Caisson

Contents
[hide) 1. Caisson
■
■
1 Introduction
2 Types of caisson
2. Cofferdam
■ 2.1 Box caisson 3. Retaining Wall
■ 2.2 Open caisson
4. Sheet Pile
■ 2.2.1 Single wall
■ 2.2.2 Cylindrical (or well)
■ 2.2.3 Open with dredging wells
■ 2.3 Pneumatic caisson
■ 3 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
■ 3.1 External references

Introduction

A caisson is a box-like structure commonly used in civil engineering projects where work is
being carried out in areas submerged in water. Such projects might include:

■ Bridge piers.
■ Abutments in lakes and rivers.
■ Break water and other shore protection works.
■ Wharves and docks.
■ Large water front structures.

Caissons differ from cofferdams in that cofferdams are removed after completion of the work,
whereas caissons are built to remain in place as a part of the completed structure.

Caissons can be made of materials including timber, steel, masonry and reinforced concrete,
and may be constructed onshore then floated to the required location, where they are sunk into
place, enabling access to the bed and excavation of foundations to the required depth.

They are particularly suitable for the construction of underwater foundations or where the water
is deep, as they are strong enough to wijhstand significant vertical and horizontal loads, as well
as lateral forces such as waves.

Types of caisson

There are several different types of caisson, the choice of which will depend upon the structure
for which ij is being built as well as the required depth. Some of the more most common types
are describes below:

Box caisson
This is a watertight timber or reinforced concrete box with a closed bottom and an open top.
The caisson is cast and cured on land and then sunk into place, or it can be rested on top of a
pile formation. Sand, concrete or gravel is used to weigh down and sink the caisson. This is
most suitable for areas where the bearing strata is reasonably level and no excavation is
required, although it is possible for some dredging to further level the base if required to avoid
the tilting of the caisson once in place.

This type of caisson is generally relatively economical but may not be suitable if the bearing
strata requires compacting and/or levelling.

Open caisson
This is a timber, steel or concrete box that is open at both the bottom and the top. The walls
are heavy and made with sharp edges that facilitate the sinking process. There are three
different types of open caisson:

Single wall

As opposed to box caissons which are prefabricated, open caissons are formed in situ.
Wherever possible, a temporary cofferdam is constructed to keep the working environment dry
and to enable the excavation of a pit in which the caisson is to be sunk, either by its self­
weight, by concrete or by the use of hydraulic jacks if the skin friction prevents ij from sinking.
The soil from the space inside the caisson can then be removed by a clamshell excavator
bucket on a crane.

The sinking proceeds at the rate necessary to allow each section to be concreted to a sufficient
strength. Once sunk to the required depth, the base is plugged with a thick seal of concrete
and once set the internal water is pumped out, to be replaced wijh sand, gravel or concrete.

Cylindrical (or well)

This is a cylindrical shell made of timber, masonry, steel or reinforced concrete. The wall must
be sufficiently thick so that when the soil from inside is excavated, it sinks under its own weight.
A cutting edge on the base of the walls and water jets can be used to assist sinking and reduce
the level of skin friction. Once sunk to the required depth, the bottom is sealed with concrete.

Open with dredging wells

This method is commonly used for the deepest foundations, such as bridge piers and
abutments. The outside walls, as well as inside divider walls which make up smaller sections
(or wells), are made of reinforced concrete. Dredging the soil out through the wells enables the
caisson to sink. Once sunk to the required depth, a concrete seal is installed and the walls
filled wijh sand or concrete.

Pneumatic caisson
Pneumatic caissons are closed at the top but open at the bottom, with the water forced out
using compressed air, creating a working chamber which is airtight in order for excavation to
be carried out. This is suitable when it is not possible to excavate wet ground in the open.

To facilitate the internal work, the caisson has two air locks that consist of a steel chamber and
two air-tight doors. One air lock allows labourers to enter and exit, and the other is used for
removing the excavated material. It is important that the air pressure must be carefully
monitored at all times, with slow raising and lowering as the labourers enter and leave the
chamber. Otherwise, there is the risk of labourers suffering with caisson disease which results
from the expansion of air bubbles trapped in joints and muscles.

