Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry

Course No.: SPEC 11-1

Course Title: General Chemistry

Chemistry is considered as the central science since it explains at the molecular

level, the different phenomena governing certain processes in the world. Chemistry

serves as the backbone in designing materials and at the same time, it helps in better

understanding the chemical nature of these materials. Spec 11-1 General Chemistry is

integrated as one of the fundamental science courses in the degree Bachelor of Science

in Computer Science and is offered during the students’ first year in the degree. It

provides students with core concepts of Chemistry that are important in the practice

of their profession and in the day-to-day living.

This self-learning module is designed in a brief and concise manner to assist

independent learning among students. Likewise, the topics are arranged in such a way

that the students will have a solid foundation on basic chemical principles. Practice

exercises are provided for the students to enhance their problem-solving skills. Simple

laboratory activities which are feasible in the remote learning modality are also

included in this course.

Most importantly, this module aims to bring fun to the learning experience of

the students and to eliminate their fear of Chemistry.

Kris B. Roxas, RCh

Course Facilitator

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
Course Outline

I. Introduction
a. Chemistry in the Macroscopic Perspective
b. Chemistry in the Microscopic Perspective
c. Symbolic Representations and Models in Science
d. Numbers and Measurements in Chemistry
i. Units
ii. Number and Significant Figures
iii. Problem Solving in Chemistry

II. Atoms and Molecules

a. Atomic Structure and Mass
i. Fundamental Concepts of the Atom
ii. Atomic Number and Mass Number
iii. Isotopes
iv. Atomic Symbols
v. Atomic Masses
b. Ions
c. Compounds and Chemical Bonds
i. Chemical formula
ii. Chemical Bonding
iii. Naming of Compounds

III. Molecules, Moles and Chemical Equations

a. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
b. Aqueous Solutions and Net Ionic Equations
i. Solutions, solvents and solutes
ii. Aqueous reactions
iii. Acid-Base Reactions
c. Calculations Using Moles and Molar Masses

IV. Stoichiometry
a. Obtaining Ratios from Balanced Chemical Equations
b. Limiting Reactants
c. Theoretical and Percentage Yields
d. Solution Stoichiometry

V. Gases and Gas Laws

a. Measuring Pressure
b. Applications of the Gas Laws
c. Partial Pressure
d. Reactions Involving Gases
e. Kinetic Molecular Theory

VI. Energy
a. Electrochemical energy
b. Nuclear chemistry and energy
c. Fuels

VII. Special Topics

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
MODULE 1
Total Learning Time: 6 hours

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the module, the students should be able to:

1. discuss the development of Chemistry as a Science;
2. articulate the importance Chemistry in daily life;
3. describe Chemistry in the macroscopic and microscopic perspectives;
4. perform measurements using correct units of measure;
5. express numbers and measurements in scientific notation; and
6. report data using correct units and number of significant figures.

Contents:

I. Introduction
a. Chemistry in the Macroscopic Perspective
b. Chemistry in the Microscopic Perspective
c. Symbolic Representations and Models in
Science
d. Numbers and Measurements in Chemistry
i. Units
ii. Number and Significant Figures
iii. Problem Solving in Chemistry

I. Introduction

Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with MATTER, its properties,

structure, composition, transformations (reactions), and the energy needed to
proceed with these transformations.

I.a. Chemistry in the Macroscopic Perspective

Matter is found everywhere; it is anything

that occupies space and has mass. As you already
know, matter, under ordinary conditions, basically
exists in three states, that is, solid, liquid and gas.
However, it was later found out that there exist a
fourth state, under very high temperature and
pressure, the plasma. In 1995, the Bose-Einstein
condensate (BEC) was created by scientists at
extremely low temperature, thus molecular motion
almost stops and atoms begin to clump together
forming a “superatom”.

A glass holding water in three different states:

solid, liquid and gas
(https://cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.net/rkqnY2KR8QP3NoEf6wBpC8-970-80.jpg.webp)

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
Chemical reactions inside the laboratory describes matter in the macroscopic
perspective. Matter can be observed in two ways: it’s physical and chemical
changes. Physical change does not alter the chemical identity of the substance
while chemical change involves the conversion of one substance to another.

Physical properties are variables that we can measure without changing the
identity of the substance being observed. Mass and density are familiar physical
properties. Mass is measured by comparing the object given and some standard,
using a balance. Density is a ratio of mass to volume. (This variable is sometimes
called mass density). To determine density, both mass and volume must be
measured. But these values can be obtained without changing the material, so
density is a physical property. Other familiar examples of physical properties
include color, viscosity, hardness, and temperature, heat capacity, boiling point,
melting point, and volatility.
Chemical properties are associated with the types of chemical changes
that a substance undergoes. For example, some materials burn readily, whereas
others do not. Burning is a chemical reaction called combustion. Corrosion—the
degradation of metals in the presence of air and moisture—is another commonly
observed chemical change. Chemical properties can be determined only by
observing how a substance changes its identity in chemical reactions.
Insight
Often, chemical and physical properties are difficult to
distinguish at the macroscopic level. We can assert that
boiling water is a physical change, but if you do nothing
more than observe that the water in a boiling pot
disappears, how do you know if it has undergone a chemical
or physical change? To answer this type of question, we
need to consider the particles that make up the water, or
whatever we observe, and consider what is happening at
the microscopic level.

