Chemistry: List of Good Study Habits

List of good study habits
 Attend classes regularly and take careful notes.

 If possible, always review the topics you learned in the class.
 Think critically. Ask yourself if you really understand the meaning of a term.
 A good way to test your understanding is for you to explain a concept to a classmate.
 Do not hesitate to ask any question to your teacher
Chemistry
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Page 1 of 74
Chemistry Syllabus
Program: Fashion Design & Technology
Course title: Chemistry, Course code: CHEM-111 (Credit: 3)
Lecture no Topics to be discussed

Mid-Term
Lecture-1 Chapter-1
Introduction to chemistry: Importance of chemistry, classification of
Lecture-2 matter, Dalton's atomic theory, atomic symbol, composition of atom,
atomic number and mass number.
Lecture-3 Chapter-2
Structure of atom: Rutherford's scattering experiment, Rutherford's model,
Lecture-4 Bohr's model and quantum numbers.
Lecture-5 Chapter-3
Periodic Table & Chemical bonding:
Lecture-6  Pauli's exclusion principle, (n+l) rule, electron configuration, Periodic
table, periodic classification of the elements, atomic radius, properties
Lecture-7
of oxides across a period.
 Introduction to chemical bond. Difference between ionic and covalent
Lecture-8 compounds. Structure and bonding of some simple molecules: water,
ammonia, methane, sodium chloride etc.
MCQ TEST/Class TEST
Final-Term
Lecture no Chapter/ Topics to be discussed
Lecture-1 Chapter-4
Inorganic materials: Discussion on some important inorganic materials
such as water, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate,
Lecture-2 hydrogen chloride, ammonia, sulphuric acid, calcium hypochlorite, borax,
magnesium sulphate, copper (II) sulphate etc.
Lecture-3 Chapter-5
Lecture-4 Organic materials: Organic compounds, classification of organic
Lecture-5 compounds. Some important organic materials such as paraffins, alcohols,
Lecture-6 fatty acids, oils & fats, soap & detergent, polymer & plastic.
Chapter-6
Lecture-7
Chemistry of cosmetics & personal care products: Ingredients and
properties of some common cosmetics such as vanishing cream, talcum
Lecture-8
powder, lipstick, sunscreen, shampoo etc.
MCQ TEST/CLASS TEST
Page 2 of 74
Text and Reference Books
1. “General chemistry: The essential concepts” by Raymond Chang & Jason Overby (McGraw-Hill, 6th ed).
2. “General Chemistry” by Darrell D. Ebbing Steven D. Gammon (Houghton Mifflin Company, 9th ed).
3. “Modern Inorganic Chemistry” by- S.Z. Haider.
4. “Organic Chemistry” by W. H. Brown, C. S. Foote, B. L. Iverson, E. V. Anslyn (Cengage Learning, 6th ed.).
5. “Advanced Organic Chemistry” by B.S. Bahl & Arun Bahl (S. Chand & Com. Ltd., Latest ed.).
6. “Harry’s Cosmeticology” by Dr. Martin M. Rieger (Chemical Publishing Co., 6th ed.).
Page 3 of 74
Chemistry Syllabus for B. Sc. Program in 'Fashion Design & Technology'
Course title: Chemistry Lab, Course code: CHEM-112 (Credit: 1.5)
1. Standardization of NaOH solution with standard succinic acid solution.

2. Determination of strength of commercial hydrochloric acid solution by a secondary standard
solution of NaOH.
3. Standardization of HCl solution with standard Na2CO3 solution.
4. Soap preparation and testing some properties of the prepared soap.
5. Analysis of antacid tablets.
6. Analysis of vinegar by titration.
7. Salt analysis.
Text and Reference Books:

i. Vogel's Text Book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (5th ed. / revised by G. H. Jeffery et al.)
ii. Analytical Chemistry BY G. D. Christian (6th Ed. John Wiley & Sons. Inc.)
iii. Bisleshoniyo O Baboharic Rashayan by Saroj Kanti Singh Hazari et al., (Kabir
Publication, Dhaka)
CHEMISTRY Page 4 of 74
MID-TERM
1. Introduction to Chemistry
2. Structure of Atom
3. Electron Configuration & Periodic Table
4. Chemical bonding [Follow Text Book/Class lecture]
Figure 2 Figure 3
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
► Lecture-01
1. Chemistry
All of the objects around you—your book, pen, and the things of nature such as rocks, water, and
plant and animal substances—constitute the matter of the universe. Each of the particular kinds
of matter is referred to as a material.
We can define chemistry as the science of the composition and structure of materials and of the
changes that materials undergo. Chemistry deals with all materials, it is a subject of enormous
breadth. It would be difficult to exaggerate the influence of chemistry on modern science and
technology or on our ideas about our planet and the universe.
2. Significant reasons to study chemistry

First, chemistry has important practical applications. The development of life saving drugs is
one, and a complete list would touch upon most areas of modern technology.
Second, chemistry is an intellectual enterprise, a way of explaining our material world.
Finally, chemistry figures prominently in other fields. Whatever your career plans, you will find
that your knowledge of chemistry is a useful intellectual tool for making important decisions.
Although chemistry has its roots in early technology, chemistry as a field of study based on
scientific principles came into being only in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Chemists
began to look at the precise quantities of substances they used in their experiments. From this
work came the central principle of modern chemistry: the materials around us are composed of
exceedingly small particles called atoms, and the precise arrangement of these atoms into
moleculesor more complicated structures. Once chemists understood this central principle, they
could begin to fashion molecules to order. They could synthesize molecules; that is, they could
build large molecules from small ones.
CHEMISTRY & FASHION
Chemistry and fashion are not usually mentioned in the same breath but chemistry is absolutely
essential for making clothes more affordable, versatile, comfortable and creative. Several types
of chemistry are responsible for the creation of fashion pieces, including polymer, inorganic and
organic chemistry.
Many people associate innovation in the fashion industry with of-the-moment designers in New
York, London and Paris, when in fact the true fashion revolutionaries are the innovators of the
chemical industry working away in labs.
Without chemistry’s development of specialty fibres and other components, the creative world of
fashion could not be nearly as dynamic as it is today. In fact, chemistry contributes 28% of
the value of material input in clothing. Acrylics, nylon and polyester are all synthetic fibres
made from petroleum products, not to mention spandex made from polyurethane.
From the petroleum or natural gas naphta, the petrochemical industry manufactures several products like
the ethyleneglycol, terephthalic acid, dimethylterephthalate, acrylonitrile, adiponitrile and caprolactam.
These are the hard-to-pronounce products which originate the yarns and fibers of polyester, polyamide –
better known as nylon, the acrylic fiber and the spandex. These fibers, when mixed with natural fibers
like cotton and wool, or by themselves, will enable the production of better fabrics, with better strength,
more elasticity, better drop and better shape retention.
The production of synthetic fibers is relatively recent but has created a revolution in the way we dress.
Look at the clothes used for aerobics: they "stick" to the body, but they are strong and elastic, allowing
total freedom of movements. Synthetic fibers respond for these qualities. Thus when we write about
fashion in Clothing gets smart, it’s all about smart fabrics and the clothing of the future: fabrics that
clean themselves without the use of water; or clothing containing photocatalysts that, when exposed to
light, break down harmful airborne pollutants.
With chemistry the possibilities are endless; dyes and pigments responsible for shining or opaque
coloured threads, socks that moisturise, sports clothes that deodorise and garments that kill
bacteria. And its not just the clothes, chemists are continuously working to come up with new
and better hair and beauty products. So, without Chemistry we certainly wouldn’t have fashion.
3. States of matter
Commonly, a given kind of matter exists in different physical forms under different conditions.
Water, for example, exists as ice (solid water), as liquid water, and as steam (gaseous water). The
main identifying characteristic of solids is their rigidity: they tend to maintain their shapes when
subjected to outside forces. Liquids and gases, however, are fluids; that is, they flow easily and
change their shapes in response to slight outside forces. Two characteristics, rigidity and
compressibility, can be used to frame definitions of the three common states of matter: solid the
form of matter characterized by rigidity; a solid is relatively incompressible and has fixed shape
and volume. liquid the form of matter that is a relatively incompressible fluid; a liquid has a
fixed volume but no fixed shape. gas the form of matter that is an easily compressible fluid; a
given quantity of gas will fit into a container of almost any size and shape. The term vapor is
often used to refer to the gaseous state of any kind of matter that normally exists as a liquid or a
solid. These three forms of matter—solid, liquid, gas—comprise the common states of matter.
4. Classification of matter
We identify a matter by its various properties, which may be either physical or chemical. A
physical property is a characteristic that can be observed for a material without changing its
chemical identity. Examples are physical state (solid, liquid, or gas), melting point, and color. A
chemical property is a characteristic of a material involving its chemical change. A chemical
property of iron is its ability to react with oxygen to produce rust.
Substances: The various materials we see around us are either substances or mixtures of
substances. A substance is a kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of matter
by any physical process.
Elements: Millions of substances have been characterized by chemists. Of these, a very small
number are known as elements, from which all other substances are made. Lavoisier defined an
element as a substance that cannot be decomposed by any chemical reaction into simpler
substances. Today 116 elements are known.
Compounds: Most substances are compounds. A compound is a substance composed of two or

more elements chemically combined.
Matter / materials
Physical
Substances Mixtures
processes
Chemical Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Elements processes Compounds mixtures (solutions) mixtures
Figure-2: Relationships among elements, compounds, and mixtures.
Mixtures: Most of the materials around us are mixtures. A mixture is a material that can be
separated by physical means into two or more substances. Unlike a pure compound, a mixture
has variable composition. When you dissolve sodium chloride in water, you obtain a mixture; its
composition depends on the relative amount of sodium chloride dissolved. You can separate the
mixture by the physical process of distillation.
Mixtures are classified into two types:

A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that consists of physically distinct parts, each with
different properties. A mixture of potassium dichromate and iron filings is an example of
heterogeneous mixture. Another example is salt and sugar that have been stirred together. If you
were to look closely, you would see the separate crystals of sugar and salt.
Homogeneous mixture (also known as a solution) is a mixture that is uniform in its properties
throughout given samples. When sodium chloride is dissolved in water, you obtain a
homogeneous mixture, or solution. Air is a gaseous solution, principally of two elementary
substances, nitrogen and oxygen, which are physically mixed but not chemically combined.
Solve the following questions
1. What is chemistry? Discuss the significant reasons to study chemistry.

