Inorganic and Organic
Chem
Introduction and
Measurements
Chemistry
- a branch of science that deals with
the study of matter, its composition,
structure, and properties, the
changes which matter undergoes
and the principles involved governing
these changes
o Why do we need to study
chemistry?
- In order to establish and maintain a
working relationship with other field
of science, chemistry must use the
fundamental rule that all science (is a
body of systematized knowledge)
follows. Man by nature has an
inquiring mind. Man attempts to
understand his environment. To
satisfy his curiosity and to assure his
survival, and this is the discovery of
all truth through observation, study
and experiment. In Chemistry, doing
research and experiment must follow
the scientific method
Steps in Scientific Method
1. Identify the Problem
2. Collecting data or information
3. Formulation of Hypothesis
4. Testing the Hypothesis
5. Experimentation
6. Observation
7. Conclusion and Recommendation
Importance of Chemistry
- Chemistry is utilized in many
branches of knowledge. The
application of chemical laws and
principles has done much to give
man control over nature, to alleviate
human suffering, to provide the
comforts of modern living, to produce
countless modern- day conveniences
all for the well-being of humanity
- Studying chemistry will help us
understand the significant changes
that have been brought about by
science in all individual’s life at home
and in the community as well as to
form the habit of thinking
scientifically in all life experiences
The Branches of Chemistry
o The Science of Chemistry has
two major branches namely:
1. Organic chemistry – the study of
carbon bonded to hydrogen
containing compounds
2. Inorganic Chemistry – the study of
chemical nature of all the elements
and their compounds that do not
contain carbon and compounds that
contain carbon that is not bonded to
hydrogen

o Some other Branches such
as:
3. Physical Chemistry – is fundamental
to all chemistry and deals with the
application of physical laws to
chemical systems and chemical
change
▪ Sub areas of Physical
Chemistry:
a. Colloidal Chemistry - study the
behavior of finely divided particles of
matter
b. Electrochemistry – deals with the
behavior of chemical substances on
treatment with electric current and
the production of electrical energy by
chemical means
c. Surface Chemistry- deals with nature
of surfaces and adsorption on them
d. Statistical Mechanics – deals with the
application of laws of probability to
large numbers of particles
4. Analytical chemistry – identification,
separation and quantitative
determination of the components of
different molecules.
5. Biochemistry – specializes in the
study of substances and processes
occurring in living organisms.
6. Theoretical Chemistry – the use of
mathematics and computers to
understand the principles behind
observed chemical behavior and to
design predict the properties of
compounds.
7. Agrochemistry – deals with the
application of chemistry for
agricultural production, food
processing and environmental
remediation
8. Astrochemistry – study of
composition and reactions of the
chemical elements and molecules
founding the stars and in the
spaceband of the interactions
between this matter and radiation.
9. Cluster chemistry – involves the
study of the cluster of branch atoms,
intermediate in size between single
molecules and bulk solids
10. Combinatorial Chemistry –
chemistry associated with soil, air
and water and of the human impact
on natural systems
11. Geochemistry- study of chemical
composition and chemical processes
associated with the earth and other
planets
12. Green Chemistry- concerned with
the processes and products that
eliminate or reduce the use or
release of hazardous substances
13. Medicinal Chemistry – chemistry as
it applies to pharmacology and
medicine.
14. Nuclear Chemistry – is a branch of
chemistry associated with nuclear
reactions and isotopes
15. Photochemistry – is a branch of
chemistry concerned with the
interaction between light and matter

