Romblon State University: Prepared By: Elena R. Rodeo RSU-Cajidiocan

Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University

Romblon, Philippines
Prepared by:
Elena R. Rodeo
RSU-Cajidiocan
Environmental Science 1
MODULE 4 ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES
Module Overview
Module 4 covers 5 lessons. Lesson 4.1 discusses Anthropogenic Impact which the
net effect is environmental degradation, Lesson 4.2 enumerates and explains the
different world garbage disposal problem, Lesson 4.3 enumerates and discusses the
different pollution in the world today, Lesson 4.4 explains the different global climate
change and related phenomena and Lesson 4.5 enumerate and describes the different
ecosystem degradation.
Module Outcomes
1. Discussed the anthropogenic impact in environmental crises.

2. Determined and discussed the human practices that affect the environment.
3. Developed knowledge and understanding about climate change.
4. Enumerated and discussed the different garbage problem in the world.
5. Enumerated and discussed the different major types pollution, its causes and effects
to our environment.
6. Enumerated and discussed the different global climate change and related
phenomena as an environmental crisis.
7. Explained the causes and effects ecosystem degradation.
LESSON 4.1 ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT
Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss the different social and cultural practices of men that affect the environment.
2. Cite sociocultural practices that are present/practiced in your area.
3. Give recommendations to conserve environmental resources.
Introduction
Environmental science is a relatively young field of study and is brought about by the
need to study not only the natural environment but also how humans are changing it.
Ecosystems were once thought to be robust and self-restoring but are now recognized to
be either fragile or too abused to recover spontaneously.
It has been shown in several cases that if the Earth were left in its natural state,
there would be no environmental problems at all. The biogeochemical cycles and
everything in nature would remain in perfect balance.
Historically, human behavior towards the environment has been strongly influenced
by survival needs. The earliest humans were supposed to have been nomadic hunter-
gatherers. They lived off the land until there was nothing much to be consumed. Then
they would move off to find new areas.
During that time, there were only a few humans so that even as they moved off to
fresher grounds, the exploited areas could recover. Today, the rate of human utilization
of environmental resources exceeds several times the rate of potential regeneration.
Activity
Directions: Find 10 words horizontally and vertically from the jumbled letters that are
related to environmental crises.
a m j d k y s d e d w x x s b x z x n d s
y n k e k b s b e f r v x s b w z x n w t
s l a i j z s d e k e c x s c d z x n a u
l a l x d y a c y l c x x s c z c x m s z
a n m a h c a d x m y m x k q q z c m t x
b d n b i l a d t n c b x a w t z q c e m
v f o v e r p o p u l a t i o n z d c b n
a i p a h a c c t p i m x n y z z c c b g
w l q d y m c d t q n g x g a r b a g e b
e l d x d u m p s b g d x i n s n k b m k
a s r b g c c a b q a x a n b e b l m c t
q g s d f n c b a x b d l k c d x c d x o
r h e c c q i n c i n e r a t i o n c m x
t c b d e p b d e c a d x s c c b d e n i
b z x o v e r e x p l o i t a t i o n d c
w d m y c q b f d c x a b x c c x g e x b
Analysis
Directions: From the words you found from the activity, tell something about it.
1. ____________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________________________
6. ____________________________________________________________________
7. ____________________________________________________________________
8. ____________________________________________________________________
9. ____________________________________________________________________
10. ___________________________________________________________________
Abstraction
SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
The degradation of the environment is attributed partly or wholly to man’s social and
cultural practices. Kaingin farming, overuse of common property resources, and
convenient modern lifestyles are human practices that affect the environment.
Kaingin Farming
Kaingin farming is also referred to as swidden farming, shifting cultivation, and slash
and burn cultivation, involves a process of clearing up a forest, burning, planting,
harvesting, transferring to another area within the forest, and going back to the originally
cultivated area. This is considered as an ecologically sound practice because after two
or three years of cultivation when the soil becomes less fertile, the farmer has to move
into a more fertile area. They allow the land to rest in what termed as the fallow period.
The cycle of clearing and transferring takes about 15 years. This is enough time for
the soil to rejuvenate. However, with the rapid influx of lowland migrants into the uplands,
this practice becomes unsustainable because the fallow period of about 15 years is
reduced to less than one year or none at all. This practice results in the degradation of
upland areas because more and more farming activities are done even in steep slopes.
The lowland-migrant farmers do not observe the proper farming practices suited for the
uplands.
Overuse of Common Property Resources
Overuse of common-property resources, a principle also known as tragedy of the

common, is another example of a social factor that leads to environmental degradation.
This is based on the greed mentality of using or getting the available resources for the
reasons of “If I don’t use or get this resource, someone else will” and “The little bit I use
or pollute is not enough to matter”. However, if these will be the principles of millions of
people worldwide, the result will be overexploitation, exhaustion or destruction of the
resource. A localized example of this is the throwing of household garbage and effluents
of industries into the Pasig River.
Convenient Modern Lifestyle and the “Throwaway Society”
Convenient modern lifestyle and the “throwaway society” concept are becoming so
common in urban centers and even in progressive provinces. The use of instant coffee,
noodles, diapers, excessive use of plastics, styrofoams, and other disposables, air
conditioning units, the bloom of fastfood stores, and other modern conveniences, are
degrading the environment because of the air, soil, and water pollution that result. The
evidence of pollution is seen during rainy days when canals are clogged with plastics
that results in the flooding the city streets.
Overpopulation
More people means that there is a need for more food and other resources, and per
capita there will be less living space, less land, less water, more garbage, more energy
expenditure, more pollution, more disturbance, and destruction of the environment.
The world population of more than seven billion today continues to increase and
is expected to exceed 10 billion in 2050. The rate of increase is nearing 100 million per
year with 95% of the increase occurring in the developing countries (Von Weizsacker,
et al., 1999) This is set against the unchanging area of the earth and its fast depleting
resources. The fastest growing populations are those in the poorest countries of the
world where many are uneducated, cannot read and write, where the women are
financially dependent on their husbands and the children are required to work (Enger &
Smith, 2000).
The scenario of unchecked population growth implies more problems for the
environment. The decreasing fuel resources will continue to be reduced as industrialized
countries maintain their consumption levels and newly industrialized countries try to
catch up. Even if their population growth rates are low, countries like the United States
make a greater impact on the environment. One American affects the environment to a
greater degree than 20 Indians or Bangladeshis. A study by a Canadian team headed by
William Rees of the University of British Columbia concluded that if everyone in the world
would consume resources and pollute the environment like the Canadians, we would
need three globes to accommodate us all (Von Weizsacker, et al., 1999). Food security
will be a problem in the Third World where more forests and mountain slopes will be
converted to croplands, promoting erosion, nutrient depletion, and desertification. The
need for more commercial space will lead to the further conversion of forests, estuaries
and wildlife areas. There will be greater incursion into marine, freshwater, and estuarine
areas for food and sources. As more garbage is produced more air, water, and terrestrial
pollution will result.
The Philippine population is increasing rapidly and is projected to increase from
current 80 million to 99.7 million in 2010 of 10 and 113.3 million in 2020 (www.popcorn,
2003). The doubling time of 10 years is shorter than that of Mexico at 32 years, and is
very short compared that of the US at 116 years and Canada at 136 years (Enger & Smit
2000).
The environmental crises that beset the Earth describe a domino effect that starts
from human activities. The first and most visible human impacts on the environment is
the garbage problem. Solid hazardous and toxic wastes pollute the air, soil and water.
Air pollution includes the accumulation of greenhouse gases that cause global climate
change, being experienced as global warming, and erratic weather such as the El Niño
and La Niña phenomena. Ozone destruction and acid rain are effects of air pollution that
further destroy the environment and cause illness and death to organisms. Human use
and abuse of natural resources have degraded the different ecosystems and habitats
leading to extinction of organisms.
Application
1. What are your suggested remedy for the mentioned sociocultural practices which are
the causes of environmental degradation? Discuss.
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Closure
Congratulations for finishing lesson 4.1! You learned that sociocultural practices of man
affect our environment. The next lesson will be discussing about garbage problem.
LESSON 4.2 GARBAGE PROBLEM
Learning Outcomes
1. Enumerate and discuss the different garbage problem in the world.

