-
lined in Tables 4 and 5, where C is the nanoparticle concentration.
• The explanation behind the CHF improvement is the change in
structure and features of the surface that are to be heated during
boiling. The results may vary from deposition of nano particle on the
surface and absence of nano particles on the surface. Stored nano
particles enhances the heated surface characteristics e.g. roughness,
wettability of surface and performance through capillary action
which results in improvement of critical heat flux.

Table 4
Results of experimental examinations of Heat Transfer Coefficient during nanofluid pool boiling.
Nano-fluids Concentration (C) of nanofluid Size of Particle Impact on Heat Transfer Coefficient
Type (nm)

Ethylene glycol or Water with
ZrO2 [107]
Water with CuO [108]
Ethanol with TiO2 or R141
[109]
Ethylene glycol with ZnO
[110]
Water with Al2O3 [111]
Water with Al2O3
Water with copper [112]
Ethylene glycol or Water with
CuO [113]
Water with Al2O3 [18]
Water with Al2O3 [114]
Water with TiO2 [71]
Water with Al2O3
Water with SnO2 [115]
Water with ZrO2 [27]
2.5*10−2 to 10−1 by volume % 20 to 25 Increment in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
−1 −1
10 to 4*10 by weight % 50 Increment and deterioration in heat transfer coefficient was noticed with and without
surfactant respectively
−2 −2
10 to 7.5*10 by volume % 21 Deterioration in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
5*10−1 to 0.375 *10−1 by Less than 50 22% increment in heat transfer coefficient was noticed for volume concentration of 1.6
volume %
10−3 to 10−1 by volume % 20 to 150 In case of smooth surface heat transfer coefficient was increased, but in case of rough
surface no change was noticed.
−1
10 to 1 by weight % 5 to 250 In case of copper surface deterioration in heat transfer coefficient was noticed.
10−2 to 1 by weight % 7 to 257 In case of stainless steel surface increment in heat transfer coefficient was noticed.
10−1 to 5*10−1 by weight % 40 Increment in heat transfer coefficient by 55% was noticed
5*10−1 to 2 by volume % Less than 50 In case of rough surface increment in heat transfer coefficient was noticed and in case of
smooth surface deterioration in heat transfer coefficient up to 30% was noticed
−1
8*10 to 1.4 by weight% 20 to 30 Increment in heat transfer coefficient by 25% was noticed
5*10−5 to 10−2 by volume % 21 In case of copper plate increment by 15% where as in case of aluminium plate
deterioration in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
3*10−1 to 2 by weight % 20 to 30 Increment in heat transfer coefficient by 30% was noticed
5*10−1 to 3 by weight % 55 Increment in heat transfer coefficient by 20% was noticed
5*10−3 to 15*10−2 by volume 20 to 25 At lower concentration increment where as at higher concentration deterioration in heat
% transfer coefficient was noticed

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Table 5
Results of experimental examinations of Critical Heat Flux during nanofluid pool boiling.
