Chapter 1

What are under water buildings?

Underwater buildings are structures that are built underwater or partially
submerged in water. These buildings can serve a variety of purposes, from research
facilities to luxury hotels, and they require specialized construction techniques and
materials.
The concept of underwater buildings has been around for decades, but advances in
technology and materials have made them more feasible and practical in recent
years. While still relatively rare, there are several examples of successful underwater
buildings around the world.
Underwater buildings represent a fascinating and exciting frontier in architecture
and engineering. These structures offer unique opportunities for scientific research,
tourism, and even urban development, while also presenting significant challenges
and risks.
Designing under water buildings
Designing an underwater building requires careful consideration of a number of
factors, including water pressure, buoyancy, and corrosion resistance.

One common approach is to use a cylindrical or spherical shape, which distributes

pressure evenly and minimizes stress on the structure. Materials such as reinforced
concrete, steel, and acrylic are often used for their strength and durability in harsh
underwater environments.

Under water construction technique

A.Caisson:-the term caisson is gotten from Latin, which means box or case. Caissons
are empty inside and as a rule developed at site and soaked set up into a hard
bearing layer. It's a pre-assembled empty box or chamber. It is sunk into the water to
some ideal profundity and afterward loaded up with substantial in this manner
shaping an establishment.
Caisson construction is a foundation used in deep water or soft soil. It involves a
series of large, watertight cylinders that are sunk into the ground and filled with
concrete. The base provides a stable foundation for structures built on top of it.
Bridges, docks, and large structures often use caisson construction.

Uses of caissons foundation:

Uses or function of caissons foundation are as follows.

 To transfer the load coming on the pillars of bridges and buildings columns to
the hardest level below the ground.
 If the caisson is placed close to each other, it acts as an impenetrable core
wall for the earthen dam.
 To make way for deep shafts or tunnels.
 To erect enclosures for placing machines, pumps, etc. underwater.
 To protect the foundation from the lateral force.

There are four main types of caissons

1. Box caisson
2. Open caisson
3. Pneumatic caisson
4. Monolithic caisson

1. Box caissons (Floating caisson):

This type of caisson is open at the head and closed at the bottom. It is made of
wood, reinforcement or steel.

Box caisson foundation construction method:

  The ground surface is leveled where the caisson is to be supported. If the
caisson is to be supported on a group of piles, all the piles are made to the
same height and a pile cap is made at the head. The caisson is usually
supported on a sand carpet.
 The caisson is poured on the ground at the shore and cured on the ground
itself.
 Then, the caisson is tied with a rope and pulled to sink in the right place.
 The inner space is filled with sand, gravel or concrete to immerse the caisson.
 The head of the caisson is sealed with concrete. Then the foundation is built
on it. The bottom of the caisson is concreted with tremie pipe on all sides to
keep the sand from the bottom bound.
Favorable conditions for construction of Box caisson foundation:

 When the base surface is already level.

 The velocity of water flow is slow.
 The depth of water is 6 to 8 m.
 The base material is loose so that it can be dug to create a flat holding surface.
Box caisson foundation is used where the hard layer is at a shallow depth and the
water depth is shallow. Such caissons are used for fewer loads. This type of caisson is
used for the construction of Quay walls, breakwater, etc.

2. Open caisson or well foundation:

An open caisson is a hollow structure with both an open top and bottom that is
designed to keep water out of a construction zone. It is one of three caisson shaft
types, which also include pneumatic and box caissons. Open caissons are used in
trenchless operations, such as in the excavation of entrance or exit pits.

Open caisson or well foundation is also called well. This type of caisson is exposed at
the head and bottom. They are made of wood, steel, reinforced concrete or
masonry. Such caissons are used as foundations of bridges and buildings.
 Open
caissons come in different shapes. It has a cutting edge at the bottom. So that it is easy
to sink the well.

The shape of the well is determined on the basis of the following.

 Type of Structure
 The vertical and horizontal forces acting on the well
 The lower part of the pier or abutment
 Cost of sinking
 The probability of tiling or shifting
while descending the well.
The different shapes of the well
caisson are given below:
  Circular caisson
 Rectangular caisson
 Twin circular
 Dump well
 Double-D
 Twin hexagonal
 Twin octagonal

The advantages of a circular well are as follows:

 Its perimeter is minimum, so the ratio of, sinking effort and skin
friction required to maximum to sink the well. i.e. skin friction is minimized.
 Circular well sinking is uniform than all other shapes. And tilting or shifting is
less.
 Since the diameter of a circular well is larger than the pier of a bridge, it
creates more obstruction to the flow of water, so a double-D shaped well is
more suitable for a larger pier, as it has less dredge area.
 Twin circular wells combine the advantages of both circular and double-D
wells.
3. Pneumatic caissons foundation:

This type of caisson is closed at the head and open at the bottom. Some part of its
bottom is free from external environment. This part is called the working chamber.

The working chamber is pressurized so that water or mud from the bottom cannot
enter the caisson. That is, the air pressure in the working chamber is slightly higher
than the water pressure at that surface. Pneumatic caissons are useful when wells
cannot be used as a foundation. Pneumatic caissons are especially useful where
there are bowlders, pressed wood, masonry, etc. in the ground.

