Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Concr

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Use of recycled concrete aggregate in concrete: A review
Article in Journal of Civil Engineering and Management · December 2013

DOI: 10.3846/13923730.2013.799093
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Journal of Civil Engineering and Management
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USE OF RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE: A

REVIEW
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Journal: Journal of Civil Engineering and Management
Manuscript ID: SCEM-2011-0265.R3

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Manuscript Type: Review
Concrete, Natural coarse aggregate, Recycled concrete aggregate,

Keywords:
Fresh properties, Hardened properties, Durability
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URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/scem
Page 1 of 35 Journal of Civil Engineering and Management
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USE OF RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE: A
5 REVIEW
6
7 Md. Safiuddina,1, Ubagaram Johnson Alengaramb,2, Md. Moshiur Rahmanb,3,
8 Md. Abdus Salamb,4, and Mohd. Zamin Jumaatb,5
9
10 a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
11 University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
12 b
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya,
13 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
14 1
msafiudd@engmail.uwaterloo.ca, 2johnson@um.edu.my, 3moshiur72@siswa.um.edu.my,
15 4
masalam@siswa.um.edu.my, 5zamin@um.edu.my
16
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19 Abstract. The use of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) in concrete as partial and full
20 replacements of natural coarse aggregate (NCA) is growing interest in the construction
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21 industry, as it reduces the demand for virgin aggregate. In addition, the use of RCA leads to a
22 possible solution to the environmental problem caused by concrete waste, and reduces the
23
negative environmental impact of the aggregate extraction from natural resources. This paper
24
presents a comprehensive review on the use of RCA in concrete based on the experimental
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25
26 data available in the published research. The most important physical, mechanical, and
27 chemical properties of RCA are discussed in this paper. However, more emphasis has been
28 given to discuss the effects of RCA on the fresh and hardened properties, and durability of
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29 concrete. This paper also identifies the gaps existing in the present state of knowledge on
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RCA and RCA concrete, and provides some recommendations for future research.
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33 Keywords: Concrete, natural coarse aggregate, recycled concrete aggregate, fresh properties,
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34 hardened properties, durability.

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36
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38 1. Introduction
39
40 Demolition of old structures and construction of new ones are frequent phenomena due to
41 change of purpose, structural deterioration, rearrangement of a city, expansion of traffic
42 directions, and natural disasters. About 850 million tons of construction and demolition waste
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44 are generated in the European Union each year, which represents 31% of the total waste
45 generation (Malešev et al. 2010). In the USA, the waste produced from building demolition
46 alone is approximately 123 million tons per year (Malešev et al. 2010). There are no available
47 data on the current amount of solid waste generation in Malaysia. In 2005, the total solid
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48 waste generated in Malaysia was 6,971,500 tons at a rate of 19,100 tons per day (Siwar 2008).
49
Moreover, Hassan et al. (1998) reported that the industrial and construction wastes form
50
51 about 28.34% of the total solid waste in the Central and Southern region of Malaysia. These
52 data reveal that a significant portion of the total solid waste generated in Malaysia is
53 construction waste (returned or unused concrete, demolished concrete, etc.). Globally, a vast
54 amount of concrete waste is derived from the demolition of old concrete structures. Most
55 commonly this concrete waste is disposed to landfills, thus causing substantial environmental
56
57 load and health hazard (Malešev et al. 2010). Furthermore, the shortage of land and the
58 increasing charges for landfills worsen this environmental problem. The utilization of
59 concrete wastes in sustainable development may alleviate such problems.
60 Sustainable development is presently a major issue all over the world. The concept of
sustainable development was first presented at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro city
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Journal of Civil Engineering and Management Page 2 of 35
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3 of Brazil (Limbachiya et al. 2004 ), and now it has become a guiding principle for the
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5
construction industry worldwide. The recycling and reuse of concrete waste can be an
6 effective way to achieve sustainability in the construction sector. In fact, many governments
7 throughout the world have recently introduced various measures aimed at reducing the use of
8 natural aggregates, and increasing the recycling of concrete waste for reuse as aggregates
9 wherever it is technically, economically or environmentally acceptable (Limbachiya et al.
10
2004).
11
12 Aggregates form the skeleton for concrete. They usually occupy about 70% of the total
13 volume of concrete (ACPA 2009). A major portion of this aggregate volume is occupied by
14 coarse aggregates. Therefore, the demand for coarse aggregates is enormous in the
15 construction industry. The increased extraction of coarse aggregates from the natural
16 resources is required to meet this high demand. The increasing use of natural coarse aggregate
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(NCA) creates an ecological imbalance. Thus, the use of alternative coarse aggregates is vital
19 in construction industry. One of the means to achieve this is to use the recycled concrete
20 aggregate (RCA) obtained from the demolished concrete structures. The use of RCA in
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21 construction reduces the need for NCA, which in turn reduces the negative environmental
22 impact due to the extraction of virgin aggregates. The scarcity of NCA and the increasing
23
charges for landfill have also encouraged the use of RCA in concrete. Besides, the increased
24
distance between the sources of quality natural aggregates and construction sites has
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26 constrained the contractors to consider substituting NCA by RCA (Grdic et al. 2010).
27 Research works commenced more than 30 years ago to investigate the properties of RCA
28 and new concrete including RCA (Frondistou-Yannas 1977). Most investigations conducted
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29 in the past were largely limited to the manufacture of non-structural grade RCA concrete due
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to undesirable physical properties of RCA, such as high water absorption that increases water
32 demand for a given workability. However, structural grade concrete can also be produced
33 using RCA. According to Shayan and Xu (2003), the use of RCA in high-strength and high-
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34 performance structural concretes is possible with the addition of silica fume, and through
35 proper mix design and quality control. Levy and Helene (2004), and Poon et al. (2003) have
36
graded RCA as potentially good for use in structural concrete. Moreover, Hendriks and
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38 Pieterson (1998), and Tu et al. (2006) reported that RCA can be used to produce durable and
39 sustainable concretes. Whether used in non-structural or structural grade concrete, RCA
40 provides environmental benefits by reducing the disposal load on landfill sites and conserving
41 natural rock resources that are currently being depleted to produce NCA.
42 This paper collates the research findings published to date regarding the use of RCA in
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44 concrete, and provides a general review of its effects on concrete properties. Based on the
45 available experimental evidence, the major properties of RCA and RCA concrete are
46 discussed in this paper. Although many research works have been conducted in this area, still
47 there are significant gaps in the current state of knowledge on RCA and RCA concrete. This
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48 paper identifies these knowledge gaps and presents a number of research needs for future
49
investigations.
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51
52
53 2. Properties of RCA
54
55 2.1. Physical properties
56
57
58 The physical properties of RCA influence the mix proportion and properties of concrete. The
59 basic characteristics such as shape and texture, specific gravity, bulk density, pore volume,
60 and absorption of RCA are generally worse than those of NCA due to the presence of residual
cement paste/mortar and impurities (Sagoe-Crentsil et al. 2001; Tu et al. 2006). The
2
1
2
3 magnitude of the effects varies with the nature and quantity of reclaimed cement paste/mortar
4
5
that is present in RCA (ACPA, 2009). The basic physical properties of RCA summarized
6 from the available literature (Anderson et al. 2009; ECCO 1999; González-Fonteboa and
7 Martínez-Abella 2008; Hansen 1992; Safiuddin et al. 2011a) are shown in Table 1 and
8 discussed hereafter.
9
10
2.1.1. Particle shape and texture
11
12
13 RCA tends to be very angular and rough due to the crushing of old concrete, and because of
14 the presence of hardened cement paste/mortar adhered to the surfaces of original coarse
15 aggregate. Typically, RCA particles contain 30 to 60% old cement paste/mortar, depending
16 on the aggregate size (ECCO 1999). A greater amount of old cement paste/mortar is attached
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to the smaller size fractions of coarse aggregate. RCA is similar to crushed rock in particle
19 shape, but the type of crushing equipment influences the gradation and other characteristics of
20 crushed concrete.
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22 2.1.2. Specific gravity
23
24
The specific gravity of RCA is usually lower than that of NCA (Hansen 1992; Yong and Teo
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26 2009). The lower specific gravity of RCA is due to the presence of old cement paste/mortar
27 on the aggregate particles that makes it less dense than NCA because of greater porosity and
28 entrained air structure (Anderson et al. 2009). The typical values of specific gravity of RCA
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29 range from 2.1 to 2.5 in the saturated surface-dry condition (Table 1) that are 5 to 10% lower
30
31
than that of NCA (ECCO 1999).
32
33 2.1.3. Bulk density
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35 The bulk density of RCA is significantly lower than that of NCA (Juan and Gutierrez 2004;
36
Hansen 1992), as evident from Table 1. According to the experimental results of Yong and
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38 Teo (2009), the bulk density of RCA has been found to be 9.8% lower than that of natural
39 gravel aggregate. This is mostly due to the higher porosity of RCA in the presence of adhered
40 cement paste/mortar.
41
42 2.1.4. Pore volume
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45 The pore volume of RCA is substantially higher than that of NCA (Table 1). This is due to
46 the porous nature of adhered cement paste/mortar originated from old concrete (González-
47 Fonteboa and Martínez-Abella 2008; Safiuddin et al. 2011a). The higher pore volume of RCA
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48 makes it weak and less dense, as compared to NCA.