Nano-fluids Concentration (C) of nanofluid Size of Particle (nm) Impact on Critical Heat Flux
Type

Water with Carbon Nano Tubes and Functional 10−1 to 3*10−1 by weight % Diameter from 10 to 20 nm* length from Increment in critical heat flux was noticed for
Carbon Nano Tubes [116] 1.5 to 2 μm for both cases both cases
Water with TiO2 [117] 2*10−3 by weight % 25 Increment in critical heat flux by 200% was
noticed
R141b or SDBS with Copper [118] 8*10−3 to 5*10−2 by volume % 30 Deterioration in critical heat flux was noticed
Water with Al2O3 10−3 to 10−1 by volume % for 10 ± 5 At lower concentration increment in critical
Water with TiO2 [119] both case 5 to 30 heat flux was noticed
Water with SiC [120] 10−4 to 10−2 by volume % Less than 100 Increment of critical heat flux by 105% was
noticed
Water with TiO2 [121] 10−5 to 10−1 by volume % 27 to 85 Increment of critical heat flux was noticed
Water with ZnO [122] 10−2 by volume % 38 to 68 Increment of critical heat flux by 160% was
noticed
Water with SiO2 [123] 10−1 to 2 by volume % 10 Increment of critical heat flux by 270% was
noticed
−2 −1
Water with CuO [124] 10 to 5*10 by volume % 10 to 100 Increment of critical heat flux by 130% was
noticed
Water with Fe3O4 [125] 10−4 to 10−2 by volume % 30 Increment of critical heat flux by 240% was
noticed
Water with TiO2 [126] 9.4*10−5 to 4.7*10−2 by volume 21 Increment in critical heat flux by 91% was
% noticed
Water or ethylene glycol with Fe3O4 [5] 0.0 to 10−2 by volume % 50 Increment of critical heat flux by 100% was
noticed

• Nanoparticles constantly stores on the heated surface during the
pool bubbling procedure of nanofluids. An improvement can be seen
in heat transfer coefficient at very less concentration because of fact
that the effect of layer of nano particles is less dominant than effect
of nanofluid thermal conductivity. In case when concentration is
higher, lowering in quantity of nucleate sites and thermal resistance
generation due to layer of stored nano particles turn out to be more
superior when compared to nano fluid thermal conductivity, due to
which heat transfer coefficient deteriorates.
• There is an ideal value for concentration of nano particle. At this
value critical heat flux improvement achieve maximum and at the
same time decrease in heat transfer coefficient does not occur.
Enhancement of heat transfer coefficient and critical heat flux takes
place as the nano particle concentration increases as the ideal value
reaches and beyond the ideal value, with expanding concentration
of nano particles, stability of critical heat flux continues while heat
transfer coefficient decreases.
• Surface particle interaction plays an important role in the im-
provement or deterioration of pool boiling HTC. HTC is increased by
growing nucleate sites which generates dynamic cavities and dete-
riorates due to blocking of nucleation cavities.
6.2. For flow boiling
In the flow passage flow boiling has a greater number of utilizations
in building thermal systems than pool boiling, and it can remarkably
enhance the HT, CHF, and energy effectiveness of thermal systems.
However, the printing of research papers of nanofluid flow boiling
started to increase fundamentally than the pool boiling. Primary cause
behind this that the nanofluid pool boiling is significantly less complex
compared to flow boiling of nanofluid through channel. Heat transfer
coefficient and critical heat flux are influenced by different elements for
example, quality of vapor, mass flow rate, flow regime, size of channel
and direction of flow, nanoparticle concentration and size, type of na-
noparticle material used, its shape and orientation, roughness of sur-
face, base liquid used, type of surfactant used and operating pressure
during the process of flow boiling. The related test outcomes are out-
lined in Tables 6 and 7, where C is the nanoparticle concentration.

Table 6
Results of experimental examinations of Heat Transfer Coefficient during nanofluid flow boiling.
Nano-fluids Concentration (C) of nanofluid Size of Particle (nm) Impact on Heat Transfer coefficient
Type

Water with CuO 1*10−1 to 3*10−1 by weight % 45 to 50 Increment and deterioration in heat transfer coefficient was noticed for CuO
Water with Al2O3 [127] and Al2O3 respectively
Water with Al2O3 [70] 10−3 by volume % 20 to 40 Increment in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
Water with Al2O3 [68] 25*10−2 by volume % 20 to 30 Increment in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
Ethanol with Al2O3 [128] 10−2 to 10−1 by volume % Less than 50 Increment by 400% in heat transfer coefficient was noticed at concentration
of 5*10−2 by volume %
Water with CuO2 [66] 10−3 to 4*10−3 by weight % 50 Deterioration in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
Ethylene glycol (EG) with CuO 10−1 to 4*10−1 by weight % 50 Deterioration in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
[129]
Water with CuO [130] 5*10−1 to 15*10−1 by volume % 50 Deterioration in heat transfer coefficient with increasing concentration was
noticed
−3 −2
Water with ZnO [131] 10 to 10 by volume % 40 Increment in heat transfer coefficient with increasing concentration was
observed
−1 −1
Water with TiO2 [132] 10 to 25*10 by volume % 20 Increment in heat transfer coefficient with increasing concentration was
noticed
Water with Ag [133] 2.37*10−4 to 4.75*10−4 by volume % 35 Increment by 132–162% in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
Water with Al2O3 [134] 2*10−1 by weight % 40 Increment by 17% in heat transfer coefficient was noticed
R113 with CuO [135] 0.0 to 5*10−1 by weight % 40 Increment by 29.7% in heat transfer coefficient was noticed

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Table 7
Results of experimental examinations of Critical Heat Flux during nanofluid flow boiling.