2. Categorized the solid waste in specific barangay.
3. Submit a recycled object from waste materials.
Introduction
As the world population continues to increase, so does the world garbage disposal
problem. The mountainous garbage dumps and the heated and oftentimes violent
arguments over where to dump garbage is proof of the worsening problem with no
tenable solution yet in sight. The growing affluence of the world leads to greater
acquisitiveness and with it the desire for new things and the discarding of the old. The
throwaway society has spread, from the rich countries of the First World to the Third
world where people exposed to Western culture by mass media endeavor to live like
Americans and Europeans whose fast-paced lifestyles prefer disposable products over
greener alternatives.
Activity
Collect, categorize and analyze your specific barangay solid waste. Spend a day sorting
and analyzing the garbage with respect to recyclable and non-recyclable items. Sort
trash into sub-categories (re-useable, recyclable and non-recyclable).
Analysis
Explain the cause and effect relationship on the environment of accumulating solid
waste.
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______________________________________________________________________
Abstraction
The "small beautiful" slogan of technology production where the latest models of
computers and other electronic gadgets are getting smaller and smaller seems like an
environment friendly call until one realizes that as newer and newer models are
snatched up, the old ones are being discarded into the environment.
Solid Waste
The United States Environmental Protection Agency reports that the US alone
produces 11 billion tons of solid wastes each year. About a third come from mines as
tailings and overburdens, smelter slags, and other residues. Industrial wastes compose
from 90 to 400 million tons, household and commercial wastes 300 million tons and
hazardous wastes from 60 to 250 million tons. Developed countries produce more
garbage than developing countries. Each day, an American may produce something like
four lbs. of waste while a citizen of a less developed country would produce only a fourth
of that. Every man, woman and child in the US produce 1.24 tons of garbage every year,
twice as much as in Europe or Japan, and five to ten times as much as in developing
countries (Buchholz, 1998; Cunningham & Saigo, 1995). Garbage has become a huge
problem because of lack of clumping sites and the risks posed to health through direct
exposure, or contamination of water, soil, and air.
Open Dumps
In most developing countries, open dumps are the sites of garbage disposal, such
as in the biggest city in the world, Mexico City, where 10,000 tons of trash is generated
daily. In the Philippines, there are at least 10% huge open dumps, the most popular of
which is Smokey Mountain, where a tragic avalanche of garbage took several lives on
July 10, 2000. Open dumps expose garbage to flies, rats and other vermin that then
become carriers of diseases. People, including young children, sort through the piles to
salvage items for recycling or food and this exposes them to a host of diseases. In the
Philippines, 64% of solid waste is composed of plastics, 24% of glass and metals
(Tabora,1999). Vacant lots, roadsides and backs of buildings can host heaps of
garbage which should be in sanitary landfills. In Metro Manila and suburbs alone, the
daily bulk of garbage is 6,000 tons and only two-thirds is being collected by the
government; the rest litter the streets and clog the waterways (Choong, 2000).
Ocean Dumping
Another wrong disposal practice, ocean dumping, has been for decades in the
belief that the oceans are a bottomless dumpsite, some 25,000 metric tons of
packaging, half a million bottles, cans and plastic containers, 150,000 tons of fishing
gear, 1,000 km of nets crude oil, and unknown other wastes get 'dumped at sea each
year. In the United States, the practice stopped only in 1988. This certainly affects in
no little way the marine environment and all its inhabitants.
Landfills
In the US about 75% of solid waste is disposed of in landfills where the waste is
compacted and covered with soil before a new layer is dumped on. A subterranean
trench is dug around the pile to trap the leachate which is then pumped to the Cop for
filtering out the chemicals. After a few years, the dump can be converted into a park, a
golf course, an athletic field, or a wildlife area. Because rain and air are virtually kept
out of the compacted garbage in a landfill, very little decomposition takes place, leaving
a mummified heap. Only 25% decompose in the first 15 years; most of the rest remain
undecomposed for at least four decades. Newspapers take up as much as of these
trashes and do not decompose quickly, coming out readable at any age while plastics
compose 13%. The problem today is the lack of landfill sites worldwide due to the
greater awareness about the risks associated with garbage. A recent strategy is using
technology to make landfills cleaner and safer and building residences on them.
Incineration
Incineration is an alternative method of waste disposal, which reduces the

volume of waste by 90% and removes 99% of the toxins. The heat can be sold to
generate electricity and with effective pollution controls, add little to air pollution.
However, 25% of the original waste remains as toxic residues, which are disposed of
in landfills and may contain lead, mercury, dioxin, cadmium, and other toxic metals.
NIMBY (not in my backyard) movements oppose both landfills and incineration, which
makes it difficult to find new incineration sites. Further, incineration discourages
recycling because it would be easier to thro w way paper, glass, plastics, and other
wastes to be burned.
Recycling
Recycling could reduce

considerably the amount of garbage by
reusing glass, plastics, aluminum,
metals, scrap iron, and other materials.
This would reduce air, water, and land
pollution. Humus would be useful for
planting while rotting matter could be
used to produce biogas. Using scrap
iron to produce steel requires 65% less
energy and less water than iron ore.
The process also reduces the
accompanying air pollution by 85% and
water pollution by 76%. Air pollution is
reduced 95% and water pollution by
97% when aluminum is recycled and -
requires 95% less energy than mining
and processing it source, bauxite.
Added to the list is the prevention of
further deforestation when paper is
recycled (Bucholz, 1998).
Composting biodegradable garbage will produce soil conditioner and fertilizer
but only very little composting is actually done. For example, only about 1% of the yard
waste in the US is composted. It is believed that from18% to 60% of solid waste could be
composted.
Hazardous and Toxic Wastes
Hazardous wastes include ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic materials.

Ignitable materials are those that might easily ignite. Corrosive materials are those
that could bore through steel due to acidity. Reactive materials are those which
explode as a reaction to contact with water or compression. Toxic materials are
poisonous and may endanger human health.
Every year, at least 1,000 new chemicals are produced, including countless
synthetics that do not decompose in nature. These chemicals stay in the
environment for decades, exposing organisms to toxic effects, particularly as
carcinogens (cancer-causing), or are converted by organisms to more toxic forms.
In the United States, toxic wastes used to be dumped anywhere and in any manner
until the Love Canal incident in Niagara Falls, New York in 1976. In this incident, a
chemical and plastics company dumped drums of toxic chemical wastes into an old
canal after which the site as covered, sold, and became the site of an elementary
school, a playing field, and several hundred homes. After years of unusually heavy
rains and snow, the canal overflowed in 1976 bringing chemicals into basements f
houses. The government had the place evacuated and the residents relocated.
Damage suits amounting to several millions of dollars were filed against the
company, the country and the school with claims for personal injury, wrongful death
and property damage, backed with the discovery of 11 carcinogens, including dioxin
in the air, water, and 8011. After the incident, the RCRA (Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act) was passed in 1976 to protect groundwater from toxic pollution
and preventing contamination that would put human health at risk' This provided for
strict monitoring of hazardous materials "from cradle to grave" from production to
disposal (Cunningham & Snigo, 1995).
Nuclear Waste
Nuclear waste is the gravest concern among all types of Wastes because of
its potential risk to living organisms, particularly to human health. Sublethal effects
cause longterm disabilities or such dreaded morbidities as cancer and mutations.
Radioactive wastes persist in the environment. High level nuclear wastes have very
long half lives (time before the waste reaches non-dangerous levels) of some 10,000
years. Nuclear power stations and fuel reprocessing plants discharge cooling water that
contains radioactive wastes into the sea. So do nuclear-powered ships and submarines.
Solid radioactive wastes have been dumped into the sea since 1946 but since 1972
has been regulated so that only intermediate and low level waste (with half lives of less
than 50 years) encased in concrete and packed in steel drums. It is expected that when
are these containers eventually corrode, the radioactive substances shall have decayed
much and the slow release shall ensure dilution. This procedure is still not 100% safe
and accidents do happen.
The problem of toxic waste disposal is illustrated in the Khian Sea incident.
Loaded with one month's production of ash weighing 14,000 tons from the municipal
incinerator in Philadelphia, the Khian Sea set sail on August 31, 1986 in search of a
dumping place for its cargo that contained such toxins as arsenic, mercury, and dioxins.
It started to dump 4,000 tons in Haiti but Greenpeace alerted the authorities who then
ordered the ship to take the wastes elsewhere. Wandering from port to port for 24
months in four continents, The Khian sea changing names twice (Felicia, then Pelacano)
to hide its identity and doubtless, its intention. The tox ic cargo was still onboard when
suddenly, somewhere in the Indian Ocean between Singapore, Sri Lanka and Colombo,
it disappeared. Everyone assumed that the toxic cargo was dumped into the sea.
Every year, of some 60 million metric tons of hazardous and toxic wastes, about
3 million tons are dumped into the sea. In 1989, a treaty was signed by 105 nations
requiring the receiving country to give permission for the dumping of toxic waste on their
shores. Exporting wastes to other countries is attractive because it costs a lot to dispose
of toxic wastes in the source country ($800 per barrel in Che US) than in other countries
($50 in Africa). In 1994, Che UN passed a resolution completely banning international
transport of toxic waste (Cunningham Saigo, 1995).
Application
From your collected solid waste, submit a recycled material on the day of scheduled
date. Just take a picture of your output and list down the materials and procedure.
Closure
Congratulations for finishing lesson 4.2! This lesson helped you to have deeper concern
about our environment especially garbage problem. Garbage problem will results to
different types of pollution.
LESSON 4.3 POLLUTION
Learning Outcomes
1. Enumerated and discussed the different major types pollution, its causes and effects
to our environment.
2. Enumerated other types of pollution aside from the major pollution that are mentioned
in this module.
3. Cited causes and effects of enumerated types of pollution.
Introduction
A pollutant may be defined as a substance whose presence, quantity, physical or

chemical reactions pose a risk to health or to the environment. Pollution may be defined
as the introduction of a substance that is deleterious to health or to the environment.
Contamination is the altering of the state or quality of an organism or environment due to
the unnatural increase in the amounts of a certain substance.
Activity
Directions: Give your own meaning in each letter of the word “POLLUTION”, composed
of word or group of words related to Environmental Science.
P ___________________
O ___________________
L ___________________
L ___________________
U ___________________
T ___________________
I ____________________
O ___________________
N ___________________
Analysis
Directions: From the different terms you used, write now a sentence or paragraph
explaining the acronym “POLLUTION”.
POLLUTION ___________________________________________________________
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Abstraction
A pollutant may be a substance that is naturally occurring in the environment