History of Chemistry
1. By 1000 B.C. ancient civilizations and
technologies that would essentially
form the various branches of
chemistry
- Examples: includes extracting metals
from ores, making pottery and
glazes, fermenting beer and wines,
making pigments for cosmetics and
painting, extracting chemicals from
plants for medicines and perfumes,
making cheese, dyeing cloth, tanning
leather, preparation of soap from
fats, making glass and alloys
2. Greek philosophers were the first to
formulate theories about the
behavior of matter. Experimental
Chemistry originated from Alchemy-
a mystical chemistry devoted to
things such as converting common
metal to gold. Fire was the first
chemical reaction in a controlled
manner which was a mystical force
that could transform one substance
into another
3. Pythagoras (530 B.C.) believed that
the earth is spherical in shape and
rotated an axis once a day
4. Aristotle (384-323 B.C.) defined the
inductive method of advancing
knowledge
5. Democritus (460-370 B.C.) assumed
the presence of void in which the
unchangeable atoms of 4 elements of
Empedocles were in continuous
random movement
6. Alexander the Great (356-323)
introduced Greek civilization not only
to the old centers of culture, Egypt
and Babylon (Iraq), but also to Persia
and India
7. Hero of Alexandria (A.D. 62-150)
whose main work was devoted to
describing gaseous behavior and, in
many respects, anticipated the
kinetic molecular theory
Famous Foreign Scientists
1. Isaac Newton- father of modern
science
2. Marie Curie – discovered the
radioactive elements radium and
polonium
3. Robert Boyle – 1st scientist who gave
the first process definition of a
chemical element, reaction and
chemical analysis
4. Henry Cavendish - discovered the
hydrogen gas and found out that
water was composed of two gases,
hydrogen and oxygen gases.
5. John Dalton – father of modern
atomic theory
6. Ernest Rutherford – proposed that
atoms are mostly empty with
positively charged nucleus
Filipino Scientists
1. Julian Banzon – research methods of
producing alternative fuels
2. Benjamin Cabrera – developed
innovations in drug treatments
against diseases caused by
mosquitoes and agricultural soil
3. Paulo Campos- built the first
radioisotopes laboratory in the
Philippines
 4. Ernesto del Rosario – best known for 2 System of Measurement
his achievements in biotechnology o English system
and applied physical chemistry - Pound
5. Armando Kapunan – specialized in - Miles
environmental chemistry - Gallons
6. Luz Oliveros Belardo – researched - Inches
the phytochemical properties of - Feet
plants in the Philippines for natural o Metric system
products (INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM –
7. Alfredo Santos – noted researcher in SI)
the chemistry of natural products - most countries used
- more restrictive
Units of Measurements ▪ In describing
Measurement substance or in
- a method of quantifying and it defining their
involve numbers and measuring condition, they are all
device expressible in terms of
o Are all measurement exact? four fundamental
- no dimensions:
- there is always a degree of - Length
uncertainty - Mass
▪ limitation of the - Volume
measuring device - Temperature
▪ skill of the person
measuring
▪ irregularities in the
object being
measured
▪ condition of
environment

Three things are necessary in describing

substances
Length
1. The numerical values of the property
o 1 in = 2.54 cm
2. The dimensions of the property
o 1 m = 39.37 in
3. The units in which the value is
o 1mile = 1.609 km
expressed
o 1 mile = 5280 feet
o 1 mile = 1760 yards
o 1 yard = 3 feet
o 1 foot = 12 inches

Metric Prefixes
Mass (G)
o 1 oz = 28.35g
o 1lb = 453.6 g
o 1 kg = 2.205lb
o 1 g = 15.43 grains
Volume (L)
o 1 qt = 0.946 L
o 1 gal = 3.785 L
o 1L = 33.81 fl oz
o 1 fl oz = 29.57 ml
o 1L = 1000 ml
Temperature conversion formulas
Scientific Notation
- Electrons are particles having a mass
of
0.00000000000000000000000
0000091. It is very difficult to keep
track of the zeros in such quantities.
This quantity can be expressed in a
convenient way using the power of
ten or Scientific notation
o For large number:
- Shift the decimal point to the left up
to the nearest ten and assume
positive exponent
o For small number:
- Shift the decimal point to the right up