Nano-fluids Concentration (C) of nanofluid Size of Particle (nm) Impact on Critical Heat Flux
Type

Water with Al2O3 [70] 10−3 by volume %
Water with Al2O3 [136] 10−1 and 3*10−1 by volume %
Water with Fe3O4 [137] 10−2 and 10−1by volume %
Water with Fe3O4 10−2 to 10−1 by volume %
Water with Al2O3 [138]
Water with GO (grapheme oxide) [139] 10−2 by volume %
Water with Al2O3 and SiC 140] 10−2 by volume %
Water with Al2O3 [141] 10−3 to 10−1 by volume %
Water with Al2O3 [142] 10−4 to 10−3 by volume %
Water with Al2O3 [143] 10−3 to 10−1 by volume %
Water with Al2O3 [144] 10−2 by volume %
Water with Al2O3 Less than 10−1by volume %
Water with ZnO [145]
Water with Al2O3 [146] 10−2 to 10−1 by volume %
20 to 40 Increment in critical heat flux was noticed
26 Increment in critical heat flux was noticed
15 to 20 Increment in critical heat flux was noticed
43 Increment in critical heat flux was noticed when the combination of water
with Fe3O4 was used
– Increment by 100% in critical heat flux was noticed
50 Increment in critical heat flux was noticed by 41% for water with SiC and
15% for water with Al2O3
25 A very moderate increment in critical heat flux was noticed when the
concentration was very less.
25 Increment by 80% in critical heat flux was noticed
50 Increment by 70.2% in critical heat flux was noticed
47 Increment in the range of 24–51% was noticed in critical heat flux
Less than 100 For both the cases increment by 53% in critical heat flux was noticed
40 to 50 Increment by 30% in critical heat flux was noticed

• Nanofluids and nanoparticle covered surfaces may have same affect
on the CHF enhancement.
• For flow boiling of nanofluid the investigations of dynamics of
bubbles and flow systems were rare, and come out to be doubtful.
• Outcomes of heat transfer coefficient are both reliable and incon-
sistent in flow boiling. Nano particle inclusion, even for a similar
kind of nanofluids both heat transfer coefficient improvement and
deterioration were described. But still, the nanofluid procedure is a
favorable activity of heat transfer enhancement in flow boiling. In
addition, when nanofluid flow and pool boiling are compared, flow
shows better results for enhancement in heat transfer than that of
pool.
• Nano particles get deposited on the surface which is to be heated;
this was communicated by almost all the evaluated articles dis-
playing surface investigation. As the operation time get increased
corresponding concentration of nanofluid deposition also got in-
creased. From a hypothetical statement that due to deposition of
nano particles which changes the wettability of surface is principally
responsible for unstable and opposing outcomes outlined in the
previous literature.
• Most investigators for applications of nanofluid utilized low con-
centration of nanoparticles and felt that they are suitable for mini
and micro channel flow boiling systems.
• The current clarifications about heat transfer in nanofluids are
conflicting and opposing because the procedures of flow boiling of
nanofluid heat transfer are indefinite. Flow boiling incorporate some
principle aspects for the clarifications of the HTC improvement of
nanofluid: the decrease of the boundary layer height because of
nanoparticles influence and presence of sub-atomic layer of ad-
sorption on the nanoparticle surface, secondly by fluid evaporation
and separation pressure obstructs the growth of dry patch, thirdly
due to nanoparticle inclusion which results in higher value of visc-
osity or thermal conductivity. Finally modification of surface by
deposition of nanoparticles. Additionally the modification of surface
was a perfect reason for deteriorating of heat transfer of nanofluid.