Method of construction of Pneumatic caissons foundation:

 Two shafts are generally kept in the caisson. One shaft is used for
the movement of laborers and the other shaft is used to extract the excavated
material.
 Often a third shaft is also used to lay the concrete to seal the bottom, each
shaft has an airlock system at the head.
 Each airlock has two doors. One door opens into the atmosphere and the
other door opens into the working chamber.
 When the artisan enters the airlock from the outside, the air pressure in the
airlock is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
 Now by closing the door that opens into the atmosphere, the pressure in the
airlock is gradually increased.
 When the air pressure in the airlock is equal to the pressure in the working
chamber, the door to enter the chamber is opened and the laborer can reach
the working chamber through a ladder placed in the shaft.
 The opposite process has to be done to get out from the working chamber.
 After adjusting the airlock, the water inside the caisson is pumped out and
compressed air is turned on to prevent water or mud from entering the
bottom.
 The laborers then proceed to dig the soil in the working chamber.
 The excavated material is pulled up from the airlock reserved for it. Thus the
caisson is being dug deeper and deeper by digging slowly.
 When the caisson has inserted to the required depth, the bottom of the
caisson is closed by the concrete bed.
 Adequate air pressure is maintained in the working chamber until the bottom
concrete is properly dry.
 Subsequently, sand, gravel or cement concrete are sealed in the caisson by
removing the airtight and other machinery from the caisson.

4 . Monolithic Caisson:

It is simply know as Monolith. It is larger than the other types of Caissons. It is

constructed in the quay walls where resistance to impact from ship is needed. A
quay wall is an earth retaining structure which is used to dock floating vessels and
transfer goods. Quay walls are of various types and are used for mooring and
berthing floating vessels such are barges, container vessels, ships, boats etc.
B. Cofferdams :-Cofferdams are temporary structures used where construction is
being carried out in areas submerged in water. They are most commonly used to
facilitate the construction or repair of dams, piers and bridges

A cofferdam, additionally called a coffer is a nook worked inside, or two by two

across, a waterway to permit the encased region to be siphoned out. This siphoning
establishes a dry work space so the work can be completed securely. Encased coffers
are normally utilized for development or fix of perpetual dams, oil stages, connect
wharfs and so on, worked inside or over water. These cofferdams are typically
welded steel structures, with segments comprising of sheet, heaps, ridges and cross
supports. Such designs are typically destroyed after the development work is
finished. There are varioussorts of cofferdams earthen cofferdam, rockfill cofferdam,
single-walled cofferdam, twofold walled cofferdam, Cell cofferdam, supported
cofferdam and so forth.
 Importance of cofferdams

Cofferdams help protect construction crews, materials, and equipment. Additionally,

they help protect completed work until your structures are ready for contact with
the water. Therefore, cofferdams are an important part of the marine construction
process.

Cofferdam foundation is defined as a temporary structure that is used to prevent soil

erosion in the construction area as well as to prevent water from entering the
excavated area when excavation is to be done by digging deeper along the river bank
or coast.

Which points are kept in mind for cofferdam construction?

The following points should be kept in mind in the cofferdam construction.

 Cofferdam should be watertight as possible. It should be inserted to a hard

level in the ground. Often a layer of concrete is laid at the bottom in the
cofferdam.
 The design of Cofferdam should be done for maximum water level as well as
other destructive forces. Due to that, it is safe in case of bursting, overturning,
sliding.
 Water discharged by cofferdam may be above ground or below ground. This
water can be shallow or deep, steady, or flowing.
 Materials like clay, wood, steel, and concrete are used for the construction of
cofferdam.
 A cofferdam is usually built on the worksite.
Types of cofferdam:
The different types of cofferdams are as follows:

1. Earthen cofferdam
2. Rockfill cofferdam
3. Crib or braced cofferdam
4. Single wall cofferdam
5. Double wall cofferdam
6. Cellular cofferdam
1. Earthen cofferdam:

It is the simplest types of cofferdam. It is used when the water depth is shallow, 1.2
m to 1.5 m and the velocity of water flow is slow.
  In this type of cofferdam, an earth embankment is built around the area to be
surrounded. The top width of the embankment should not be less than 1m.
 Its waterside slope 3/2:1 and the inner side slope is kept at 2:1.
 Earth embankment is made from a mixture of clay and sand or clay and
gravel.
 Pitching is done by arranging boulder (large stone) on the slope of the
waterside to prevent water damage to the embankment.
 Often in the middle of the embankment, Steel sheet piles are inserted to an
impervious level of soil below the embankment, to prevent water from
entering through the permeable layer of soil.
 The height of the embankment is kept 0.6 m above the water level for safety.
 In the workplace, a drain is kept near the embankment from which water is
pumped out.
2. Rockfill cofferdam:

This types of cofferdam is useful when the water depth is up to 3.0 in and the water
flow is turbulent. In this type of cofferdam, stones are used instead of clay in the
bed. Such cofferdams are cheaper where stones can be easily found.
The disadvantage of Rockfill cofferdam is that it is not impervious. Where the water
depth is low, an impermeable layer of soil is spread over the waterside of the
embankment.

