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SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY

HINUNANGAN CAMPUS

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

MODULE 1
MERYL V. CAPAPAS
Instructor
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Course Overview
Course Code: CHEM 0001
Descriptive Title: General Chemistry (Bridging Subject)
Credit Units: 3
School Year/ Term: Final Term, A.Y. 2020-2021
Mode of Delivery: Blended Instruction (Moodle and Modular)
Name of Instructor: Meryl V. Capapas
Course Description: This course covers the fundamental laws, theories and concepts of chemistry,
methods of writing chemical formulas and equations, structure of the atom and
matter, periodic classification related to the properties of typical elements and
compounds and electrolytic dissociation and solutions. This course serves as the
prerequisite requirement for advanced work in chemistry and other fields of
science.
Course Outcomes: After navigating the 4 module, the students must have:
1. Demonstrate and illustrate the basic components of atoms, the periodic
relationship among elements and chemical bonding that govern therein.
2. Compute the mass relationships in chemical reactions and other important
scientific conversions
3. Demonstrate the reactions in aqueous solutions and the intermolecular forces
in liquids and solids.
4. Prepare various laboratory reports from conducted laboratory activities
SLSU Mission: SLSU will
a. Develop Science, Technology and Innovation leaders and professionals;
b. Produce high-impact technologies from research and innovations;
c. Contribute to sustainable development through responsive community
engagement programs;
d. Generate revenues to be self-sufficient and financially-viable
SLSU Vision: A high quality corporate University of Science, Technology and Innovation.
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Student Guide to Navigate the Module:

1. This is a self-pacing module that you can work on at your convenient time within
the term. The lessons are arranged according to the expected outcomes and you
are expected to achieve the task from the first lesson to the last.
2. You are required to answer the Pre-test before going over to the lesson.
3. Perform the activities given before every lesson in each module.
4. The module is given to you to read, learn and enjoy.
5. Learning Tasks are given as part of the lesson as an application or assessment to
evaluate how much you have learned, thus all of it should be answered.
6. Answer the Post Test at the end of all the lessons.
7. Pre-test and Post Test can be answered using the module or in the online
platform.
8. Do not hesitate to ask questions through Messenger (Meryl Velarde Capapas) or
through email (mvcapapas@up.edu.ph) preferably on weekdays within office
hours.
9. Cheating is punishable by university policy, which might result to failing this
course.

Pre- Test:
PRE-TEST TABLE OF SPECIFICATION:

COVERAGE No. of % No. of

Hours Items
Module 1. The Language of Chemistry: Atoms, 10 33 5
Molecules and Ions
Module 2. Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions 9 20 3
Module 3. Periodic Relationships among the 8 20 3
Elements
Module 4. Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts 15 27 4
TOTAL 45 100 15
Note: remaining 3 hours is allotted for course orientation, midterm and final exams
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SOUTHERN LEYTE STATE UNIVERSITY

Hinunangan Campus
Hinunangan, Southern Leyte

CHEM 0001- General Chemistry

PRE TEST QUESTIONNAIRE

Name: _________________________ Year & Section: ________ Rate: ________

Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter that corresponds as the best answer.

1. Of the following name/symbol combinations of elements, which one is WRONG?

a) uranium/U
b) sulfur/S
c) nitrogen/N
d) iron/I

2. Identify the INCORRECT statement.

a) Helium in a balloon: an element
b) Paint: a mixture
c) Tap water: a compound
d) Mercury in a barometer; an element

3. An unused flashbulb contains magnesium and oxygen. After use, the contents are
changed to magnesium oxide but the total mass does not change. This observation
can best be explained by the
e) Law of Constant Composition.
f) Law of Multiple Proportions.
g) Avogadro's Law.
h) Law of Conservation of Mass.

4. An atom is considered to be ____________ when the number of protons and

electrons are equal.
a) Positive
b) Negative
c) Neutral
d) Ion

5. After a chemical reaction, the properties of the products are

a) The same as the properties of the reactants.
b) Different than the properties of the reactants.
c) A combination of the properties of the reactants.
d) All of the above
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6. A bond where electrons are transferred is called a/an

a) Covalent bond.
b) Ionic bond.
c) Transfer bond.
d) Metallic bond.