2. Characterize gases, liquids, and solids in terms of motion of particles, shapes, rigidity and
compressibility.
3. Define element, compound, heterogeneous mixture, and homogeneous mixture. Choose a
substance and give several of its physical properties and several of its chemical properties.
4. Write the classification of matter usign a figure to illustrate the relationship between them.
Assignment work
A1. For each of the following, decide whether a physical or a chemical change is involved.
(i) melting of sodium chloride
(ii) burning of sulfur
(iii) dissolving of salt in water
(iv) rusting of iron
(v) burning of wood
(vi) evaporation of alcohol
A2. Describe each of the following as a physical or chemical property of each listed chemical
substance.
(i) baking soda reacts with vinegar
(ii) ice melts at 0°C
(iii) graphite is a soft, black solid
(iv) hydrogen burns in air
(v) chlorine is a green gas
(vi) iron can rust
► Lecture-02
5. Dalton’s atomic theory
The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are given below:
(i) All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an extremely

small particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical
reactions.
(ii) An element is a type of matter composed of only one kind of atom,

each atom of a given kind having the same properties.
(iii) A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or

more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions. The
relative numbers of any two kinds of atoms in a compound occur in
simple ratios. John Dalton (1766–
1844) was an
English chemist,
(iv)A chemical reaction consists of the rearrangement of the atoms physicist, and
present in the reacting substances to give new chemical combinations meteorologist. He is
present in the substances formed by the reaction. Atoms are not best known for his
created, destroyed, or broken into smaller particles by any chemical pioneering work in
reaction. the development of
modern atomic
Today we know that atoms are not truly indivisible; they are themselves theory
made up of particles. Nevertheless, Dalton’s postulates are essentially
correct.
6. Atomic symbol
An atomic symbol is a one- or two-letter notation used to represent an atom
corresponding to a particular element. Most symbols are taken from the first
letter of the common English names of the elements. Others are derived from the
Latin's names of the respective elements. For example-
Atomic Name of Atomic Name of
Symbol Symbol
number element number element
1 Hydrogen H 21 Scandium Sc
2 Helium He 22 Titanium Ti
3 Lithium Li 23 Vanadium V
4 Beryllium Be 24 Chromium Cr
5 Boron B 25 Manganese Mn
6 Carbon C 26 Iron Fe
7 Nitrogen N 28 Nickel Ni
8 Oxygen O 27 Cobalt Co
9 Fluorine F 29 Copper Cu
10 Neon Ne 30 Zinc Zn
11 Sodium Na 31 Gallium Ga
12 Magnesium Mg 32 Germanium Ge
13 Aluminum Al 33 Arsenic As
14 Silicon Si 34 Selenium Se
15 Phosphorus P 35 Bromine Br
16 Sulfur S 36 Krypton Kr
17 Chlorine Cl 37 Rubidium Rb
19 Potassium K 38 Strontium Sr
18 Argon Ar
20 Calcium Ca
7. Composition of atom
In atom there are two distinguished regions: nucleus and orbit. The center of an atom is called
nucleus. Nucleus is positively charged and contains most of the mass of an atom. The circular
path around the nucleus is called orbit. An atom contains three fundamental particles: electron,
proton and neutron. Protons and neutrons exist in the nucleus and electrons rotate in the orbit.
Electron is a very light, negatively charged particle. Proton is a nuclear particle having a
positive charge equal to that of the electron and a mass more than 1800 times that of the electron.
The neutron is also a nuclear particle having a mass almost identical to that of the proton but no
electric charge.
An atom is normally electrically neutral, so it has equal number of electrons and protons. A
sodium atom has a nucleus of charge +11, and around this nucleus are 11 electrons (with a
charge of 11, giving the atom a charge of 0).
Nucleus
Electron
Orbit/ Shell
Carbon atom (Z=6)
Atomic Relative Relative

Symbol Position
particle charge mass
−
Electron e −1 1/1800u Orbit
Proton p +1 1u Nucleus
Neutron n 0 1u Nucleus
Note: 1u=1.66×10−24g
8. Atomic number & mass number

We characterize a nucleus by its atomic number and mass number. The number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number. It is represented by Z. The identity of an atom
depends on Z. The atomic number of carbon atom is 6 (Z=6). Hence, it contains 6 protons at its
center and also in neutral atom there will be 6 electrons.
The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It is
represented by A. For example mass number of carbon is 12 (A=12). So, total number of proton
and neutron is 12.
A nuclide is an atom characterized by a definite atomic number and mass number. For the
naturally occurring carbon nuclide as follows:
Mass Number 12
C
Atomic Number 6
Isotopes are atoms whose nuclei have the same atomic number but different mass numbers; that
is, the nuclei have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Three isotopes
of carbon is given below-
12 13 14
C, C and C
6 6 6
5. Discuss the main points of Dalton’s atomic theory. Write the atomic symbols for the
elements having following atomic numbers: 3, 9, 12, 15, and 19.
6. Define these terms: (i) atomic number, (ii) mass number, and (iii) isotope. Why does
knowledge of atomic number enable us to deduce the number of electrons present in an
atom?
7. What are the different kinds of particle present in an atom? Compare their properties with
each other. What is the nuclide symbol for the nucleus that contains 8 protons and 8
neutrons?
Assignment work
A3. Naturally occurring chlorine is a mixture of the isotopes Cl-35 and Cl-37. How many
protons and how many neutrons are there in each isotope? How many electrons are there in
the neutral atoms?
A4. An atom contains 11 protons and 11 neutrons. What is the nuclide symbol for the nucleus?
A5. Give the atomic symbol for each of the following elements.
a. potassium
b. sulfur
c. iron
d. manganese
CHAPTER-2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
► Lecture-03
9. Rutherford’s scattering experiment 

Rutherford conducted a scattering experiment in 1911 to find out the structure of atom. He
bombarded a thin gold foil with positively charged stream of α-particles (He 2+). The conclusion
of this experiment is given below:
(i) 99.9% space in the atom is empty as most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil.
(ii) A few positively charged α-particles are deflected. The deflection must be due to enormous
repulsive force showing that the positive charge. The positive charge has to be concentrated in a
very small volume that repelled and deflected the positively charged α-particles. This very small
region of the atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.
(iii) Calculations by Rutherford showed that the volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly
small as compared to the total volume of the atom. The diameter of the atom is about 10 ‒10 m
while that of nucleus is 10‒15 m.
10. Rutherford's nuclear model of atom
Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atom. According to this model:
(i) An atom consists of a tiny positively charged nucleus at its centre. The positive charge of the
nucleus is due to protons. The mass of the nucleus, on the other hand, is due to protons and
some neutral particles each having mass nearly equal to the mass of proton. This neutral
particle, called neutron.
(ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with very high speed in
circular paths called orbits. Thus, Rutherford's model of atom resembles the solar system in
which the sun plays the role of the nucleus and the planets that of revolving electrons.
Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
(iii) The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in it. Thus, the
total positive charge of the nucleus exactly balances the total negative charge in the atom
making it electrically neutral.
 Defects of Rutherford's Model
Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson Niels Henrik David Bohr (1885 –1962) was a Danish
(1871–1937) was a New Zealand physicist who physicist who made foundational contributions to
became known as the father of nuclear physics. In understanding atomic structure and quantum theory,
early work he discovered the concept of radioactive for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in
half-life, proved that radioactivity involved the nuclear 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter
transmutation of one chemical element to another. of scientific research.
This work was done at McGill University in Canada. He
was awarded Nobel Prize in 1908.
Nucleus
Electron
Orbit/ Shell
Carbon atom (Z=6)
Electron Proton Neutron
Rutherford model Bohr model
11. Bohr's model
To overcome the defects of Rutherford's model, Niels Bohr in 1913 gave a modification based
on Quantum theory. The important postulates are:
(i) The electrons rotate around the nucleus only in certain selected circular paths called orbits.
These orbits are associated with definite energies and are called energy levels or shell. Shell
are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. (starting from the nucleus) are designated as K, L, M, N ....etc.
(Figure 2).
M-Shell
Nucleus
L-Shell
K-Shell
+
n=1
n=2
n=3
Figure 2: Bohr's orbits
As long as an electron remains in a particular orbit, it does not lose or gain energy. This
means that energy of an electron in a particular orbit remains constant. Therefore, these
orbits are also called stationary states.
(ii) If an electron jumps from one stationary state to another, it will absorb or emit radiation
of a definite frequency giving a spectral line of that frequency which depends upon the initial
and final levels. When an electron jumps back to the lower energy level, it radiates same
amount of energy in the form of radiation.
8. What is Rutherford’s scattering experiment? What are its conclusions?

9. Discuss the postulates of Rutherford’s atomic model.
10. State the postulates of Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom.
11. Explain the followings:
(i) The atom contains electrically charged particles, yet they are neutral.
(ii) Orbits are also called stationary states.
Assignment work
A6 Naturally occurring chlorine is a mixture of the isotopes Cl-35 and Cl-37. How many
protons and how many neutrons are there in each isotope? How many electrons are there in
the neutral atoms?
A7 An atom contains 11 protons and 11 neutrons. What is the nuclide symbol for the nucleus?
A8 Give the atomic symbol for each of the following elements.
a. potassium
b. sulfur
c. iron
d. manganese
► Lecture-04
12. Quantum numbers

Quantum Numbers: Numbers which are used to describe the position of electrons of an atom
are called quantum numbers. To describe the orbits, subshells, orbitals and spin of an electron
four quantum numbers are necessary, which are denoted by n, l, m and s.
n Orbit/ Shell
l Subshell
m Orbitals
s spin (+1/2 or -1/2)
(i) Principal quantum number (n): Quantum numbers used to describe the orbits are called
principal quantum numbers. It is represented by the ‘n’. The value of n can be 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.
For the first orbit n = 1 and it is known as K-shell. Second, as L-shell, third as M-shell, fourth
as N-shell and so on. The K-shell is the orbit nearest to the nucleus and next one is second or
L-shell and so on. The maximum number of electron in an orbit can be calculated from the
value of ‘n’ using 2n2 formula. From this formula it is seen that K, L, M and N shells can
accommodate 2, 8, 18, 32 number of electrons respectively.
(ii) Subsidiary quantum number (l): Each shell contains some subshell. Quantum numbers
used to describe the subshells are called subsidiary quantum numbers. It is represented by
the ‘l’. The values of ‘l’ depend on ‘n’. The values of ‘l’ are 0 to (n‒1).
Thus if-
n=l, l=0 (1 subshell: 1s)
n=2, l=0, 1 (2 subshells: 2s, 2p)
n=3, l=0, 1, 2 (3 sub-subshells: 3s, 3p, 3d)
n=4, l=0, 1, 2, 3 (4 sub-subshells: 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f)
When l=0, 1, 2, 3 then subshells are called s, p, d, f respectively. The maximum number of
electron in a subshell can be calculated from the value of l using 2(2l+1) formula. From this
formula it is seen that s, p, d and f type subshells can accommodate 2, 6, 10, 14 electrons
respectively.
 Orbits & orbitals
Subshell Max
ℓ Shells containing it
label electrons
s 0 2 Every shell
p 1 6 2nd shell and higher
d 2 10 3rd shell and higher

f 3 14 4th shell and higher
(iii) Magnetic quantum number (m): Each subshell contains some orbitals. Quantum
numbers used to describe the orbitals are called magnetic quantum numbers. It is represented
by the ‘m’. The values of m are ‒l through zero to +l and thus there are (2l +1) values.
Thus when
l =0, m= 0 (only one orbital)
l =1, m= ‒1, 0, +1 (3 orbitals)
l =2, m= ‒2, ‒1, 0, +1, +2 (5 orbitals)
l =3, m= ‒3, ‒2, 1, 0, +1, +2, +3 (7 orbitals)
Table: Quantum numbers

Shell Subshell Orbitals
n =1,2,3,4…. l = 0 to (n − l) (m = −l to +l with 0)
1st orbit:
l=0 (1s) m=0 (1s)
n=1
l = 0 (2s)
nd m=0 (2s)
2 orbit:
n=2 = 1 (2p)
m= −1,0,+1 (2px,2py,2pz)
l = 0 (3s)
m = 0 (3s)
3rd orbit:
m = −1,0,+1 (3px,3py,3pz)
= 1 (3p)
n=3
m = −2, −1,0,+1,+2
(3dxy, 3dyz, 3dzx, 3dx2-y2, 3dz2)
= 2 (3d)
(iv)Spin quantum number (s): The electron in the atom rotates not only around the nucleus but
also around its own axis and two opposite directions of rotation are possible (clockwise and
anti-clockwise). Therefore the spin quantum number can have only two values +1/2 or ‒1/2.
For each values of m including zero, there will be two values for s.
13. Importance of Four Quantum Numbers
To sum up, the four quantum numbers provide the following information:
1. ‘n’ identifies the shell, determines the size of the orbital and also to a large extent the energy
of the orbit.
2. There are n numbers of subshells in the n-th shell. ‘l’ defines the subshell and determines the
shape of the orbital. There are (2l+1) orbitals of each type in a subshell. To some extent l also
determines the energy of the orbital in a multi-electron atom.
3. ‘m’ designates the orientation of the orbital. For a given value of l, m has (2l +1) values, the
same as the number of orbitals per subshell. It means that the number of orbitals is equal to the
number of ways in which they are oriented.
4. ‘s’ refers to orientation of the spin of the electron.
Example: What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number n=3?
Solution: For n = 3, the possible values of l are 0, 1 and 2. Thus, there is one 3s orbital (n = 3, l = 0 and
m; = 0); there are three p orbitals (n = 3, l = 1 and m;= -1, 0, 1) there are five 3d orbitals (n = 3, l = 2, m;
= -2, -1, 0, 1, 2). Therefore, the total number of orbitals is 1+3+5 = 9.
14. Subshells & orbitals