but due to certain factors has increased in quantity thus posing a threat to the ecological
community. An example is sediment which is natural in coral reefs but when inordinately
increased due to anthropogenic factors may kill corals. Thus, the elevated amount of
sediment will contaminate the otherwise good quality of seawater. The deleterious effects
of a pollutant may include illness, physical or physiological abnormality, genetic mutation,
cancer, or death. The saying goes, "Too much of a good thing is poison." A worse
situation is having too much of a bad thing as in the case of many pollutants that are
present in the environment today, threatening humans, animals, plants and all other
organisms, as well as their habitats.
Air Pollution
In most parts of the world today, one cannot breathe easily anymore. Since the
Industrial Revolution, the burgeoning industries and the continuously evolving
transportation facilities have dumped increasing amounts of pollutive substances into
the air. In the 1980s, developing countries in Asia, Latin America, and Africa joined the
race for industrialization, which led to the burning of greater amounts of fossil fuel.
Fossil fuel is the collective term given to coal, petroleum, oil, kerosene, gasoline, and
natural gas, which can be burned to produce energy. This carbon-derived fuel comes
from dead plants and animals, which had undergone decomposition for millions of years,
usually under the sea, transforming them into the different combustible forms already
mentioned. The developed
countries use much more energy
in comparison with less developed
countries. A Canadian or an
American uses twice as much
energy as does a Frenchman or
Japanese, and about 25 times as
does an African. Energy usage
varies in different regions of the
world. In North America, 300/0 of
the energy is used for residential
and commercial purposes while
90% in Africa is used for
residential purposes; the latter
mostly for cooking due to the high
cost and scarcity of fuel.
Developing countries that
strive to industrialize use relatively
cheaper machines or obsolete
ones that are inefficient and that
produce more pollution.
Asian capitals are becoming very polluted. Mexico City, with the world's most
polluted air, is being replaced by Seoul which has greater concentrations of sulfates and
nitrates; New Delhi is the fourth most polluted city. Air pollution levels in China are 10
times higher than WHO standards (Asiaweek,2000). The countries with relatively
Cleaner air are Singapore, Japan and Malaysia.
Smog
Smog is the urban signboard of pollution. Its name is derived from the combination
of smoke and fog that describes the unsightly pall of brownish to black haze that hangs
in the horizon in polluted cities. It composed of a cocktail of pollutants that threatens
health. The technical term for it is photochemical smog because it results from chemical
reactions in the presence of sunlight. A primary component of smog is tropospheric
ozone which is highly toxic; nitric acid, formaldehyde, and peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN) are
the other major components. The negative effects of smog include eye irritation, serious
respiratory problems and memory loss.
Major Air Pollutants

The two major groups of air pollutants are the oxides of nitrogen and oxides of
sulfur. Occurring as nitrogen dioxide (N0 2), nitrous oxide N02), oxide (N2O), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), and sulfur trioxide (SO3), they produce acid rain (HN03 and H2SO4)
and tropospheric ozone.
The oxides of nitrogen, produced from burning fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants
and factories, account for the brownish color of smog. They, aggravate asthma, and
result in people's predisposition to bronchitis and pneumonia, cause chest colds and
coughing. N02 is known to cause heart, lung, kidney, and liver damage. It also harms
plants. Oxides of sulfur are emitted by furnaces and boilers in power plants, petroleum
low concentrations, refineries, smelters, sulfur paper dioxide mills, S02 chemical is a
colorless, plants, and odorless vehicles, gas that can aggravate respiratory problems
such as bronchitis, asthma, and emphysema. These can corrode metals, injure plants,
and impair visibility by as much as 80%. Oxides of sulfur are ranked second to smoking
in causing respiratory damage. Air pollution is linked to heart and circulatory diseases.
Medical researches prove that daily increases in N02 and CO are linked with increases
in cardiovascular diseases; NO2, and CO are significant risk factors for death from acute
stroke (Linn et al., 2000; Hong et al., 2002).
Ozone in the stratosphere is the protective blanket against the ultraviolet rays of the
is a harmful compound. When oxygen is subjected to nitrogen oxides and other
pollutants that are emitted by vehicles and factories, they react with each other in the
presence of sunlight in what are called photochemical reactions, which then form ozone.
Ozone causes irritations in the eyes and the respiratory system starting from the nose,
throat and into the lungs, causing asthma attacks, emphysema, lung inflammation, and
general susceptibility to lung infections. It is recognized as the most harmful pollutant to
plants.
The greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which, together with
methane nitrous oxide, are being linked to global climate change, contribute to the
atmospheric pollution and may bring about adverse effects to human health. The oxides
of carbon are emitted by vehicles, power plants, factories, and domestic fires. Carbon
monoxide, a colorless, odorless by-product of incomplete burning of fossil fuel,
contributes to air pollution, and can be lethal to humans. Movies show how a person who
wishes to commit suicide may use a car exhaust pipe rerouted into the car interior to
accumulate carbon monoxide that causes asphyxia. The ozone-depleting compounds
discussed earlier are also harmful air pollutants that cause deleterious effects to human
and environmental health.
Floating in the air are

suspended particles, air pollutants
in the form of solid particles or liquid
droplets. Dust, soot, fly ash, smoke,
vapors, aerosols, trace metals,
asbestos, fertilizers, and pesticides
come from industries, smelters,
burning of fuels or wood, and soil
cultivation. Together with natural
allergenics like spores and pollen,
they may reside .in the air for long
periods of time and cause
respiratory symptoms; disease and
lung damage, and may even cause
death particularly in the very young
and the elderly or those with
respiratory or heart problems.
Pinatubo caused the circulation
around the world for two years of
ash and dust that blocked some of
the sun's rays and lowered
temperatures by some 0.5 -2.0 0 C. It is reported that exposure to particulate matter or
associated air pollutants may affect fetal development, causing infant mortality, birth
defects and functional defects (Sram, 1999).
Air pollutants like benzene, arsenic and asbestos which are released by chemical
plants, industries and vehicles are highly toxic. They are linked with cancers, birth
defects, reproductive and respiratory malfunctions and other serious injuries. Lead, a
component of gasoline and paint, is produced in the burning of coal and lead-containing
garbage, in smelters and car battery plants. It may contaminate soils and dust. It is
highly toxic to humans, particularly to children where it may cause mental retardation,
convulsions and hallucinations, and disrupt kidney and blood functions.
Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuel releases sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, traces of mercury,
and cadmium into the atmosphere. When mixed with the water vapor in the atmosphere,
these compounds turn into sulfuric acid and nitric acid. The acidity of a substance is
indicated by its pH level, H standing for hydrogen, a standardized measure using the
amount of hydrogen ion (H+). More H+ means more acidity by distilled water at 7. Values
to the left diminish and represent increasing acidity of substances. Values to the right
represent increasingly basic substances. Rain is normally slightly acidic, with a pH of 5.6
but acid rain at pH 2.0 or less makes it more acidic than vinegar or lemon juice.
Acid rain then falls to the ground as rain, snow, fog, hail, or as dust or gas, and can
corrode concrete and metals, and stunt or kill plants and animals. Lakes in the United
States have experienced fish kills due to acid rain with some cases gone as far as
decimation of all plants and animals in them. Acid rain destroys forests by leaching away
soil nutrients that are important to plant growth such as potassium, calcium, and
aluminum. Forest soil, particularly in the tropics, has a small amount of nutrients which
are found mostly in the thin topsoil. Leaching renders this precious little substrate
depauperate which results in deforestation. Soils that have acid-neutralizing compounds
can survive acid rain for years but thin soils in mountains and in already acidic areas
cannot stand such abuse. Similarly, lakes that are rich in acid-neutralizing minerals may
be able to survive acid rain at the start but continuous onslaught will kill fishes and other
living organisms to the point where the lake "dies" suddenly, turning clear and bluish, an
indication that it has turned oligotrophic or nutrient-poor.
Buildings, monuments, and sculptures have been corroded by acid rain and
millions of dollars worth of restoration work have had to be done on priceless works of
art. The Stone in Parthenon, the Statue of Liberty, and the Taj Mahal are some of the
most popular ones corroded by acid and which previous restoration work had to be
done. In fact, all houses and buildings are affected by acid rain, thus necessitating
repairs, reconstructions, or repaintings.
Terrestrial Pollution
Agriculture has forever changed the nomadic lifestyle of the earliest humans and
made possible the urbanization of the race. Ensuring the availability of staple food on the
tables of the world, agriculture is considered a great blessing and an indispensable
undertaking of civilization. This attitude has excused all of the activities in agriculture until
recently when it was shown that agricultural activities can be destructive to the
environment through soil, water, and air soil erosion, salinization, aquifer depletion, Of
Wildlife food contamination by pesticides, deforestation, and climate change. The
pollution in aquatic ecosystems is mainly caused by fertilizers and pesticides that are
imported into them from agricultural areas,
Fertilizers
Fertilizers are food supplements to crops, making them grow faster and
giving more harvest than what is naturally possible. NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium), the three major components of fertilizers, are nutrients that plants need and
enough of which are not naturally available to them in this age of intensive soil
cultivation. These nutrients have to be mined from rocks or developed from bird and
mammal droppings and brought to the agricultural fields in their commercial forms. The
introduction of fertilizers into croplands further causes pollution. Some fertilizers cause
poisoning or similar sublethal effects on the farmer. Some become aerosols. Most
fertilizers get into the soil and contaminate the waterways in the area.
Fertilizers leach into ponds, lakes, groundwater, or streams that eventually
carry them to the sea. In these bodies of water, the fertilizer residues become a windfall
of unexpected rare nutrients that then cause plants to bloom. The sudden influx of
nutrients that enrich the water is called eutrophication. Unicellular algae then bloom in
ponds and lakes forming an opaque mat on the surface that blocks sunlight from the
other photosynthetic plants below, thus killing them later. When these algae die, they
rain down on the pond bottom and form a mass of organic matter that becomes food for
bacteria and other microorganisms.
The bacteria have a heyday breaking down the mountains of food and in the
process, use up all the available oxygen in the water. This makes the pond or lake
anoxic or devoid of oxygen thus killing off the fish and all other oxygen-requiring
organisms in it. In the sea, an example of such an algal bloom is the proliferation of
unicellular dinoflagellates, so named because they appear to possess armor plates.
Examples are Pyrodinium bahamensi and Gymnodinium brevi, and species of
Gonyaulax and Peredium, the toxic red tide organisms that may cause death to marine
life and humans.
The agricultural practice of massing together plots of the same plant species
attracts plant pests that find an endless feast in the cropland. Billions of dollars plant
wort of crops are lost each year to pests. A pest is any organism that humans find
undesirable because it interferes with their goals. Thus, mice, cockroaches, locusts,
caterpillars, and viruses particularly those that affect crop or production are pests to be
eliminated. In the same manner, all plant species that compete with the chose crops for
nutrient, space and sunlight are undesirable and are called weeds and classified as
pests.
Pesticides
The word pesticide covers the 50,000 or so chemical preparations (Buchholz, 1998)
that are designed to kill or eliminate a pest, Insecticides kill insect pests that feed on the
crops and may cause diseases that are transmittable to humans and animals.
Fungicides kill fungi that parasitize crops causing crop diseases, and eventually, death.
Rodenticides kill rats and mice. Herbicides or weedicides kill weeds. Molluscicides kill
snails that graze on rice and other crops, as well as compete with fish in fishponds.
Piscicides kill fish species that are considered pests in fishponds where preferred
species are being cultured. Although the highest percentage of pesticide use is in
agriculture, pesticides are used elsewhere for various purposes, such as to protect food
storage, control disease carriers, treat wood, and protect households and hospitals.
The usefulness of pesticides in controlling pests is only one side of the coin for they
also cause harm to what humans classify as beneficial or nonpest organisms. The first
to call popular attention to the dangers of pesticides on nontarget organisms was
Rachel Carson, the Mother of Environmentalism through her 1962 book Silent Spring
which traced the grim route of the now banned DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane)
from the farm and through the chain of organisms in the different habitats that suffered
and died from it. When an organism is contaminated by a pesticide or any other
pollutant, it passes the toxin on to the organism that feeds on it, and the feeder passes
it on to the next predator, up the food chain. Since smaller food organisms are eaten in
bulk to satisfy bigger predators, the total amount of toxin ingested by the Predators
increase considerably as it moves up the food chain in a Process called
bioaccumulation or biomagnification. This means that the last predator, the one on top
of the food chain, ingests the most amount of toxin. In many cases, man is at the top of
the food chain and, therefore, receives the greatest amount.
Salinization and Desertification
Irrigation may seem a very innocent activity to a layman, a needful process in