7. What are the two types of pure substances

a) Elements and Subatomic Particles
b) Protons and Electrons
c) Elements and Compounds
d) Homogenous and Heterogeneous

8. Table salt, also known as sodium chloride would be classified as 

a) A homogeneous mixture
b) A heterogeneous mixture
c) An element
d) A compound

9. What happens to the molecules in matter when it is heated? 

a) Molecules move close together
b) Molecules split
c) Molecules move farther apart
d) Molecules evaporate

10. What instruments do we use to measure a liquid’s density?

a) Scale and thermometer
b) Scale and stop watch
c) Graduated cylinder and ruler
d) Graduated cylinder and scale

11. The properties that cannot be observed with the five senses are called
a) Sub-microscopic properties
b) Macroscopic properties
c) Physical properties
d) Biological properties

12. A change from gas to liquid is called

a) Sublimation
b) Evaporation
c) Freezing
d) Condensation

13. A mixture of sand and water can be separated by

a) Filtration
b) Evaporation
c) Distillation
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d) Crystallization

14. Melting candle wax is classified as

a) Physical change
b) Chemical change
c) Both a & b
d) No change takes place

15.  In the periodic a group of family is described as

a) Horizontal rows
b) Diagonal rows
c) Vertical columns
d) None of the above
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Module 1 – The Language of Chemistry

Figure 1. Chemistry in everyday life

Introduction to Chemistry
As you begin your study of college chemistry, those of you who do not intend to
become professional chemists may well wonder why you need to study chemistry. You will
also discover that an understanding of chemistry helps you make informed decisions about
many issues that affect you, your community, and your world. A major goal of this text is to
demonstrate the importance of chemistry in your daily life and in our collective
understanding of both the physical world we occupy and the biological realm of which we
are a part.

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that material substances undergo.
Of all the scientific disciplines, it is perhaps the most extensively connected to other fields of
study. It is essential for understanding much of the natural world and central to many other
scientific disciplines, including agriculture, astronomy, geology, biology, and medicine.

The objectives of this chapter are twofold: (1) to introduce the breadth, the
importance of chemistry and (2) to present some of the fundamental concepts and
definitions you will need to understand how chemists think and work.

■ COMMON TERMS

 Matter - anything that has mass and volume

 Atom - smallest unit of an element that keeps the properties of element
 Element - pure substance made of only one type of atom
 Compound - substance made of 2 or more types of atoms that are chemically
bonded
 Molecule – formed when two or more atoms form chemical bonds with each
other.
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 The 5 Branches of Chemistry:

 Inorganic Chemistry- The study of chemicals that do not contain carbon.
 Organic Chemistry- The study of chemicals that contain carbon, and it is the study of
chemicals in living organisms.
 Analytical Chemistry- Composition of matter.
 Physical Chemistry- The study of the mechanism, rate and the energy transfer that happens
when matter undergoes change.
 Biochemistry- Study of processes that take place in organisms.

Quiz
Organic or Inorganic?
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
Methane CH4
Hydrochloric Acid HCl
Ethane C2H6

■ Types of Properties

 Extensive - depend on the amount of matter

Ex: volume, mass, amount of energy

 Intensive - do not depend on the amount

Ex: density, boiling point, ability to conduct

■ Types of Properties

 Physical - characteristics that can be observed or measured without changing the

identity of a substance

Ex. Melting point, boiling point

 Chemical - relates to a substances ability to undergo changes that transform it

into a different substance

Easiest to see when a chemical is reacting

■ Physical Changes in Matter

- change in a substance that doesn’t change the identity of the substance

Ex. grinding, cutting, melting, boiling

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Includes all changes of state (physical changes of a substance from one state to
another)

■ Chemical Changes in Matter

- a change in which a substance is converted into a different substance

- doesn’t change the amount of matter present
- undergoes chemical reaction with
 Reactants - substances that react, input
 Products - substances that form, output