to the nearest tenth and assume
negative exponent
Rounding Off Numbers:
1. If the number to be dropped is less
than five (5), the preceding numbers
remains the same
2. If the number to be dropped is five
(5) or more, add one (1) to the
preceding number
Accuracy
- tells how close a measurement to the
known value, true value or accepted
value
Precision
- tells how close two or more
measurements to one another
Significant Figures
- refers to the number of important
single digits
- are digits which indicates the number
of units sure of having counted in
making measurement
Rules in determining the number of
Significant Figures:
1. All non-zero digits are significant
- Ex. 12, 235 = 5 significant digits
2. Zeroes in between non-zero digits
are significant
- Ex. 25000.6 = 6 significant digits
3. Zeroes to the left of a non- zero digits
are not significant
Matter
- Ex. 0.003 = 1 significant digit
4. Zeroes to the right of a decimal point
and to the left of a non-zero digit are
significant
- Ex. 5.030 = 4 significant digits
5. Terminal zeroes of a whole number
may or may not be significant
a. Significant if there is a distinct
decimal point
- Ex. 5.00 = 3 significant digits
- 2.0 = 2 significant digits
b. Not significant if there is no distinct
decimal point
- Ex. 90,000 = 1 significant digit
- To be certain or to remove the
ambiguity use scientific notation
- Ex. 90, 000 = 9 x 10 ^ 4 = 1 significant
digit
SF Calculations
- Multiplication, Division, Addition,
Subtraction
- Final answer should be in the least
number of significant
What is matter?
- anything that occupies space and
has mass
- is everything in the universe
Differences between mass and weight
o Mass
- Constant at any place and time
- Refers to the amount of substance
o Weight
- varies, depends on gravity
- refers to the downward pull of the
earth
Properties of Matter
o Intrinsic
- properties that do not depend on the
amount of matter present
- depend on the quality or kind of
material present
- color, odor, luster, malleability,
ductility, conductivity, hardness, mp,
bp, fp, density, refractive index and
viscosity
o Extrinsic
- properties that do depend on the
amount of matter present
- weight, temperature, size, shape,
length, width and height
Classification of Matter
o Pure Substance
- element
- compound
o Mixture
- homogeneous
- heterogeneous
 Difference between Mixture
and Pure Substance
o Pure Substance
- constant composition
- fixed set of properties
- cannot be separated into
- simpler substances (for Elements)
o Mixture
- proportions of components may vary
- properties vary with composition
- can be physically separated into two
or more pure substance
Pure Substance
Classification of Pure Substance
o Element
- simplest substance
- cannot be chemically subdivided into
simpler substances
o Compound
- two or more elements are chemically
bonded
- can be chemically subdivided into
simpler substances
- products are either elements or
simpler compounds
Classification of compounds
o Organic compounds
- those compounds containing carbon
atom in their molecules except
oxides of carbon
o Inorganic compounds
- those compounds containing other
elements and a few containing
carbons and its salts
Types of Inorganic Compounds
1. Acids
- contains hydrogen which is
replaceable by a metal
- yields hydrogen ions in water solution
- donates protons
- turn blue litmus paper to red
2. Bases
- contain a metal with a hydroxyl
group
- accepts proton
- soapy or slippery in water solutions
- turns red litmus paper to blue
3. Salts
- formed by the combination of any
positive ion except hydrogen and any
negative ion except the hydroxide ion
- electrolyte that yields neither
hydrogen or hydroxide from the
dissolve molecules
4. Oxides
- consists of oxygen and other
elements
Mixture
- combination of two or more pure
substances
Two Types of Mixture
o Homogeneous
- mixture that has a uniform
appearance and the same properties
throughout
o Heterogeneous
- mixture in which the properties and
appearance are not uniform
throughout
 Homogenous Mixture
1. solution – homogenous mixture of
two or more substances, the particles
of which cannot be observed by an
optical apparatus
but small enough to possess
properties from coarse or
heterogenous dispersion
Different types of Colloidal dispersion