‘s-type’ orbitals: For s‒subshell, l = 0 and m = 0 indicating that there is only one orbitals. s-
orbitals are spherical in shape. The electron cloud picture of 1s and 2s are shown below. All
orbits contain s-type subshell. Hence we found 1s, 2s, 3s…. for first, second, third…. shell
respectively.
2s
1s
+ nucleus
‘p-type’ orbitals: For p-subshell, l=1 and m = ‒1, 0, +1 indicating that there are three orbitals.
Except first orbit all orbital contain p-type subshell. Three p‒orbitals are named as px, py and pz.
Each p‒orbital has two lobes. Each p‒orbital is thus dumbbell shaped.
z z
y y
x= x
p = px + py + pz
‘d-type’ orbitals: For d-subshell, l = 2 , m = ‒2, ‒1, 0, +1, +2 indicating that there are five
possible orientations of electron cloud in a d‒subshell. Five d-orbitals are named as d xy, dyz, dzx,
dz2 and dx2−y2. First and second orbit do not contain d-subshell.
y z z
x y x
dxy dyz dzx

y y
x x
dx2-y2 dz2
12. What are quantum numbers? Explain the importance of four quantum numbers to locate
the electrons in an atom.
13. Write short notes on (i) principal quantum number, and (ii) subsidiary quantum number.
14. How many electrons are possible in M-shell / N-shell / 3d subshell / 4f subshell?
15. Describe s, p, and d subshells with sketches of all orbitals showing the directional
characteristics.
Assignment work
A9. Give the values of the quantum numbers (n, l, and m) associated with the following
subshells: (i) 1s, (ii) 2p, (iii) 3d, and (iv) 4f subshells.
A10. What is the maximum number of electrons that can be present in the principal level for
which n =3?
A11. Determine the maximum number of electrons that can be found in each of the following
subshells: 3s, 3d, 4p, 4f, 5f.
CHAPTER-3
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION & PERIODIC TABLE
► Lecture-05
15. Pauli's exclusion principle

Pauli's exclusion principle states that—no two electrons in an atom will have four quantum
numbers identical. In other word, in each of the orbital there will be only two electrons with
opposite spin. One of the important applications of Pauli’s principal is that it helps us to calculate
the maximum number of electron in an orbit or subshell.
number of maximum number of

subshell ℓ
orbital electron
s 0 1 2×1=2, s 2
P 1 3 2×3=6, p 6
d 2 5 2×5=10, d 10
f 3 7 2×6=14, f 14
16. Building up principle or (n+l) rule

This is also known as Aufbau principle. The principles states: electrons first occupy the lowest-
energy orbital available to them and enter into higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy
orbitals are filled. The relative energy of a subshell can be calculated from the (n+l) value where
‘n’ is principle quantum number and ‘l’ is the subsidiary quantum number. The lower the value
of (n+l) for an orbital, the lower is its energy. If two orbitals have the same (n+l) value, the
orbital with lower value of ‘n’ has the lower energy. Hence the order in which the orbitals are
filled is as follows:
1s→2s→2p→3s→3p→4s→3d→4p→5s→4d…….
1s n=1 (K - Shell)
2s 2p n=2 (L - Shell)
3s 3p 3d n=3 (M - Shell)
4s 4p 4d 4f n=4 (N - Shell)
5s 5p 5d n=5 (O- Shell)
6s 6p n=6 (P - Shell)
7s n=7 (Q - Shell)
 Hund's principle
 Stability of orbitals
17. Electron configuration
(Practice electron configurtaion for the elments having atomic number 1-35.)
16. State the Pauli exclusion principle. Show how it leads to the conclusion that in a given principal
shell there can be only two s, six p, ten d, and fourteen f electrons.
17. Describe (n + l) rule. Using a diagram show how electrons are distributed in different
subshells following this rule.
18. Write electron configurations for the elements of (i) second period, (iv) alkali metals, and
(vi) halogens.
Assignment work
A12. Show the distribution of electrons in the atoms of X(12), Y(17), and Z(20). Identify the elements.
Predict their position in the periodic table and suggest some physical and chemical properties.
A13. Predict the position of these element in the periodic table and also mention some
properties: (i) Ca (20), (ii) S (16), (iii) Na (11), and (iv) Fe (26).
► Lecture-06
18. Periodic table

In 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev found that when elements were arranged in order
of atomic mass, they could place them in horizontal rows, one row under the other, so that the
elements in each vertical column have similar properties. The periodic table is a tabular
arrangement of the elements, organized on the basis of their atomic number, electron
configurations, and recurring chemical properties.
Elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number, which is typically listed with the
atomic symbol in each box. The standard form of the table consists of a grid of elements laid out
in 18 columns and 7 rows, with a double row of elements below that. The horizontal rows of the
table are called periods; the vertical columns are called groups, with some of these having
names such as halogens or noble gases. The table can also be presented into four rectangular
blocks: the s-block to the left, the p-block to the right, the d-block in the middle, and the f-block
below that.
19. Periodic classification of the elements

All elements of the periodic table are classified into four blocks on the basis of electron
configuration: s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block. The s-block comprises the first two groups
(alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. The p-block comprises
the last six groups which are groups 13 to 18. The d-block comprises groups 3 to 12 and contains
all of the transition metals. The f-block, often offset below the rest of the periodic table, has no
group numbers and comprises lanthanides and actinides.
20. Metals, nonmetals & metalloids
The elements of the periodic table can be divided as metals, nonmetals and metalloids as follows:
(i) A metal is a substance or mixture that has a characteristic luster, or shine, and is generally a
good conductor of heat and electricity. Except for mercury, the metallic elements are solids at
room temperature (about 20°C). They are more or less malleable (can be hammered into
sheets) and ductile (can be drawn into wire).
(ii) A nonmetal is an element that does not exhibit the characteristics of a metal. Most of the
nonmetals are gases (for example, chlorine and oxygen) or solids (for example, phosphorus
and sulfur). The solid nonmetals are usually hard, brittle substances. Bromine is the only
liquid nonmetal. Most of the elements bordering the staircase line in the periodic table are
metalloids, or semimetals.
(iii) A metalloid, or semimetal, is an element having both metallic and nonmetallic

properties. These elements, such as silicon (Si), are usually good semiconductors—elements
that, when pure, are poor conductors of electricity at room temperature but become
moderately good conductors at higher temperatures.
 Periodic Law  Periodic trends

21. Atomic radius
A number of physical properties, including density, melting point, and boiling point, are related
to the sizes of atoms. Atomic radius is used to measure the size of atoms. Atomic radius is
defined as the average distance between the nucleus and valance shell electrons.
In the periodic table, the atomic radius decreases when we move left to right in a period. Because
the effective nuclear charge increases from left to right, the valence shell electrons are more
strongly attracted by the nucleus than the one before. Therefore, the atomic radius decreases
from Li to Ne. Within a group, we find that atomic radius increases with atomic number. When
we move top to bottom in a group, in every case, a new shell is added which cause the increment
of atomic radius. So, the atomic radius increases from Li to Cs.
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na
in a period atomic
radius decreases
K
in a group atomic
Rb
radius increases
Cs
 Ionic Radius  Ionization Energy  Electron Affinity  Electronegativity
Figure 2: Sketch of Periodic Table showing s, p, d, and f-block elements.
Figure 2: Lewis electron dot diagrams
22. Properties of oxides across a period
Most oxides can be classified as acidic or basic depending on whether they produce acids or
bases when dissolved in water or react as acids or bases in certain processes. Some oxides are
amphoteric, which means that they display both acidic and basic properties.
The first two oxides of the third period, Na 2O and MgO, are basic oxides. Thus, Al2O3 is
classified as an amphoteric oxide because it has properties of both acids and bases. Other
amphoteric oxides are ZnO, BeO, and Bi2O3
Silicon dioxide is insoluble and does not react with water. It has acidic properties. However, it
reacts with very concentrated bases. The remaining third-period oxides are acidic. They react
with water to form phosphoric acid (H3PO4), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and perchloric acid (HClO4).
Oxides of metals → usually basic
Oxides of nonmetals oxides → acidic
This brief examination of oxides of the third-period elements shows that as the metallic
character of the elements decreases from left to right in a period.
23. Valence shell & valence electron

The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom. It is usually said that the electrons in this
shell make up its valence electrons, that is, the electrons that determine how the atom behaves in
chemical reactions. In chemistry, a valence electron is an electron that is associated with an
atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond. An atom with a closed shell
of valence electrons (corresponding to an electron configuration s2p6) tends to be chemically
inert.
Groups Valence electrons
Group 1 (alkali metals) 1
Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) 2
Group 13 (boron group) 3
Group 14 (carbon group) 4
Group 15 (nitrogen group) 5
Group 16 (oxygen group) 6
Group 17 (halogens) 7
Group 18 (noble gases) 8
24. Lewis electron dot diagrams

Elements within the same group have the same electron-dot structure. Figure-2 represents the
electron-dot diagram for the first, second and third period elements.
19. What is periodic table? Classify the elements based on electronic configurations.
20. Draw a rough sketch of a periodic table (no details are required). Indicate where s-block, p-
block, d-block and f-block elements are located.
21. Define atomic radius. How does atomic radius change in the periodic table?
22. What short notes on valance shell and Lewis electron dot diagram.
Assignment work
A14. Define valence electrons. For representative elements, the number of valence electrons of an
element is equal to its group number. Show that this is true for the following elements:
Al, Mg, K, Br, P, S, C.
FINAL-TERM
4. Inorganic materials
5. Organic materials
6. Chemistry of Cosmetics & Personal Care Products
CHAPTER-4
INORGANIC MATERIALS
► Lecture-1+2
1. Types of Inorganic Reactions
Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science. Many inorganic compounds are ionic
compounds, consisting of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding. Inorganic comounds play
important role in the economy of a country. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical
industry–including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medicine, fuel,
and agriculture. The manufacturing of fertilizers is another practical application of industrial
inorganic chemistry.
2. Acid, Base & Salt