49
50
51 2.1.5. Absorption
52
53 The absorption of RCA is significantly higher than that of NCA (Rahal 2007; Evangelista and
54 de Brito 2007; Yang et al. 2008), as can be seen from Table 1. When demolished concrete is
55 crushed, a certain amount of cement paste/mortar from the original concrete remains attached
56
57 to RCA particles. The attached cement paste/mortar possesses a greater porosity than the
58 original aggregate; this is the main reason for the higher absorption of RCA.
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60
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3 2.2. Mechanical properties
4
5
6 The mechanical properties of concrete depend on the mechanical properties of aggregate.
7 From the available literature, it was found that the mechanical properties of RCA are inferior
8 to those of NCA (ECCO 1999; López-Gayarre et al. 2009; Malešev et al. 2010; Poon et al.
9 2003; Hansen 1992). The key mechanical properties of NCA and RCA are shown in Table 2
10
and briefly discussed hereafter.
11
12
13 2.2.1. Aggregate abrasion value
14
15 The aggregate abrasion value (AAV) is a measure for the wear resistance of aggregate. A
16 higher AAV is obtained when the loss of material due to wear becomes greater. The AAV of
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RCA is usually higher than that of NCA. The typical Los Angeles abrasion values of RCA
19 range from 20 to 45%, which are higher than those of NCA (Poon et al. 2003; Hansen 1992;
20 ECCO 1999; López-Gayarre et al. 2009) (Table 2). However, the AAV of RCA is generally
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21 below the acceptable maximum limit (50% by weight) for structural applications, irrespective
22 of its origin (Tabsh and Abdelfatah 2009).
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2.2.2. Aggregate impact value
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27 The aggregate impact value (AIV) is a strength value of an aggregate subjected to impact.
28 AIV shows the resistance of aggregate to dynamic load. It has been found from the previous
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29 studies that the AIV of RCA (20 to 25%) is greater than that of NCA (15 to 20%) (Table 2).
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The attached mortar and cement paste make RCA less strong, and therefore result in a greater
32 AIV for RCA.
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34 2.2.3. Aggregate crushing value

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The aggregate crushing value (ACV) provides a measure for the resistance of aggregate to
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38 crushing under gradually applied compressive load. The lower the value, the stronger is the
39 aggregate. From the available literature, it has been found that the ACV of RCA (20 to 30%)
40 is considerably higher than that of NCA (14 to 22%) (Table 2). This is expected because of
41 the relatively weak cement paste and mortar attached to RCA particles (Malešev et al. 2010).
42
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44 2.3. Chemical properties

45
46 The performance of RCA concrete is influenced by the chemical properties of RCA. If the
47 deleterious chemicals such as alkalis, sulfates, and chlorides are present in RCA, the
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48 durability of concrete will be affected. The chemical properties of RCA are briefly discussed
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below.
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51
52 2.3.1. Soundness
53
54 Soundness of aggregate is an indication of aggregate’s resistance to weathering and other
55 environmental effects (Anderson et al. 2009; Tabsh and Abdelfatah 2009). Sodium sulfate
56
57 and magnesium sulfate soundness tests are generally used to assess the soundness of
58 aggregate. RCA commonly fails sodium sulfate soundness test, but passes magnesium sulfate
59 soundness test (Anderson et al. 2009; Snyder and Vandenbossche 1993). The magnesium
60 sulfate soundness losses obtained by Poon and Chan (2007) were 2.5% and 3.7% for NCA
and RCA, respectively. These values were similar to the results obtained by Anderson et al.
4
1
2
3 (2009). Tabsh and Abdelfatah (2009) investigated sodium sulphate soundness test and found
4
5
that the losses were 9% and 12% for NCA and RCA, respectively, and thus met the
6 requirement specified by ASTM C 33 (2004). These results are also similar to those obtained
7 by Anderson et al. (2009). The unsoundness of RCA is mostly related to the pore size
8 distribution of the aggregate (Anderson et al. 2009).
9
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2.3.2. Alkali-aggregate reactivity
11
12
13 RCA may cause an alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) in concrete if the aggregates of original
14 concrete were susceptible to AAR (Hansen 1986; Stark 1996). In addition, the alkali content
15 of cement paste or mortar adhered to RCA might have significant effect on the AAR
16 susceptibility of new concrete containing RCA. The alkali content of RCA is related to its
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mortar content. An RCA possessing greater amount of mortar results in higher alkali content
19 (Juan and Gutierrez 2004), and therefore it is more prone to AAR.
20
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21 2.3.3. Sulfate content

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RCA can have higher sulfate content due to sulfate compounds present in the cement of
24
adhered mortar (Juan and Gutierrez 2004). Poon and Chan (2007) examined the water soluble
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26 sulfate content for NCA and RCA; they obtained 0.025 and 0.032 g/L sulfate content for
27 NCA and RCA, respectively. The sulfate content of RCA depends on the quantity of adhered
28 cement paste/mortar. A higher sulfate content of RCA reveals that a greater amount of mortar
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29 is attached to RCA (Juan and Gutierrez 2004).

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32 2.3.4. Chloride content
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34 High chloride levels have been found in the RCA produced from the sources with long-term
35 exposure to chloride-based deicing chemicals. The RCA with high chloride contents may
36
affect the durability of new concrete due to the corrosion of steel reinforcement (Anderson et
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38 al. 2009). The RCA derived from the old concrete containing chlorides more than 0.04 kg/m3
39 should not be used in concrete, because the accelerated steel corrosion could lead to the early
40 failure of reinforced concrete structure (Anderson et al. 2009).
41
42 2.3.5. Organic matter
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45 Paper, wood, textile fabrics, joint seals, plastics, rubber, and other polymeric materials can be
46 present in RCA. These materials become unstable in concrete when subjected to drying and
47 wetting or freezing and thawing (Khalaf and DeVenny 2004). The acceptable limit of organic
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48 matter in concrete is 0.15% by weight of RCA (ECCO 1999).