Heterogenous Mixture
1. colloid – heterogenous mixture of two
or more substances in which the
particles are much larger than
solutions but smaller than suspension
2. suspension – heterogenous mixture
of two or more substances in which
the particles are much larger than
colloid

Differences between Compounds and

Mixtures

Colloidal dispersion Methods of Separating Mixtures

- Is a homogenous mixture in which
dispersed particles are large cluster
of ions or molecules
- It consists of discrete particles that
are dispersed in a given medium
- The particles are considerably larger
than individual atoms or molecules
1. Filtration – use to separate solid from
liquid with the aid of filter
2. Distillation- use to separate two
liquids with different boiling points
3. Centrifugation – use to separates
constituents by difference in their
weights
4. Sedimentation – similar with
centrifugation, but it happens when
particles of different densities have
settled within a liquid
Four States of Matter
o Others
- Sublimation: solid to gas
▪ dry ice
▪ (solid CO2)
- Deposition: gas to solid
▪ water vapour into ice
(windows during the
winter months)
▪ snow
▪ Frost forms on a leaf
Plasma
- “the fourth state of matter”
- superheated matter: so hot that the
electrons are ripped away from the
atoms forming an ionized gas
o Examples
- lightning
- solar wind
- Earth’s Ionosphere
- stars
- sun
- Neon signs
- fluorescent lights
- Aurora Borealis
General Physical Properties of Matter
Properties of Solid
1. Pure solids have definite melting
points
- Melting point is the temperature at
which the solid and liquid phase
coexists together in equilibrium
under a pressure of one atmosphere
while freezing point is change of a
liquid into solid
2. Solids have vapor pressure
- Solids with high vapor pressure can
sublime. Sublimation is the process of
changing solid into the gaseous state
without passing through the liquid
state
3. Solids possess hardness, rigidity, and
mechanical strength
- These properties of solids are due to
the fact that the molecules in solids
are closed packed; possessing the
greatest molecular attraction and
are fixed in their position
Properties of Liquid
1. Liquid has density
- Density is the amount of mass a
given volume of a substance contains
under the prevailing conditions. It is
the amount of liquid contained in its
volume
2. Liquids have specific gravity
- Specific gravity is the ratio of the
density of the substance that of the
reference substance at standard
conditions of temperature and
pressure
3. Liquids have viscosity
- Viscosity is the resistance of liquids to
flow quantitatively. It decreases as
 the temperature of the liquid
increases because molecular
attraction becomes weaker
4. Liquids have electrical conductivity
- Liquids are mixtures of compounds
consisting of charged particles,
therefore they can be conductors of
electricity
5. Liquids have vapor pressure or vapor
tension
- Vapor pressure of a substance is the
pressure exerted by the gaseous
phase of that substance when it is in
equilibrium with its solid or liquid
phase. An increase in temperature
increases the vapor pressure. Liquids
with high vapor pressure have low
boiling point
6. Liquids have thermal conductivity
- Liquids have the capacity to absorb
and dissipate heat to and from the
neighboring environment
7. Pure liquids have constant boiling
points
- Boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure
8. Liquids possess surface tension
- Surface tension is the force per
centimeter on the surface of a liquid
which opposes any expansion of the
surface area. Surface molecules are
subjected to an unbalanced
attractive force that pull them
toward the body of the liquid. Water
rises in a capillary tube because the
force of adhesion between water
molecules. The greater the surface
tension and the smaller the diameter
of the capillary tube the higher is the
rise of the liquid
9. Liquid can undergo evaporation or
vaporization
- Evaporation is the conversion of a
liquid to vapor. Vapor is the gaseous
state of a substance that exists as a
liquid at ordinary temperature.
Liquids with high vapor pressures
evaporate faster than those with
lower vapor pressure. Condensation
is the conversion of vapors to the
liquid state. Distillation is the
conversion of liquid to vapor and
back to the liquid state
10. Liquids have volatility
- Volatility is the escaping property of
liquids. It measures the tendency of
the liquid to form vapor at specified
temperature and pressure
Properties of Liquid
1. Gases have low density
2. Gases exert pressure
- Pressure is a property that
determines the direction of mass flow
and it’s defined as a force per unit
area
3. Gases diffuse rapidly
- Diffusion is the ability of two or more
phases to mix spontaneously.
Diffusion is fast in gases because of
the weak forces of attraction
between the particles that makes it
possible for the gas to spread
throughout the available space
4. Gases expand when heated
 5. Gases have high compressibility
- the volume of the gases occupies
maybe reduced to a great extent by
compression
Plasma
- state of matter under unusual
conditions
- Plasma are gases composed of
charged particles
- They are ionized gases which exhibit
properties distinct from ordinary
gases, liquids, or solids, whose
molecules are extremely high that
any chance with plasma proceeds at
a tremendous speed
- They can cut through steel and
vaporize metals in seconds. One best
example of plasma is the laser
General methods used to produce laser
1. Thermal Ionization Process
- process in which an ordinary gas is
subjected into an extremely high
temperature of more than
10,0000C. The increased movement
of the molecules will cause increased
and violent collisions among
themselves to knock away the
electrons from the nuclei resulting in
the ionization of the gas
2. Cascade Process
- The gas is made to pass through a
very strong magnetic fluid which
strips the atoms of all its electrons
Importance of Plasma
1. In medicine, plasmas are used in
“bloodless surgery” They are used to
cauterize blood vessels and destroy
cancerous tissues. In treating “retinal
detachment” plasmas rays are
causes scar tissues to form at the
point of retinal separation, thereby
reattaching the loosened retina to
the underlying tissues
2. Plasmas are one of the best electrical
conductors
3. In industry, plasmas are used in
microwaves application and
controlled fusing reactions
Changes in Matter
o Physical change
- some properties change but the
identity of the matter still the same
o Chemical change
- appearance and structure have
changed, then new substance
formed

Atomic Structure
Atom
- is the smallest constituent unit of
ordinary matter that has the
properties of a chemical element
- is the fundamental unit structure of
matter
- all matter in the universe is made up
of tiny particle called atoms
- Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is
composed of neutral or ionized
atoms
- came from the Greek word “atomos”
which means indivisible
People who contributed to the study of
the atom:
- Democritus and Lecretius: matter is
composed of mobile, tiny indivisible
particles
- Empedocles: matter is composed of 4
elements name air, earth, fire, and
water
- Aristotle: made advanced studies on
the Empedoclean theory
- John Dalton: proposed an atomic
theory based on the facts and
experimented evidence
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Substances are composed of tiny
indivisible particles called atoms
2. Atoms of any given substances are
identical and have the same weight,
size and form
3. Atoms are the smallest part of an
element which can enter into a
chemical change
4. Atoms are permanent and cannot be
decomposed
5. Compounds are formed by the union
of 2 or more atoms of elementary
substances
Modern Atomic Theory
1. Atoms may be disintegrated. In
nuclear reactions, atoms are being
transferred into single elements in a
process known as nuclear
transmutation (a process that
involves a change in the nucleus of
an atom. When the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom
changes, the identity of that atom
changes as it is turned into another
element or isotope. This
transmutation process can be either
natural or artificial)
2. Not all atoms of any given element
are alike
3. Not all atoms of a given element
pose identical properties except in
mass
4. atoms of different elements have
different properties
What an atom is made of?
- Electron
- Proton
- Neutron
Electron
- Sir Joseph John Thomson
- 1897 discovered the electron
- observed the properties of cathode
rays
- Plum Pudding Model
- the atom is composed of electrons
surrounded by positive charges
 o What is neutron?
- is a subatomic particle having a
charge of zero
- n⁰
- neutral units of matter
- mass of 1.675 x 10^-27 Kg
o Bohr’s Model of the Atom

o What is Electron?
- a unit of matter carrying negative
charge of electricity (-)
- found to be attracted to a positive
plate
- mass of 9.109 x 10 ^-31 Kg
- charge of -1.602 x 10 ^-19 coulombs