Acids and bases are some of the most important electrolytes. You can recognize acids and bases
by some simple properties. Acids have a sour taste. Solutions of bases, on the other hand, have a
bitter taste and a soapy feel.
According to Arrhenius, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H +, when it

dissolves in water. An example is nitric acid, HNO3,
An Arrhenius base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions, OH, when it dissolves in water.
For example, sodium hydroxide is a base.
3. Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
Acids and bases are classified as strong or weak, depending on whether they are strong or weak
electrolytes. A strong acid is an acid that ionizes completely in water; it is a strong electrolyte.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl (aq), and nitric acid, HNO3 (aq), are examples of strong acids.
A weak acid is an acid that only partly ionizes in water; it is a weak electrolyte. Examples of
weak acids are hydrocyanic acid, HCN(aq), and hydrofluoric acid, HF(aq). These molecules
react with water to produce a small percentage of ions in solution.
A strong base is a base that is present in aqueous solution entirely as ions, one of which is OH;
it is a strong electrolyte. The ionic compound sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is an example of a
strong base.
A weak base is a base that is only partly ionized in water; it is a weak electrolyte. Ammonia,
NH3, is an example.
We will now present some of the important inorganic compounds that are quite familiar to us.
4. Water
The formula of water is H2O. It is composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Each
hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to the oxygen atom.
Water is a polar molecule, meaning that there is an uneven distribution of electrons between
atoms. Water has a partial negative charge (δ‒) near the oxygen atom and partial positive charges
(δ+) near the hydrogen atoms. An weak electrostatic attraction between hydrogen atom of a water
molecule and oxygen atom of another water molecule results in the formation of a hydrogen
bond as shown in the illustration.
The ability of ions and other molecules to dissolve in water is due to polarity. For example, NaCl
is crystalline and dissolved in water.
The unique physical properties, including a high heat of vaporization, strong surface tension,
high specific heat, and nearly universal solvent properties of water are also due to hydrogen
bonding.
 Water pollution
5. Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride, also known as table salt, is an ionic compound with the chemical formula
NaCl. In solid sodium chloride, each ion is surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge. The
attraction between the Na+ and Cl− ions in the solid is so strong that only highly polar solvents
like water dissolve NaCl well.
Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible for the salinity of seawater. In the form of edible or
table salt it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative. Large quantities of sodium
chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a major source of sodium and chlorine
compounds used as feedstock for further chemical synthesis. A second major consumer of
sodium chloride is de-icing of roadways in sub-freezing weather.
It is the raw material for the chloralkali industry, which provides the world with chlorine and
sodium hydroxide according to the electrochemical process.
2 NaCl + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH
6. Sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as caustic soda, is an inorganic compound. It is a white
solid and strong base which is available in pellets, flakes, granules, and as prepared solutions at
a number of different concentrations.
Sodium hydroxide reacts with protic acids to produce water and the corresponding salts. For
example, when sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride is formed:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries, mostly as a strong base in the manufacture of pulp
and paper, textiles, drinking water, soaps and detergents and as a drain cleaner.
7. Sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda, soda ash), Na2CO3, is the sodium salt of
carbonic acid.
Solvay process: In 1861, the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay developed a method to
convert sodium chloride to sodium carbonate using ammonia.
At the top of the reaction chamber, a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia are
entered. As the carbon dioxide bubbled up through it, sodium bicarbonate precipitated:
NaCl+NH3+ CO2+ H2O → NaHCO3+NH4Cl
The sodium bicarbonate is then converted to sodium carbonate by heating it, releasing water and
carbon dioxide:
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
The manufacture of glass is one of the most important uses of sodium carbonate. It is a common
additive in municipal pools used to neutralize the corrosive effects of chlorine and raise the pH.
8. Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate is the chemical compound with the formula NaHCO 3. Sodium bicarbonate is
a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It has a slightly salty, alkaline
taste resembling that of sodium carbonate. Since it has long been known and is widely used, the
salt has many related names such as baking soda.
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid (found in vinegar), producing sodium acetate, water,
and carbon dioxide:
NaHCO3 + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Sodium bicarbonate is used in a process for removing paint and corrosion called sodablasting. It
can be administered to pools, spas, and garden ponds to raise pH levels. It has weak disinfectant
properties. Because baking soda will absorb musty smells, it has become a reliable method for
used-book sellers. Sodium bicarbonate, referred to as "baking soda", is primarily used in cooking
(baking), as a leavening agent. It reacts with acidic components in batters, releasing carbon
dioxide, which causes expansion of the batter. Sodium bicarbonate mixed with water can be used
as an antacid to treat acid indigestion and heartburn. Toothpaste containing sodium bicarbonate
has in several studies shown to have a better whitening and plaque removal effect than
toothpastes without it.
Antacid
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is one of the substances found in gastric juices secreted by the stomach.
HCl is needed by the enzyme pepsin to catalyze the digestion of proteins in the food we eat.
Heartburn is a symptom that results when the stomach produces too much acid (hyperacidity).
Antacids are available over the counter and are taken by mouth to quickly relieve occasional
heartburn, the major symptom of gastric reflux disease. Antacids are bases used to neutralize
the acid that causes heartburn. Despite the many commercial brand, almost all antacids act on
excess stomach acid by neutralizing it with weak bases. The most common of these bases are
hydroxides, carbonates, or bicarbonates. The following compounds are found in several common
commercial antacids:
(i) aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3
(ii) calcium carbonate, CaCO3
(iii) magnesium carbonate, MgCO3
(iv) magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
(v) sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3.
9. Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with the formula NaClO. It is composed of a
sodium cation (Na+) and a hypochlorite anion (ClO−). When dissolved in water it is commonly
known as liquid bleach.
Household bleach is, in general, a solution containing 3–8% sodium hypochlorite and 0.01–
0.05% sodium hydroxide. Sodium hydroxide is used to slow down the decomposition of sodium
hypochlorite into sodium chloride and sodium chlorate.
10. Hydrogen chloride

The compound hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula HCl. At room temperature, it is a
colorless gas, which forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric
humidity. Hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid are important in technology and industry.
Hydrochloric acid, the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride, is also commonly given the
formula HCl.
Hydrogen chloride is a diatomic molecule, consisting of a hydrogen atom (H) and a chlorine
atom (Cl) connected by a single covalent bond. Since the chlorine atom is much more
electronegative than the hydrogen atom, the covalent bond between the two atoms is quite polar.
Consequently, the molecule has a large dipole moment with a partial negative charge (δ −) at the
chlorine atom and a partial positive charge (δ+) at the hydrogen atom. In part because of its high
polarity, HCl is very soluble in water.
11. Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH 3. It is a colourless gas
with a characteristic pungent smell. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building-
block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals and is used in many commercial cleaning
products.
One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its basicity. Ammonia is considered to be
a weak base. It combines with acids to form salts; thus with hydrochloric acid it forms
ammonium chloride; with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, etc.
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
Household ammonia is a solution of NH3 in water used as a general purpose cleaner for many
surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-free shine, one of its most common uses
is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. Because of ammonia's vaporization properties, it is
a useful refrigerant. It was commonly used prior to the popularisation of chlorofluorocarbons
(Freons).
12. Sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H 2SO4. It is a
colorless to slightly yellow viscous liquid which is soluble in water at all concentrations. The
historical name of this acid is oil of vitriol.
Mass fraction Common name of H2SO4

10% dilute sulphuric acid
29–32% battery acid
62–70% fertilizer acid
78–80% Glover acid
98% concentrated sulphuric
acid
13. Potassium aluminum sulphate

Potassium alum or potassium aluminum sulphate is a chemical compound with the formula
KAl(SO4)2. It is commonly found in its dodecahydrate form as KAl(SO 4)2.12(H2O). Alum is the
common name for this chemical compound. It is commonly used:
o in water purification
o as a styptic and antiseptic
o as a natural deodorant
o after shaving to prepare the skin
o to reduce bleeding in minor cuts
o in fire-proof textiles
o in tanning of leather.
14. Calcium hypochlorite
Calcium hypochlorite is an inorganic compound with formula Ca(ClO)2. As a mixture with lime
and calcium chloride, it is marketed as bleaching powder for water treatment and as a bleaching
agent. This compound is relatively stable and has greater available chlorine than sodium
hypochlorite (liquid bleach). It is a white solid, although commercial samples appear yellow. It
strongly smells of chlorine, owing to its slow decomposition in moist air.
2Cl2+2Ca(OH)2 → Ca(OCl)2+CaCl2+2H2O
Calcium hypochlorite is commonly used to disinfect public swimming pools and disinfect
drinking water. For instance as a swimming pool chemical it is often mixed with cyanuric acid
stabilizers and anti-scaling agents (in order to reduce the loss of chlorine from ultraviolet
radiation and to prevent calcium hardening). Calcium hypochlorite is also used in kitchens to
disinfect surfaces and equipment. Other common uses include bathroom cleansers, household
disinfectant sprays, algaecides, herbicides, and laundry detergents.
15. Magnesium sulphate

Magnesium sulphate is an inorganic salt with the formula MgSO4. Magnesium sulphate is highly
soluble in water. The anhydrous form is strongly hygroscopic. It is often encountered as the
heptahydrate magnesium sulphate (MgSO4·7H2O), commonly called Epsom salt.
Magnesium sulphate is used as the electrolyte to prepare copper sulphate. A magnesium sulphate
solution is electrolyzed with a copper anode to form copper sulphate, magnesium hydroxide, and
hydrogen:
Cu + MgSO4 + 2 H2O → H2 + CuSO4 + Mg(OH)2
Anhydrous magnesium sulphate is used as a drying agent. Epsom salt has been traditionally used
as a component of bath salts. Epsom salt can also be used as a beauty product. Athletes use it to
soothe sore muscles, while gardeners use it to improve crops. It has a variety of other uses.
Bath salts
Bath salts are water-soluble, pulverized minerals added to water to be used for bathing. They are
said to improve cleaning, enhance the enjoyment of bathing, and serve as a vehicle for cosmetic
agents. Bath salts have been developed which mimic the properties of natural mineral baths or
hot springs.
16. Copper(II) sulphate

Copper (II) sulphate is the chemical compound with the chemical formula CuSO 4. The
anhydrous form is a pale green or gray-white powder, whereas the pentahydrate (CuSO 4·5H2O),
the most commonly encountered salt, is bright blue. Copper (II) sulphate exothermically
dissolves in water to give the aquo complex. Other names for copper(II) sulphate is "blue
vitriol".
17. Zinc oxide
Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula ZnO. It is widely used as an additive in
numerous materials and products including rubbers, plastics, ceramics, glass, cement, lubricants,
paints, ointments, adhesives, sealants, pigments, foods, batteries, ferrites, fire retardants, and
first-aid tapes. It occurs naturally as the mineral zincite, but most zinc oxide is produced
synthetically.
Pure ZnO presents as a white powder. Zinc oxide is an amphoteric oxide. It is nearly insoluble
in water, but it is soluble in most acids, such as hydrochloric acid.
Lecture-1
1. What are inorganic compounds? Write some importance of inorganic chemistry.
2. Define acids, bases and salt with examples. Write properties of acids and bases.
3. Write short note on pH scale. Give two examples of i) weak acids, ii) strong acids, iii) weak
bases, and iv) strong bases.
Lecture-2
4. Write the formula for the following inorganic materials (any four): table salt, caustic soda,
washing soda, baking soda, liquid bleach, borax, epsom salt, an blue vitriol
5. Describe briefly/Answer the following short questions:
(i) Water is a polar covalent molecule-explain.
(ii) Why does ice float on water? -explain.
(iii) What do you understand by hard and soft water?
(iv) Graphite conduct electricity but diamond do not-explain.
(v) What is sand? How glass is formed from sand?
(vi) Why NaOH is not used as glass cleaner?
(vii) Antacids are used to relieve heartburn-explain.
(viii) What will happen if you add vinegar with baking soda?
Assignment work
B1. What are cations and anions? List some cations and anions showing their chemical formula
and actual charge.
B2. Write the main types of inorganic reaction with an appropriate example.
B3. Sodium chloride is an ionic compound-explain.
CHAPTER-5
ORGANIC MATERIALS
Part-A: Organic compounds

► Lecture-3
18. Organic compounds

An important class of molecular substances that contain carbon combined with other elements,
such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen is organic compounds. Organic chemistry is the area of
chemistry that is concerned with these compounds. Organic chemistry is defined as the study of
carbon compounds. But some compounds (CaCO3, KCN, CaC2, CO and CO2) of carbon are
treated as inorganic compounds.
 Hydrocarbons
19. Differences between organic & inorganic compounds

The primary difference between organic compounds and inorganic compounds is that organic
compounds always contain carbon while most inorganic compounds do not contain carbon.
Table: Differences between organic and inorganic compounds
Organic Inorganic
Low melting and High melting and
boiling points boiling points
Low solubility in water High solubility in water
but high solubility in but low solubility in
nonpolar solvents nonpolar solvents
Flammable Nonflammable
Solutions are non- Solutions are
conductors of conductors of
electricity electricity
Chemical reactions are Chemical reactions are
usually slow rapid
Exhibit covalent
Exhibit ionic bonding
bonding
 Classification of organic compounds