49
50
51
52 3. Properties of RCA Concrete
53
54 3.1. Fresh properties
55
56
57 RCA can influence the properties of fresh concrete due to their greater angularity, surface
58 roughness, absorption, and porosity. The effects of RCA on the key fresh properties of
59 concrete, as observed from the available literature (Abbas et al. 2009, González-Fonteboa and
60 Martínez-Abella 2008, Grdic et al. 2010, Kou and Poon 2009, Nelson 2004, Poon et al. 2004,
5
1
2
3 Safiuddin et al. 2011b, Shayan and Xu 2003; Yang et al. 2008), are given in Table 3 and
4
5
discussed below.
6
7 3.1.1 Workability
8
9 The greater angularity and surface roughness of RCA particles decrease the workability of
10
concrete and make it more difficult to finish properly (Yrjanson 1989). The degree of
11
12 decrease in workability increases with the increased percentage of RCA in the concrete mix
13 (Topçu and Günçan 1995). Therefore, additional water is required for RCA concrete to obtain
14 the same workability of NCA concrete.
15 The concrete mixes incorporating RCA generally satisfy the initial slump requirements
16 (Su and Wang 2000; Mukai et al. 1979; Tu et al. 2006), as can be seen from Table 3.
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However, the higher absorption of RCA can lead to a rapid loss of workability (Table 3), thus
19 limiting the time needed for placing and finishing of concrete. The problems associated with
20 the rapid loss of workability should be addressed by altering and controlling the moisture
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21 content of RCA before mixing, not by adding extra water at the jobsite (ACPA 2009).
22
23
24
3.1.2. Stability
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26 The bleeding of RCA concrete is generally less than that of NCA concrete (Hansen and Narud
27 1983; Mukai et al. 1979). This is because some of the old mortars rub off RCA during mixing
28 and produce additional fines in the concrete mix. These fines adsorb some of the mix water,
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29 and thus reduce the bleeding in concrete. The greater amount of fines also increases the
30
31
cohesiveness of the concrete mix at lower free water content. In addition, the increased
32 angularity and surface roughness at a higher RCA content contribute to the increase in the
33 cohesiveness of concrete (Safiuddin et al. 2011b). The stability of the concrete mix improves
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34 due to reduced bleeding and increased cohesiveness. Hence, the segregation resistance of
35 RCA concrete can be comparable to that of NCA concrete (Table 3).
36
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38 3.1.3. Wet density
39
40 Several studies were carried out to investigate the effect of RCA on the wet density of
41 concrete. The wet density of RCA concrete is generally lower than that of NCA concrete
42 (Topçu and Günçan 1995; González-Fonteboa and Martínez-Abella 2008), as obvious from
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44 Table 3. It has been reported that the wet density of RCA concrete is 5 to 15% lower than that
45 of NCA concrete (ECCO 1999). This is because RCA possesses adhered old mortar or cement
46 paste whose density is lower than the density of NCA.
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48 3.1.4. Air content

49
50
51 The concrete air content is greatly influenced by its mortar volume (Safiuddin et al. 2011c).
52 Since RCA has larger mortar content, it certainly influences the concrete air content. The air
53 content of the fresh concrete containing RCA is slightly more variable and often up to 0.6%
54 higher than the air content of the fresh NCA concrete (Snyder and Vandenbossche 1993), as
55 can be seen from Table 3. This is caused by the air that is entrained and entrapped in the
56
57 reclaimed mortar of RCA (Wade et al. 1997). Hence, the air content of the existing mortar
58 should be considered while deciding the target air content of RCA concrete.
59
60
6
1
2
3 3.2. Hardened properties
4
5
6 The effect of RCA on the hardened properties of concrete can be negligible or significant
7 depending on its source, type, content, gradation, and physical properties. Generally, the
8 hardened properties of RCA concrete decline with the replacement level of NCA by RCA. As
9 a general principle, up to 30% (on weight basis) of NCA may be replaced by RCA without
10
significantly affecting the hardened properties of concrete (ECCO 1999). The range of
11
12 changes in the hardened properties of concrete due to RCA, as observed from the available
13 literature (ACPA 2009; Hansen 1986; Rahal 2007; Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002;
14 Hansen 1992; Evangelista and de Brito 2007; Juan and Gutierrez 2004; Anderson et al. 2009;
15 Hwang et al. 1996; Chern et al. 1995; Li and Hwang 2002; Yang et al. 2008; Butler et al.
16 2011), are given in Table 4. The key hardened properties of RCA concrete are discussed
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18
below.
19
20 3.2.1. Dry density
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21
22 The dry density of RCA concrete is typically 5 to 15% lower than that of NCA concrete
23
(Hansen 1986). This is because of the reclaimed mortar attached to RCA. According to
24
Hansen and Narud (1983), the amount of mortar attached to RCA varies in the range of 30 to
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26 60% (by volume of RCA) depending on the size of aggregate. The density of reclaimed
27 mortar is much lower than that of most virgin aggregates. This results in a lower density for
28 RCA concrete.
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29
30
31 3.2.2. Compressive strength
32
33 The compressive strength of RCA concrete is usually lower than that of NCA concrete as
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34 shown in Fig. 1. Most commonly, the compressive strength of RCA concrete is 5 to 10%
35 lower than that of NCA concrete (ACPA 2009). But it can also be decreased up to 25%
36
depending upon the quality of RCA (Rahal 2007; Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002;
iew
37
38 Hansen 1992; Evangelista and de Brito 2007; Juan and Gutierrez 2004; Anderson et al. 2009).
39 The higher air content normally found in the concrete mixes containing RCA may also lead to
40 lower strength values (Anderson et al. 2009). However, RCA concrete may have the similar
41 and sometimes higher compressive strength than NCA concrete if the RCA is derived from a
42 source of old concrete, which was originally produced with a lower water to cement ratio than
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44 the new concrete (Padmini et al. 2009).

45 Mandal et al. (2002) and Limbachiya et al. (2000) found that RCA produced no effect on
46 the compressive strength of concrete up to the replacement level of 30% by weight; but the
47 compressive strength decreased for the RCA content more than 30%. Poon et al. (2004) found
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48 that the compressive strength of concrete was much lower when RCA was used in the oven-
49
dry state. In the case of high-performance concrete, 20 to 30% reduction in compressive
50
51 strength was found due to the use of RCA (Hwang et al. 1996; Chern et al. 1995; Li and
52 Hwang 2002). A similar result was observed by other researchers (Sagoe-Crentsil et al. 2001;
53 Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002). Grdic et al. (2010) investigated the properties of self-
54 compacting concrete prepared with RCA and compared with those of NCA concrete; they
55 observed that the difference in compressive strength at the same age was not significant.
56
57 The fine RCA can also affect the compressive strength of concrete. According to
58 Tavakoli and Soroushian (1996), the compressive strength of RCA concrete is influenced by
59 the coarse aggregate to fine aggregate ratio of the source concrete of RCA. The lower coarse
60 to fine aggregate ratio leads to a higher quantity of mortar attached to coarse RCA particles,
and thus results in a reduction in the strength of RCA concrete. This reduction is even greater
7
1
2
3 when recycled fines are used, and therefore the use of fine RCA in concrete is generally not
4
5
recommended (Anderson et al. 2009; Malešev et al. 2010). However, according to Dhir et al.
6 (1999), no decrease in compressive strength occurred for the concrete containing up to 20%
7 fine RCA; beyond this level, the strength decreased with the RCA content increased.
8
9 3.2.3. Splitting tensile strength
10
11
12 Limited literature is available concerning the effect of RCA on the splitting tensile strength of
13 concrete. Nelson (2004) reported that the splitting tensile strength of RCA concrete is lower
14 than that of NCA concrete, as shown in Fig. 2. Several researchers observed that the splitting
15 tensile strength of RCA concrete is 0 to 10% lower than that of NCA concrete, but no
16 statistically significant reduction in the tensile strength occurred during the period of 91 to
Fo
17
18
365 days (Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002; Hansen 1992; Anderson et al. 2009). On the
19 other hand, Tovakoli and Sorushian (1996) reported that RCA concrete produced higher
20 splitting tensile strength than NCA concrete. Hence, more research is required to investigate
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21 the effect of RCA on the splitting tensile strength of concrete.