Proton
- Ernest Rutherford
- 1909
- He used alpha particles to target a
very thin foil of gold
- based on “alpha-scattering
experiment”
- He called very small region as
nucleus
- Most of the alpha particles pass
through but when alpha particles hit
the nucleus, they deflected
o What is proton?
- a unit of matter carrying positive
charge of electricity (+)
- mass of 1.673 x 10^27 Kg
- charge of +1.602 x 10^-19 coulombs

Neutron
- James Chadwick
- 1932
- discovered the neutral particle
(uncharged particle) neutron
 Isotopes
- atoms of an element with the same
number of protons but a different
number of neutrons
- have the same atomic number but a
different mass number

The Modern Reassessment of the Atomic

Theory
1. All matter is composed of atoms. The
atom is the smallest body that
retains the unique identity of the
element
2. Atoms of one element cannot be
converted into atoms of another
element in a chemical reaction.
Elements can only be converted into
other elements in nuclear reactions
3. All atoms of an element have the
same number of protons and
electrons which determines the
chemical behavior of the element.
Isotopes of an element differ in the
number of neutrons, and thus in
mass number. A sample of the
element is treated as though its
atoms have an average mass
4. Compounds are formed by the
chemical combination of two or more
elements in specific ratios
Quantum Theory
- the electrons around the nucleus are
regarded as a standing wave in 3
dimensions
- These dimensions are indicated by
numbers called quantum numbers
Quantum numbers
- are required to describe the
distribution of electrons in H and
other atoms
- principal quantum number, angular
momentum quantum number and
magnetic quantum number
o (1st Quantum number)
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM
NUMBER
- designated by letter n
- main energy level
- average distance of the electron from
the nucleus in a particular orbit
- 1, 2, 3…
o (2nd Quantum number)
AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM
NUMBER
- L
- L = 0 designated by s, spherical-like
shape
- L = 1 designated by p, dumbbell
shape
- L = 2 designated by d, four-lobed
shape
- L = 3 designated by f, very
complicated
o 3rd Quantum number
- – gives the orientation of the electron
which is the magnetic quantum
number
- m
- s – simple m = 1 (0)
- p – principal m = 3 (-1,0, +1)
- d – diffuse m=5
- f – fundamental m=7
o 4th Quantum number
- the spin quantum number which
indicates the spin of an electron
about its own axis in a clockwise (+)
or counterclockwise (-) direction
Electronic Configuration Theory
Electronic Configuration
- is the orderly distribution of electrons
among the orbital of an atom
- Are determined by distributing the
electrons among levels, sublevels and
orbital
o Theory
1. The first main energy level has a
maximum of 2 electrons (s=2)
2. The second main energy level have a
maximum of 8 electrons (s=2, p=6)
3. The third main energy level have a
maximum of 16 electrons (s=2, p=6,
d=10)
4. The fourth main energy level have a
maximum of 32 electrons (s=2, p=6,
d=10, f=14)
5. The different orbitals are:
o s = 2 electrons / orbital
o p = 6 electrons / 3 orbitals
o d = 10 electrons / 5
orbitals
o f = 14 electrons / 7 orbitals
6. The valence is determined by
counting the number of electrons in
the last main energy level
7. A particular energy level may have
orbitals which may not be filled up
due to high energy requirements
Aufbau Principle
- the atom is built up by the
progressive filling up of the main
levels, sub-levels and orbitals with
electrons according to increasing
energy levels
Electron Dot Representation of Atoms
- This is called the electronic symbol
which is used in the chemical activity
or reaction of atoms wherein only the
valence electrons are shown
- The number of dots around the
symbol represents the no. of
electrons in the outermost energy
level of the atom
Octet Rule
- the observation that elements with
eight electrons in the outermost shell
are stable and makes the atom
chemically unreactive
1. Atoms with one, two, three electrons
in the outermost orbits lose electrons
so they will fill p-orbitals and have
similar configuration to the previous
noble gas.
2. Atoms with electrons more than 4 in
the outermost orbits gain enough
electrons to make a total of 8
electrons or so as to fill p-orbitals,
similar to noble gas at the end of
their respective period. 3. Atoms of 4
outermost electrons share to make
the number of electrons.
o Exception:
- Elements with atomic number of
1.3.4.5 follow the rule of 2 and end to
become similar to helium atoms.
Different Types of
Chemical Bond
2 Kinds of Forces or Attractions
o Intramolecular
- are the forces that hold atoms
together within a molecule
o Intermolecular
- are forces that exist between
molecules
 o 2 Types of Covalent Bond
▪ Polar
- is formed between atoms with
electronegativity difference between
0.5 and 1.9
▪ Nonpolar
- is formed between atoms
electronegativity difference less than
0.5
Types of Intramolecular Forces of Attraction
- ionic bond
- covalent bond
- metallic bond