farming. It is not well-known that overirrigated lands become waterlogged which kills
plants and soil animals due to the absence of oxygen in the soil which has been
displaced by water. It is not widely known that freshwater always carries a lot of
mineral salts scoured from rocks, soils, and organic matter that its route brings it in
contact with. During irrigation, the water is absorbed while some evaporate, leaving
the salts to accumulate in the soil which literally is soil salinization. The salts may
break down the organic nutrients, thus depleting the soil of an otherwise rich growing
medium. In time, the soil would lose its fertility and the vegetation would die off leaving
a virtual desert. Desertification is a global threat particularly to grasslands and forests
that are being converted to croplands. About two-thirds of the groundwater supply of
the world is used in agricultural irrigation and percolates into the soil or flows off to
replenish rivers and other freshwater bodies, carrying pollutants such as residues of
chemicals that have been introduced into the croplands to maximize yield. Cultivation
itself upturns the soil which contains decomposing organic matter tha t then releases
the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane.
Freshwater Pollution
Between 70% and 78% of the planet Earth is covered by water, making it
virtually a water planet. Of the total waters, 97% is contained in the oceans as
saltwater. Of the 3% freshwater, 75% is in the form of ice and is therefore unusable.
Of the remaining 25%, 14%) is not available because it is located below 1,000
meters and is often saline. The remaining (only 0.0033% of the total waters of the
world), is the cyclic portion and is available for human use. In this light, the present
state of polluti011 of much of the freshwater sources of the world is most alarming.
The increasing world population pushes humans to discover uninhabited places
and the availability of technology enables them to reach the highest mountain peaks and
the deepest recesses of the oceans. Soon, mountain resorts and regular tourism jaunts
conquer hitherto pristine mountains and untouched watersheds making them vulnerable
to disturbance and contamination. Mining and constructions expose watersheds to toxic
chemicals and other leachates. Groundwater, particularly in urban or similarly populated
areas, are susceptible to contamination with organic chemicals and toxic heavy metals
from industrial wastes, landfills, and hazardous waste dumps. Human sewage from
households and septic tanks are common threats to groundwater potability. In rural areas,
fertilizers and pesticides either go down to contaminate groundwater or join the runoff
into streams and sea. Oils and petroleum products join runoff from urban areas. One liter
of gasoline can contaminate and make one million liters of water undrinkable. About
1,000 pollutants have been identified from drinking water all over the world. The World
Health Organization (WHO) reports that some 35,000 children die from causes related
to drinking water contamination daily. Chemicals have always been associated with
cancers and more than 1,000 chemicals are produced each year; most of them find their
way into freshwater sources. Because of pollution, .25% of urban dwellers have poor
quality drinking water. The condition is always worse in rural areas and most acute in
developing countries (Cunningham & Saigo, 1995).
In the Philippines, 362 of 419 rivers are polluted (Asiaweek, 2000), with at least 40
dead including all of Metro Manila's. The rest are silted, salinized, polluted by mine
tailings or industrial and household wastes.
Fresh water is subject to different categories of pollutants that could at the very least
degrade the quality of water, or cause illnesses or deaths. Pollution is a major factor in
the water shortage problem. From human and animal wastes that contaminate water
come bacteria, viruses, and human and animal parasites. Inorganic chemicals like lead
and mercury and organic chemicals like pesticides, solvents, oil, gasoline, and
detergents and many other compounds are toxic to humans and animals. Sediment,
composed of soil or the finer silt, comes from erosion, mining and constructions.
Radioactive substances in the water can cause genetic mutations and cancer. High
levels of nitrates in the water are highly toxic to humans and can kill children. Nutrient
enrichment of freshwater areas lead to eutrophication that starts an algal bloom and
ends in the decimation of aquatic organisms.
Fresh water shortage, a problem in many areas of the world today, is projected to
seriously worsen. It is predicted that in a decade, about of the world's peoples will
experience a water shortage problem in the arid areas of the Middle East, Africa, and
parts of Since many countries share common water sources and about 30 tap water
sources outside of their borders, conflicts are expected and may trigger a Third World
War.
Manufacturers can reduce groundwater pollution by switching to chemicals that
are less toxic. In Sweden, chlorinated solvents are being phased out and substitutes
are derived from soybeans, citrus fruits, corn, and lactic acid. Other good practices are
the reuse or recycling of chemicals and establishment of "industrial symbiosis" parks
like those in Denmark where unusable wastes from one firm is used by another
(Sampat, 2000).
Marine Pollution
Pollution in freshwater bodies is pollution that finally gets into the sea.
Pollution in the marine environment sets off the eutrophication cycle that may,
however, not immediately result in the decimation of marine organisms due to the
vastness of the sea, but certainly brings about harmful environmental changes. Red
tides cause fish kills and human intoxication and death. Eutrophication is the most
recent cause of disturbance in coral reefs where because of more nutrients algae
proliferate and overgrow corals in what is called a coral-algal dominance shift. The
danger lies in the possible die-off of hard corals, which build the reefs. Reefs are the
massive living complexes that build land and prevent erosion aside from providing a
great variety of habitats to marine organisms. Already, coral experts have warned
about the blooms of macroalgae that are pollution indicators, such as the filamentous
species that are overrunning the reefs clue to the influx of nutrients, particularly
phosphorus.
Siltation or Heavy Sedimentation
Siltation or heavy sedimentation resulting from natural landslides, overlogging,