■ Energy Changes in Matter

 when any change occurs, energy is always involved

 energy can be in different forms (light, heat, etc.)
 energy is never destroyed or created (law of conservation of energy)

■ Energy Changes in Matter

 Exothermic Reaction - occurs when the temperature of a system increases due

to the evolution of heat
 Example is the mixture of sodium and chlorine to yield table salt. This
reaction produces 411 kJ of energy for each mole of salt that is produced:
Na(s) + 0.5Cl2(s) = NaCl(s)
 Endothermic Reaction - occurs when the temperature of an isolated system
decreases while the surroundings of a non-isolated system gains heat
 Photosynthesis is an example. In this process, plants use the energy from the
sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
sunlight + 6CO2(g) + H2O(l) = C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)

Endothermic Exothermic
Introduction A process or reaction in which the A process or reaction that releases
system absorbs energy from its energy from the system, usually in
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surroundings in the form of heat. the form of heat.

Result Energy is absorbed from the Energy is released from the system
environment into the reaction. into the environment.
Form of Energy Energy is absorbed as heat. Energy is usually released as heat,
but can also be electricity, light or
sound.

■ States of Matter

Matter exists in five states:

 Solid: a rigid substance with a definite shape.

 Liquid: has a definite volume but takes the shape of its container
 Gas: takes the shape and volume of its container.
 Plasma: consists of highly charged particles with extremely high kinetic energy.
 Bose-Einstein Condensates: at extremely low temperature, molecular motion
comes very close to stopping and atoms clumping together due to almost no
kinetic energy being transferred from one atom to another.

Figure 1. Changes of State

 Changes of State
 Solid
– definite volume
– definite shape
 Liquid – atoms are packed together in fixed positions
– – strong attractive forces
definite between atoms
volume
– – only vibrateindefinite
in place shape
– atoms are close
together
– atoms can overcome
attractive forces to flow
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 Gases
– indefinite volume
– indefinite shape
– atoms move very quickly
– atoms are far apart
– pretty weak attractive forces
– Plasma

 Plasma
– high temperature state in which atoms lose
their electrons
– There is plasma in stars (including our Sun);
the solar wind in our Solar System is made of
plasma.

■ Separation Techniques

• Filtration - solid part is trapped by filter paper and the liquid part runs through
the paper
• Vaporization - where the liquid portion is evaporated off to leave solid
• Decanting - when liquid is poured off after solid has settled to bottom
• Centrifuge - machine that spins a sample very quickly so that components with
different densities will separate
• Paper Chromatography - used to separate mixtures because different parts
move quicker on paper than other
• Simple distillation - best for separating a liquid from a solution. In a way, the
concept is similar to evaporation, but in this case, the vapor is collected by
condensation
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Filtration Decanting Paper chromatography Distillation

■ Types of Matter

 PURE SUBSTANCES - has a definite and constant composition — like salt or sugar. A
pure substance can be either an element or a compound, but the composition of a
pure substance doesn’t vary

 Elements – composed of a single kind of atom, the simplest form. They cannot
be broken into anything else by physical or chemical means.

 Compounds – composed of two or more elements in a specific ratio. They can be

broken into simpler substances by chemical means.

 MIXTURES - physical combinations of pure substances that have no definite or

constant composition. Two or more substances that combined with each other and
can be separated by physical means.

 A homogeneous mixture, sometimes called a solution, is relatively uniform in

composition; every portion of the mixture is like every other portion (has the
same properties). Ex. Seawater (salt in water)

 A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture of two or more chemical substances

where the various components can be visually distinguished. Ex. Powdered 3-in-1
coffee
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■ Elements

– elements are pure substances

– organized by properties on periodic table
– each square shows the name and letter symbol for each element
– usually the symbols relate to the English names but some come from older
names (usually Latin)

Ex: gold’s symbol is Au from aurum

Ex: iron’s symbol is Fe from ferrum

■ Compounds

– Compounds are also pure substances.