Ionic Bond/Ionic Attraction

- Electrostatic attraction between two
oppositely charged ion
- This bond is formed by the complete
transfer of valence electron(s)
between metal and nonmetal atoms
- the metal loses electrons to become
a positively charged cation, whereas
the nonmetal accepts those electrons
to become a negatively charged
anion

Covalent Bond
- This bond is formed by sharing of
electrons between two non-metallic
atoms in order to achieve octet
configuration and become more
stable
- macromolecular substance: diamond
Metallic Bond
- This bond is formed via the attraction
of the mobile electrons—referred to
as sea of electrons—and the fixed
positively charged metal ions
- Ability to conduct electricity (electric
current and heat)
- Metallic bonds are present in
samples of pure elemental metals,
such as gold or aluminum, or alloys,
like brass or bronze

Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
- dipole-dipole forces
- hydrogen bonding
- van der waals forces or london
dispersion forces
Dipole-Dipole Force
- occurs between polar covalent
molecules
- forces occur when the partially
positively charged part of a molecule
interacts with the partially negatively
charged
Hydrogen Bonding
- is the attraction between a hydrogen
atom and a highly electronegative
atom such as nitrogen, oxygen and
flourine
- 2 factors account for the strength of
interactions: great polarity of the
bond and close approach of the
dipoles, which is the hydrogen
- strongest intermolecular forces of
attraction
o Trivia
- Hydrogen bonding plays an
important role in biology; for
example, hydrogen bonds are
responsible for holding nucleotide
bases together in DNA and RNA
Van Der Waals Forces/ London Dispersion
- Weakest of the intermolecular forces
of attraction in non-polar substances
- Weak (caused by temporary dipole
formed)
 Summary
o Intramolecular forces of
attraction
- Ionic bonding (metal and non-metal)
- Covalent bonding (non-metal and
non-metal)
- Metallic bonding (metal and sea of
electrons)
o Intermolecular forces of
attraction
- Dipole-dipole (polar covalent
molecules)
- H-bonding (hydrogen and o,n,f)
- Van der Waals (non polar covalent
molecules
Molecular Geometry
- is the 3-dimensional shape that a
molecule occupies in space
- It is determined by the central atom
and the surrounding atoms and
electron pairs
Classifications,
Chemical Formulas,
Naming and Writing
formulas & Balancing
of Equation
Ionic Compounds
- Referred to as salt
- Ionic compounds are formed from
the attraction of charged atoms
called IONS – are electrically charged
atoms either positive or negative
Nomenclature
- It is a system of naming
- To distinguish one chemical entity
from another, unique names are
assigned to all elements, ions and
compounds
Naming Ionic Compounds
- Ionic compound nomenclature or
naming is based on the names of the
component ions. In all cases, ionic
compound naming gives the
positively charged cation first,
followed by the negatively charged
anion
Ions Can Be…
- Monatomic: consists of a single atom
- Polyatomic: charged entity
composed of several atoms bound
together
- Oxoanions: combination of oxygen
with a nonmetal although some
contains metal
Common Monoatomic Ions
Common Oxoanion
Using -ite and -at
- Some polyatomic anions contain
oxygen. These anions are called
OXYANIONS. When an element
forms two oxyanions, the one with
less oxygen is given a name ending in
–ite and the one with more oxygen
are given a name that ends in –ate
o NO2 - Nitrite
o NO3 - Nitrate
Using hypo- and per-
- In this case where there is a series of
four oxyanions, the –hypo and per-
prefixes indicates less oxygen and
more oxygen respectively
o CIO- Hypochlorite
o CIO2– Chlorite
o ClO3- Chlorate
o ClO4- Perchlorate
Ionic Compound Containing Bi- And
- Polyatomic anions sometimes gain
one or more H+ ions to form anions of
a lower charge. These ions are
named by adding the word hydrogen
in front of the name of the anion. It is
still common to see and use the older
naming convention in which the
prefix bi- is used to indicate the
addition of a single hydrogen ion
o HCO3 – Hydrogen carbonate or
bicarbonate
o HSO4 – Hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate
Ionic Compounds Containing Metals with
Multiple Charge
o Stock System
- the specific systematic method used
to name ionic compounds
- uses roman numerals in parenthesis
after the name of the metal to
indicate the charge
Roman Numerals in Ionic Compound Names
- A roman numeral in parentheses,
followed by the name of the element,
is used for elements that can form
more than one positive ion
- There is no space between the
element name and parenthesis. This
notation is usually seen with metals
since they commonly display more
than one oxidation state or valence
o Fe 2 Iron (II)
o Fe 3 Iron (III)
 Naming ionic compounds using
-ous and -ic
- Although roman numerals are used
to denote the ionic charge of cations,
it is still common to see and use the
endings –ous and –ic. These endings
are added to the Latin name of the
element (e.g., stannous/stannic for
tin) to represent the ions with lesser
or greater charge, repectively. The
roman numeral naming convention
has wider appeal because many ions
have more than two valences
o Fe 2+ Ferrous
o Fe 3+ Ferric
Determining the Formula of
an Ionic Compound
- A stable ionic compound is
electrically neutral where electrons
are shared between cations and
anions to complete outer electron
shells or octets. You know you have
the correct formula for an ionic
compound when the positive and
negative charges on the ions are the
same or ‘Cancel each other out’
o Steps For Writing and
Balancing Formula
1. Identify the cation (the portion with a
positive charge). It is the least
electronegative (most
electropositive) ion. Cations include
metals and they are often located on
the lefthand side of the periodic table
2. Identify the anion (the portion with a
negative charge). It is the most
electronegative ion. Anions include
halogens and non- metals. Keep in