20. Functional group & homologous series
The functional group may be defined as the part of the organic molecule which determines its
chemical nature and also actively participate in the reactions. The examples are hydroxyl group
(–OH), aldehyde group (–CHO) and carboxylic acid group (–COOH) etc.
A group or a series of organic compounds each containing a characteristic functional group

forms a homologous series and the members of the series are called homologues.
Saturated organic compounds are "saturated" with hydrogen — all available places where
hydrogen atoms could be bonded to carbon atoms are occupied. Unsaturated compounds have
double bonds (C=C) between carbon atoms, reducing the number of places where hydrogen
atoms can bond to carbon atoms. Saturated compounds have single bonds (C‒C) between the
carbon atoms, and the other bond is bound to hydrogen atoms.
21. Alkane
In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin, is a saturated hydrocarbon. Alkanes consist only of
hydrogen and carbon atoms and all bonds are single bonds. Alkanes have the general chemical
formula CnH2n+2. Alkanes belong to a homologous series of organic compounds in which the
members differ by a methylene group (‒CH 2‒). There are two main commercial sources:
petroleum and natural gas. The members of the alkane series (in terms of number of carbon
atoms) are named as follows:
Methane, CH4 - one carbon and four hydrogen
Ethane, C2H6 - two carbon and six hydrogen
Propane, C3H8 - three carbon and 8 hydrogen
Butane, C4H10 - four carbon and 10 hydrogen
Pentane, C5H12 - five carbon and 12 hydrogen
Hexane, C6H14 - six carbon and 14 hydrogen
 Paraffin  Alkyl group/chain
22. Applications of alkanes
(i) The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes and in some
countries for electricity generation. Methane and ethane are the main components of natural
gas.
(ii) LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) and CNG (compressed natural gas), the main sources of
energy for domestic fuels and the automobile industry, are obtained from alkanes.
(iii) From pentane to octane the alkanes are reasonably volatile liquids. They are used as
fuels in internal combustion engines. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred than their
straight-chain homologues.
(iv)Alkanes from nonane (C9) to, for instance, hexadecane (C16) are liquids of higher viscosity,
less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of diesel and
aviation fuel.
(v) Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and
lubricating oil.
(vi)Many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax, for example, in candles. This should not be
confused however with true wax, which consists primarily of esters.
(vii) Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in
bitumen, used, for example, in road surfacing.
Petroleum jelly
Petroleum jelly, petrolatum or soft paraffin, is a semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons (with carbon
numbers mainly higher than 25), originally promoted as a topical ointment for its healing
properties.
Comparison with glycerol: Because they feel similar when applied to human skin, there is a
common misconception that petroleum jelly and glycerol (glycerin) are physically similar.
Petroleum jelly is a non-polar hydrocarbon and insoluble in water. Glycerol is not a hydrocarbon.
It is an alcohol that is strongly hydrophilic (water-attracting): By continuously absorbing
moisture from the air, it produces the feeling of wetness on the skin. This feeling of wetness is
similar to the feeling of greasiness produced by petroleum jelly.
*Vaseline is a brand of petroleum jelly based products owned by Anglo-Dutch company
Unilever.
23. Ethanol(C2H5OH)
Commonly referred to simply as alcohol or spirits, ethanol is also called ethyl alcohol, and
drinking alcohol. It is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, produced by the
fermentation of sugars by yeasts. It is a neurotoxic psychoactive drug and one of the oldest
recreational drugs used by humans. Ethanol is used as a solvent, an antiseptic and a fuel. It is a
volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a strong chemical odor. Its structural formula is
C2H5OH.
Alcohols
Alcohols are compounds of the general formula ROH, where R is any alkyl or substituted alkyl
group. The group may be primary, secondary, or tertiary; it may be open-chain or cyclic. All
alcohols contain the hydroxyl (—OH) group, which, determines the properties of this family.
General formula of alcohol is R—OH.
24. Formaldehyde (HCHO)

Formaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula HCHO. It is the simplest aldehyde and
is also known by its systematic name methanal.
A gas at room temperature, formaldehyde is colorless and has a characteristic pungent, irritating
odor. It is an important precursor to many other materials and chemical compounds. 30–40%
aqueous solution of formaldehyde is called formalin. Formalin was formerly used as
disinfectants and for preservation of biological specimens. It is also used for the embalming of
human remains. It is commonly used in nail hardeners and/or nail varnish.
25. Acetic acid (CH3COOH)

Acetic acid (ethanoic acid) is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH 3COOH. It is a
colourless liquid that when undiluted is also called glacial acetic acid. Acetic acid has a
distinctive sour taste and pungent smell. Besides its production as household vinegar, it is mainly
produced as a precursor to polyvinylacetate and cellulose acetate. Although it is classified as a
weak acid, concentrated acetic acid is corrosive and can attack the skin.
Fatty acids
A carboxylic acid is a compound containing the carboxyl group, ‒COOH. Carboxylic acids may
be aliphatic (R‒COOH) or aromatic (Ar‒COOH). Large numbers of carboxylic acids are found
in nature. Higher members of aliphatic carboxylic acids (C12 – C18) known as fatty acids, occur in
natural fats as esters of glycerol.
6-10% aqueous solution of acetic acid is called Vinegar. Vinegar is produced by the
fermentation of ethanol by enzymes. It is now mainly used as a cooking ingredient. Historically,
as the most easily available mild acid, it had a great variety of industrial, medical, and domestic
uses, some of which (such as its use as a general household cleanser) are still promoted today.
 Enzymes
6. Define organic chemistry. Write differences between organic and inorganic compounds.
7. What is functional group? Write important applications of alkanes.
8. Define alkane, alcohols and fatty acids with examples. What do you understand by saturated and
unsaturated compounds?
9. What are formalin and vinegar? How petroleum jelly and glycerol differ chemically.
Assignment work
B4. Expand the following structural representations so as to more clearly show all the atoms.
► Lecture-4
Part-B: Oils & fats
Triglyceride
A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids. Unsaturated triglycerides
have a lower melting point and are more likely to be liquid at room temperature. Saturated
triglycerides have a higher melting point and are more likely to be solid at room temperature.
Triglycerides are the main constituents of vegetable oil (typically more unsaturated) and animal
fats (typically more saturated).
Triglyceride
Glycerol head Glycerol head
Fatty acid
tails
Carbon-carbon
double bond
Fat Oil
26. Oils & fats

There is no major difference between an oil and fat if we compare their chemical properties. All
natural fats and oils consist of mixed glycerides. The difference between a fat and oil is merely
physical one of consistency. Those melting above 20°C are called fats by convention and those
melting below 20°C are called oils. Oils contain a large proportion of glycerides of unsaturated
acids, while fats contain a large proportion of saturated fatty acids. Coconut oil and ghee are fat
in winter and oil in summer. The fatty acids in natural fats and oils have almost invariably an
even number of carbon atoms. It is not so in case of synthetic fats.
Industrial uses of oils and fats

Animal fats: Soaps, greases, paints, varnishes, syndets, fatty acids, and plasticizers.
Coconut oil: Fatty alcohols, soaps, and detergents
Soybean oil: Paints, varnishes, floor coverings, lubricants, and greases.
Castor oil: Protective coatings, plastics, plasticizers, lubricants, hydraulic fluids.
Tall oil: Soaps, leather, paint, emulsifiers, adhesives, ink.
27. Properties of oils & fats
The properties of oils and fats are given below:
(i) Oils and fats have no taste, odour or any colour in pure state.
(ii) Oils are liquid at ordinary temperatures and have low volatility.
(iii) Because of long hydrocarbon chains such compounds are generally insoluble in water.
(iv) When agitated with water in presence of an emulsifying agent, they, however, form an
emulsion.
(v) Oils and fats undergo hydrolysis with acids, alkalies and high pressure steam to produce
glycerine and a carboxylic acid.
(vi) Oils are more unsaturated than fats.
28. Classifications of oils & fats

There are two broad classifications for the oils and fats: edible and inedible. The various edible
oils, cotton seed, olive, soybean etc. are employed for salad dressings, other table uses and for
cooking purposes. The hydrogenated fats for cooking and baking include various vegetable oils,
such as cotton seed, soybean peanut etc. This is due to the fact that hydrogenation improves the
colour, flavor and odour of the crude oil. Inedible oils, including tallow, coconut oil, palm oil
and certain greases are used for making soaps. The drying oil industries, including paints and
varnishes consume about 10% of inedible oils. Caster, linseed, soybean, rape seed and cotton
seed oil are used as plasticizers for lacquers and polymers. Oils have also been used for many
other purposes as in the manufacture of lubricants and greases, various polishes, creams and
emulsions etc.,
Depending on the nature of carbon chain, vegetable oils can also be classified as non-drying oils,
semi-drying oils and drying oils.
29. Mineral oil

These oils are generally isolated from petroleum and hence they are mineral in origin. These are
mixtures of various hydrocarbons of different molecular weights and varying degrees of
volatilities. These arc used as illuminants, as fuels in automobiles and power industry, as starting
material for gaseous fuels as a source of petrochemicals and fertilizers, as solvents in dry
cleaning, as source of carbon black and for making lubricants of various grades. Example of
mineral oil is kerosene oil. Animal and vegetable oils and fats are quite different from mineral
oils, such as kerosene oil, lubricating oils etc., which are mixtures of hydrocarbons.
30. Essential oils

These are pleasant smelling highly volatile liquids, widely distributed in various types of plants,
and are also known as volatile liquids. Examples are, turpentine oil, oil of cloves, oil of
eucalyptus etc. Common natural sources of these oils are buds, flower petals, barks, leaves, roots
etc. Their chemical origin varies widely because of the different functional group present in
them. For example, linalool (sandal oil, lavender oil) contains alcoholic groups (–OH), citral
(lemon grass oil) contains aldehyde group (–CHO) and eucalyptus oil of winter green contains
ester group (–COOR).
Essential oils are widely used in making perfumes, toilet waters, chewing gums, tooth pastes,
beverages and in the manufacture of lacquers, inks, varnishes, greases, lubricating oils, etc.
31. Waxes
Waxes are esters of fatty acids with long chain monohydric alcohols (one hydroxyl group).
Natural waxes are often mixtures of such esters, and may also contain hydrocarbons. The known
waxes are listed below:
• Animal waxes: Beeswax, lanolin.
• Plant waxes: Carnauba, candelilla, jojoba.
• Mineral waxes: Paraffin wax or petrolatum.
• Synthetic waxes: Polyethylene, carbowax.
Waxes are widely distributed in nature. The leaves and fruits of many plants have waxy coatings,
which may protect them from dehydration and small predators. The feathers of birds and the fur
of some animals have similar coatings which serve as a water repellent. Carnauba wax is valued
for its toughness and water resistance.
Structure of beeswax
32. Properties of waxes

Waxes are solids varying from a stiff oily material such as lanolin to the hard high melting
carnauba wax. They may be crystalline or amorphous. They are insoluble in water. Waxes
usually give more or less glossy films in thin layers. The hydrophobic carbon chains in waxes
may be straight or branched and the length of the individual branches may vary considerably,
causing variation in properties such as viscosity and melting point.
Chemically waxes are of various types and are often mixtures. For example, beeswax is mainly
an ester but contains 11-13% hydrocarbons and about 13% free fatty acids. In terms of function,
the waxes:
(a) Form water repellent films because of hydrophobic carbon chains in the structure.
(b) Improve the emolliency of oils by increasing the melting point of the film on the skin,
because waxes are oil soluble.
(c) Act as emulsifying agent or as auxiliary emulsifiers in some cases.
(d) Act, in general, as thickening agent and in many cases improve the smoothness and general
texture of emulsion cream in cosmetics.
(e) Give gloss and good moulding properties in products such as lipsticks.
Part-B: Oils, Fats, Soap & detergent