and irresponsible constructions that clog and suffocate the small eight-armed
individual coral animals called polyps that filter food from the water. Even marine filter
feeders like shrimps, clams and crabs are not able to filter off suspended particles if
there is too much silt, and may experience clogging of the gills. Dredging spoils
likewise carry toxic metals, oils, and other pollutants that may cause not only
smothering but reproductive problems and mutations.
Thermal Pollution
Another type of water stress is thermal pollution. Factories and industries use
machines that have to be cooled by water, and release the heated wastewater into rivers
or estuaries. This is a source of stress to aquatic animals and plants, particularly to
young forms such as eggs, larvae, or fries that are quite sensitive and may die from an
elevation of water temperature by as low as 1OC.
Cooling water, particularly from power stations, is discharged into the sea and
creates a plume of hot water that changes the ambient
temperature of the receiving water. This kills marine organisms, which are sensitive to
sudden temperature changes, particularly the young forms such as eggs and larvae.
Tropical marine animals are generally harmed by increases from 1-30C. Most mollusks,
sponges, and crustaceans die at 37o C while the turtle grass, Thalassia is killed at 35-
400C. Temperature of discharges may reach 40-450C.
Materials from terrestrial and offshore sources might pollute the waters of the seas.
Rainfall and runoff carry materials from cities and rural areas down to the sea; mining,
construction and dredging activities add sediments. Factories, industries, and power
stations may discharge wastewater, sewage or sewage sludge directly into it through
pipes. Seaports add their own waste matter in the form of used oils, greases, and
sewage. Offshore oil drilling and gravel extraction add their own wastes even as nuclear
and toxic wastes and ammunitions are dumped into the sea (Clark, 1986).
Pollutants in freshwater systems wash down to the sea bringing there the chain of
events that have transpired in the freshwater route. Organic wastes, pesticides, and
fertilizers, petroleum (products and inorganic wastes are carried through runoff and may
undergo bacterial action or be diluted before they reach the sea. With the addition of
untreated sewage or agricultural nutrients to seawater, eutrophication will take place,
leading to the bloom of single cell and multicellular algae. Dinoflagellates that cause red
tide might bloom. The macroalgae may also bloom. They can overgrow corals and bring
about a coral-algal dominance shift. As in freshwater bodies, coastal waters, particularly
in mangroves with their already high organic load, can become anoxic with the influx of
additional blooms being decomposed by bacteria. As in freshwater, coastal waters may
receive agents of infections from untreated sewage that causes diarrhea, typhoid, and
polio.
Toxic Heavy Metals

Toxic heavy metals like arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, iron, and zinc get
into the sea from different sources. Certain levels of metal compounds naturally occur in
seawater from natural processes like erosion and volcanism. Some of these are in traces
of useful nutrients but some are not useful. Organisms vary in possessing mechanisms
to. regulate metals and also vary in their tolerances of these. Thousands of tons of
mercury are produced each year and a considerable part of these get to the air and
waterways through waste matter. Marine organisms, particularly clams, are known to
accumulate heavy metals.
1. Mercury
Mercury is used in the production of plastics, chlorine and caustic soda, lumber
and paper pulp, in pesticides, anti-fouling paints, and pharmaceuticals. It is found in the
sea as an insoluble, inorganic compound which is in its adsorbed forms like Hg(OH) 2 or
HgCl2 or in anoxic sediments as Hg, HgS, and Hg 2, all of which may be converted by
bacteria into methyl mercury which extremely, toxic, water soluble, and can be
accumulated by marine organisms. Mercury contamination has been found in clams,
algae, barnacles, fish, in fish-eating birds, seals, sea lions, and dolphins. The severe
effects of mercury on humans is historically shown in the Minamata Epidemic. Some

2,000 people among the fishing folk Minamata Bay in Japan were affected, with 43 deaths
recorded than 700 permanent disabilities were traced to the ingestion of mercury
contaminated fish. The mad hatter is another case where mercury treatment of hats
poisoned their wearers in England during the Victoria period. Mercury causes convulsions,
loss of muscular coordination progressive and irreversible brain damage, and death.
(Cunningham Saigo, 1995).
2. Cadmium
Cadmium is a by-product of zinc smelting, used in the production of plastics,

pigments, batteries, and electroplating. About 90% of the cadmium used in these
processes are not recycled. The cadmium found in zooplanktons, mollusks, particularly
squids, and seabirds have not been shown to be hazardous to humans. The historical
itai-itai disease which caused painful bones and some 100 deaths in a village in Jintsu
River in Japan was due to the contamination of rice with cadmium from a nearby zinc
smelter. (Cunningham & Saigo, 1995).
3. Copper
Urban sewage contains a lot of copper

from antifouling paint, electrical equipment, and
wood preservation. The dissolved forms are
CuC03, Cu 2+ and CuOH. These are easily
removed from the water and absorbed. Next to
mercury and silver, copper is the most toxic
metal to marine organisms. Although plankton,
fish, and shellfish have been known to
accumulate it, copper does not seem to
accumulate up the food chain and is generally
not regarded as a major health hazard.
4. Lead
Lead inputs into the atmosphere comes

from leaded gasoline, paints, batteries, sheets
and pipes, and fall back to earth in rain and
snow which eventually flow to the sea. Sewage
sludge contains high lead concentrations.
These are usually dumped into rivers,
estuaries or the directly. Lead has been shown
to retard growth and death in some lower
marine organisms but there is no evidence of
Illation in fish or fish-eating seals. A rare case
of lead poisoning and death occurred in 1979
in the Mersey Estuary in England killing
seabirds feeding on bivalves and seaworms
that had high lead content. The green shell
Mytilus has a tendency to accumulate metals
but has a mechanism for lead. Lead is not considered as a major public health hazard.
Oil Spills
Crude oil or refined petroleum may contain several-thousand different compounds

that are toxic individually or in combination and whose effects on organisms vary
according to age and the time of year. A hydrocarbon is a complex molecule
composed of from one to 26 carbon atoms to which hydrogen are attached and which
together form chains of different shapes. Because of its complexity, crude oil can be
broken down into many derivatives. It is refined by boiling processes that yield
different fractions with different uses such as light gasoline for vehicles, naptha as fuel
in the petrochemical industry, bunker fuel in ships and power stations, and tar. An
estimate of the annual petroleum inputs to the sea in millions of metric tons show that
industrial and municipal wastes and urban and river runoffs as well as natural seeps
and fall outs, lead the list at 1.27, followed by tanker operations and accidents and
shipping at 1.15 and offshore exploration and operations at 0.12.
Oil spills are greatly damaging to the marine environment because they contain a
variety of other chemicals that are toxic to many marine P lants and animals. Heavy
mortalities result from oil spills. Sublethal effects include physiological, behavioral
and long term developmental defects. Immediate death may result through
smothering, as seen in barnacles, fish, crabs, shrimps, bivalves. Sea birds are
harmed by the physical effects of oil on their plumage. With oil the plumage loses its
Later-repellent property, buoyancy, and thermal insulation capability can become
waterlogged making the bird vulnerable to sinking and drowning. Loss of thermal
insulation leads to hypothermia (abnormally low temperature of the body) and death.
When the bird preens in an attempt to remove the oil, the swallowed oil causes
intestinal disorders and renal or liver failure. It depresses egg laying and/or hatching,
may kill the embryos in already laid eggs. Marine mammals like seals and whales do
not seem to be much affected by oil spills. Due to the unpalatability of petroleum
products, human ingestion is most unlikely except by accident. Kerosene has been
known to make children ill even cause their deaths. The greatest risks to humans are
by the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in oil which are known carcinogens.
A major source of oil slick is the oil tankers that transport crude oil from source
countries to refineries in other countries. Upon delivery the tankers must fill their empty
ballasts with seawater for stability but are not allowed to discharge oil- containing
wastewater at the loading terminal so they discharge at sea, causing oil slicks. The same
is done with ships that have to be dry-docked. Tanker accidents like what happened to
the Amoco Cadiz and the Torry Canyon wrecks involve hundreds of thousands of tons
of oil. Offshore oil platforms and coastal oil refineries discharge oil to the sea. From land
come petrols, oils and greases from industries and motor vehicles that join the sewage
system and drain into rivers and the sea. Approximately 200 million liters of waste motor
oil and other solvents of unknown quantities are poured into sewers in the United States
alone (Cunningham & Saigo, 1995). Natural sources include some oil deposits where oil
seeps out naturally, and plants like pinewood that release hydrocarbons to the
atmosphere.
Toxic and Radioactive Wastes
Toxic industrial wastes and radioactive wastes are dumped into the sea. The sea is
naturally radioactive from potassium-40, tritium (H3) and decay products of uranium and
thorium (Odum, 1971) but huma inputs have enormously increased the risks from
radioactive hazard Algae like Porphyra, Ulva and Enteromorpha and clams accumulate
radioactive wastes. Bottom dwelling fishes are likewise exposed radioactivity. It is
expected that some genetic and morbidity disturbance effect these organisms.
Plastics
Plastics are found in all garbage dumps and pose particular problems at sea. Pellets
and fragments of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene that have produce been
them, found which in beaches shows worldwide, that they have even circulated far from
deliberately through industries the dumped. seas. These must cause not have only been
an eyesore accidentally but a real spilled hazard or to seabirds that accidentally ingest
them. There is information that some seabirds have so gotten used to seeing plastics
that they think these are food and feed these to their young. Excess munitions or those
that are defective or obsolete have been dumped at or accidentally lost at sea and
although they are not regarded as direct hazards to living resources, they may cause
injuries or exposure to chemical warfare substances accidentally.
PCBs
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) are organic molecules of two benzene rings to which
chlorine molecules are attached. These are byproducts in the production of electrical
equipment, paints, plastics, and adhesives These are absorbed in the body and not easily
excreted being fat-soluble and persistent. PCBs have been linked to deaths of seabirds
and seals in the Baltic Sea.
Another toxicant, tributyl tin (TBT), is found in antifouling paint on. ship hull to prevent
the settlement of fouling organisms like barnacles and teredo worms. In the early 1980s,
it was discovered that TBT was found to cause female snails like mud snails and
dogwhelks to develop secondary male characteristics, a condition called imposex.
Needless to say, the imposex reduces reproductive potential in the population. Oysters,
on the other hand, develop thicker and deformed shells. TBT has been banned and since
the pesticide is not very persistent in the environment, the affected species have been
recovering.
Application
1. Enumerate other types of pollution aside from the major pollution that are mentioned
in this module.
2. Cite causes and effects of enumerated types of pollution.
Closure
Well done! You did a great job in this module. Take note this saying, "Too much
of a good thing is poison." A worse situation is having too much of a bad thing as in the
case of many pollutants that are present in the environment today, threatening humans,
animals, plants and all other organisms, as well as their habitats.
LESSON 4.4 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND RELATED