22
23
24
3.2.4. Flexural strength
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25
26 The flexural strength of RCA concrete is generally lower than that of NCA concrete, as
27 shown in Fig. 3. The flexural strength of RCA concrete is typically 0 to 10% lower than that
28 of NCA concrete (Hansen 1992; Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002; Yang et al. 2008).
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29 According to Yong and Teo (2009), the 3-day flexural strength of RCA concrete was higher
30
31
than that of NCA concrete; but the strength was lower at the age of 28 days. In their study, the
32 NCA concrete gained strength gradually and had a higher flexural strength than RCA
33 concrete at later age. Safiuddin et al. (2011a) reported that RCA did not produce any
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34 significant negative impact on the flexural strength of concrete. Nevertheless, the RCA
35 concrete with adequate flexural strength can be produced for different applications,
36
sometimes even with 100% replacement of NCA (ACI 555R 2001; Yrjanson 1989).
iew
37
38
39 3.2.5. Bond strength
40
41 The bond strength of concrete is an indication of the interlocking characteristic of aggregate and
42 paste. The rough surface of RCA results in a better bond than NCA (Khalaf and DeVenny
43
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2004). Malešev et al. (2010) used Ø100×150 mm cylindrical specimens with embedded ribbed
44
45 and mild reinforcement (embedded length: 150 mm, diameter: 12 mm) for testing the bond
46 between reinforcement and concretes including 0%, 50% and 100% RCA. The result showed that
47 the bond between RCA concrete and reinforcement is not significantly influenced by the inclusion
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48 of RCA in concrete. However, the results from Butler et al. (2011) revealed that the bond strength
49 of NCA concrete was 9 to 19% higher than that of RCA concrete. Such contradictory results
50 suggest that more research is required to investigate the effect of RCA on the bond strength of
51
52
concrete.
53
54 3.2.6. Modulus of elasticity
55
56 The modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the elastic moduli and volume proportions
57
of aggregate materials (Holschemacher 2004). An aggregate of higher elastic modulus
58
59 increases the elastic modulus of concrete (Zhou et al. 1995). Because of weaker nature (lower
60 strength), the modulus of elasticity of RCA is lower than that of NCA. Therefore, the concrete
8
1
2
3 modulus of elasticity decreases with the increased RCA content in concrete (Nelson 2004), as
4
5
shown in Fig. 4.
6 The elastic modulus of concrete containing RCA is typically 10 to 33% lower than that of
7 NCA concrete (Anderson et al. 2009). Corinaldesi (2010) showed that the use of 30% RCA in
8 concrete produced about15% reduction in elastic modulus. However, the elastic modulus of
9 RCA concrete may be lower up to 45% as compared to NCA concrete (Yang et al. 2008;
10
Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz 2002; Rahal 2007). The reduction in the modulus of elasticity
11
12 of concrete is due to the fact that RCA typically has a lower elastic modulus than NCA
13 (ACPA 2009). The reduction in the elastic modulus of concrete is also attributed to the
14 increased overall mortar content (new and reclaimed), which has a lower elastic modulus than
15 most virgin aggregates.
16
Fo
17
18 3.2.7. Porosity
19
20 Limited studies have been found regarding the effect of RCA on the porosity of concrete.
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21 Levy and Helene (2004) made grade 20 to 40 concretes and showed that at 20% replacement
22 of RCA, the total porosity was lower than that of the control concrete with NCA, as shown in
23
Fig. 5. They also observed that the total porosity was increased at 50% RCA content for all
24
concretes. However, grade 20 RCA concrete at 100% replacement of NCA had a slightly
ee
25
26 lower porosity than the grade 20 NCA concrete. According to Levy and Helene (2004), the
27 porosity of RCA concrete is 10 to 30% higher than that of NCA concrete depending on the
28 strength grade. Such behaviors of RCA concrete are due to the variation in the mix
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29 composition (aggregate compacting factor, pozzolanic proportion, cement and RCA contents,
30
31
etc.) of concrete.
32
33 3.2.8. Permeability
ev
34
35 The permeability of concrete depends on both the absorption capacity of the included
36
aggregate and the permeability of the concrete matrix (cement or binder paste). The
iew
37
38 permeability of concrete is also affected by its porosity and the size, distribution, and
39 continuity of the pores (Neville 1996). The permeability of RCA concrete appears to be
40 higher than that of NCA concrete for the same water to cement ratio. The permeability of
41 RCA concrete can be 200 to 500% higher than that of NCA concrete (Anderson et al. 2009).
42 If properly accounted for in design, RCA concrete mix can be engineered to have a similar
43
On
44 permeability as that of NCA concrete (Tam and Tam 2007; ACPA 2009), as shown in Fig. 6.
45
46 3.2.9. Water absorption
47
ly
48 Limited investigations have been carried out to determine the water absorption of RCA
49
concrete. In general, the water absorption of RCA concrete is expected to be higher than that
50
51 of NCA concrete. This is due to the significantly high water absorption and air permeability
52 of RCA. Levy and Helene (2004) made different grades of concrete and showed that, except
53 for 20% replacement, the water absorption of concrete increased with the increase in RCA
54 content, as evident from Fig. 7. According to them, the water absorption of RCA concrete is 0
55 to 40% higher than that of NCA concrete depending on the strength grade. They did not
56
57 discuss the rationale for lower water absorption at 20% RCA content, but recommended
58 further investigation.
59
60
9
1
2
3 3.2.10. Chloride penetration
4
5
6 Limited studies have been conducted on the chloride penetration resistance of RCA concrete.
7 Tu et al. (2006) reported that the chloride penetration values of high-performance concrete
8 made with and without RCA were very similar. According to Corral-Higuera et al. (2011), the
9 use of 100% RCA in concrete decreases its capacity to resist the penetration of chloride ion
10
by approximately 30% in comparison with NCA concrete. However, the chloride penetration
11
12 resistance of RCA concrete can be improved significantly by adding supplementary
13 cementing materials such as fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Abbas et al.
14 (2009) revealed that ground granulated blast-furnace slag is more effective than fly ash to
15 enhance concrete’s resistance to chloride ion penetration. In their study, the slag reduced the
16 chloride diffusion coefficient of concrete by about 120 to 200% as compared to fly ash.
Fo
17
18
19 3.2.11. Drying shrinkage
20
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21 Drying shrinkage is primarily a function of paste content and water to cement ratio, and
22 restrained by aggregate particles. Since RCA concrete possesses a higher paste content, some
23
studies have reported 20 to 50% higher shrinkage than NCA concrete (ACI 555R 2001;
24
Anderson et al. 2009). In contrast, few studies reported comparatively lower values of drying
ee
25
26 shrinkage for RCA concrete. Corinaldesi (2010) observed lower shrinkage strain at the early
27 curing age of concrete, which was prepared replacing 30% NCA by RCA (Fig. 8). The
28 conflicting results suggest that more research is desirable to investigate the effect of RCA on
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29 the drying shrinkage of concrete.

30
31
32 3.2.12. Creep
33
ev
34 Limited research work has been carried out on the creep of RCA concrete. The creep of RCA
35 concrete is typically 30 to 60% higher than that of NCA concrete (Anderson et al. 2009). This
36
is because creep is proportional to paste content, which can be up to 50% higher in RCA
iew
37
38 concrete (ACI 555R 2001). Nevertheless, further investigation is vital to confirm the adverse
39 effect of RCA on the creep of concrete.
40
41 3.2.13. Thermal expansion
42
43
On
44 Similar to creep, only limited literatures are available on the coefficient of thermal expansion
45 of RCA concrete. The coefficient of thermal expansion is primarily a function of the type and
46 content of aggregate (ACPA 2009). Wade et al. (1997) reported that the coefficient of thermal
47 expansion of RCA concrete is typically 10 to 30% higher than that of NCA concrete.
ly
48 However, more investigations on the effect of RCA on the coefficient of thermal expansion of
49
concrete are needed to confirm this finding.
50
51
52 3.3. Durability
53
54 Durability is the capacity of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion,
55 and other adverse service conditions. RCA concrete can be highly durable even when the
56
57 RCA is produced from concrete with durability problems, provided that the mixture
58 proportioning is done properly and good quality is maintained during construction (ECCO
59 1999). The different durability properties of RCA concrete are discussed hereafter.
60
10
1
2
3 3.3.1. Freeze-thaw resistance
4
5
6 Several researchers reported that RCA concrete is resistant to freeze-thaw cycles;
7 surprisingly, there is even evidence that multiple recycling of RCA concrete further improves
8 frost resistance (ECCO 1999; Malheron and O’Mahony 1988; Hansen 1992). However, some
9 researchers mentioned about the same or slightly decreased frost resistance (Hansen 1992;
10
Salem et al. 2003; Zaharieva et al. 2004) for RCA concrete as compared to NCA concrete.
11
12 Furthermore, the concrete prepared with saturated and dry RCA exhibited poorer freeze–thaw
13 resistance; however, the RCA concrete made with semi-saturated aggregates showed better
14 results due to the improved bonding at the interfaces between aggregate and paste (de Oliveira
15 and Vazquez 1996). Nevertheless, more research is needed to confirm the effect of RCA on
16 the freeze-thaw resistance of concrete.
Fo
17
18
19 3.3.2. Sulfate resistance
20
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21 Limited research showed that the resistance of RCA concrete to sulfates (found in sea water)
22 is about the same or slightly inferior to that of conventional concrete (ECCO 1999). The
23
sulfate resistance of RCA concrete can generally be improved with proper mixture
24
proportioning and by using fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, or silica fume
ee
25
26 (ECCO 1999). However, comprehensive research is needed to investigate the sulfate
27 resistance of RCA concrete.
28
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29 3.3.3. Resistance to corrosion