Although this method is suitable for difficult locations, such as depths ranging from 25-40 m, it
is a complex, slow and expensive procedure.

Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki

■ Bridge construction.
■ Coastal defences.
■ Cofferdam.
■ Difference between cofferdams and caissons.
■ Dredging.
■ Driven piles.
■ End-bearing piles.
■ Formwork.
■ Freezing method.
■ Geothermal pile foundations.
■ Groundwater control in urban areas.
■ Grouting in civil engineering.
■ Invert
■ Micropiles.
■ Piers.
■ Pile foundations.
■ Pumps and dewatering equipment.
■ Retaining walls.
■ River engineering.
■ Scour.
■ Screw piles.
■ Secant pile wall.
■ Socket piles.
■ Temporary works.
■ Tremie.
■ Underpinning.
■ Underwater foundations.
■ Watercourse.
■ Water engineering.

External references

■ The Construction Civil - Types of caisson @

■ Best Engineering Projects - Caisson @
Cofferdam

Contents

••
[hide)
1 Introduction

••
2 Types of cofferdam

2.1 Typical piled cofferdam

•• 2.2 Earthen
2.3 Rock-fill

•• 2.4 Single-walled
2.5 Double-walled

••
2.6 Crib
2.7 Cellular
3 Find out more
■ 3.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
■ 3.2 External references

Introduction

Cofferdams are temporary structures used where construction is being carried out in areas
submerged in water. They are most commonly used to facilitate the construction or repair of
dams, piers and bridges. The aim of a cofferdam is to be as watertight as possible to create a
dry area in which to complete the required building worl<s, or at least to limit water ingress to a
safe level that can be pumped away.

Cofferdams must be able to withstand very high pressures and can create a hazardous
situation if they are installed incorrectly. They are usually constructed using steel sheet piles
driven into the ground and supported by internal braces and cross braces. Timber sheet piles,
concrete or a combination of materials can also be used.

A cofferdam can be any shape. Its design will be depend on the depth required, the required
working area, soil conditions, fluctuations in the water level, and so on.

Types of cofferdam

There are several different types of cofferdam. The most common are as follows:

Typical piled cofferdam

The construction sequence for a typical piled cofferdam is as follows:

■ Pre-dredge the proposed area of the cofferdam.

■ Drive temporary support piles into place.
■ Install bracing frames to support piles.
■ Drive sheet piles into place.
■ Pump out water from the inside of the cofferdam.
■ Progressively install internal bracing as required.
■ Excavate ditch to allow leakage to run to one place.
■ Place rock fill as a leveling and support course.

Earthen

This is a simple form of cofferdam suitable for areas of shallow water with low current velocity,
where a sloped earthen embankment is built up around the area to be enclosed. The bank
should be a combination of clay and sand or clay and gravel.

Rock-fill

If the water to be retained is not shallow enough for an earthen cofferdam, stone or rubble can
be used instead. The stones are built up in the required shape of the cofferdam, and voids
filled wnh earth, gravel or stone-chips.

Single-walled

This type of cofferdam is most suitable when the area to be enclosed is particularly small and
the water is of a deeper level, roughly 4-6 m. Guide piles made of timber are driven into the
ground and bracing constructed before sheet piles are driven into place and secured to the
bracing using bolts.

Double-walled

Single-walled cofferdams become unfeasible as larger areas are required in deeper water, and
so double-walled cofferdams are sometimes necessary. Two walls are built with a gap between
them, the thickness of which is dependent upon the depth of water.

The general rule is for the thickness of the wall to equal the depth of water up to 3 m, greater
depths require 3 m plus half the excess depth. The two wall faces are connected at the top
using steel rods placed at close intervals.

Crib

This is commonly used in deep waters where the ground is particularly hard. The sheet piles
are supported by a horizontal framework of timbers, known as cribs, which form pockets to be
filled wnh earth or stones. This is constructed on land prior to being moved into posnion in the
water. The crib is sunk into position, the internal space filled with stone or other material and
timber or steel piles are then driven around the boundary of the crib.