– But compounds are made from more than one element.
– Water is a compound.
– Water can be broken down into simpler substances – hydrogen and oxygen.

■ Solutions

– Appears to be a single substance but really two or more substances dissolved in a

solvent and evenly distributed
– Very small particles that never settle out

 Saturated solution – contains all of the solute it can hold at a given temperature.
o If you add even one more molecule of the solute, it will fall out of solution
and rest on the bottom

 Unsaturated Solutions - contains less solute than it can hold at a given temperature
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o Can add more solute and it won’t fall out of the solution
 Supersaturated Solution - solution that holds more than it usually would at a given
temperature

■ Solute versus Solvent

 A solute is the substance in a solution that gets dissolved

 A solvent is the substance in a solution that does the dissolving

If something is soluble, the solute can be dissolved in a particular solvent

If something is insoluble, the solute will not be dissolved in a particular solvent
Solutes can be soluble in some solvents but insoluble in others

■ Concentration
– The comparison of solute to solvent
– When there is small amount of solute compared to solvent, the solution is dilute
– When there is high amount of solute in the solvent, the solution is concentrated

■ Solubility

– The amount of solute needed to make a saturated solution in a given solvent at a

given temperature
– For solid solute in liquid solvent – solubility rises as temperature rises.
– For gas solute in a liquid solvent – solubility lowers as temperature rises

■ Suspensions

– A suspension is a mixture in which particles of material are dispersed throughout

a liquid or gas and are large enough to settle out
– The particles are insoluble
– Heterogeneous mixtures
Ex. snow globe

■ Colloids

– Have properties of both solutions and suspensions

– Particles in a colloid are much smaller than particles in a suspension
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– Colloids have the same definition as suspensions in that a colloid is a mixture in

which particles of material are dispersed throughout a liquid or gas, but the
particles of a colloid are not large enough to settle out
– Particles in a colloid scatter light
Ex. milk, fog, jello
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Module 2. Periodic Relationship among Elements

Periodic Table of Elements

 Groups (or Families)

– vertical columns
– numbered 1 – 18
– have similar chemical properties
– The elements in each group have the
same number of valence electrons

 Periods
– horizontal rows
– properties changes consistently across a period
– All of the elements in a period have the same
number of atomic orbitals
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■ Types of Elements

1. Metals

– found in the left, center and lower parts of the periodic table
– tend to lose electrons, thus often conductive to electricity
– at room temperature, most are solids
– most have silvery or grayish white luster
– Malleable - can be rolled or hammered into sheets
– Ductile - can be made into wire
– High tensile strength - can resist breakage when pulled
– Aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury and lead are metals

2. Nonmetals

– found on the top and right side of the periodic table 

– an element that is a poor conductor of heat and electricity

– many are gases at room temperature

– some are solids: usually brittle, not malleable, dull (not shiny)

– Hydrogen, carbon and oxygen are examples

3. Metalloids

– an element that has some characteristics of metals and nonmetals

– appear along a "staircase" line on the periodic table

– all are solids at room temperature

– less malleable than metals but less brittle than nonmetals

– are semiconductors

– Includes B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te

4. Noble Gases

– known also as inert gases

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– in far right column of periodic table

– generally unreactive gases

– are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases with very low chemical

reactivity

– includes helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe),

and the radioactive radon (Rn)

■ Types of Compounds

1. Organic compounds

– contain a carbon atom (and often a hydrogen atom, to form hydrocarbons)

– will include things like the nucleic acids, found in DNA, lipids and fatty acids
found in the cells of living organisms, proteins and enzymes that are
necessary for cellular processes to take place, and more

2. Inorganic compounds

– do not contain either of those two atoms

– include the salts, metals, and other elemental compounds.
– Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, for example, each contain carbon
atoms, but the amount is not large enough to form strong bonds with the
oxygen present in the molecule

■ Atomic Theory of Matter (1808)

 John Dalton (1766-1844)

 Elements (matter) are composed of atoms
 The atoms of a given element are identical. Each element is characterized by the
mass of its atoms.
 Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other.
 A given compound is a chemical combination of the same atoms in the same relative
numbers.
 A chemical reaction is the rearrangement of atoms leading to new compounds.
Atoms are neither destroyed nor created in a chemical reaction (Conservation of
Mass).