30
31
32 Limited research has been conducted on the corrosion resistance of RCA concrete. The
33 corrosion rate of embedded steel can be slowed down in RCA concrete by proper mixture
ev
34 proportioning and good quality control of construction (ACPA 2009). Ann et al. (2008) used
35 a polarization method to identify the corrosion behavior of steel embedded in RCA concrete.
36
They observed that the corrosion rate did not seem to depend on the type of binder and
iew
37
38 aggregate for lower level of chlorides (< 0.2 to 0.3% by weight of cement), but significantly
39 changed for a higher level of chlorides (> 0.5%). They also found that RCA concrete with
40 30% pulverized fuel ash and 65% ground granulated blast furnace slag was more effective in
41 mitigating corrosion reaction at higher level of chlorides, as compared to NCA concrete.
42 Nonetheless, further investigation is required to assess the corrosion resistance of RCA
43
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44 concrete.
45
46 3.3.4. Resistance to carbonation
47
ly
48 The available literature shows the contradictory effects of RCA on the carbonation of
49
concrete. Levy and Helene (2004) found that the carbonation depth decreases when the RCA
50
51 content increases, presenting a better behavior except for 100% replacement. According to
52 them, RCA concrete needs a greater cement content to achieve the similar strength of NCA
53 concrete at the same water to cement ratio. The greater cement content has a higher alkali
54 reserve, which acts to decrease the depth of carbonation in concrete. In contrast, Hansen
55 (1992) reported that the carbonation depth of RCA concrete is higher than that of NCA
56
57 concrete at the same water to cement ratio. Moreover, the rate of carbonation of RCA
58 concrete is four times greater than that of NCA concrete (Hansen 1992). The higher
59 carbonation may increase the risk of corrosion of reinforcing steel in RCA concrete. Such risk
60 can be offset by lower water to cement ratio, proper curing, suitable supplementary cementing
11
1
2
3 material, and increased concrete cover. Nevertheless, more research is needed to evaluate the
4
5
effect of RCA on the carbonation resistance of concrete.
6
7 3.3.5. Resistance to alkali-silica reaction
8
9 Inadequate investigations have been conducted to assess the performance of RCA concrete
10
against alkali-silica reaction. The resistance of RCA concrete to alkali-silica reaction depends
11
12 on the source of RCA. Stark (1996) reported that the RCA derived from old concrete
13 containing alkali affects the resistance of newly developed RCA concrete to alkali-silica
14 reaction. His results indicated that the new concrete made with RCA expanded excessively
15 due to alkali-silica reaction. The use of low-lime ASTM Class-F fly ash can greatly reduce the
16 expansion due to alkali-silica reaction in RCA concrete (ECCO 1999). The available data are
Fo
17
18
insufficient to conclude on the alkali-silica reactivity of RCA concrete and therefore further
19 investigation is required.
20
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21 3.3.6. Resistance to acid attack

22
23
Limited literatures are available on the durability of RCA concrete under acid attack. Morgan
24
(2009) reported that the resistance of RCA concrete to acid attack is equal to or slightly
ee
25
26 inferior to that of NCA concrete. To evaluate the degree of deterioration of RCA concrete
27 against acid attack, he immersed the concrete samples in a testing bath containing H2SO4 with
28 a pH of 2. The acid penetration into the RCA concrete was slightly higher than that of NCA
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29 concrete. However, he showed that the resistance of RCA concrete to acid attack can be
30
31
improved by the addition of fly ash (Morgan 2009). Due to limited research, further
32 investigation of RCA concrete exposed to acidic environment is mandatory to evaluate its
33 durability characteristic.
ev
34
35
36
4. Factors Affecting the Properties of RCA Concrete
iew
37
38
39 The properties of RCA concrete are influenced by several key factors such as water to cement
40 ratio, RCA content, the type and size of RCA, the physical characteristics of RCA, the quality
41 of the parent concrete of RCA, the moisture condition of RCA, curing condition, cement
42 content, and air entrainment (Tavakoli and Soroushian 1996). These factors are discussed
43
On
44 henceforth.
45
46 4.1. Properties of RCA
47
ly
48 The physical properties of RCA significantly influence the fresh and hardened properties of
49
concrete. For instance, the fresh concrete mixes with angular and rough-textured RCA
50
51 particles become harsh and therefore are difficult to finish; the workability and finishability of
52 concrete can also be affected due to the high absorption of RCA (Anderson et al. 2009). In
53 addition, the higher pore volume of RCA can affect the porosity, strength, and transport
54 properties (water absorption, permeability, etc.) of concrete (Safiuddin et al. 2011a).
55
56
57 4.2. RCA content
58
59 The fresh and hardened properties of concrete are greatly influenced by the RCA content used
60 as a partial or full replacement of NCA. Cabral et al. (2010) developed a model using seven
independent variables (with respect to the type and amount of aggregates) to predict
12
1
2
3 concrete’s performance for 0 to 100% replacement of NCA with RCA. They found that the
4
5
concrete produced with RCA had lower compressive strength and elastic modulus than NCA
6 concrete. Also, higher RCA content increases water absorption but decreases density, thus
7 leading to increased porousness in concrete. The use of 50 to 100% coarse RCA increases the
8 water absorption and decreases the density of concrete by about 0.15 to 0.37% and 2.12 to
9 3.40%, respectively (Grdic et al. 2010). In addition, Kou and Poon (2009) reported that the
10
compressive and tensile splitting strengths of concrete decreased whereas the resistance to
11
12 chloride-ion penetration increased with an increase in fine RCA content. They also observed
13 that the drying shrinkage of concrete increased with an increase in RCA content, but it can be
14 controlled by using lower water to cement ratio.
15
16 4.3. Quality of parent concrete
Fo
17
18
19 Padmini et al. (2009) investigated the influence of parent concrete quality on the properties of
20 RCA concrete. They observed that the water absorption of RCA increases with the increased
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21 strength of parent concrete. This is because the concrete with a higher strength generally
22 requires greater cement content, thus increasing the quantity of mortar adhering to the
23
aggregates. Therefore, the adjustment of mix water content is mandatory for the new concrete
24
including the RCA derived from an old concrete of higher strength to obtain the desired
ee
25
26 workability. The porous RCA affects the strength of RCA concrete. The percentage loss in the
27 compressive or tensile strength of new concrete due to the use of RCA is more significant
28 when it is derived from a weak old concrete than a stronger old concrete (Tabsh and
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29 Abdelfatah 2009). More research is required to evaluate the effect of quality of parent
30
31
concrete on RCA concrete properties.
32
33 4.4. Type or source of RCA
ev
34
35 Limited studies have been carried out to investigate the effect of the type or source of RCA on
36
concrete properties. According to Cabral et al. (2010), the concrete produced with coarse
iew
37
38 RCA had a lower compressive strength, except for the concrete made of recycled fine
39 aggregate derived from brick ceramic, where an increase in compressive strength was
40 observed. The elastic modulus of concrete was reduced for all types of RCA. However, the
41 RCA obtained from red ceramic exerted a larger influence in reducing concrete’s elastic
42 modulus due to lower density. Further research is needed to assess the effect of the type or
43
On
44 source of RCA.
45
46 4.5. Size of RCA
47
ly
48 Limited investigations were conducted to observe the size effect of RCA on concrete
49
properties. Padmini et al. (2009) used three different aggregate sizes to assess the influence of
50
51 RCA size on the properties of RCA concrete. The higher reduction in the modulus of
52 elasticity was obtained for the concrete made with a smaller size of RCA. In contrast, they
53 found that the strength increases with an increase in the maximum size of RCA. They also
54 found that the water absorption of concrete decreases with an increase in the maximum size of
55 RCA. This is due to the relatively low content of weaker mortar adhered to larger-sized
56
57 aggregates. Additional research is necessitated to investigate the size effect of RCA on
58 concrete properties.
59
60
13
1
2
3 4.6. Moisture condition of RCA
4
5
6 The moisture condition of aggregates affects the workability of concrete. The initial slump (a
7 measurement of workability) of concrete is strongly dependent on the initial free water
8 content of the concrete mix. However, very few studies have been carried out to investigate
9 the effect of the RCA moisture conditions on the fresh properties of concrete. Poon et al.
10
(2004) reported that the oven-dry RCA leads to a higher initial slump and quicker slump loss,
11
12 while the saturated surface-dry and air-dry RCAs show normal initial slump and slump loss.
13 More research is needed to examine the effect of the moisture condition of RCA on the
14 properties of fresh and hardened concretes.
15
16 4.7. Curing condition
Fo
17
18
19 The outer environmental curing conditions produce the more adverse effects on RCA concrete
20 than on NCA concrete. Fonseca et al. (2011) reported that the difference in the splitting
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21 tensile strength between NCA and RCA concretes is high when they are cured in the outer
22 environment. Moreover, Buyle-Bodin and Hadjieva-Zaharieva (2002) reported that the depth
23
of carbonation of water-cured RCA concrete is almost twice smaller than that of air-cured
24
RCA concrete. The decrease in the depth of carbonation produced by water curing might be
ee
25
26 partially due to higher internal humidity of concrete. Further research is required to assess the
27 effect of different curing conditions on the performance of RCA concrete.
28
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29 4.8. Cement content