I.b. Chemistry in the Microscopic Perspective

The most fundamental tenet of chemistry is that all matter is composed of

atoms and molecules. This is why chemists tend to think of everything as “a
chemical” of one sort or another. In many cases, the matter we encounter is a
complex mixture of chemicals and we refer to each individual component as a
chemical substance.
All matter comprises a limited number of “building blocks,” called elements.
Atoms are unimaginably small particles that cannot be made any smaller and
still behave like a chemical system. When we study matter at levels smaller than
an atom, we move into nuclear or elementary particle physics. In this sense, atoms
are the smallest particles that can exist and retain the chemical identity of whatever
element they happen to be. Molecules are groups of atoms held together so that
they form a unit whose identity is distinguishably different from the atoms alone.
Ultimately, we will see how forces known as “chemical bonds” are responsible for
holding the atoms together in these molecules.

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry

Particulate level views of the solid, liquid, and gas phases of matter. In a solid, the
molecules maintain a regular ordered structure, so a sample maintains its size and
shape. In a liquid, the molecules remain close to one another, but the ordered
array breaks down. At the macroscopic level, this allows the liquid to flow and take
on the shape of its container. In the gas phase, the molecules are very widely
separated, and move independently of one another. This allows the gas to fill the
available volume of the container.

The boiling of water is a physical

change, in which liquid water is converted
into a gas. Both the liquid and gas phases
are made up of water molecules; each
molecule contains two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom. The particulate
scale insets in this figure emphasize that
fact and also show that the separation
between water molecules is much larger in
the gas than in the liquid.

I.c. Symbolic Representations and Models in Science

Symbolic representations provide a way to discuss some of the most abstract

parts of chemistry. We need to think about atoms and molecules, and the symbolic
representation provides a convenient way to keep track of these particles we’ll never
actually see. These symbols will be one of the key ways that we interact with ideas at
the particulate level.

Industrial Example: The Case of Aluminum

Pure aluminum is never found in nature.

Instead, the metal occurs in an ore, called
bauxite, that is composed of both useless rock
and aluminum in combination with oxygen. So
before aluminum can be used in our soda can, it
must first be extracted or “won” from its ore and
purified. Because aluminum combines very readily
with oxygen, this presents some serious
challenges.
A sample of bauxite

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
The macroscopic representation is the
most familiar, especially to the engineer. From a
practical perspective, the clear differences
between unrefined ore and usable aluminum
metal are apparent immediately. The
widespread availability of aluminum results from
an impressive collaboration between the basic
science of chemistry and the applied sciences of
engineering. In the 19th century, aluminum was
a rare and precious material. In Europe,
Napoleon was emperor of a sizable portion of
the continent and he would impress guests by
using extravagant aluminum tableware.
A block of aluminum

Bauxite is made up of different types of atoms, whereas only one type of atom
is present in the metal. Metals normally contain small amounts of impurities,
sometimes introduced intentionally to provide specific, desirable properties.

A particulate level representation of aluminum oxide and pure aluminum. The

gray spheres represent aluminum atoms, and the red spheres represent oxygen.

I.d. Numbers and Measurements in Chemistry

Significant Figures in Measurement

Guidelines for Different Situations Involving Zeros (Petrucci, 2004)

1. Zeros between nonzero digits are always significant.

1005 kg (has 4 significant figures)
1.03 cm (has 3 significant figures)
2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are never significant; they merely indicate the
position of the decimal point.
0.0026 cm (has 2 significant figures)
3. Zeros that fall both at the end of a number and after the decimal point are always
significant.
0.0200 g (has 3 significant figures)
3.0 cm (has 2 significant figures)
4. When a number ends in zeros but contains no decimal point, the zeros may or
may not be significant.
130 (has 2 or 3 significant figures)
10, 300 (has 3, 4, or 5 significant figures)

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
Use of Exponential Notation

This method helps eliminate the potential ambiguity of whether the zeros at the
end of a number are significant (as in rule number 4).
10,300 can be written in exponential notation showing 3, 4, or 5 significant figures:
1.03 x 104 (has 3 significant figures)
1.030 x 104 (has 4 significant figures)
1.0300 x 104 (has 5 significant figures)

Significant Figures in Numerical Calculations

Some important rules:

1. The result of multiplication or division may contain only as many significant figures
as the least precisely known quantity in the calculation.
14.79 x 12.11 x 5.05 = 904
2. The result of addition or subtraction must be expressed with the same number of
digits beyond the decimal point as the quantity carrying the smallest number of
such digits.
15.02
9986.0
+ 3.518
10004.538 ≈ 10004.5

Conversion of Units

Dimensional Analysis:

?unit = given x(unknown unit)/(given unit)

Common Conversion Factors:

Problem Solving in Chemistry

Calculations play a major role in the practice of chemistry and in its application
to real world issues and problems. Technological advancements routinely rely on
a tremendous number of calculations. To a chemist, the questions associated with
aluminum ore require looking into the nature of chemical bonding and how to

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
overcome the stability of strong bonds between aluminum and oxygen. To an
engineer, the problems to be addressed in refining the ore might focus on how to
deliver enough electricity when and where it is needed. Both disciplines, however,
need careful use of quantitative or numerical reasoning.