PHENOMENA
Learning Outcomes
1. Enumerated and discussed the different global climate change and related
phenomena as an environmental crisis.
2. Explained the causes and effects of climate change.
Introduction
An environmental crisis of global concern is the gradual increase in the atmospheric

temperature of the planet — giving rise to a warmer world climate. The rays of the sun
that reach the Earth start cycles that maintain life on the planet, such as photosynthesis,
and wind and water movements. Without the sun, our planet would not be able to
support life and we would be living, or more accurately dying, in a cold planet that is
much like Pluto.
Activity
Differentiate El Niño from La Niña.

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Analysis
List down countries experiencing El Niño and La Niña, as many as you can.
Abstraction
Greenhouse Effect
Certain atmospheric gases are transparent to the sun's rays, allowing their entry
through the atmosphere but blocking their exit, thus warming the Earth. This is called the
greenhouse effect, in reference to the glass-domed structure that is used for housing
certain plants that must remain in constant temperatures, like for tropical plants that are
grown in temperate countries. In moderation, the greenhouse condition is beneficial to
the planet, preventing it from getting cold, maintaining a temperature just warm enough
for organisms to survive.
The average surface temperature of the earth is +15 0C; without the greenhouse
effect it would be - 180C. However, solar radiation beams much more light and heat than
the planet needs; hence, most of it must be reflected back to space to prevent the Earth
from burning. In earlier centuries, this was not a problem. Most of the heat rays,
technically called infrared rays, simply bounce off the surface of the Earth and escape
into space.
However, since the industrialization of the world, human activities have been
producing increasingly higher amounts of gases that are by-products of automation and
the resulting combustion, like the burning of fossil fuels to run the machines. These
gases, particularly carbon dioxide, create a bouncing board to the infrared rays, which
are then radiated back to Earth, in what is called "radiative forcing" (Tenenbaum, 2001).
This heats up the planet to an unusual temperature.
The different fates of solar radiation beamed onto the earth showing the
creation of the greenhouse effect
Global Warming
The inexorable increase in the levels of greenhouse gases for the last 150 years
is alarming. These used to be called trace gases because their levels in the atmosphere
were very low but due to massive increases now create radiative forcing bringing about
increasing global temperature in a phenomenon called global warming.
The level of carbon dioxide, which accounts for 50% of the greenhouse effect,
has increased by 25%. Carbon is emitted mainly by cars, factories and wherever fossil
fuel is used. Deforestation, which is a current global environmental problem, removes
trees that would otherwise absorb the carbon dioxide, thus increasing its release into the
atmosphere. Methane, responsible for 15%-20% of the greenhouse effect has more than
doubled in the last two centuries due to the burning of wood, increasing areas of rice
cultivation, garbage, landfills, livestock manure, termite mounds, leakage from natural gas
exploration and coal mining. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) account for 15%-25% of the
greenhouse gases and are released from refrigerators, air conditioning units, aerosol
sprays, solvents in electronic products, manufacture of packaging (Buchholz, 1998). A
more powerful catalyst than carbon dioxide, a single CFC molecule traps 15,500 times
more heat than a C02 molecule. Although carbon dioxide is more plentiful, it only stays in
the atmosphere for decades oxide, the while laughing a chlorine gas molecule formed
from remains the breakdown from 75 to 100 years. Nitrous oxide, the laughing gas
formed from the breakdown of chemical fertilizers and burning of coal, and industrial
processes, accounts for 5%. Other greenhouse compounds are carbon monoxide, ozone,
the synthetic compound halon, water vapor and airborne particles that could reradiate
sunlight.
Another form of carbon, soot — blackened, unburned carbon has been found to
cause more warming than first thought. Dark particles absorb more solar radiation;
hence, the radiative forcing of pure soot at 0.55 W/m2 (watts per square meter) is
slightly higher than that of methane at 0.47W/m2 although still lower than carbon dioxide
at 1.56 W/m2. Soot, a product of inefficient combustion, can be washed away by rain in
a week or two but while it is in the air, it can exacerbate asthma (Tenenbaum, 2001).
Although some doubt that it is