30
31
32 Limited literatures are available for the effect of cement content on the properties of RCA
33 concrete. The RCA concrete with high cement content was found to have high resistance to
ev
34 carbonation (Abbas et al. 2009). Padmini et al. (2009) recommended higher cement content
35 for RCA concrete to achieve a desired compressive strength. According to Sagoe-Crentsil
36
(2001), the tensile resistance of RCA concrete increases with the increased cement content in
iew
37
38 concrete.
39
40 4.9. Water to cement ratio
41
42 The decline in the performance of RCA concrete is related to the water to cement ratio used in
43
On
44 mix design (Buyle-Bodin and Hadjieva-Zaharieva 2002). Padmini et al. (2009) found that
45 RCA concrete requires lower water to cement ratio and higher cement content as compared to
46 the parent concrete of RCA to achieve a particular compressive strength. At a water to cement
47 ratio of 0.29, the resistance of NCA concrete to freezing and thawing was extremely high but
ly
48 the same water to cement ratio failed to provide an acceptable freeze-thaw resistance for RCA
49
concrete (Salem et al. 2003).
50
51
52 4.10. Air entrainment
53
54 Limited investigations have been carried out to study the effect of air entrainment on the
55 performance of RCA concrete. Durable RCA concrete can be produced through proper air
56
57 entrainment. The air entrainment is as effective for RCA concrete as for NCA concrete.
58 Moreover, the use of entrained air is more effective than lowering the water to cement ratio to
59 improve the resistance of RCA concrete to freezing and thawing (Salem et al. 2003).
60 Comprehensive research is needed to evaluate the performance of air-entrained RCA
concrete.
14
1
2
3 5. Methods to Enhance the Performance of RCA Concrete
4
5
6 5.1. Improvement of RCA quality
7
8 Larbi et al. (2000) tried a thermal treatment method to improve the quality of RCA, and they
9 found that after thermal treatment at 8000C, the RCA was reasonably comparable to the
10
conventionally used river-dredged aggregates. Chen et al. (2003) found that the strength of
11
12 concrete was affected by the unwashed RCA used in the concrete mix. However, the use of
13 washed RCA negated the strength reduction.
14
15 5.2. Adjustment of water to cement ratio
16
Fo
17
18
Mandal (2002) stated that the adjustment of water to cement ratio for the concrete mix could
19 improve the strength of RCA concrete. As stated earlier, Padmini et al. (2009) recommended
20 lower water to cement ratio and higher cement content for RCA concrete than those of the
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21 parent concrete of RCA to achieve identical compressive strength. Similarly, Salem et al.
22 (2003) reported that lowering the water to cement ratio to a certain level was highly beneficial
23
for RCA concrete to develop the freezing and thawing resistance equal to that of NCA
24
concrete.
ee
25
26
27 5.3. Incorporation of pozzolanic materials
28
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29 The strength and durability of RCA concrete can be improved by using suitable pozzolanic
30
31
materials (Takehiro and Masanori 2000; Mandal 2002; Poon et al. 2002). Ann et al. (2008)
32 showed that the use of 30% pulverized fly ash and 65% ground granulated blast-furnace slag
33 increased the compressive strength of RCA concrete to the level of control concrete cast with
ev
34 natural granite gravel; pulverized fuel ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag were also
35 effective in raising the resistance to chloride-ion penetration into RCA concrete. In addition, it
36
was found that silica fume is effective to increase the chloride-ion penetration resistance of
iew
37
38 RCA concrete (Corral-Higuera et al. 2011).
39
40 5.4. Use of new mixing technique
41
42 Li et al. (2009) applied a two-stage mixing technique to obtain good-quality RCA concrete.
43
On
44 They used recycled aggregate coated with pozzolanic powder to improve the properties of
45 RCA concrete. Tam et al. (2006) also developed a two-stage mixing approach for promoting
46 RCA concrete in higher-grade application. They found that the 100% NCA replacement is
47 possible to produce RCA concrete with acceptable properties compared to NCA concrete,
ly
48 though the optimal situation occurs with 20% replacement of NCA by RCA. The slump and
49
strength results suggested that the new mixing technique contributes significantly to achieve
50
51 better workability, and higher compressive and flexural strengths. Furthermore, the interfacial
52 transition zone of RCA concrete was observed by a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The
53 SEM results confirmed that the new mixing technique contributes to a dense microstructure.
54 In addition, the inner bleeding can be reduced by the new mixing technique.
55
56
57 5.5. Extended curing approach
58
59 Another way of improving the performance of RCA concrete is by employing an extended
60 curing in a wet environment. Extended curing seems to be one of the most practical methods
to decrease the carbonation rate of RCA concrete (Buyle-Bodin and Hadjieva-Zaharieva
15
1
2
3 2002). The depth of carbonation in RCA concrete is almost two times lesser when the
4
5
concrete is cured with water.
6
7 5.6. Soaking of RCA in mix water or pozzolanic liquid
8
9 The strength of RCA concrete can be improved by either soaking the RCA in mix
10
water/pozzolanic liquid (such as colloidal silica) before concrete mixing or allowing recycled
11
12 aggregate to soak up a part of mixing water with or without pozzolanic liquid during mixing.
13 The absorbed water or pozzolanic liquid is expected to fill up the micro cracks in RCA with
14 cement gel during cement hydration or pozzolanic reaction (Masanori and Takehiro 2000).
15 Thus, the strength of RCA concrete can be improved.
16
Fo
17
18
19 6. Research Needs
20
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21 Though RCA can be used to a certain replacement level of NCA without significant adverse
22 effects on the fresh, hardened and durability properties of concrete, yet further investigations
23
are needed to confirm the beneficial effects of RCA for more potential applications. After
24
conducting critical and thorough reviews, the following research needs have been identified:
ee
25
26 • Investigation on the effect of RCA on the plastic shrinkage, rheological properties
27 (yield stress and plastic viscosity), and segregation resistance of concrete.
28 • Examination of the effect of RCA on the shear, impact, and bond strengths of
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29
30
concrete.
31 • Investigation on the fatigue performance of RCA concrete, and analysis of its fatigue
32 reliability to facilitate the design of concrete structures subjected to cyclic load.
33 • Assessment of the electrical resistivity and gas/oxygen permeability of RCA concrete.
ev
34
• More investigation of the specific effect of RCA on the splitting tensile strength,
35
36 drying shrinkage, and creep of concrete.
• More investigation for assessing the effect of RCA on the water absorption, porosity,
iew
37
38 chloride penetration resistance, and thermal expansion of concrete.
39 • Comprehensive study for examining the effect of RCA on the durability performance
40
41
of concrete with respect to resistances to freezing and thawing, sulfate attack,
42 corrosion, carbonation, alkali-silica reaction, and acid attack.
43 • Investigation on the potential use of RCA in the production of high-strength, high-
On
44 performance, lightweight, and self-consolidating concretes.