Cellular

This type of cofferdam is most suitable for deep water areas, most commonly for during
marine construction such as dams and wharves. Straight web steel sheet piles are driven into
the ground to form a series of inter-connected cells of specific shapes which are filled with clay,
sand or gravel to enable the structure to withstand the lateral forces of the water pressure.
There are two common shapes:

■ Circular type: Each cell acts as a self-supporting independent unn so each cell can be
completely filled before construction of the next cell begins.
■ Diaphragm type: Made from interconnected steel sheet piles using circular arcs at the inner
and outer sides. The cells are then filled with coarse- grained soils, all at the same rate to
avoid rupturing.

Find out more

Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki

■ Bridge construction.
■ Caisson.
■ Coastal defences.
■ Difference between cofferdams and caissons.
■ Driven piles.
■ Formwork.
■ Geothermal pile foundations.
■ Groundwater control in urban areas.
■ Grouting in civil engineering.
■ Micropiles.
■ Pile foundations.
■ Pumps and dewatering equipment.
■ Retaining walls.
■ River engineering.
■ Screw piles.
■ Sheet piles.
■ Shoring.
■ Temporary worl<s.
■ Trench box.
■ Underpinning.
■ Underwater foundations.
■ Watercourse.
■ Water engineering.
Difference between cofferdams and caissons
Cofferdams and caissons are both structures that are used when undertaking construction
works in areas submerged in under water.

The main difference between the two is that a cofferdam is a temporary structure which is
removed after completion of the work, whereas a caisson is built to remain in place as part of
the completed structure.

The aim of a cofferdam is to be as watertight as possible to create a dry area in which to carry
out the required works, or at least to limit water ingress to a safe level that can be pumped
away.

A caisson is typically a box-like structure made of materials such as timber, steel, masonry and
reinforced concrete. It may be constructed onshore then floated to the required location, where
it is sunk into place, enabling access to the bed to undertake works.

The type of structure being built will determine whether a caisson or a cofferdam is most
suttable. The two principal factors influencing the choice are the ground conditions and the
depth to which the worl< is to be taken. In general, cofferdams are suitable for depths of up to
18 m below high water level, while caissons are more suitable for greater depths.
Retaining walls

Contents

•••
[hide)
1 Introduction
2 Earth pressure

• 3 Hydrostatic pressure

••
4 Types of retaining wall
4.1 Gravity retaining wall

•• 4.2 Sheet piling wall

4.3 Reinforced retaining wall
4.4 Mechanical stabilisation
•
•• 4.5 Anchored earth walls
4.6 Gabions

••
4.7 Crib walls
4.8 Green retaining walls

• 4.9 Barrette retaining wall

5 Find out more
■ 5.1 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki
■ 5.2 External references

Introduction

Retaining walls are vertical or near-vertical structures designed to retain material on one side,
preventing it from collapsing or slipping or preventing erosion. They provide support to terrain
where the soil's angle of repose is exceeded and it would otherwise collapse into a more
natural form. The principal characteristic of a retaining wall is being able to withstand the
pressure exerted by the retained material, which is usually soil.

Retaining walls may include a parapet that extends above the height of the retained material,
often for safety reasons.

The main uses of retaining walls are to help prevent soil erosion, create usable beds out of
steep terrain and to provide decorative or functional landscaping features. They may be
independent structures, or may be part of a wider construction works, such as a building.

Planning permission is required if the wall is to be over 1-metre high and next to a road or
pathway; or over 2-metres high elsewhere. Independent, freestanding retaining walls may not
require building regulation approval; however, any structures must be structurally sound and
well maintained.

According to the Deputy Director of the Building Regulations and Standards Division at DCLG,
"Where they consider that a building or structure, or part of it, is in such a state or is used to
carry such loads as to be dangerous, local authorities have powers under sections 77 and 78
of the Building Act 1984 to take action to remove danger to the public. The exercise of such
action may be appropriate for freestanding boundary and retaining walls that present a
danger.' Ref Construction and maintenance of boundary and retaining walls @, 13 May 2013.