happening, more scientists believe that
global warming is underway and will
increase world temperatures from 30 C
to 5.50 C. The consequences of such an
unprecedented event are too alarming
to contemplate. It is predicted that the
polar ice caps, glaciers and Greenland's
ice sheet would melt, raising the sea
levels between 0.2 meters and 1.8
meters (Buchholz, 1998). Some highly
populated coastal areas around the
world including Los Angeles, New York
and Miami are expected to be flooded.
Climate change will occur worldwide,
bringing frequent downpours where light to moderate showers used to occur, and droughts
in hitherto wet areas. Storms will be more frequent and severe. Seas will be stormier as
ocean currents change. This would be destructive to crops and vegetation Animals have
to adjust to the change, too. Floods would be more frequent. Hitherto cool areas will
become warm. The Continuous warming will increase water evaporation which will form
clouds. Clouds reflect sunlight, drawing warmth away from the Earth, which would perhaps
totally neutralize the greenhouse effect, then cooling the Earth.
It is believed that because of warming, the present tundras will develop rapidly
into forests. Sudden radical changes would take place in ecosystems and many species
may not be prepared to migrate fast enough to other areas that would suit their specific
needs for niches. Areas that would need the most migration are 38.3% of Russia and
{33.1% of Canada. In many countries, including those in Scandinavia' more than 50% of
the existing habitats could change or be lost; in the United States more than a third of
existing habitats in 11 states could face the same fate. The rate at which carbon dioxide
concentrations increage8 points to the need for very fast migrations from existing areas if
the species were to survive. Historically, climate changes were supposed to have been
gradual, allowing animals and plants time to adapt or escape. The next ice age that is
predicted to result from global warming would be so rapid that it may not be possible for
most animals and virtually impossible for plants to do so, thus leading to mass species
extinctions (Spurgeon, 2000). One preparatory step for such a scenario is the growing
interest in "green corridors", man-made vegetation strips in urban areas such as hedges,
windbreaks, highway borders that would serve as wildlife habitats or pathways to more
suitable areas (Smith & Smith, '2001).
Among its effects, global warming is expected to contribute to the spread
and increased occurrence of diseases. Floods and droughts brought by erratic
weather may damage crops and cause infestations that could lead to
malnutrition which in turn could displace people, forcing them to crowd in not-
so-ravaged areas. Crowding would hasten the spread of infectious diseases
like tuberculosis. Vector-borne diseases will escalate. Mosquitoes thrive in
warmer temperatures and so do their parasitic pathogens, like the malaria,
dengue, and yellow fever parasites.
The zone of malaria transmission is predicted to grow from 45% of the
world's population to 60%, spreading to the north and south of the tropics.
There is no vaccine for malaria and organisms are growing resistant to drugs.
As global warming brings the warm winter-hot dry summer pattern, cases of
viral infections like the St. Louis encephalitis among mosquitoes, birds and
humans would also increase. This must have been the reason for the
outbreak of the West Nile virus that caused seven deaths in New York. In the
US Southwest in 1993, drought killed many of the bird predators of rodents
including eagles, falcons, owls, hawks and snakes. The ensuing unusually
heavy rains brought plenty of food for the rodents that then proliferated and
with them the spread of a virus that earlier might have been localized in a
smaller group. The drought that followed forced the rodents to seek food in
human dwellings bringing with them the hantavirus that caused the
pulmonary syndrome. Floods bring waterborne diseases like cholera,
although drought might likewise do because potable drinking water would
dwindle forcing people to use contaminated ones where the pathogens or
toxins may be concentrated (Epstein, 2000). Most climate models agree that
global warming is already occurring. The effects of greenhouse gases are felt
only years of accumulation, hence any effect of n world effort to diminish
gaseous will benefit the planet only two decades Inter. The international
community addressed the buildup of greenhouse gases in the 1992 Rio
summit where the industrialized nations committed to reduce by the end of
the decade the greenhouse gases emissions in Choir countries to the 1990
levels. When Bill Clinton became President of US, he committed the US to do
the same - a tough goal since the US, with only of the population of the world,
produces about 25% of the world's carbon emission (Buchholz, 1098).
Some steps that countries can take to reduce the emission of greenhouse
gases include using "cleaner" coal. Coal, which accounts for more than half of the
world's power source, may be processed such that it contains less oxides of nitrogen
and sulfur dioxide, thus minimizing the emission of these gases. Natural gas,
containing only half the carbon found in coal, less nitrogen and no sulfur, is a cleaner
energy source. Fuel cells from various chemicals react chemically to produce
electricity, giving off water and carbon dioxide, with 50% efficiency. Studies are being
done to find cleaner alternatives to CFCs. More energy efficient cars may be
produced. Renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind, geothermal and
biomass energy are good alternatives. Destruction of tropical forests accounts for
20%-25% of greenhouse gases. Reforestation may help reverse the condition. The
microscopic phytoplankton in the oceans absorb 50% of the carbon dioxide produced
in the world, thus their habitat, the marine environment must be conserved (Buchholz,
1998). People can practice conservation by using less energy or by ensuring that their
energy sources are efficient, such as in the choice of light bulbs, air conditioners or
refrigerators, and simply, the reduction in the use of appliances that expend much
energy.
El Niño
Another weather phenomenon that has a similar pattern to global warming is the El
Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The phenomenon is the' unusual warming for months
of surface oceanic waters in the tropical Pacific that should be otherwise cool. The first
such incident occurred in the waters off Peru in December 1987, hence the name El Niño
referring to the Christ Child. The ocean waters that were supposed to have been cool
were unusually warm which caused the absence of upwelling that periodically takes place
around that time. Normally, as oceanic surface waters cool during the cool season of the
year, they become heavy and sink to the bottom, displacing the warmer
bottom water which in turn wells up bringing with it organic components that fishes and
other marine organisms need. Failure to do so means lack of food for these organisms of
the waters is detrimental to shallow water organisms like corals that then expel their
symbiotic zooxanthellae in a react ion called due to the loss of the color-giving
zooxanthellae. Bleaching kills the corals that depend on the zooxanthellae for of from
occurring every four or five years, the ENSO has become more frequent, appearing
almost once a year since 1990, and since 1976 shown increased intensity and duration.
La Niña
The high evaporation rates of ocean water during the El Niño cause more
than the usual evaporation that stores moisture in the atmosphere. The moisture
load precipitates into heavy rainfall, tropical storms, snow or hail storms, called La
Niña, that are unloaded somewhere. The accumulation of moisture from the eastern
Pacific results in abnormally heavy rainfalls in areas of South America and Africa
while droughts take place in parts of Southeast Asia and Australia. These weather
abnormalities can cause destruction of crops and other vegetation as well as
predispose animals and humans to diseases borne by floods or exacerbated by
droughts (Epstein, 2000).
Ozone Destruction
In the late 70s and on into the 80s, the world learned about a new menace to
the planet — ozone destruction. Ozone is a molecule that IS composed of three atoms
of oxygen (03) and is found in the lower stratosphere some 17 km to 25 km above the
surface of the Earth (Campbell, et al., 2000). It forms naturally from the bonding
together of free oxygen atoms resulting from the splitting of oxygen (O 2) molecules by
ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The ozone forms a protective blanket that shields
the earth from the damaging UV rays, known as UV-C, found in the 200—
290nanometer bands. Organisms cannot tolerate ultraviolet rays. This is shown well in
the use of UV light to disinfect microbiological laboratories. Single celled organisms
like the simplest algae and bacteria die from exposure to UV rays. Multicelled
organisms have certain defense mechanisms like protective pigmentation on the skin
surface, but this protection is very limited. In humans, skin cancer, cataracts,
snowblindness, and possible degradation of the immune system may result from
exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Of 200 plants screened for reaction to ultraviolet rays,
140 reacted with decreased photosynthesis, decreased yield, smaller leaf area and
inefficient water use (Buchholz, 1998).
When ozone molecules are destroyed, the protective blanket diminishes, in what is
called the thinning of the ozone. Since 1975, satellite monitoring saw the thinning of the
ozone layer and the increasing rate at which it continues. In 1983, a hole in the ozone
over Antarctica, the size of the country of Wales was discovered. Expeditions to study
the hole revealed that the South Pole ozone had thinned by half of its original
concentration, grows revealed and that shrinks and the had even disappeared in some
spots. The ozone hole grows and shrinks seasonally and sometimes extends over
Australia, New Zealand and South America. In the more populated middle latitudes, the
ozone has decreased by from 2% to 10% the past 20 years (Campbell, et al., 2000).
Catalytic splitter
atom or molecule is free
to split another ozone
molecule
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the major causes of ozone depletion because

of the chlorine molecules in them. A single chlorine molecule can break apart 100,000
ozone molecules into 02 and O. Worse, CFCs can stay in the atmosphere for 75-100
years. Another culprit, halon, the chemical in fire extinguishers, contains bromine, which
is a hundred times more ozone destructive than chlorine. Carbon tetrachloride and
methyl chloroform used in refrigerants and industries are two other ozone depleters. To
mitigate the problem, a recommendation is to use greener CFCs, which are compounds
that contain hydrogen thus they degrade easily. Non-CFC propellants and non-aerosol
products are the safer alternatives. Use of new technologies, recovery of discarded
refrigerants and capturing CFC emissions and prevention of evaporation of cleaning
solvents may help save the situation.
In 1987, with the severity of the ozone destruction problem, countries signed the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete back on CFC production to less than the
Ozone agreeing to cut by 1998. Controls on the production of halon were Included in the
treaty. In 1990, 75 countries signed the London Amend further strengthening the
agreement, calling for the elimination of worldwide in a decade, and setting up an
International fund of $200 billion to enable less developed countries to join the effort.
(Buchholz, 1998).
The hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) were developed to replace CFCs. These gases
can still damage ozone if they reach the stratosphere but they are less likely to since
their extra hydrogen atom allows them to be destroyed in the lower layers of the
atmosphere. These gases are also controlled under the Montreal Protocol and were
phased out after 2004. The gases that replaced both the CFCs and HCFCs are hydro-
fluorocarbons (HFCs), which do not contain any chlorine atoms and so have no ozone
depleting effect. Unfortunately, many of them are powerful greenhouse gases and could
contribute to global warming if emitted in large quantities. (Microsoft Encarta
Encyclopedia 2005).
Application
Explain the causes and effects of Climate Change.

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Closure
Congratulations for finishing lesson 4.4! You have learned that climate change is one of
the defining issues in our time. It is now more certain than ever, based on many lines of
evidence, that humans are changing Earth’s climate.
LESSON 4.5 ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION
Learning Outcomes
1. Explained the causes and effects ecosystem degradation.

2. Listed down the human activities that results to ecosystem degradation
2. Compared the growth and health of seedlings in terms of soil fertility.
Introduction
The degradation of ecosystem is an environmental problem that diminishes the