45 • More study on the effect of quality of the parent concrete of RCA, the moisture
46
47 condition of RCA, and the adhered mortar/cement content of RCA on the properties of
new concrete.
ly
48
49 • Investigation on the effect of different types or sources and particle sizes of RCA on
50 the properties of concrete.
51
52
• Investigation on the effectiveness of existing mixing techniques or development of
53 new mixing techniques to enhance the performance of RCA concrete.
54
55
56 7. Concluding Remarks
57
58
59 There is a significant potential for recycling demolished concrete for use in value added
60 applications to maximize economic and environmental benefits. Significant savings can be
achieved through converting RCA into useful resources in the production of new concrete.
16
1
2
3 The present study has critically reviewed the properties of RCA and RCA concrete. The
4
5
following conclusions are made from this study:
6 • RCA is useful as a substitute for NCA to produce concrete with acceptable properties
7 and durability. However, the main problem of using RCA in new concrete is its
8 inconsistent quality, particularly when it is obtained through demolition of old
9 concrete structures.
10
11 • RCA can be successfully used in new concrete by meeting the standard specifications
12 for natural aggregate. However, new specifications and guidelines are needed for
13 RCA.
14 • The physical properties of RCA significantly influence the fresh and hardened
15 properties of concrete. The aggregate abrasion, impact, and crushing values of RCA
16
Fo
17 affect the strength properties of concrete. Moreover, the adverse chemical properties
18 of RCA can affect the durability of RCA concrete, and thus its performance in service
19 conditions.
20 • The use of 100% RCA is possible to produce concrete with acceptable quality. The
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21 concrete produced with RCA has generally 80 to 90% of the strength of a comparable
22
23 NCA concrete. The reduction in the strength of RCA concrete is caused by the adverse
24 physical properties of RCA and inadequately dense transition zone between RCA and
bulk cement paste.
ee
25
26 • The use of fine RCA in a new concrete mix requires careful examination, as the
27 recycled fines further reduce the strength of concrete. In general, the 10 to 20%
28
replacement of virgin sand by recycled fines is acceptable.
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29
30 • The performance of RCA concrete can be enhanced by adjusting water to cement
31 ratio, incorporating pozzolanic materials, using new mixing techniques, and
32 employing extended curing.
33
ev
• RCA can be used in high-quality concretes such as high-strength, high-performance,

34
35 and self-consolidating concretes by appropriate materials selection and mix design.
36
Despite the differences in properties between RCA and NCA, the concrete containing
iew
37
38 RCA can be properly designed and proportioned to minimize the impact of RCA on fresh and
39 hardened properties, and durability. In addition, the chemical contaminants in RCA should be
40
41
minimized to encourage its usage in concrete industry.
42
43
On
44 Acknowledgment
45
46
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the University of Malaya
47
Research Grant (UMRG) under Grant No. RG 050/09 AET.
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48
49
50
51 References
52
53
54
Abbas, A.; Fathifazl, G.; Isgor, O.B.; Razaqpur, A.G.; Fournier, B.; Foo, S. 2009. Durability
55 of recycled aggregate concrete designed with equivalent mortar volume method,
56 Cement and Concrete Composites 31(8): 555−563.
57 ACI 555R–01 Removal and reuse of hardened Concrete. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice,
58 Part 6, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA, 2001. 26 p.
59
60
ACPA. 2009. Properties of concrete containing RCA [Cited on 2 May 2011]. Available from
internet: <http://www.pavement.com/Downloads/TS/EB043P/TS043.5P.pdf>.
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1
2
3 Ajdukiewicz, A.; Kliszczewicz, A. 2002. Influence of recycled aggregates on mechanical
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5 properties of HS/HPC, Cement and Concrete Composites 24(2): 269−279.
6 Anderson, K.W.; Uhlmeyer, J.S.; Russell, M. 2009. Use of recycled concrete aggregate in
7 PCCP: Literature Search, WSDOT Research Report WA-RD 726.1, Washington
8 State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), Olympia, Washington, USA, 37 p.
9 Ann, K.Y.; Moon, H.Y.; Kim, Y.B.; Ryou, J. 2008. Durability of recycled aggregate concrete
10
11 using pozzolanic materials, Waste Management 28(6): 993−999.
12 ASTM C 33–04 Standard specification for concrete aggregates. Annual Book of ASTM
13 Standards, Vol. 04.02, American Socity for Testing Materials. Philadelphia, USA,
14 2004.
15 Butler, L.; West, J.S.; Tighe, S.L. 2011. The effect of recycled concrete aggregate properties
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on the bond strength between RCA concrete and steel reinforcement, Cement and
18 Concrete Research 41(10): 1037−1049.
19 Buyle-Bodin, F.; Hadjieva-Zaharieva, R. 2002. Influence of industrially produced recycled
20 aggregates on flow properties of concrete, Materials and Structures 35(8): 504−509.
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21 Cabral, A.E.B.; Schalch, V.; Molin, D.C.C.D.; Ribeiro, J.L.D. 2010. Mechanical properties
22
23 modeling of recycled aggregate concrete, Construction and Building Materials 24(4):
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ee
25 Chen, H.-J.; Yen, T.; Chen, K.-H. 2003. Use of building rubbles as recycled aggregates,
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30 Corinaldesi, V. 2010. Mechanical and elastic behaviour of concretes made of recycled-
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38 de Oliveira, M.B.; Vazquez, E. 1996. The influence of retained moisture in aggregates from
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49 Evangelista, L.; de Brito, J. 2007. Mechanical behaviour of concrete made with fine recycled
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58 González-Fonteboa, B.; Martínez-Abella, F. 2008. Concretes with aggregates from demolition
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11 Hansen, T.C.; Narud, H. 1983. Strength of recycled concrete made from crushed concrete
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7
8
9 Authors’s CV
10
11
12 Dr. Md. Safiuddin is a Post-doctoral Fellow in the Department of Civil and Environmental
13 Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Waterloo, Canada. He is a member of
14 Professional Engineers Ontario and Bangladesh Environmental Network. Dr. Safiuddin is also
15 a lifetime fellow of Institution of Engineers, Bangladesh. His research interests include
16
concrete materials, high strength and high performance concretes, self-consolidating concrete,
Fo
17
18 green or sustainable concrete, durability of concrete, utilization of waste materials in concrete,
19 and repair and rehabilitation of concrete structures.
20
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21 Dr. U. Johnson Alengaram is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering,

22 Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. He is a graduate
23
24
member of ICE, UK. His research interests include the material and structural aspects of
lightweight concrete incorporating sustainable materials.
ee
25
26
27 Md. Moshiur Rahman is a PhD. Candidate and Graduate Research Assistant in the
28 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala
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29
Lumpur, Malaysia. He is a registered professional engineer in Bangladesh. His research
30
31 interests include concrete materials, strengthening of reinforced concrete members, and
32 structural optimization.
33
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34 Md. Abdus Salam is a Ph.D. Candidate and Graduate Research Assistant in the Department of
35 Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
36
Also, he is an Assistant Professor (presently on study leave) in the Department of Civil
iew
37
38 Engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology, Gazipur, Bangladesh. Mr.
39 Salam is a member of Institution of Engineers, Bangladesh. His research interests include
40 concrete materials, self-consolidating concrete, and green or sustainable concrete.
41
42
Dr. Mohd. Zamin Jumaat is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of
43
On
44 Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. He is a council member of the

45 Institution of Engineers, Malaysia and a member of the Drafting Code Committee for
46 Reinforced Concrete Structures. His research interests include concrete materials, self-
47 consolidating concrete, lightweight concrete, green or sustainable concrete, and behavior of
ly
48 structural concrete elements.