10. Define triglycerides, oils and fats. Discuss the properties of oils and fats.
11. Write short notes on (i) mineral oil and (ii) essential oil.
12. What are waxes? Write the properties of waxes.
► Lecture-4
Part-C: Soap & detergent
33. Surfactant
Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension between two liquids or between a
liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents,
and dispersants. Surfactants are usually organic compounds that both hydrophobic groups (their
tails) and hydrophilic groups (their heads). Therefore, a surfactant contains both water-soluble
and water-insoluble component. Examples of surfactant agents are soap and detergent.
34. Soap
In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soaps are mainly used as surfactants for washing,
bathing, and cleaning, but they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of
lubricants. Sodium stearate comprises about 50% of commercial surfactants.
O
-
O Na+
a soap
(sodium stearate)
Manufacture of soap: Soaps for cleansing are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and
fats with a strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides. The alkaline
solution brings about a chemical reaction known as saponification. In this reaction, the
triglyceride fats are hydrolyzed into free fatty acids, and then these combine with the alkali to
form crude soap, excess fat or alkali, water, and liberated glycerol (also known as glycerin). The
glycerin is a useful by-product, which can be left in the soap product as a softening agent, or
isolated for other uses.
The type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from
NaOH, are hard, whereas potassium soaps, derived from KOH, are softer or often liquid.
Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases.
35. Detergent
A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with "cleaning properties in dilute
solutions." These substances are usually alkylbenzenesulphonates (ABS), a family of compounds
that are similar to soap but are more soluble in hard water, because the polar sulphonate (of
detergents) is less likely than the polar carboxyl (of soap) to bind to calcium and other ions found
in hard water. In most household contexts, the term detergent by itself refers specifically to
laundry detergent or dish detergent, as opposed to hand soap or other types of cleaning agents.
Detergents are commonly available as powders or concentrated solutions. Detergents, like soaps,
work because they are partly hydrophilic (polar) and partly hydrophobic (non-polar). Their dual
nature facilitates the mixture of hydrophobic compounds (like oil and grease) with water.
Because air is not hydrophilic, detergents are also foaming agents to varying degrees.
36. Classification of detergents
Detergents are classified into three types, depending on the electrical charge of the surfactants.
(i) Anionic detergents: Typical anionic detergents are alkylbenzenesulphonates. The

alkylbenzene portion of these anions is hydrophobic and the sulphonate is hydrophilic. Two
different varieties have been popularized, those with branched alkyl groups and those with linear
alkyl groups.
+
SO 3Na
an anionic detergent
(sodium p-dodecylbenzenesulphonate)
(ii) Cationic detergents: Cationic detergents are similar to the anionic ones, with a hydrophobic
component, but, instead of the anionic sulphonate group, the cationic surfactants have quaternary
ammonium as the polar end. The ammonium center is positively charged.
+
N(CH3 )3 Cl
a cationic detergent
(hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride)
(iii) Non-ionic detergents: Non-ionic detergents are characterized by their uncharged,

hydrophilic headgroups. Typical non-ionic detergents are based on polyoxyethylene or a
glycoside.
O
O OH
a nonionic detergent
di(ethylene glycol)dodecyl ether
37. Differences between soaps & detergents

Differences between soap and detergent are given below.
Soaps Detergents
Petroleum derivatives and can be obtained
Obtained from vegetable or animal oils.
synthetically.
Because of being natural they do not affect
They affect the human body.
human body.
Do not cause water pollution. Cause water pollution.
The metal ions in hard water to form
Ions in hard water are affected very little.
precipitate
They damage clothing. They do not damage clothing a lot.
More effective with warm water. Even in cold water they clean well.
Used for thousands of years. Widely used in the last 60-70 years.
38. Cleansing action of soap & detergent
When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water and then be
rinsed away. For example: oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap
are added to the mixture, the oil/fat apparently disappears. The insoluble oil/fat molecules
become associated inside micelles, tiny spheres formed from soap molecules with polar
hydrophilic (water-attracting) groups on the outside and encasing a lipophilic (fat-attracting)
pocket, which shields the oil/fat molecules from the water making it soluble. Anything that is
soluble will be washed away with the water. Synthetic detergents operate by similar mechanisms
to soap.
Micell
39. Cleaning agent
Cleaning agents are substances, usually liquids, powders, sprays, or granules, that are used to
remove dirt, including dust, stains, bad smells, and clutter on surfaces. Purposes of cleaning
agents include health, beauty, absence of offensive odor, avoidance of shame, and avoiding the
spreading of dirt and contaminants to oneself and others.
Some of the common cleaning agents are given below:
(i) water (the most common cleaning agent),
(ii) carbon tetrachloride,
(iii) ammonia,
(iv)borax,
(v) chromic acid, and
(vi)ethanol.

13. What is soap? Write the differences between soap and detergents.
14. Define detergents. Discuss the classification of detergents with examples.
15. What do you understand by surfactant? Write the mechanism of cleansing action of soap and
detergent in water.
Part-D: Polymer & plastic
40. Polymer
A polymer is a long molecule which contains a chain of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
It is produced through a process known as polymerization whereby monomer molecules react
together chemically to form either a linear chains or three dimensional network. The fundamental
process by which low molecular weight compounds are converted into high molecular weight
compounds is called polymerization. This process is illustrated below:
High temp,
Low molecular
and/or High
weight material
pressure molecular
(possessing
weight
two or more
and/or material
reactive groups)
catalyst
41. Classifications of polymers

The bases of classification and major classes of polymers are given below:
o Origin: Natural, synthetic.
o Thermal response: Thermoplastic, thermosetting.
o Mode of formation: Addition, condensation.
o Line structure: Linear, branched, cross-linked.
o Application: Rubbers, plastics, fibres.
Natural polymeric materials such as wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries.
A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of
cotton, wood and paper.
The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, phenol formaldehyde resin (also
known as bakelite), nylon, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene, polyethylene and many more.
polyethylene PVC
Classification of polymer based on application:
(i) Rubbers: These polymers are characterized by long-range elasticity. On consideration of

mechanical strength, they are rather weak, dimensionally unstable and undergo high elongations
even on application of low stresses. Examples are natural rubber and synthetic rubbers. They are
also known as elastomers. Technically, rubbers become useful if cross-linked to the desired
extent. This cross-linking of rubber is commonly known as vulcanization.
Vulcanized rubber
The rubbery polymers are characterized by low molar cohesion. Some of the requirements for
elastomers are given below:
(i) It should be a high polymer.
(ii) It must be cross-linked and amorphous.
(iii) It should have flexibility of chains.
(ii) Plastic: If a substance during its stage of manufacture has passed through a plastics condition
(is capable of flowing), it is called a plastic. Plastics can be divided into two classes:
(i) thermoplastics,
(ii) thermosetting.
Thermoplastic Thermosetting
Thermoplastic resins are those which under the influence of heat and sometimes of pressure
become plastic (can flow) and can be moulded into different shapes under this condition. They
retain their shapes on cooling. They can be remoulded into different shapes on heating. Examples
are polystyrene and cellulose acetate.
Polystyrene
Thermosetting resins are those that under the influence of heat and pressure become soft and
can be moulded into different shapes. On further heating, they become hard and infusible on
account of chemical change. They retain their shapes and cannot be remoulded. Examples are
phenol-formaldehyde, melamine resin and urea-formaldehyde resins.
Melamine resin
(iii) Fibres: They are the strongest of the three different types of polymers mentioned here. The
suitability of fibres, natural or synthetic, for use as textile materials is unique and it is associated
not only with their high mechanical strength but also with other useful properties such as warmth
or thermal insulation, softness and flexibility. Cotton cellulose, wool, silk, synthetic polyamides
and polyester fibers, nylon 6:6 and acrylic fibers fall in this class of polymers.
H2 H2
H2
O H
O
N
N N
H O
H
O H O
N
N N
H O H
H2 H2 H2
Nylon 6:6
Assignment work
Part-D: Polymer & plastic

B5. Define polymer. Classify the plastics materials based on their thermal response.
B6. Draw the structure of melamine resin, nylon 6:6, polystyrenre, and PVC.
CHAPTER-6
CHEMISTRY OF COSMETICS & PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS
► Lecture-6
42. Cosmetics
A cosmetic is a product which is intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, sprayed on or
otherwise applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness or
altering the appearance with out affecting the body’s structure or function. Cosmetic science is
the science involved in the field of cosmetics. Scientists strive to design and create new products
to supply consumers with all of their daily personal care needs.
The regulations specify 6 functions for substances or preparations which may be cosmetic
products, namely:
• to clean,
• to perfume,
• to change the appearance,
• to protect,
• to keep in good condition, or
• to correct body odours.
The cosmetics and personal care products industry has a $60 billion market worldwide, and
future growth is expected. The market of cosmetics breaks down roughly into: hair care-20%,
fragrances-20%, skin care-14%, makeup-16%, deodorants and skin and body lotions-10%, and
oral care products-10%.
This multibillion dollar industry relies on chemists (and others) to accomplish a multitude of key
functions.
The field of application of cosmetics is to one or more of the following:

(i) the epidermis,
(ii) the hair system,
(iii) the nails,
(iv) the lips,
(v) the teeth, or
(vi) the oral cavity.
43. Ingredients of cosmetics

Some common ingredients of cosmatics are listed below:
(i) water;
(ii) oils, fats, waxes;
(iii) humectants;
(iv) surfactants;
(v) preservatives;
(vi) perfumes and colors;
(vii) herbal or plant material;
(vii) functional raw materials.
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingredients_of_cosmetics
Humectant
A humectant is a hygroscopic substance used to keep things moist. It is often a molecule with
several hydrophilic groups, most often hydroxyl groups. They are used in many products,
including food, cosmetics, medicines and pesticides. Humectants are common ingredients in a
wide range of cosmetic and personal care products that make moisturization claims (e.g., hair
conditioners, body lotions, face or body cleansers, lip balms, eye creams, etc.).
Examples of some humectants include:

(i) propylene glycol, (ii) glyceryl triacetate,
(iii) sugar alcohols such as glycerol, sorbitol, etc.
44. Creams
Creams are the solid or semisolid preparation which is either a oil-in-water (o/w) or water-in-oil
(w/o) type emulsion. Creams are semi-solid emulsions, that is mixtures of oil and water. Oil-in-
water creams are more comfortable and cosmetically acceptable as they are less greasy and more
easily washed off using water. Types of creams are:
(i) cleansing cream,
(ii) moisturizing creams,
(iii) foundation creams, and
(iv) vanishing creams.
Colloid
Colloid is the intermediate stage of homogenous and hetergenous mixture in which paticle size
varies from 2nm to 500nm. Colloid are very important to understand the chemistry of cosmetics.
Important class of colloids are given below:
Aerosol: Liquid/solid dispersed in gas (Example: fog, smoke)
Foam: Gas dispersed in liquid (Example: whipped cream, soap lather)
Emulsion: Liquid dispersed in liquid/gas (Example: milk, butter)
Sol: Solid in liquid (Example: blood, paint)
Gel: Liquis spread in solids phase. (Example: Hair gel)
45. Vanishing cream
These are named so as they seem to vanish when applied to the skin. High quantity of stearic
acid provides an oil phase. It melts above body temperature and crystsllises in a suitable form by
developing an invisible non greasy film.
Ingredients of vanishing cream:

• Main component is emollient esters, stearic acids.
• Part of stearic acid is saponified with an alkali and rest of stearic acid is emulsified this soap in
large quantity of water.
• The quality of cream depends on the amount of acid saponified and nature of alkali used.
• NaOH makes harder cream than KOH.
• Borax makes cream very white but product has tendency to grain.
• Pearliness can be attained using liquid paraffin, cocoa butter, starch, castor oil, almond oil.
• Ammonia solution has a tendency to discolor creams made with it after some time.
• Cetyl alcohol improves texture and stability at low temperature without affecting sheen (a soft
lustre on surface).
Stearic acid
Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid with an 18-carbon chain and has the IUPAC name
octadecanoic acid. Stearic acid is mainly used in the production of detergents, soaps, and
cosmetics such as shampoos and shaving cream products. Soaps are not made directly from
stearic acid, but indirectly by saponification of triglycerides consisting of stearic acid esters.
Esters of stearic acid with ethylene glycol, glycol stearate, and glycol distearate are used to
produce a pearly effect in shampoos, soaps, and other cosmetic products.
Cetyl alcohol
Cetyl alcohol, also known as 1-hexadecanol, is a fatty alcohol with the formula CH3(CH2)15OH.
At room temperature, cetyl alcohol takes the form of a waxy white solid or flakes. The name
cetyl derives from the whale oil from which it was first isolated
Cetyl alcohol is used in the cosmetic industry as an opacifier in shampoos, or as an emollient,

emulsifier or thickening agent in the manufacture of skin creams and lotions. It is also employed
as a lubricant for nuts and bolts.
 Cold cream
► Lecture-7
Moisturizer
Moisturizers or emollients are complex mixtures of chemical agents specially designed to make
the external layers of the skin (epidermis) softer and more pliable. They increase the skin's
hydration (water content) by reducing evaporation. Naturally occurring skin lipids and sterols, as
well as artificial or natural oils, humectants, emollients, lubricants, etc., may be part of the
composition of commercial skin moisturizers. They usually are available as commercial products
for cosmetic and therapeutic uses, but can also be made at home using common pharmacy
ingredients.
46. Powders
These are categorized as face powder, body powder, and compacts. The powders should have
following properties:
(i) Must have good covering power so can hide skin blemishes.
(ii) Should adhere perfectly to the skin and not blow off easily.
(iii) Must have absorbent property.
(iv) Must have sufficient slip to enable the powder to spread on the skin.
(v) The finish given to the skin must be preferably of a matt or peach like character.
47. Talcum powder

Among the cosmetics talcum powder is common. Talcum powder is used to absorb sweat and
moisture of the body. The high quality talcum powder is slippery and glossy in nature and bright
white to look.
Ingredients of talcum powder:

(i) Primary component is talc. The chemical name of ‘talc’ is hydrated magnesium silicate, its
formula is 3MgO.4SiO2.H2O.
(ii) For expess slippery feeling or smoothness talc is mixed with zinc stearate, magnesiumsilicate
and other silicates. Zinc stearate is an antiseptic. Boric acid is also used as antiseptic. The
amount of stearate lies between 4-10%.
(iii) To increase the bulk calcium or magnesium carbonate is also mixed. These substances
preserve the perfume added.
(4) Besides these, menthol and camphor are mixed in small amount as perfume.
OH
Menthol Camphor
48. Lipstick
The primary ingredients of lipstick are wax, oil, alcohol and pigment. Lipstick remains in tube.
The tube is divided into cover and base part.
Ingredients of lipstick:
(i) Wax and fat: Beeswax, candelilla wax or carnauba wax (more expensive)
(ii) Oil: Castol oil, linolin oil, vegetable oil, mineral or petroleum oil.
(iii) Alcohol: Ethanol, glycerine (moisturizer).
(iv) Pigment : One or more pigments to bring specific colour.
(v) Perfume : Less than 1% diproplene glycol.
HO O OH
49. After shave solution

After-shave lotion, jell or solution is used by men after making shave. To prepare after shave,
three primary ingradients are the followings with characteristics properties:
(i) Antiseptics: Denatured alcohol.
(ii) Moisturiser: Glycerine, (or alovera/olive oil)
(iii) Fragrance: Sandal wood oil, oil of clove, cinnamon, orange peels.
Denatured alcohol
Denatured alcohol, also called methylated spirits is ethanol (C2H5OH) that has additives to make
it poisonous, extremely bad tasting, foul smelling or nauseating, to discourage recreational
consumption. In some cases it is also dyed.
Denatured alcohol is used as a solvent and as fuel for alcohol burners and camping stoves.
Because of the diversity of industrial uses for denatured alcohol, hundreds of additives and
denaturing methods have been used. The main additive has traditionally been 10% methanol
(CH3OH), giving rise to the term "methylated spirits". Other typical additives include isopropyl
alcohol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, and denatonium.
50. Sunscreen
Sunscreen is a lotion, spray, gel or other topical product that absorbs or reflects some of the sun's
ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the skin exposed to sunlight and thus helps protect against sunburn.
Skin-lightening products have sunscreen to protect lightened skin because light skin is more
susceptible to sun damage than darker skin. Depending on the mode of action, sunscreens can be
classified into physical sunscreens (i.e., those that reflect the sunlight) or chemical sunscreens
(i.e., those that absorb the UV light). An ideal sunscreen agent should have following properties.
(i) Absorb light over the range of 200-400 nm.
(ii) Be stable to heat, light and perspiration.
(iii) Be nontoxic and nonirritant.
(iv) Not be rapidly absorbed.
(v) Be neutral.
(vi) Be readily soluble in suitable vehicles.
Ingredients of sunscreens:
(i) Organic chemical compounds that absorb ultraviolet light.
(ii) Inorganic particulates that reflect, scatter, and absorb UV light (such as titanium dioxide, zinc
oxide, or a combination of both).
(iii) Organic particulates that mostly absorb light like organic chemical compounds but contain
multiple chromophores that may reflect and scatter a fraction of light like inorganic
particulates, and behave differently in formulations than organic chemical compounds.
The principal ingredients in sunscreens are usually aromatic molecules conjugated with carbonyl
groups. This general structure allows the molecule to absorb high-energy ultraviolet rays and
release the energy as lower-energy rays, thereby preventing the skin-damaging ultraviolet rays
from reaching the skin.
51. Cosmetics for hair
Includes following type of preparations: shampoo, conditioners, hair colorants, hair color
remover etc.
52. Shampoo
Shampoo is a hair care product that is used for cleaning hair. The goal of using shampoo is to
remove the unwanted build-up without stripping out so much sebum as to make hair
unmanageable.
Ideal characters of a shampoo:

(i) Effectively and completely removes the dust, excessive sebum.
(ii) Effectively washes hair.
(iii) Produces a good amount of foam.
(iv) Easily removed by rinsing with water.
(v) Leaves the hair non dry, soft, lustrous with good, manageability.
(vi) Imparts a pleasant fragrance to the hair.
(vii) Not makes the hand rough and chapped.
(viii) Not has any side effects or cause irritation to skin or eye.
Ingredients of shampoo:
(i) Principal surfactant: Mainly anionic type surfactant is used. Nonionic surfactant has sufficient
cleansing property but have low foaming power. Cationic surfactants are toxic. So, anionic
surfactants are preferred.
(ii) Secondary surfactant: They modify detergent and surfactant properties of principal
surfactant.
(iii) Antidandruff agents: Selenium, cadmium sulfide.
(iv) Conditioning agent: Lanolin, oil, herbal extract, egg, amino acids.
(v) Pearlescent agents.
(vi) Sequestrants: Added because Ca, Mg salts are present in hard water. Soaps cause
dullness by deposition of Ca, Mg soaps on hair shaft. This prevented by EDTA.
(vii) Thickening agents.
(viii) Colors, perfumes and preservatives.
Sequestrant
A sequestrant is a term for a food additive. Sequestrants improve the quality and stability of the
food products. Sequestrants form chelate complexes with polyvalent metal ions, especially
copper, iron and nickel, which serve as catalysts in the oxidation of the fats in the food.
Sequestrants are a type of preservative. EDTA and its salts are used as sequestrant.
EDTA
Lecture-6
16. Define cosmetics. Write the major functions and fields of application cosmetics.
17. Give a short notes on colloid and humectant. What are the major ingredients of cosmetics?
18. Which type of creams is more comfortable? Write the ingredients of vanishing cream.
Lecture-7
19. Write the functional properties of powder materials used as cosmetics. Write the important
ingredients of talcum powder.
20. Define moisturizers and denatured alcohol. Write the structure of stearic acid, cetal
alcohol, menthol, and camphor.
21. Why we use sunscreen and shampoo as cosmetics? Write the ideal characteristics of
sunscreen and shampoo.
MCQ TEST
QUESTIONS
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY  Which of the following is a compound?
A. air
 The letters X, Y and Z represent B. carbon
different atoms. C. oxygen
D. steam
What can be deduced from the proton
numbers and nucleon numbers of X, Y and  Which of the following is a pure
Z? compound?
A. X and Y are the same element. A. ethanol
B. X and Z are the same element. B. petrol
C. X has more protons than Y. C. steel
D. Z has more neutrons than Y. D. tap water
31 32
 Why is carbon used in the purification of  The atoms 15 P and 16 S have the same
drinking water? A nucleon number.
A. disinfects the water B number of electrons.
B. filters out solids C number of neutrons.
C. removes tastes and odours from the water D number of protons.
D. desalinates the water
 Which pair of substances are both
 The identity of an element is determined mixtures?
by... A. air; water
A. the number of its protons B. limewater; water
B. the number of its neutrons. C. sea-water; air
C. the number of its electrons. D. sea-water; ethanol
D. its atomic mass.
CHAPTER-2
 Which pair are isotopes? STRUCTURE OF ATOM
A. 126C and 146C
B. carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide  The __________ subshell contains only
C. diamond and graphite one orbital.
D. C2H4 and C3H6 A. 3d B. 4f C. 4s D.
2p
 The __________ quantum number is

used to define the subshells.
 A researcher notices that atoms of an A. spin
element X are releasing energy. Why does B. magnetic
this happen? C. principal
A. The atoms are affected by light. D. subsidiary
B. The atoms are radioactive.
C. The atoms react with argon in the air.
D. The atoms are evaporating.
 There are __________ subshells in the CHAPTER-3
third shell. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION & PERIODIC
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 TABLE
 The principal quantum number of the  There are __________ unpaired electrons in
first d subshell is __________. a ground state nitrogen atom.
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 A. 4 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3
 __________ orbitals are spherically  There are __________ unpaired electrons in

a ground state fluorine atom.
symmetrical.
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3
A. s B. p C. d D. f
 All of the __________ have a valence shell
 The total number of orbitals in a subshell electron configuration ns1 .
is given by __________. A. noble gases
A. 2l+1 B. 2n2 C. 2n D. 2n+1 B. halogens
C. chalcogens
 Each p-subshell can accommodate a D. alkali metals
maximum of __________ electrons.
A. 6 B. 2 C. 10 D. 3  Elements in group __________ have a ns 2
np6 electron configuration in the outer shell.
 How many quantum numbers are A. 4A B. 6A C. 7A D. 8A
necessary to designate a particular electron
in an atom?  Which group in the periodic table contains
A. 3 B. 4 C. 2 D. 1 elements with the valence electron configuration
of ns 2 np1 ?
 The outer shell in the sodium atom A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
contains __________ electrons.
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4  The ground-state electron configuration of
__________ is 1s22s22p3.
 All of the orbitals in a given electron A. C B. N C. O D. Cr
shell have the same value of the
__________ quantum number.  The element that has a ns2 valence
configuration of is _________.
A. principal
A. Li B. Na C. K D.
B. subsidiary Rb
C. magnetic
D. spin  The ground state electron configuration of Fe
is __________.
 Which one of the following is an A. 1s 2 2s2 3s2 3p6 3d 6
incorrect subshell notation? B. 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 6 4s 2
A. 4f B. 2d C. 3s D. 2p
C. 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p6 4s 2
D. 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s2 3p6 4s 2 4d 6
 What is the electron arrangement of the  In the Periodic Table, how many periods are
sodium ion in NaCl? needed to accommodate the elements of atomic
A. 1s22s2 numbers 1-18?
B. 1s22s22p3 A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 7
C. 1s22s22p4
D. 1s22s22p6  How many valence electrons does an oxygen
atom have?
 The element with a proton number 12 has A. 2 B. 6 C. 8 D. 16
similar chemical properties to the element with
the proton number  Which of the following atoms has the largest
A 2. B 11. C 13. D 20. atomic radius?
A. F B. Cl C. Br D. I
 Which atom has the same electronic
configuration as the strontium ion?  In the periodic table, as the atomic number
A. calcium increases from 11 to 17, what happens to the
B. krypton atomic radius?
C. rubidium A. It remains constant.
D. selenium B. It increases only.
C. It increases, then decreases.
 Which substance contains covalent bonds, D. It decreases only.
but also conducts electricity?
A. brass  Which property decides the order of the
B. graphite elements in the Periodic Table?
C. iodine A. the masses of their atoms
D. steel B. the number of electrons in the outer shell
C. the number of neutrons in the nucleus
 Which feature of a metal’s structure is D. the number of protons in the nucleus
responsible for it conducting electricity?
A. It contains positive ions.
B. It has a “sea of electrons”. CHAPTER-4
C. Its ions are tightly packed together. INORGANIC MATERIALS
D. Its positive ions attract electrons.
 Which property is not related with atomic  Cations and anions are joined together
radius? through ___________ bonding.
A. density A. ionic B. covalent C. metallic D. weak
B. melting point
C. boiling point  In which substance is each carbon atom
D. flammability covalently bonded to only three other atoms?
A. carbon dioxide
 Sodium, aluminium and sulphur are in the B. diamond
same period of the Periodic Table. Which trend C. graphite
in types of oxide occurs across this period? D. methane
 In which pair of substances does each have a