■ The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the forces between molecules and the energy
that they possess. This theory has 3 basic assumptions.
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 Matter is composed of small particles (molecules).

 The measure of space that the molecules occupy (volume) is derived from the
space in between the molecules and not the space the molecules contain
themselves.
 The molecules are in constant motion. This motion is different for the 3 states
of matter.
■ Solid = low KE & strong attractive forces
■ Liquids = KE & attractive forces are higher than solids and lower than
gases
■ Gases = High KE & weak attractive forces

■ Laws Regarding Matter

- The amount of matter and total mass remains the same
1. Law of Constant Composition (Law of Conservation of Mass) = All samples of a
given compound have the same proportions of their constituent elements.
 All Physical and Chemical Changes involve some transfer of energy.
– Energy can be as heat or light (Can cause physical/chemical changes)
2. Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is not created of destroyed, only
changed.

■ Laws Regarding Matter:

1. Law of Definite Proportion
– A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements
by mass
2. Law of Multiple Proportions
– When two elements form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of
the second element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always
be reduced to small whole numbers.

■ Chemical Bond Types

1. Ionic bonds are formed when two or more atoms of an element are joined
together when one of the elements gains or loses electrons. Covalent bonds are
chemical bonds that form when two or more atoms of an element share
electrons. Metallic bonds are formed when metallic ions are attracted to the
electrons of another element.
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2. IONIC: metal + nonmetal

– Electrons are transferred from metal to nonmetal thus creating a cation (+)
and anion (-) which attract each other
3. COVALENT: nonmetal + nonmetal
– Electrons are shared by both atoms
4. METALLIC: metal + metal

■ Chemical Formula - Shorthand symbol

1. Qualitative description of the constituent elements in a molecule or ion.
– C12H22O11 contains C, H and O
2. Quantitative description of the relative numbers (subscripts) of atoms of each
element.
– One molecule of sucrose has 12-C, 22-H and 11-O

■ Chemical Reaction
 A chemical rxn is a rearrangement of atoms in which reactant compounds are
converted into product compounds.
 During a chem rxn, chemical bonds in the reactants are broken and chemical
bonds in the products are created.
 A rxn is accompanied by a change in energy (i.e. heat can be absorbed or given
off), color, state of matter, etc.

■ Chemical Equation

- Shorthand symbolic notation for a chemical reaction

CH4 (g) + O2 (g)  H2O(ℓ) + CO2 (g)

Note that this reaction is NOT BALANCED

1. Qualitative aspect
– identity of reactants [R] and products [P]; use study of nomenclature to write
equations
– Identify the state of matter for each [R] and [P]
– identify reaction type
2. Quantitative aspect
– how much reactant is consumed and how much product is formed
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– coefficients must be consistent with the Law of Conservation of Mass; atoms

are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
– i.e. chemical equation must be balanced
CH4(g) + 2O2 (g)  2H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)
*Note that this reaction is BALANCED

■ Modern View of Atomic Structure

■ Atomic Theory of Matter

Isotopes are atoms whose nuclei have the same
atomic number but different mass numbers; that is,
the nuclei have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.
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Module 3. Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions

STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Atomic Mass
By international agreement, atomic mass (sometimes called atomic weight) is the
mass of the atom in atomic mass units (amu). One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass
exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. Nowadays, the atomic
mass of an element can be determined directly by looking at your periodic table. For
example, carbon, C, has an atomic mass of 12 amu, calcium, Ca, has 40.1 amu and
oxygen, O2, has 16.0 amu. For simplicity, we will only use atomic masses of elements up
to one (1) decimal place only.
Atomic mass units provide a relative scale for the masses of the elements. But
because atoms have such small masses, no usable scale can be devised to weigh them in
calibrated units of atomic mass units.
In the SI system the mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as
many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or other particles) as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g (or 0.012 kg) of the carbon-12 isotope. One (1) mole of carbon-12 atoms
has a mass of exactly 12 g and is numerically equal to its atomic mass (12 amu).
Likewise, the atomic mass of sodium (Na) is 22.99 amu and its molar mass is 22.99
g/mol; the atomic mass of phosphorus is 30.97 amu and its molar mass is 30.97 g/mol;
and so on. If we know the atomic mass of an element, we also know its molar mass.