mind, hydrogen can go either way,
carrying either a positive or negative
charge
3. Write the cation first, followed by the
anion
4. Adjust the subscripts of the cation
and anion so the net charge is 0,
Write the formula using the smallest
whole number ratio between the
cation and anion to balance charge
Ionic Compound Formula
Molecular Compound
- Contains two or more non-metals.
Usually, you can recognize a
molecular compound because the
first element in the compound name
is a non-metal
Prefixes and Molecular Compound names
- Nonmetals may combine in a variety
of ratios, so it is important that the
name of a molecular compound
indicates how many atoms of each
type of element are present in the
compound
- This is accomplished using prefixes. If
there is only one atom of the first
element, no prefix is used. It is
customary to prefix the name of one
atom of the second element with
mono. For example, CO is named
carbon monoxide rather than carbon
dioxide
Molecular Compound Prefixes
o Examples
- SO2- sulfur dioxide
- SF6 – sulfur hexafluoride
- CCl4 – carbon tetrachloride
- NI3- Nitrogen triiodide
Writing the formula from the name
- • You can write the formula for a
covalent compound from its name by
writing the symbols for the first and
second element and translating the
prefixes into subscripts
- For example, xenon hexafluoride
would be written XF6
- It is common for students to have
trouble writing formula from
compounds names as ionic
compounds and covalent
compounds are often confused. You
aren’t balancing charges of covalent
compounds; if the compound does
not contain metal, don’t try to
balance this!
Writing formulas for covalent compound
1. The more electropositive element
(further left on the periodic table) is
listed before the more
electronegative element (further right
on the periodic table)
2. The second element is given an –ide
ending
3. Prefixes are used to denote how
many atoms of each element are
present in the compound
Acids and Bases
o Acid
- is a substance that when dissolved in
water provides hydrogen ions, H+
- Compound that provides hydrogen
ions in solution
o Base
- substance that reacts with an acid in
aqueous solution to form water and
often provide hydroxide ions in a
solution
o Binary Acids
- are named as hydro- followed by the
root of the element name with an –ic
suffix and the word acid placed at
the end of the name
- Generally, acids containing
polyatomic ions are named by taking
 the root of the polyatomic ion name,
replacing -ate with –ic or replacing –
ite with –ous and adding the word
acid at the end
Name Of Some Common Acids
Summary
- Binary acids in solutions are named
with the prefix hydro- followed by the
stem of the name of the nonmetal
with the suffix –ic and the word acid
attached
- Naming acids containing polyatomic
ions requires modifying the name of
the polyatomic ion. The prefix hydro-
is not used in naming acids
containing polyatomic ion
Chemical Formulas
Types of Chemical Formulas
- Molecular Formula: this formula uses
the actual numbers of moles of each
element
- EX. Hydrogen peroxide: H2O2
- Empirical Formula: simplest chemical
formula
- EX. Hydrogen peroxide: HO
- Structural Formula: it shows the
number of atoms by means of
showing the bonds between atoms
- EX. Hydrogen peroxide: H-O-O-H
Balancing of Chemical Equation
Nature of Chemical Reaction
- process that leads to the
transformation of one set of chemical
substances to another
- Chemical reactions are usually
characterized by a chemical change,
from substances that are initially
involved in a chemical reaction are
called reactants or reagents
- The reactant in a chemical reaction
change into one or more new
substance/s called product
o Example:
- Reactants Products
- Iron + Oxygen Iron (III) oxide
- Hydrogen peroxide water +
oxygen
* Classically, chemical reactions encompass
changes that strictly involve the motion of
electrons in the forming and breaking of
chemical bonds between atoms, and can
often be described by a chemical equation
Basic Concept
 Types of Chemical Reaction
Gas Law
Evidences of Chemical Reaction
- Color Change
- Production of an odor
- Change of Temperature
- Evolution of a gas (formation of
bubbles)
- Precipitate (formation of a solid)
- Production of light
- Volume change
Rules in Balancing Equation
1. Determine the correct formulas for
all the reactants and products in the
reaction
2. Write the skeleton equation. If there
are 2 or more reactants or products
involve separate with plus signs
3. Count the number of atoms of each
element in the reactants and
products
4. Balance the elements one at a time
by using coefficients
- RULE: You must not attempt to
balance an equation by changing the
subscripts in the chemical formula of
a substance
5. Check each atom or polyatomic ion
to be sure that the equation is
balanced
6. Finally, make sure that all the
coefficients are in the lowest possible
ratio
Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
- The summary of the KMT postulates
is as follows:
- Gases are composed of extremely
minute particles, separated by wide
spaces, called molecules
- Molecules are in rapid random
motion travelling in straight path
colliding with one another and
against the wall of the container
exerting pressure
- All collisions that molecules undergo
are perfectly elastic. Energy is
conserved as no kinetic energy is lost
- Molecules do not attract or repel one
another. They move around freely
because the forces between them
are extremely weak
- Volume occupied by the molecules
themselves is small compared to the
volume of the container under
ordinary pressure and temperature
Properties of Gas
- Wide spaces between particles
- Expand to fill container
- No definite volume
- Gases form a solution in any
proportions
o Readily soluble/miscible
- Gases have relatively low densities
- Compressible
- Expand when heated
- Gas volume changes significantly
with pressure
o Solid and liquid volumes are
not greatly affected by
pressure
 - Gas volume changes significantly
with temperature