Where a retaining wall is near to a boundary, tt may be subject to the provisions of the Party
Wall Act, and may be required to continue a right of support.

Earth pressure

There are three types of earth pressure that bear upon the movement of the wall, that were
investigated by Terzaghi in 1929:

■ Earth pressure at rest: This applies when the wall is at rest and the material is in tts natural
state.
■ Active earth pressure: As the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in the
pressure on the wall which continues until reaching a minimum value that then remains
constant.
■ Passive earth pressure: As the wall moves towards the backfill, there is an increase in the
pressure on the wall which continues until reaching a maximum value that then remains
constant.

Hydrostatic pressure

Water can also build up behind retaining walls, increasing the pressure on them, and so they
may include weep holes or some other form of drainage. Accumulating water can also reduce
the stability of retained soil, and the friction between the retaining wall base and the soil
beneath it.

Types of retaining wall

Very broadly, retaining walls are 'cut' walls, in which the wall is cut into the existing slope, and
'fill' walls in which the retaining wall is built in front of the slope, and then the space behind It is
filled.

There a wide variety of types of retaining wall:

Gravity retaining wall

This type of wall depends on its mass to retain the material behind it and remain stable. Stone,
concrete and brick masonry are the most common materials used in this type of wall
construction. To maintain stability, the mass and friction of the interlocking wall materials must
be greater than the force of the material being retained. Gravity walls might be suitable for
heights of up to 2 to 3m

To better resisting pressure gravtty retaining walls may have a 'battered' profile, (that is one
face is sloping so that the wall is thicker at the bottom than the top. Either the face or the back
of the wall may be battered. Very broadly, the base should be half to three-quarters of the
wall's height.

Sheet piling wall

This type of wall can be made of timber, interlocking steel or vinyl panels, that have been
driven into the ground up to the required depth and fixed in place by soil on etther side at the
base. These are most commonly used where the soil is soft and the space available is
restricted. As a general rule, there is usually 1/3 of the pile above ground and 2/3 below
ground. The piles must resist the bending forces induced by the retained material.

Concrete pile walls can be used to create permanent or temporary retaining walls. They are
formed by placing piles directly adjacent to one another. These can be; closely-spaced
contiguous pile walls, or interlocking secant walls, which depending on the composition of the
secondary intermediate piles can be hard/soft, hard/firm or hard/hard secant walls.

Reinforced retaining wall

The stability of reinforced concrete and masonry walls can be increased by reinforcement bars.

Cantilever retaining walls, made of steel-reinforced or cast-in-place concrete, are connected to

a slab foundation (in the shape of an inverted T or 'L') which allows horizontal pressures from
behind the wall to be converted to vertical pressures on the ground below.

Counterfort buttresses, spaced at equal distances along the wall can be used to create the
structural path between the vertical wall and the horizontal base. These are typically used for
walls with heights greater than 8-12 111.

Mechanical stabilisation

Mechnically stabilised earth (MSE) walls are walls that can tolerate some differential
movement. The wall face is infilled with granular soil whilst retaining the backfill soil. The
advantage of MSE walls is the ease of construction, as they do not require formwork or curing.

The use of soil nailing in MSE walls, involves introducing slender steel reinforcing bars to the
soil, placed parallel to one another on a slight incline and grouted into place.

Anchored earth walls

Anchored earth walls include cables or rods anchored in the rock or soil behind the wall.
Concrete is injected at the end of the rod to bind it into the soil. This method can be used
where high loads are to be expected.

Gabions

Gabions are cages, baskets or boxes typically made of wire, filled with earth, sand, crushed
rock and so on. They may be woven, or welded. As they are free-draining retaining structures
they are frequently used where water will be present, such as along coastal roads and as flood
defences.

Crib walls

Where timber, steel or concrete cages or boxes are interlocking, this may be described as a
crib wall.

Green retaining walls

Green retaining walls can be used to retain more gentle slopes. A geocellular structure such as
a series of 'honeycomb' cells can be embedded into the surface of the slope to stabilise it, and
the individual cells can then be planted.