Molecular Mass
If we know the atomic masses of the component atoms, we can calculate the
mass of a molecule. The molecular mass (MM) (sometimes called molecular weight) is
the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance.

Example 1:
Calculate the molecular mass of H2O
Solution:
MM of H2O = (no. of H atoms present x atomic mass of H) + (no. of O atoms present x atomic
mass of O)
= 2(1.0 amu) + 1(16.0 amu) = 18.0 amu

Another way of solving for the molecular mass of water is:

Hydrogen, H, = 2 atoms x 1.0 g/mol = 2.0 amu
Oxygen, O, = 1 atom x 16.0 g/mol = 16.0 amu
18.0 amu

In general, we need to multiply the atomic mass of each element by the number of
atoms of that element present in the molecule and sum over all the elements.

Example 2:
Calculate the molecular mass of SO2.
Solution: There is 1 atom of S and 2 atoms of O.
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S = 1 atom x 32.1 g/mol = 32.1 amu

O = 2 atoms x 16.0 g/mol = 32.0 amu
64.1 amu
From the molecular mass we can determine the molar mass of a molecule or compound.
The molar mass of a compound (in grams) is numerically equal to its molecular mass (in
amu). Thus: Molecular Mass (unit: amu) = Molar Mass (unit: g/mol).

From the above examples,

For H2O, molecular mass = 18.0 amu
Molar mass = 18.0 g/mol
For SO2, molecular mass = 64.1 amu
Molar mass = 64.1 g/mol

Problems for Practice No. 1:

1. From your periodic table, determine the atomic mass and the molar mass of
the following elements:

Element Atomic mass (amu) Molar mass (g/mol)

Aluminum, Al
Gold, Au
Iron, Fe

2. Determine the molecular mass and molar mass of the following compounds:

Compound Molecular mass (amu) Molar mass (g/mol)

NaCl
H2SO4
FeO

Converting units from grams to mol and vice versa:

Knowledge of the molar mass enables us to calculate the numbers of moles and
individual atoms in a given quantity of a compound as illustrated in the example below:

Example 3. How many grams are there in 0.25 mol of H2O?

Solution: The molar mass of water is 18.0 g/mol (as shown in example 1). Because 1
mol H2O = 18.0 g H2O, the conversion factor we need should have mol in the
denominator so that the unit mol will cancel, leaving the unit g in the numerator. To
18.0 g
have this, we will write the molar mass in the form of . This will serve as
1 mol
conversion factor to convert 0.25 mol H2O into g:

18 g
= 0.25 mol H2O ( ) = 4.5 g H2O. Thus, 0.25 mol H2O is equal to 4.5 grams H2O.
1mol
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Example 4. Convert 6.07 g CH4 into unit mol.

Solution: The molar mass of CH4 is:

Carbon, C, = 1 atom x 12.0 g/mol = 12.0 g/mol
Hydrogen, H, = 4 atoms x 1.0 g/mol = 4.0 g/mol
16.0 g/mol

The conversion factor we need should have grams in the denominator so that the
unit g will cancel, leaving the unit mol in the numerator. To have this, we will write the
16.0 g
molar mass in the form of . This will serve as conversion factor to convert 6.07
1 mol
g of CH4 into mol:

1 mol
= 6.07 g CH4 ( ) = 0.379 mol CH4. Thus, 6.07 g of CH4 is equal to 0.379 mol of CH4.
16.0 g

Amount of Reactants and Products

A basic question raised in the chemical laboratory is “How much product will be
formed from specific amounts of starting materials (reactants)?” Or in some cases, we
might ask the reverse question: “How much starting material must be used to obtain a
specific amount of product?” To interpret a reaction quantitatively, we need to apply
our knowledge of molar masses and the mole concept. Stoichiometry is the quantitative
study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