• Most of flow boiling in nanofluid research papers describes en-
hancement of critical heat flux. Yet understanding of the procedure
is inadequate and deficient. The reason behind this is deposition of
nano particle on the surface to be heated, due to which the contact
angle of surface get reduced, thereby enhancing the wettability of
surface. An additional part shows that suspended nano particles in
the fluid played an important part.
7. Effect of surface change on pool and flow boiling heat transfer
During saturated flow and pool boiling various surface changes
were proposed to enhance the critical heat flux (CHF). CHF enhance-
ment methods by the different surface modification mentioned in the
previous literature is discussed in this section.
7.1. Pool boiling
Chang and You [22] in saturated FC-72 investigated the pool boiling
by coating the surfaces with diamond particles of size ranging from 2 to
70 μm and reported that under high heat fluxes (> 2.5 W/cm2) the
most significant heat transfer coefficients was observed and it was due
to surface coated with 20 μm diamond stone particles. On wire heaters
Kim et al. [147] revealed that when compared with an untreated sur-
face, the diamond particle coating brought about two notable changes
of smaller diameter of departing bubble and higher frequencies of
bubble departure. It was additionally recommended that heat transfer
of the coated surfaces can be improved by increasing convection and
latent heat transfer at lower and higher heat fluxes respectively. Uti-
lizing the dripping procedure Wu et al. [148] coated TiO2 nanoparticles
of 10 nm particle measure. On the surface a moderate drop of ethanol-
TiO2 solution was stored and outspread. When the corresponding sur-
face was heated to 200 °C, ethanol was dissipated and the thickness of
TiO2 coating of 1 μm was left. With TiO2 coating it was observed that
the significant boiling can be accomplished. 38.2% and 91.2% en-
hancements in CHF and heat transfer coefficients were observed when
compared with plain surface of copper.
El-Genk and Ali [149] with porous surfaces of various coating
thicknesses in PF-5060 performed saturated pool boiling examinations.
For all porous surfaces investigated whose surface superheats worked in
the range of 2.16 K–12.89 K, CHF suddenly increased from 22.7 to
27.8 W/cm2. Most high CHF of 27.8 W/cm2 was noticed for least value
of 2.16 K for the wall superheat for porous surface having coating
thickness of 171.1 μm. Jones et al. [150] utilizing EDM provided spe-
cimens of various surface roughnesses. Utilizing different surface
roughness parameters and having normal roughness (Ra) ranging from
1.08 μm to 10 μm the specimens were presented. With FC-77 and water
analyses were carried out. The outcomes revealed that using FC-77 have
more effect of Ra on heat transfer coefficients when water and FC-77
were compared. When compared with a smooth polished surface in FC-
77 the heat transfer coefficients of surface with roughness achieved
higher value by 210%. Wen and Ho [151] investigated boiling phe-
nomena heat transfer in two channels of V-shape, first channel whose
wall was vertical (Channel 1) and second channel whose wall was
horizontal (Channel 2). Angles of both the channel was different. When
compared with the plainer surface HTC might have increase or decrease
depending upon the geometrical angle and supplied heat flux. However,
in the major part of the cases, the V-shaped channel positively affected

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heat transfer of pool boiling.
Effects of geometric parameters on CHF was efficiently investigated
by Li and Peterson [152] for example, volumetric porosity and thick-
ness of coating. The outcomes showed that with increase of coating
thickness the CHF increases. To look at the impact of aluminum porous
covered layer on copper plate having thickness of 150 μm and heat
transfer of boiling methanol confined in control space Liu and Yang
[153] carried out a test examination. When the values of heat fluxes are
moderately low, HTC improvement ratio of smaller scale porous sur-
faces to plainer surfaces expanded with limited space. In any case, this
upgrade weakens for high heat fluxes. Moreover it was discovered that
specifically boiling heat transfer was affected for moderately low heat
fluxes and smaller scale porous covering. CHF increase of 56% was
noticed for restricted spaces greater than 2 mm and the existence of
smaller scale porous covering. But in case when Bond number (Bo) was
under one and space restriction was 1 mm, CHF increment decreases
down to 32%.