Ratio

We use ratios in a variety of common calculations in chemistry. One that you

will undoubtedly also encounter in engineering is the need to convert between units
of different sizes. Consider the problem below:

Visible light is commonly described in terms of its wavelength, which is usually

given in units of nanometers. In subsequent calculations, this measurement often
needs to be expressed in units of meters. If we are considering green light of
wavelength 615 nm, what is its wavelength in meters?

Strategy:

Establish a ratio that relates nanometers and meters.

1 m = 1 x 109 nm

We can write this as a ratio. Because we want to convert from nm to m, we’ll need
m in the numerator and nm in the denominator.
1𝑚
1𝑥109 𝑛𝑚

Use dimensional analysis.

1𝑚
? 𝑚 = 615 𝑛𝑚 𝑥 = 6.15 x 10-7 m
1𝑥109 𝑛𝑚

THE TEMPERATURE SCALES

Celsius to Kelvin: oC+273.15 = K

There are three main temperature scales:

• K, the Kelvin Scale (SI base unit)

• °C, the Celsius Scale
• °F, the Fahrenheit Scale

• Boiling water (at normal pressure) measures 100° in Celsius, but 212° in
Fahrenheit
• And as water freezes it measures 0° in Celsius, but 32° in Fahrenheit

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
Like this:

Looking at the diagram, notice:

• The scales start at a different number (0 vs 32), so we will need to add or

subtract 32
• The scales rise at a different rate (100 vs 180), so we will also need to
multiply

And so, to convert:

from Celsius to Fahrenheit: first multiply by 180/100, then add 32

from Fahrenheit to Celsius: first subtract 32, then multiply by 100/180
180/100 can be simplified to 9/5,
and 100/180 can be simplified to 5/9, so we get this:

°C to °F: Divide by 5, then multiply by 9, then add 32

°F to °C: Subtract 32, then multiply by 5, then divide by 9

Example: Convert 25° Celsius (a nice warm day) to Fahrenheit

First: 25° / 5 = 5
Then: 5 × 9 = 45
Then: 45 + 32 = 77° F

Example: Convert 98.6° Fahrenheit (normal body temperature) to Celsius

First: 98.6° − 32 = 66.6

Then: 66.6 × 5 = 333
Then: 333 / 9 = 37° C

Photos and texts from Brown, L.S. and Holme, T.A. (2006). Chemistry for Engineering Students. Thomson
Brooks/Cole and https://www.mathsisfun.com/temperature-conversion.html#explanation

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
I -
MODULE 1 II -
III -
Exercises IV -
V -

Name: _______________________________ Score:_______________

Course, Year and Section:________________ Date: ______________

I. Give a brief answer to the following questions:

1. Physical properties may change because of a chemical change. For example, the
color of an egg “white” changes from clear to white because of a chemical change
when it is cooked. Think of another common situation when a chemical change also
leads to a physical change.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. All molecules attract each other to some extent, and the attraction decreases as the
distance between particles increases. Based on this idea, which state of matter would
you expect has the strongest interactions between particles: solids, liquids, or gases?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

II. Write P if the items listed describe physical changes and C if they are
chemical changes.

Items Type of Change

a. A banana ripens
b. Water evaporates
c. An object falls out of a window
d. Food is digested
e. Rusting of iron

III. Identify the correct number of significant figures in the following:

Given No. of significant digits

a. 62.13
b. 0.000414
c. 0.00000500

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 Module 1: Introduction to Chemistry
d. 871,000,000
e. 91,000.50
IV. Convert the following to the indicated units:

a. -10oC to K b. 0.00oC to oF c. 373.0 K to oC

T(K) = _____________ T(oF) = _____________ T(oC) = _____________

= _____________ = _____________ = _____________

= _____________ = _____________ = _____________

V. Carry out the following unit conversions:

d. 3.47 × 10−6 g to µg e. 2.73 × 10−4 L to mL

?µg = _____________ ?mL = _____________

= _____________ = _____________

= _____________ = _____________
(c) 725 ns to s (d) 1.3 m to km

f. 6.73 × 10−4 mm to nm g. 1.37 × 106 nA to mA

?nm = _____________ ?mA = _____________

= _____________ = _____________

= _____________ = _____________

h. 4.8 × 1018 mW to GW (i-j) Solve for this problem:

A load of asphalt contains 115 kg and

?GW = _____________ occupies a volume of 220.0 L. What is the
density of this asphalt in g/L?
= _____________
Given: __________________
= _____________
__________________

? g/L= __________________

= __________________

= __________________

SPEC 11-1 – GENERAL CHEMISTRY – K.B. ROXAS 11