Barrette retaining wall

A barrette retaining wall is constructed from reinforced concrete columns of a rectangular plan
form with the long axis in the direction of retention.
Sheet piles

Contents

[hide)
■ 1 Introduction
■ 2 Timber sheet piles
■ 3 Reinforced concrete sheet piles
■ 4 Steel sheet piles
4.1 Normal sections
■
■ 4.2 Straight web sections
■ 4.3 Box sections
■ 4.4 Composite sections
■ 5 Installation
■ 6 Find out more
■ 6.1 Rel ated articles on Designing Buildings Wiki

Introduction

Sheet piles are sections of sheet materials with interlocking edges that are driven into the
ground to provide earth retention and excavation support. Sheet piles are most commonly
made of steel, but can also be formed of timber or reinforced concrete.

Sheet piles are commonly used for retaining walls, land reclamation, underground structures
such as car parks and basements, in marine locations for riverbank protection, seawalls,
cofferdams, and so on.

The selection of sheet piling is dependent on factors, such as:

■ The type of work, for example. whether it is permanent or temporary.

■ Site conditions.
■ The required depth of piles.
■ The bending moments involved.
■ The nature of the structure.
■ The type of protection required.

Timber sheet piles

Timber sheet piles are generally used for short spans in temporary structures, and to resist
light lateral loads. They are typically connected together by tongue and groove joints. The
disadvantage of timber piles is that they require preservative treatment and are not generally
suitable for soils consisting of stones.

Reinforced concrete sheet piles

Reinforced concrete sheet piles are formed using precast concrete members, usually
connected together by tongue and groove joints. They are commonly used in permanent river
embankments, canals and other marine structures. The toes of the piles are usually cut with an
oblique face to facilitate easy driving and interlocking, while the heads are finished off by
casting a capping beam.

Steel sheet piles

Steel is the most common form of sheet piles as it has good resistance to high driving
stresses, excellent water-tightness, and can be increased in length either by welding or bolting.
They are connected by interlocking.

There are four basic forms of steel sheet piles:

Normal sections

These include Larssen and Frodingham sheet piles, which are systems of interlocking steel
piles. They have good driving qualities and are designed to provide the good strength for low
weight.

The interlocking system facilitates easy positioning of the piles (pitching) and driving, as well as
providing a close-fitting joint to form an effective water seal. In some cases, a sealant can be
brushed into the joints prior to pitching which expands in thickness to form a watertight joint.

Larssen sheet piles are stronger and easier to drive because of their uniform section shape.
Frodingham sheet piles are usually supplied interlocked in pairs, which makes them easier and
quicker to handle and pitch.

Straight web sections

These are piles that are interlocked and driven to form cellular cofferdams which may be filled
with material such as gravel and small rocks.

Box sections

These are formed by two or more sheet pile sections welded together, and are suitable when
heavy loads and high bending moments are anticipated.

Composite sections

These are commonly used in waterfront protection where large bending moments and heavy
axial loads are anticipated. A typical composite pile is a double Frodingham section welded to
the flange of a universal I-beam.

Installation

Prior to installation, piles should be carefully inspected for straightness, cracks and the integrity
of the interlocking components.

Driving must be carefully monitored and should stop immediately if the pile ceases to penetrate
the soil, before moving on to the next pile along. In some cases, several adjacent piles will be
unable to penetrate to the design depth. At this point, effort should be made to remove the
obstacle, either by partial excavation or using a water jet. There is an acceptable number of
'under-driven' sheet piles, but this will vary according to the specific design requirements.

Sheet piles have a tendency to deviate from a vertical plane during driving and instead lean
sideways. This is due to encountering obstacles within the soil which act as deflection. Guide
controls should be used to counter this.

One technique is to drive piles in panels. This involves pitching and driving two piles to part or
full-penetration at either end of a panel of piles. The panel is therefore supported by the
'bookended' piles during driving to their final position. The pair left on the end then forms the
support of the next panel along.

Another technique is to use trestles and walings to support and position sheet piles during
driving.

Vibratory hammers are often used to install sheet piles, although if soils are too hard or dense,

an impact hammer can be used. At certain sites where vibrations are a concern, the sheets
can be hydraulically pushed into the ground.