Seo et al. [154] using DC sputtering created a layer of FeCrAl on
metal surface. Characteristics of FeCrAl layer was affected by time of
sputtering and temperature. In the temperature range of 150 °C – 600 °C
considerable increment in surface roughness was observed. After that
pool boiling experiments were conducted to determine the effect of
FeCrAl layer on CHF. Considerable enhancement was observed in CHF
with FeCrAl layer. The best CHF enhancement (60%) was achieved for
1 h sputtering time and 150 °C temperature. Thermal safety was also
increased by this process of sputtering.
7.2. Flow boiling
Variation of hydraulic diameters in the range of 0.49–1.26 mm Sun
et al. [155] coated the horizontal mini channels with the particles of
copper having dimension of 20, 50 and 120 μm. On the base surface of
the channel with the sintering process; spherical particles of copper
were coated. When compared with an uncoated surface heat transfer
coefficients in the range of 7 and 10 times were achieved. The sup-
pression effect was additionally observed in examinations. Due to
lowering of fluid mass flux and size of channel strengthens confinement
effect, bringing about the decrease in CHF values. Guo et al. [156]
carried out subcooled flow boiling on the chip made of silicon with fins
having micro size. FC-72 was impinged on the chip. They showed that
by increasing the aggregate impinged jet velocity and surface area the
boiling heat transfer can be improved. It was seen that cause for more
turbulence and lower convection was large jet impingement velocity,
due to which the occurrence of CHF was delayed and at high heat flux
the heat transfer was enhanced. . Ammerman and You [157] utilized
FC-87 on porous coated surfaces to accomplish flow boiling. It was seen
that the existence of coating brings about beginning of boiling at lower
value of wall superheats, delayed value of CHF and increased heat
transfer coefficients. The acknowledgement of enhancement goes to
bubble departure repetition and increased nucleation sites. The coated
surfaces could increase CHF in the range of 14% and 36%, when
compared with a plain surface. To consider flow boiling of anhydrous
ethanol Bai et al. [158] constructed a parallel short channels by the
process of sintering with porous coated surfaces comprising of powders
of copper having diameter of 30, 55 and 90 mm. Their investigated
outcomes showed that the channels which were coated has more value
of HTC compared with uncoated channels when vapor quality was
under 0.15 for a value of 182.8 kg/m2s for mass flux in saturated flow
boiling. For sub cooled flow boiling Kaya et al. [159] performed the
investigatory studies, the experiments were carried out with (pHEMA)
poly hydroxy-ethyl meth acrylate for large mass fluxes working in the
range of 10000–13000 kgm−2s−1. The thickness of pHEMA coatings
was 30 nm. The coating was done on the inward face of various micro
tubes having internal diameters starting from 249 to 998 μm. The
coated surfaces had the capacity of raising CHF up to 24% and en-
hancing heat transfer up to 109% which was clarified with more
621
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625
nucleation sites, low contact angles and swelling property given by the
coating. Size of the tube was an inverse function of CHF, but CHF was
solid function of mass flux.
Morshed et al. [160] carried out an experiment with Cu–Al2O3 nano
composite coatings on the base surface and heated from one side. Ex-
amination was done to determine the multiphase qualities of heat
transfer for water streaming in a smaller channel having volumetric
dimension of 0.360 × 5 × 26 mm3. Apart from increasing the CHF by
mass flux, the CHF on the refined face was increased by 35–55%. In
similar way, due to the change in surface morphology the enhancement
was 100% for heat transfer coefficient because of coating. A multi
walled carbon nano tubes (MWCNTs) having a height of 15–30 μm and
diameter of 10–50 nm was used by Singh et al. [161] for carrying out
experiments for subcooled flow boiling for water which was flowing
through a full scale passage. The outcomes of plain surface were com-
pared with MWCNT. Outcomes showed improvement in heat flux up to
180% when the surface was coated with MWCNT. With subcooling of
fluid and rate of flow the increase in flow boiling flux with MWCNTs
turned out to be less.