For example, the combustion of carbon monoxide in air produces carbon dioxide
according to the balanced equation:
2CO + O2 2CO2
This equation can be read as “2 moles of carbon monoxide combine with 1 mole
of oxygen to form 2 moles of carbon dioxide.” In stoichiometric calculations, we say that
two moles of CO are equivalent to two moles of CO2, that is, 2 mol CO = 2 mol CO2.
The mole ratio between CO and CO2 is 2:2 or 1:1, meaning that if 10 moles of CO
are reacted, 10 moles of CO 2 will be produced. Likewise, if 0.20 mole of CO is reacted,
0.20 mole of CO2 will be formed. This relationship enables us to write the conversion
factors:
2 mol CO 2mol CO 2
or
2mol CO 2 2 mol CO

For example, if 4.8 moles of CO react completely with O 2 to form CO2. To calculate the
amount of CO2 produced in moles, we use the conversion factor that has CO in the
denominator and write:

2mol CO 2
moles of CO2 produced = 4.8 mol CO x = 4.8 mol CO2
2 mol CO

Remember that the conversion factors use the coefficient of a balanced chemical
equation.
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Any stoichiometric calculation usually involves the steps illustrated in the diagram
below:

■ Atomic Masses
 Absolute masses of atoms cannot be obtained – too small to measure the mass
directly;
 Relative atomic masses are used instead – masses relative to a chosen standard
or reference.
 Carbon-12 is used as atomic mass reference – it is assigned an atomic mass of 12
u exactly;
 Other atoms are assigned masses relative to that of carbon-12;
 Relative atomic masses are determined using mass spectrometer;

■ Molar Quantity
The Mole:
 A quantity that contains the Avogadro’s number of items;
 Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 1023
 12.01 g of carbon contains the Avogadro’s number of carbon atoms.
 1 mole of carbon = 12.01 g= 6.022 x 1023 carbon atoms
 1 carbon atom = 12.01 u (or amu)
■ Gram-Atomic Mass

 Mass of 1 carbon-12 atom = 12 u (exactly);

 Mass of 1 mole of carbon-12 = 12 g;
 Mass of 1 oxygen atom = 16.00 u
 Mass of 1 mole of oxygen = 16.00 g
 Gram-atomic mass = mass (in grams) of 1 mole of an element – that is, the mass
(in grams) that contains the Avogadro’s number of atoms of that element.
 gram-atomic mass is the molar mass of an element in grams.
 26

■ Molecular Mass and Molar Mass

 Molecular mass = the mass of a molecule in u;
 Molar mass = the mass of one mole of an element or a compound, expressed in
grams.

Examples:
Molecular Mass Molar Mass
N2 28.02 u 28.02 g/mol
H2 O 18.02 u 18.02 g/mol
C8H18 114.22 u 114.22 g/mol
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Module 4. Chemical Bonding : Basic Concepts

■ Formula of Compounds

1. Empirical Formula
A chemical formula that represents a simple whole number ratio of the
number of moles of elements in the compound.

Examples: MgO, Cu2S, CH2O, etc.

2. Molecular Formula
A formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each type in a molecule.

Examples: C4H10, C6H6, C6H12O6

■ Types of Reactions

1. Synthesis reactions (or Combination reactions)

2. Analysis reactions (or Decomposition reactions)

3. Single displacement reactions

4. Double displacement reactions

5. Combustion reactions

1. Synthesis (Combination) General: A + B  AB

Example C + O2

2. Analysis (Decomposition) General: AB  A + B

Example: NaCl

3. Single Displacement General: AB + C  AC + B

Example: Zn + CuCl2
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4. Double displacement General: AB + CD  AD + CB

Example: MgO + CaS

5. Combustion Reactions

 Combustion reactions - a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen gas.

 This is also called burning!!!