Quantities that Influence the Nature and

Behavior
- Pressure (P): force exerted by a gas
per unit area
o Standard Pressure: 1atm
(atmosphere) = 760 mmHg
The Gas Laws
- Temperature (T): average kinetic
- The gas laws describe the physical
energy of gas particles
behavior of gases in terms of 4
o Standard Temperature: 273 K
variables:
= 0°C
o pressure (P)
o temperature (T)
Gas Pressure and its Measurement
o volume (V)
o Pressure= force/area
o amount (number of moles, n)
- Atmospheric pressure arises from
- An ideal gas is a gas that exhibits
the force exerted by atmospheric
linear relationships among these
gases on the earth’s surface
variables
- Atmospheric pressure decreases
- No ideal gas actually exists, but most
with altitude
simple gases behave nearly ideally at
- Volume (V): space occupied by gas
ordinary temperatures and
particles
pressures
o 1 mol of gas = 22.4 L
- Number of Particles (n): expressed in
Boyle’s Law
mole
- Pressure-Volume Relationship by
o 1 mol of gas = 6.02 x 1023
English chemist Robert Boyle in 1662
particles
- As volume becomes smaller, more
- Molecular Mass (m)
collisions occur and the air pressure
o 1 mol of gas = molecular mass
increases; pressure and volume are
(g)
directly related at constant
temperature and amount of gas
 Charles’ Law
- Volume-Temperature Relationship by
French physicist Jacques Alexandre
Charles in 1787
- The kinetic energy of gas particles
increases as temperature increases;
the Kelvin temperature and volume
of a gas are directly related with no
change in pressure and amount of
gas

Gay-Lussac’s Law
- Pressure-Temperature Relationship
by French scientist Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac in 1808
- If the gas is heated, its pressure will
increase, with constant volume and
number of moles, the pressure of a
gas is directly related to its Kelvin
temperature
 Combined Gas Law
- Used to solve for changes in
pressure, volume and temperature of
a gas

Ideal Gas Law

- Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law and
Avogadro’s Law were combined
where the variables pressure,
volume, temperature and amount of
Avogadro’s Law gas equated to a single constant R or
- Volume-Mole Relationship by Italian the universal gas constant
scientist Amadeo Avogadro in 1811
- The volume of the gas is directly
related to the number of moles at
constant temperature and pressure
 The Ideal Gas Law and Gas Density
o The density of a gas is
- directly proportional to its molar
mass and
- inversely proportional to its
temperature