Ho Seon Ahn et al. [162] used an oxidation reaction treated tube
made of zirconium compound for investigating the critical heat flux for
water in flow boiling. In changing CHF, an important part was not
played by the inlet temperature. By restricting the mass flux to the
value of 1500 kg/m2s and changing the surface structure; CHF had the
biggest improvement of 60%. For subcooled flow boiling phenomena
Hsieh and Lin [163] did an investigation on the walls and surfaces by
giving them non uniform heating. Various fluids were taken during
investigation in a heat apparatus made up of 75 smaller channels
having parallel arrangements, moreover on the side walls of the ap-
paratus there were cavities having various angles. Their outcomes re-
vealed that for de-ionized water of 1 vol % of multi walled carbon nano
tubes added substance solution (at G = 1600 kg/m2s, ΔTsub = 358 K)
and surface heater made of Cu+2 μm diamond film, there was en-
hancement in CHF and heat transfer by 1.93 and 1.81, respectively.
8. Conclusions
Viscosity and thermal conductivity of nanofluids are fundamentally
affected by size of particle, temperature and concentration. Surface
tension reduces with rise in temperature and concentrations of nano-
particle. Nanomaterials selected for nanofluid production must be of
lower density, as less material will be consumed for specific con-
centration. Specific heat and thermal conductivity of nanomaterials
must be high. Viscosity and thermal conductivity of nanofluids were
more influenced by nanoparticles of hydrodynamic size rather than
primary size. Enlarged nanostructures with length give higher thermal
conductivity improvement as compared with spherical nanoparticles.
However, nanoparticles with high aspect ratio bring about major in-
crease in viscosity.
For flow boiling heat transfer; model based on flow pattern should
be produced which performs sensibly well. Various models of compu-
tational fluid dynamics simulations and multiphase schemes of boiling
were utilized during the numerical simulation, alongside the compu-
tational methods utilized for comparisons with experimental data. For
heat transfer coefficients better performance; development and im-
provement of models and techniques are further needed. For flow
boiling phenomena many correlation ships for calculation of the Nusselt
number were created for straight and helically coiled tubes.
The nanofluids preparation, nanofluids thermal transport properties
and nanoparticles size may be the explanation behind disorganized
outcomes in CHF. Uses of smaller size nanoparticles were ideal during
experiments. For the researchers the stable nanofluids formulation was
the greatest difficulties in applications. To avoid accumulation and
sedimentation different methodologies were utilized like pH control,
surfactants and surface functionalization, yet they are at research level.
In this way, for large volume production of nanofluids the researchers
M. Dadhich and O.S. Prajapati
should put additional attempt to assure long term physical and che-
mical steadiness of nanofluids and make it possible to utilize nanofluids
for improving the CHF in numerous modern applications.
By the utilization of nanofluids the thermo-hydrodynamic perfor-
mances of pipes were enhanced when compared with conventional
fluids. The heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop of nanofluids
were observed to be larger. In analyses of nanofluid boiling TiO2, CuO
and Al2O3 were the most regularly utilized nanoparticles and in-
vestigative examinations revealed more occasion of enhancement than
deteriorating for the CHF and HTC of boiling nanofluids.
The deterioration and improvement of CHF and HT utilizing nano-
fluids in pool and flow boiling relies upon the below mentioned com-
ponents like material, size, concentration of nanofluids, material,
shape, orientation and roughness of the heated surface, surfactant, base
liquid, operating pressure and finally the heat flux. If the appropriate
combination of the above mentioned factors is considered in any ap-
plication it would bring about enhancement in flow and pool boiling
CHF and HT utilizing nanofluids.