capacity of species to survive. The degradation of ecosystem due to overexploitation of
their resources, through serving a short -term economic goal, has had direct negative
effects on social welfare in the medium and long terms.
Activity
What are the particular human activities in your local places that results to ecosystem
degradation? List down as many as you can.
Analysis
What are the positive and negative effects for these activities?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Abstraction
Grassland Degradation
The apparent biological wealth of forests and grasslands in the standing biomass
or living vegetation. Yet, this does not constitute the bulk of productivity because the
major route of food production in these biomes is the detritus food web, in the
decomposition that takes place in the soil. In a heavily grazed pastureland. the maximum
consumed by herbivores is 50%; normally as much as 82% goes through the
decomposition pathway. In a forest, decomposition accounts for as much as 98% of
productivity. The fallen leaves and parts of vegetation account for the crucial activity,
which takes place in the soil. Soil is defined as all the loose fragments on the surface of
the earth that came from broken down rocks. It is part of what is technically called
regolith, which includes soil with boulders, gravel, stones and pebbles. Composed of
combinations of sand, clay and silt, soil is the medium of all food production on the Earth,
from plants to the animals that feed on them' to the humans that use both, to
microorganisms that through decomposition maintain the vital cycling of material
resources in the biosphere. Without soil, there would be no food. Soil is both a and a
habitat. The terrestrial environment is based on soil and in the soil itself are interstitial
organisms that make their homes there.
Soil degradation, the diminution of soil productivity, is one of the world's major
problems today. Grasslands are destroyed through burning to give way to croplands,
housing or commercial spaces. Grasslands, known as savannas, prairies or steppes
cover '10% of the total surface of the Earth and are home to the largest numbers of
animals, particularly the four-footed mammals and birds. In the United States, almost all
of the grasslands have been converted to croplands. Crop cultivation stops the
decomposition that normally occurs in grasslands since croplands are usually not given
time to fallow before another crop is planted. Rather, fertilizers artificially provide the
nutrients which eventually destroy soil quality. Eroded, infertile, salinized, acidic,
contaminated, dessicated, or mineralized soils are becoming more common and this is
being restored by pouring in more fertilizers and other chemicals which are very costly.
Nutrients are depleted in intensively cultivated soil rendering the soil perpetually poor,
thus setting a vicious cycle of need for chemical inputs. soil degradation starts with the
removal of nutrients, particularly N, P, K, and Ca, through eroded sediments or runoff A
specific example of the effects of soil degradation is the loss of 7 cm of topsoil
throughout midwest USA equivalent to 900 tons per hectare. Each centimeter soil loss
results in 6 percent reduction in yield of maize (O'Riordan, 1995).
Soil conservation, designed to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil quality, side
by side with water conservation, is necessary for restoring the grassland resources.
Deforestation
The complete removal of trees for the purpose of converting a forest area into an
entirely different purpose is called deforestation. Forests in industrialized countries have
almost all disappeared except for those in Russia and Canada. Worldwide, the rate of
deforestation has been increasing since 1950 and mostly in Southeast Asia, particularly
in Japan and the Philippines. Never have forests been so threatened as today (Buchholz,
1998). Because of the burgeoning of the world population with the subsequent ever-
increasing need for agricultural land forests, grasslands, slopes and even mountains are
being cleared for crops. It is being predicted that by 2025, the ratio of cultivable land will
decrease from 0.12 to 0.17 ha per capita (O'Riordan, 1995). In poverty-stricken
countries, people cut trees for fuel and material for construction of huts. Moreover,
mountain resorts are becoming popular and their construction requires the clearing of
forested areas to be developed.
At the start of this century, there were about 20 million square miles of forests (about
twice the land area of the United States), at least one third of which is now degraded or
destroyed. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization reports that approximately 16.9
million hectares are being cleared each year (Cunninghalil & Stugo, 1995). In the
Amazon, weather satellite data in 1988 saw fires initiated one day for the purpose of
clearing the forests for other use8. After widespread criticism, Brazil was able to reduce
the forest clearing in the Amazon to 1.4 million hectares per year. In Che US, the 17()
million hectares of forest has been reduced to 10 million (O'ltiordan, 1995).
Due to awareness and strict laws, deforestation has abated in developed countries
but 80% of the deforestation is occurring in the tropics where the developing countries
are, most of which have no adequate laws or enforcement and may, in fact, allow
liberal harvesting of trees without ensuring reforestation (Buchholz, 1998). The tropical
rain forests of the world are cut at the rate of 500,000 km 2 per year and in a decade,
all large tracts may be eliminated (Campbell, et al., 2000). Tropical forests, as a whole,
have a low cover of 50% from their original primary vegetation. Yet, in the recently
designated 17 tropical forest areas as biodiversity hot spots of the world, the areas are
so impoverished that they have only of the original vegetation (Pimm & Raven, 2000).
Forests are most popularly regarded as sources of food, fuel, medicine,
construction and clothing materials, decorative plants and display animals. The role of
forests in ecology is vital to the biosphere in that forests buffer temperature changes
and stabilize humidity thus preventing climatic extremes. The intricate root systems in
a forest cradle the soil, preventing its erosion and retard the flow of water enough to
let it sink into the soil and become groundwater, which is the major source for human
use including irrigation: Deforestation removes the root system protection for soil and
water. Results are runoffs and floods, which lead to soil erosion and landslides. Curt
her impoverish the soil, causes it to dry a no lose its water holding capacity, leading to
drought.
Finally, runoffs carry away more nutrients. Runoff's cause siltation in rivers,
estuaries and coastal waters, degrading these areas. When forest soil loses its water
holding capacity, there is little water absorption into the ground, which is the source of
groundwater storage. This leads to the depletion of watershed areas that depend on
such absorption.
Coral Reef Degradation
It is not only the terrestrial environment that sees degradation. The coastal marine
ecosystem is another site of environmental deterioration from human abuse. Coral
reefs are important natural structures because they build land, shield the shores from
erosion due to wave action and typhoons and play vital roles in nutrient dynamics
such as in carbon cycling. As sites of great biodiversity, they provide habitats for
countless marine creatures. The reef is built by tiny coelenterates called coral polyps.
These build stony houses of calcium carbonate, which compose and continually build
the reef structure. Because they are tiny, coral polyps build at a slow rate of about
1mm per year vertically and 8 mm horizontally. These living builder animals have
microscopic algae inside their tissues that lend color to their otherwise transparent
bodies.
The algae, called zooxanthellae (zooxanthella, singular), are symbionts of corals.

They are photosynthetic but like most plants, cannot tolerate too much direct sunlight.
The coral polyp tissues partially shield them and act as protection from grazing
predators. In return, the zooxanthellae Contribute carbon to help build the coral
skeleton and the reef, as well as provide oxygen for the coral polyp itself. Likewise, the
organic waste Products of the zooxanthellae are nutrients for the coral. Coral reefs
Worldwide are suffering from physical destruction and various other maladies such as
viral, bacterial and fungi diseases, sedimentation that Stiffocates corals and other
organisms, and cause the shift from coral to algal dominance.
Direct human destruction comes in the form of illegal fishing methods such as muro-
ami, dynamite fishing and cyanide poisoning; pollution from untreated sewage coming
from adjacent communities, oil spills, thermal pollution, and deliberate dumping of
garbage and other Wastes. Scraping by boat hulls or anchors; trampling and overturning
by gleaners and tourists; and sedimentation from mining and constructions also directly
engender human destruction. As a reaction to increased seawater temperature such as
during an El Niño, the coral polyps expel their symbiotic zooxanthellae. With the loss of
the pigment-carrying symbionts, the translucent polyps look white, giving rise to the
bleaching that signals coral death.
The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network reports that the recent massive bleaching
of corals all over the world is due to the 1998 El Niño which is attributed to global climate
change. The most severely affected reefs are those in the Indian Ocean with 59% loss,
in the Middle East with 35% loss, and Southeast and East Asia with 34% loss (Pockley,
2000). Humans can certainly be blamed for global warming which is traced to pollutive
emissions. Bleaching is also caused by human disturbance such as pollution and
effluents that decrease water salinity. Even supposed natural outbreaks of the crown of
thorns starfish is being blamed on how humans have depleted its natural predator, the
Triton, a shelled mollusk.
Mangrove and Seagrass Bed Degradation
Mangroves are
nurseries of marine organisms, a
refuge where they could grow
into the juvenile stage before?
going out into the wider seas.
Reclamation of mangrove areas
for fishponds, commercial and
housing purposes, and wood
extraction have destroyed most
of the world's mangroves and
contributed to reduced fish catch
and productivity. Philippine
mangroves continue to decline
at a rate of at least 3,000
hectares per year. Like coral
reefs and mangroves seagrass
beds are important habitats and
nurseries for certain marine
organisms. Some marine animals, like the dugong and sea urchin, feed on seagrass. The
destructive events in coral reefs also occur in seagrass beds, degrading them.
Application
Take six clean similar containers and group them into two's. Fill two of them with clean
pebbles, another two with well washed sand, and the third pair with loam or garden soil.
In each plate, scatter 12 seeds of mongo or corn. Place all of them in a protected place
where they would be exposed to sunlight in the morning. Water each with 10 ml of water
at dusk. Observe and compare the growth of the seedlings in each of the three setups.
The sand and pebbles may represent the depauperate soil in deforested areas of
grassland.
Explain the differences in the growth and health of the seedlings in terms of soil
quality.
_______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Closure
Great job! You are already done in this module. Remember that the degradation of
ecosystem is an environmental problem that diminishes the capacity of species to
survive. It is not only the plants and animals are affected but most especially humans
who are just God’s steward.
References
• Gascon, Cecilia N. et.al. Fundamentals of Environmental Science. Copyright 2004.

pages 55-90.
• https://www.nationalgeographic.org> pollution/ National Geographic Society
• https://en.m.wikipedia.org> Climate change - Wikipedia

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MODULE 4 ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES

1. Discussed the anthropogenic impact in environmental crises.

LESSON 4.1 ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT

Overuse of Common Property Resources

Overuse of common-property resources, a principle also known as tragedy of the

Convenient Modern Lifestyle and the “Throwaway Society”

LESSON 4.2 GARBAGE PROBLEM

1. Enumerate and discuss the different garbage problem in the world.

Incineration is an alternative method of waste disposal, which reduces the

Recycling could reduce

Hazardous and Toxic Wastes

Hazardous wastes include ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic materials.

LESSON 4.3 POLLUTION

A pollutant may be defined as a substance whose presence, quantity, physical or

A pollutant may be a substance that is naturally occurring in the environment

Major Air Pollutants

Floating in the air are

Salinization and Desertification

Irrigation may seem a very innocent activity to a layman, a needful process in

Siltation or Heavy Sedimentation

Siltation or heavy sedimentation resulting from natural landslides, overlogging,

Toxic Heavy Metals

effects of mercury on humans is historically shown in the Minamata Epidemic. Some

Cadmium is a by-product of zinc smelting, used in the production of plastics,

Urban sewage contains a lot of copper

Lead inputs into the atmosphere comes

Crude oil or refined petroleum may contain several-thousand different compounds

Toxic and Radioactive Wastes

LESSON 4.4 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND RELATED

An environmental crisis of global concern is the gradual increase in the atmospheric

Differentiate El Niño from La Niña.

Although some doubt that it is

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the major causes of ozone depletion because

Explain the causes and effects of Climate Change.

LESSON 4.5 ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION

1. Explained the causes and effects ecosystem degradation.

The degradation of ecosystem is an environmental problem that diminishes the

Coral Reef Degradation

The algae, called zooxanthellae (zooxanthella, singular), are symbionts of corals.

Mangrove and Seagrass Bed Degradation

• Gascon, Cecilia N. et.al. Fundamentals of Environmental Science. Copyright 2004.

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