giant molecular structure?
A diamond, iodine
B diamond, silica (sand)
C iodine, methane
D methane, silica (sand)
 Which of the following compound is a
 Which is not true about water? colourless gas with a characteristic pungent
A. Its formula is H2O. smell?
B. It is a polar molecule. A. borax B. alum C.
C. It shows hydrogen bonding. ammonia D. none of above
D. It is an ionic salt.
 Which of the following acid is called as oil
 Which is not true about hydrogen chloride? of vitriol?
A. Its formula is HCl. A. HCl B. HNO3 C. H2SO4 D. CH3COOH
B. It is a colourless gas.
C. It is a polar molecule.  The formula of liquid bleach is
D. HCl is not soluble in water. ___________.
A. NaClO
 Which of the following compound is known B. NaOH
as table salt? C. Na2CO3
A. NaCl B. KI C. CaF D. AgBr D. Ca(OCl)2
 Which of the following is incorrect use?
A NaCl: used for de-icing roadways  What is the common name for
B NaOH: used condiment and food KAl(SO4)2.12H2O?
preservative A. washing soda
C Na2CO3: used in manufacturing glass B. blue vitriol
D NaHCO3: used as a component in antacid C. caustic soda
D. alum
 Which of the following base is not used in
antacid?
A. Al(OH)3  Gastric reflux disease causing heartburn is
B. CaCO3 due to the excess secretion of _________ from
C. Mg(OH)2 the stomach.
D. NaOH A. HCl
B. H2SO4
 Household bleach contains the mixture of C. Al(OH)2
__________. D. NaHCO3
A. NaClO + Na2CO3
B. NaClO + NaOH  Which of the following compounds is an
C. Ca(OCl)2 + Na2CO3 useful refrigerant?
D. Ca(OCl)2 + NaOH A. Cl2
B. NH3
C. CO2
 Battery acid contain ________% H2SO4.
D. CH4
A. 10% B. 30% C. 70% D. 98%
 Which pair is incorrect?

A. baking soda NaHCO3
B. soda ash NaOH
C. table salt NaCl
D. liquid bleach NaClO
CHAPTER-5  ‘X’ is a organic compound which is found in
ORGANIC MATERIALS beverages, produced by fermentation of sugar by
yeast. It is a neurotoxic psychoactive drug and
Part-A: Organic compounds one of the oldest recreational drugs used by
humans. What is ‘X’?
 The functional group of carboxylic acid A. ethane
group is_____________. B. ethanol
A. —OH C. ethanoic acid
B. —CHO D. none
C. —COOH
D. none  On combustion, which fuel never produces
pollutants?
 What of the following is an example of A. diesel
organic compound? B. hydrogen
A. CO2 C. methane
B. CaC2 D. petrol
C. CH4
D. CaCO3  Vegetable matter is biodegradable. Which
 General formula of alkane is gas is released into the atmosphere when
A. CnH2n+2 vegetable matter biodegrades?
B. CnH2n+1 A. carbon monoxide
C. CnH2n B. methane
D. CnH2n‒2 C. nitrogen dioxide
 Which pair is incorrect? D. sulphur dioxide
A. methane, CH4
B. ethane, C2H6  Which of the following comment is incorrect
C. propane, C3H8 regarding the following compounds?
H H H
D. pentane, C4H10
H C C C H
 Formalin is ___________ aqueous solution H H H
of formaldehyde. A. It is a organic compound.
A. 6-10% B. It is a aliphatic hydrocarbon.
B. 15-25% C. It is an aldehyde.
C. 30-40% D. The molecule is saturated.
D. 50-60%  Which of the following comment on acetic
acid is wrong?
 What is the general formula of alcohol? A. It is known as ethanoic acid
A. R-H B. It is a colourless liquids.
B. R-X C. It is a component of formalin
C. R-OH D. It is a weak acid
D. R-CHO
Part-B: Oils & fats
 Which of the following compound is known
as drinking alcohol?  Beeswax contain ___________%
A. HCHO hydrocarbon.
B. CH3CHO A. 6%
C. C2H5OH B. 10%
D. CH3COOH C. 13%
D. 17%
 Kerosene is - A. monohydric
A. an essential oil B. dihydric
B. a mineral oil C. trihydric
C. a true wax D. denatured
D. a vegetable oil.
 Which of the following are the examples
of animal wax?  The following detergent
A. beeswax, lanolin. is________________.
B. carnauba, candelilla O
C. paraffin wax, petrolatum -

O Na+
D. polyethylene, carbowax
A. an anionic detergent
 Which particular temperature should be B. a cationic detergent
used to make define oil and fat physical C. a nonionic detergent
consistency? D. none
A. 15°C  Which of the following statement match
B. 20°C only with detergents?
C. 25°C A. Obtained from vegetable or animal oils.
D. 30°C B. Do not cause water pollution.
C. It affects the human body.
 Which of the following statement is not D. Used for thousands of years.
true?
A. Oils and fats have no taste. Part-D: Polymer & plastic
B. Oils are liquid at ordinary temperature.
C. Oils are generally insoluble in water.  This cross-linking of rubber is
D. Oils are more saturated than fats. commonly known as vulcanization.
Vulcaniztion is done by treating natural
 Which of the following process is rubber with __________.
applied on crude oil to improve their colour, A. carbon
flavor and odour? B. hydrogen
A. hydrolysis C. sulphur
B. hydrogenation D. chlorine
C. soda blasting  Which of the following is a good
D. electrolysis example of natural polymer?
A. PVC
 Sandal oil and lavender oil contain B. polyethylene
_________. C. bakelite
A. alcoholic group (-OH) D. cotton
B. aldehyde group (-OH)
C. ester group (-OH)
D. none of above
 Waxes are esters of fatty acid with long

chain __________ alcohol.
 Which of the following class of polymer CHAPTER-6
is the strongest? CHEMISTRY OF COSMETICS & PERSONAL
A. rubbers CARE PRODUCTS
B. plastics
C. fibres.  Which is correct for emulsion?
D. elastomers A. liquid/solid dispersed in gas
B. gas dispersed in liquid
C. liquid dispersed in liquid/gas
 What is the name of the following D. solid dispersed in liquid
polymer?
 Which of the following is an example of
‘sol’?
A. blood
B. fog
C. butter
A. polyethylene D. soap lather
B. polyvinyl chloride
C. polystyrene  Main component of vanishing cream is
D. melamine resin ______.
A. stearic acids
 Which element is least likely to be found B. denatured alcohol
in a macromolecule? C. menthol
A. carbon D. camphor
B. hydrogen
C. oxygen  Which is correct for emulsion?
D. sodium A. liquid/solid dispersed in gas
B. gas dispersed in liquid
 A macromolecule is made from the two C. liquid dispersed in liquid/gas
monomer molecules shown below. D. solid dispersed in liquid
 Which of the following is an example of

What is the macromolecule? ‘sol’?
A. a carbohydrate A. blood
B. a polyamide B. fog
C. a polyester C. butter
D. a protein D. soap lather
 Main component of vanishing cream is

______.
A. stearic acids
B. denatured alcohol
C. menthol
D. camphor
 Which of the following ingredients of
talcum powder act as an antiseptic?
A. zinc stearate
B. magnesium carbonate
C. menthol
D. camphor
 What is the name of the following

compounds?
OH
A. menthol
B. camphor
C. EDTA
D. cetyl alcohol
 An ideal sunscreen absorbs light over the

range of ___________.
A. 50-200 nm
B. 200-400 nm
C. 400-800 nm
D. none
 Principal surfactant used in shampoo is

_____.
A. anionic type
B. cationic type
C. nonionic type
D. none
 What is the correct formula for ‘Talc’?
A. 3Na2O.4SiO2.H2O
B. 3CaO.4SiO2.H2O
C. 3Al2O3.4SiO2.H2O
D. 3MgO.4SiO2.H2O

Chemistry: List of Good Study Habits

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Chemistry: List of Good Study Habits

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List of good study habits

 Attend classes regularly and take careful notes.

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1. Standardization of NaOH solution with standard succinic acid solution.

Text and Reference Books:

2. Significant reasons to study chemistry

Second, chemistry is an intellectual enterprise, a way of explaining our material world.

Compounds: Most substances are compounds. A compound is a substance composed of two or

Chemical Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Figure-2: Relationships among elements, compounds, and mixtures.

Mixtures are classified into two types:

1. What is chemistry? Discuss the significant reasons to study chemistry.

5. Dalton’s atomic theory

The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are given below:

(i) All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an extremely

(ii) An element is a type of matter composed of only one kind of atom,

(iii) A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or

Carbon atom (Z=6)

Atomic Relative Relative

8. Atomic number & mass number

9. Rutherford’s scattering experiment 

Carbon atom (Z=6)

Electron Proton Neutron

Rutherford model Bohr model

Figure 2: Bohr's orbits

8. What is Rutherford’s scattering experiment? What are its conclusions?

12. Quantum numbers

s spin (+1/2 or -1/2)

 Orbits & orbitals

d 2 10 3rd shell and higher

Table: Quantum numbers

4. ‘s’ refers to orientation of the spin of the electron.

14. Subshells & orbitals

dxy dyz dzx

Solve the following questions

15. Pauli's exclusion principle

number of maximum number of

16. Building up principle or (n+l) rule

5s 5p 5d n=5 (O- Shell)

Solve the following questions

18. Periodic table

19. Periodic classification of the elements

(iii) A metalloid, or semimetal, is an element having both metallic and nonmetallic

 Periodic Law  Periodic trends

 Ionic Radius  Ionization Energy  Electron Affinity  Electronegativity

Figure 2: Lewis electron dot diagrams

23. Valence shell & valence electron

24. Lewis electron dot diagrams

2. Acid, Base & Salt

According to Arrhenius, an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H +, when it

10. Hydrogen chloride

12. Sulphuric acid

Mass fraction Common name of H2SO4

13. Potassium aluminum sulphate

15. Magnesium sulphate

16. Copper(II) sulphate

Solve the following questions

Part-A: Organic compounds

18. Organic compounds

19. Differences between organic & inorganic compounds

 Classification of organic compounds

A group or a series of organic compounds each containing a characteristic functional group

 orbitals are spherically  There are unpaired electrons in