To enhance flow boiling HT utilization of nanofluids was a feasible
approach. Dependent on many elements and their mutual interactions,
both improvement and deterioration were accounted for HT. By giving
an appropriate combination of the variables, for example, mass flux,
vapor quality, flow regime, flow direction and subcooling brings about
improvement of HT. CHF and HTC of the nanofluids boiling have a
significant influence by nanoparticles concentration. Up to a specific
point with increase in concentration of nanoparticle CHF and HTC in-
creases, past which additional increase reduces the boiling HTC and
influence on CHF, is not noticed. So for the production of CHF en-
hancement at maximum level without embarrassing the boiling HT
there exists an optimum nanoparticle concentration.
The knowledge is quite insufficient and lower for the better un-
derstanding of CHF enhancement of nanofluid flow boiling. One of the
main reasons for the CHF enhancement is nanoparticle deposition on
the heated surface, and this need to be studied properly for the better
understanding of the system. In case of nanofluid flow boiling there has
been no CHF deterioration reported, which should be credited to the
essential flow conditions played in the CHF enhancement of nanofluid
flow boiling. Subsequently, investigation of the nanofluid flow boiling
CHF should look for combined effect of deposition of nanoparticle on
the surfaces and suspension of nanoparticle in the nanofluids.
The heated surface characteristics were modified with the deposi-
tion of nanoparticle. Further the size of cavities was modified by a
moderate porous layer of deposited nanoparticles on the heated surface.
Both of the above mentioned variables bring about the improvement of
HTC. The nanoparticle deposition is the explanation for the decrease of
HTC which lower down the number nucleation sites. A thick layer of
nano particles formed on the surface due to which thermal resistance of
surface is increased which brings about the fouling formation of na-
noparticles on the surface which decreases the capillary action on the
heated surface. Surface microstructure and topography was changed by
the deposition of nanoparticles and because of which the surface
characteristics, for example, surface wettability, roughness, and capil-
lary action performance were improved. Every characteristic causes the
enhancement of CHF.
In the recent couple of decades a significant progress has been
achieved in enhancing boiling heat transfer by using various techniques
of surface modification. The evaluation of heat transfer performances of
these modification techniques and surface enhancement were carried
out. Extended surface area results in CHF enhancement. Suggestions on
few CHF enhancement models were given but the validity of the models
should be confirmed for various changed surfaces and liquids.
9. Future studies
Every point of the future studies is written after studying the work
done in the cited paper after every point. Based on the above review
622
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (2019) 607–625
some recommendations are given below for the future work:
1. Based on huge variety of nanofluid thermo physical properties,
numerical and experimental investigations of boiling of nanofluids;
reasonable expected correlation ships must be proposed for pressure
drop, CHF and HTC of nanofluids boiling [62–64,67,69,77].
2. For nanofluids preparation for long time period use, there is an
urgent need to build up a widespread basic technique which does
not influence its thermal transport properties. Directly at research
level there are various techniques for nanofluids preparation. So
research should be done as such that these techniques must be made
perfect for the general mechanical applications. In addition the
generation cost and stability of nanofluids that should be taken care
of appropriately [87–89,91,92,97,106].
3. The establishment of effects on mechanisms of heat transfer and
dynamics of bubbles related with enhanced surface features is still
not up to the mark. To understand the bubble behavior and the
mechanisms involved with the procedure, parametric investigations
of enhanced surfaces like extended fin, porous cavities surfaces with
changing diameters, heights and pitches utilizing high speed re-
solution camera for the visualization are to be done for further re-
search work [147,148,150,152,155,157,161].
4. For building the effective database a careful examination of basic
nanofluids properties like, density, viscosity, specific heat, surface
tension and thermal conductivity, must be done for simulation,
modeling and analysis [31,34,39,40,54,60].
5. The most important issue in heat transfer applications is size of
nanoparticles. Smaller size nanoparticles are the most preferred to
use for boiling phenomena. So, for the preparation of nanoparticles
of smaller size it is important to developed financially effective
techniques [89,104,110,111,113].
6. In the above review it was seen that nanofluid boiling researches
based on experimental investigations represented over 90%, and
numerical simulations based on commercial and open source soft-
ware were extremely less. The numerical simulations techniques
deserves more consideration as it assumes an important part in
building CHF models and saves time and money [74,78,81–83].
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