 In order to burn something you need the 3 things in the “fire triangle”:

1) Fuel (hydrocarbon)
2) Oxygen
3) Heat, thing to ignite the reaction (spark)

■ Bonds
- Forces that hold groups of atoms together and make them function as a unit.

Bonding Forces

 Electron – electron repulsive forces

 Nucleus – nucleus repulsive forces
 Electron – nucleus attractive forces

■ Types of Chemical Bonding

1. Metal with nonmetal - electron transfer and ionic bonding

2. Nonmetal with nonmetal - electron sharing and covalent bonding

 29

3. Metal with metal - electron pooling and metallic bonding

1. Ionic bond

This chemical bond involves a transfer of an electron, so one atom gains an electron while
one atom loses an electron. One of the resulting ions carries a negative charge (anion), and
the other ion carries a positive charge (cation). Because opposite charges attract, the atoms
bond together to form a molecule.

2. Covalent bond

The most common bond in organic molecules, a covalent bond involves the sharing of
electrons between two atoms. The pair of shared electrons forms a new orbit that extends
around the nuclei of both atoms, producing a molecule. There are two secondary types of
covalent bonds that are relevant to biology — polar bonds and hydrogen bonds.
 30

3. Polar bond

Two atoms connected by a covalent bond may exert different attractions for the electrons in
the bond, producing an unevenly distributed charge. The result is known as a polar bond, an
intermediate case between ionic and covalent bonding, with one end of the molecule
slightly negatively charged and the other end slightly positively charged.

4. Hydrogen bond
Because they’re polarized, two adjacent
H2O (water) molecules can form a linkage
known as a hydrogen bond, where the
(electronegative) hydrogen atom of one
H2O molecule is electrostatically attracted
to the (electropositive) oxygen atom of an
adjacent water molecule.

■ Types of Molecular Forces

1. Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.

(Example: water molecule to water molecule)
2. Intramolecular forces hold atoms together within in a molecule.
(Example: H to O bond within a water molecule).

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular

• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)

• 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)

Generally, “Measure” of intermolecular force

boiling point
intermolecular forces melting point
are much weaker than
intramolecular forces. H
vap
H
fus
H
sub
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■ Intermolecular Forces
1. London Forces (a.k.a. Dispersion Forces) Weakest
2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
3. Ion-Dipole Interactions
4. -(Salt dissolving in solution; Na+ and Cl- )
5. 4. Hydrogen Bonding (STRONGEST)

■ London Dispersion Forces: Weakest

- Occur between every compound and arise from the net attractive forces amount
molecules which is produced from induced charge imbalances

■ Dipole-Dipole Forces

Attractive forces between polar molecules

■ Ion-Dipole Forces
- Attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule
 32

■ Hydrogen Bonding

 The attraction between a hydrogen atom of a molecule to an unshared pair of

electrons in another molecule.
 Occurs in molecules where hydrogen is covalently bonded to a very
electronegative element.
 occurs in molecules containing N, O, F
 Ex. Several water molecules exhibits hydrogen bonding in the solution

■ Lewis Dot Symbols

 Place one dot per valence electron on each of the four sides of the element
symbol.
 Pair the dots (electrons) until all of the valence electrons are used.
 Nitrogen, N, is in Group 5A and therefore has 5 valence electrons.

■ The Octet Rule

 Chemical compounds tend to form so that each atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing
electrons, has eight electrons in its highest occupied energy level.
 The same number of electrons as in the nearest noble gas
 The first exception to this is hydrogen, which follows the duet rule.
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 The second exception is helium which does not form bonds because it is already
“full” with its two electrons

References:

 Heasley VL, Christensen VJ, Heasley GE. 1982. Chemistry and Life in the Laboratory.
Experiments in General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. Third Edition. Pretice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
 Holt, Rinehart, Winston. 2005. Modern Chemistry.
Pauling, L. 2014. College Chemistry: An Introductory Textbook of General Chemistry.
Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
https://books.google.com.ph/books/about/General_Chemistry.

 Pauling L and Freeman W.H. 1950. Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
https://books.google.com.ph/books?
id=_8HQAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_book_similarbooks