49
50
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59
60
22
1
2
3 Table 1. Basic physical properties of NCA and RCA
4
5 Physical property NCA RCA
6 Shape and texture Well rounded, smooth (gravels) to Angular with
7 angular and rough (crushed rock) rough surface
8
9
Specific gravity (saturated 2.4−2.9 2.1−2.5
10 surface-dry based)
11 Bulk density (compacted) (kg/m3) 1450-1750 1200−1425
12 Absorption (wt. %) 0.5−4 3−12
13
Pore volume (vol. %) 0.5−2 5.0−16.5
14
15
16
Fo
17
18
19
20
rP
21
22
23
24
ee
25
26
27
28
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
1
1
2
3 Table 2. Key mechanical properties of NCA and RCA
4
5 Mechanical property NCA RCA
6 Aggregate abrasion value (wt. %) 15−30 20−45
7
Aggregate impact value (wt. %) 15−20 20−25
8
9 Aggregate crushing value (wt. %) 14−22 20−30
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Fo
17
18
19
20
rP
21
22
23
24
ee
25
26
27
28
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
2
1
2
3 Table 3. Fresh properties of NCA and RCA concretes
4
5 Fresh property NCA concrete RCA concrete
6 Workability:
7
Slump (mm) 90–275 70–255
8
9 Slump flow (mm) 600–735 380–725
10 Slump loss for normal concrete
11 (after 45 min) (%) 50 75
12 Slump loss for self-consolidating concrete
13 (after 1 h) (%) 2.4–2.6 7.4–10.4
14
15
16 Stability (segregation resistance):
Fo
17 Visual stability index, VSI1 (based on bleeding,

18 mortar halo, and aggregate piling) VSINCA ≤ 1 VSIRCA < < 1
19 Sieve segregation (%) 8.9–10.4 8.3–12.3
20
rP
21
22 Wet density (kg/m3) 2325–2455 2250–2370
23 Air content (%) 1.3–6.3 1.5–6.9
24 1
A lower VSI value indicates higher stability or segregation resistance
ee
25
26
27
28
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
3
1
2
3 Table 4. Effect of RCA on the hardened properties of concrete
4
5 Property Range of changes
6 Dry density 5−15% less
7 Compressive strength 0−30% less
8
9
Splitting tensile strength 0−10% less
10 Flexural strength 0−10% less
11 Bond strength 9−19% less
12 Modulus of elasticity 10−45% less
13
14 Porosity 10−30% more
15 Permeability 0−500% more
16 Water absorption 0−40% more
Fo
17 Chloride penetration 0−30% more

18
19 Drying shrinkage 20−50% more
20 Creep 30−60% more
rP
21 Thermal expansion 10−30% more

22
23
24
ee
25
26
27
28
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
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36
iew
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43
On
44
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46
47
ly
48
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56
57
58
59
60
4
1
2
3 Figure Captions
4
5
6 Fig. 1. Effect of RCA on the compressive strength of concrete (Nelson 2004)
7
8 Fig. 2. Effect of RCA on the splitting tensile strength of concrete (Nelson 2004)
9
10
Fig. 3. Effect of RCA on the flexural strength of concrete (Yang et al. 2008)
11
12
13 Fig. 4. Effect of RCA on the modulus of elasticity of concrete (Nelson 2004)
14
15 Fig. 5. Effect of RCA on the total porosity of concrete (Levy and Helene 2004)
16
Fo
17
18
Fig. 6. Effect of RCA on the water permeability of concrete (Tam and Tam 2007)
19
20 Fig. 7: Effect of RCA on the water absorption of concrete (Levy and Helene 2004)
rP
21
22 Fig. 8. Effect of RCA on drying shrinkage of concrete (Corinaldesi 2010)
23
24
ee
25
26
27
28
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
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42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
1
1
2
3
4
5 60
6
7
Compressive strength (MPa)
8
9
10
11 40
12
13
14
15
16
Fo
17
20
18
19
20
rP
21 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days

22 0
23
24 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
ee
25
26 % replacement of NCA by RCA
27
28 Fig. 1
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
2
1
2
3
4
5 5
6
7
Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
8
9
4
10
11
12 3
13
14
15
16 2
Fo
17
18
19 1
20
rP
21
22
23 0
24 0 20 40 60 80 100
ee
25
27
28 Fig. 2
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
3
1
2
3
4
5 5
6
7
8
Flexural strength (MPa)
4
9
10
11
12 3
13
14
15 2
16
Fo
17
18 1
19
20
rP
21
22
0
23 0 30 50 100
24
% replacement of NCA by RCA
ee
25
26
27 Fig. 3
28
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
4
1
2
3
4
5 50
6
7
8
40
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
9
10
11
12 30
13
14
15
16
20
Fo
17
18
19 10
20
rP
21
22
23 0
24 0 20 40 60 80 100
ee
25
27
28 Fig. 4
rR
29
30
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
5
1
2
3
4
5 20
6 Grade 20
7
Grade 30
8
9 18 Grade 40
10
Total porosity (%)
11
12
13 16
14
15
16
Fo
14
17
18
19
20 12
rP
21
22
23
24 10
ee
25 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
26
28
rR
29
30 Fig. 5
31
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
6
1
2
3
4
5 0.01
6 0% RCA
7 0.009
8 20% RCA
Water permeabilty (mm2/s.BAR)
9 0.008 100% RCA

10
11 0.007
12
13 0.006
14
15 0.005
16
Fo
17 0.004
18
19 0.003
20
rP
21 0.002
22
23 0.001
24
0
ee
25
26 0 28 56 84 112 140 168 196
27
28 Curing age (days)
rR
29
30
31
Fig. 6
32
33
ev
34
35
36
iew
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
On
44
45
46
47
ly
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
7
1
2
3
4
5 10
6 Grade 20
7 Grade 30
8 9
9 Grade 40
Water absorption (%)
10
11
12 8
13
14
15 7
16
Fo
17
18
19 6
20
rP
21
22 5
23 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
24
ee

26
27
28
rR
29 Fig. 7
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ev
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iew
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On
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ly
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8
1
2
3
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5 0.8
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RCA
7
8 NCA
Drying shrinkage (mm/m)
9
10 0.6
11
12
13
14 0.4
15
16
Fo
17
18
19 0.2
20
rP
21
22
23 0
24
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
ee
25
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27 Time of exposure (days)
28
rR
29
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Fig. 8
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ev
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iew
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On
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ly
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9
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Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Concr

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Use of recycled concrete aggregate in concrete: A review

Article in Journal of Civil Engineering and Management · December 2013

Md Safiuddin U.Johnson Alengaram

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Moshiur Rahman Md. Abdus Salam

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USE OF RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE: A

Journal: Journal of Civil Engineering and Management

Manuscript ID: SCEM-2011-0265.R3

Manuscript Type: Review

Concrete, Natural coarse aggregate, Recycled concrete aggregate,

34 hardened properties, durability.

48 makes it weak and less dense, as compared to NCA.

34 2.2.3. Aggregate crushing value

44 2.3. Chemical properties

21 2.3.3. Sulfate content

29 is attached to RCA (Juan and Gutierrez 2004).

48 matter in concrete is 0.15% by weight of RCA (ECCO 1999).

48 3.1.4. Air content

44 the new concrete (Padmini et al. 2009).

21 the effect of RCA on the splitting tensile strength of concrete.

29 the drying shrinkage of concrete.

29 3.3.3. Resistance to corrosion

21 3.3.6. Resistance to acid attack

29 4.8. Cement content

44 performance, lightweight, and self-consolidating concretes.

• RCA can be used in high-quality concretes such as high-strength, high-performance,

29 Concrete International 17(10): 71−76.

44 Structures and Buildings, London, 1999, 257–274.

21 Telford, London, UK, 1998, 1−18.

aggregate in concrete: review, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 16(4):

44 sustainable development, Cement and Concrete Research 34(11): 1975−1980.

48 Building Materials 23(3): 1287−1291.

17 conservation of resources and energy, Transaction of Japan Concrete Institute 22:

17 concrete, Paper presented in Concrete Technology Seminars-7: The Evolving World of

recycled aggregate concrete in a two-stage mixing approach, Journal of Human and

37 produced by two-stage mixing approach, Journal of Materials Science 42(10):

48 Performance of concrete pavements containing recycled concrete aggregate, FHWA-

21 Dr. U. Johnson Alengaram is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering,

44 Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. He is a council member of the

48 structural concrete elements.

17 Visual stability index, VSI1 (based on bleeding,

17 Chloride penetration 0−30% more

21 Thermal expansion 10−30% more

21 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days

9 0.008 100% RCA

25 % replacement of NCA by RCA

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