 Clay particles fill the cavities between the stones and gradually
form waterlogged structures.
 The slope of its sides can be kept as wide as 1:1.
 Often the core wall or steel sheet pile inserted between the cofferdam and the
bottom of the cofferdam to an impervious level of the soil to prevent water
from entering the embankment.
 Core walls are made of clayey soil or cement concrete.
3. Crib or Braced Cofferdam:

This types of cofferdam is made of a wooden cube. The crib is a framework made of
wooden horizontal and cross beam alignment. The film is filled with stones, gravel,
or clay to increase the stability of the crib against overturning or sliding.

The following conditions are favorable for this types of cofferdam:

 Less workspace.
 The river bed is hard.
 If the water depth is high.
 The water flow is an eddy type.
 Wood is readily available.
4. Single wall cofferdam:

This types of cofferdam is used when the area to be surrounded is small and the
water depth is high. Such cofferdams can additionally be used up to a depth of 25 m
water.

 Guide piles are inserted on the periphery of the area to be enclosed.

 The spacing of such guide piles is kept at 3m.
 Guide piles are usually made of wood. Steel piles can also be used if the water
depth is high. The guide piles are then bolted horizontally at appropriate
distances by means of wooden bolts (Wales) bolts.
 Then sheet piles are applied with a strut and bracing. Wood sheet piles are
used for water depth up to 10 m, steel sheet piles for water depth more than
10 m.
 On the inside and outside of the sheet, half-filled bags of sand are rocked to
increase the durability of the cofferdam.
 Water is pumped out of the enclosed area and foundation work is started.
5. Double wall cofferdam:

A single wall cofferdam is costly when the enclosure area is large and the water
depth is high. as the. The thickness of the components like sheet piles Strut, Wales,
etc. is much more required to withstand water pressure. In such a situation a
double-wall cofferdam is useful.
There are two types of double wall cofferdams:

1. Ohio type cofferdam

2. Wood or steel sheeting cofferdam with Wales and tie rods.
i. Ohio type cofferdam:

This type of cofferdam is called Ohio river type wood sheeting cofferdam. As it
was first used for construction over the Ohio River in the United States. It can be
built very cheaply and quickly.

It is used in hard layers where erosion is unlikely. Such cofferdams are suitable for
deep water or fast water flow.

6. Cellular cofferdam:

This type of cofferdam is useful when the enclosure area is large and the water
depth is high. Cofferdams are used in the construction of water structures such as
boilers, pushes, etc.

There are two main types of cellular cofferdam:

 Circular type cellular cofferdam

 Diaphragm cellular cofferdam
i. Circular type cellular cofferdam:

In Circular Cofferdam, circular cells are inserted into the ground to a certain depth
above the boundary area. Such a cell is connected by an arc of a circle. The radius of
such an arc is 2.5 m. The arc forms an angle of 30° to 45° instead of contact with
the circular cell. The cell is filled with clay, sand, or gravel.
The advantages of Circular type cofferdam are as follows:

 Each cell can be filled to the head independently before the construction of
the second cell and in this way, the construction of the second cell is not
distorted so the construction of the cell can be started from a different point.
 Each cell behaves as a self-supporting independent unit.
 Less steel per unit length is used in the construction of a circular cell
compared to a diaphragm type cell.
Cellular cofferdam is suitable for heights of 10 to 15 m. The diameter of the cell is
kept from 10 to 15 m and the distance from the center to the center is kept from 12
to 18 m. The bottom of the river is hard rocky and the top layer of clay or silt is more
suitable for such cofferdam.

ii. Diaphragm type cellular cofferdam:

In this type of cofferdam, steel sheet piles are attached to each other to form a
series of arcs. Straight walls are attached to each other with the arc of sheet piles on
both sides. Usually, the radius of the arch is kept equal to the distance between the
two diaphragm walls.

In order to create uniform tension between the diaphragm and the arch, building
materials like sand, gravel etc. are filled in it after immersing the cell in water to the
required depth.

In all cells the filing of material should be done at the same rate up to the same
height so as not to wrap the diaphragm.

Factors affecting selection of cofferdams construction:

Cofferdams can be of different types. But what kind of cofferdam to build in which
place depends on the following things:

 The area to be protected by a cofferdam, i.e. small area or large area.

 The height of the water at the place where the cofferdam is to be constructed
i.e. shallow water or deep water.
 The state of water i.e. water is steady or flowing.
 The type of velocity of water flow i.e. water flows with slow velocity or fast
velocity.
 Type of soil at the bottom of the cofferdam, Pervious layer, or Impervious
layer.
 Availability of Materials at work.
 The possibility of floods as well as tides and their height.
 Increase inflow velocity due to obstruction of water flow from the
construction of Cofferdam and the possibility of erosion of bottom.
 Facilitation of transport of materials and machinery required for of Cofferdam
construction.
Necessity of cofferdams:

The need of cofferdams construction arises in the following situations:

 When construction is to be done on the banks of a dry or watery river or

between rivers.
 When construction is to be done on the beach.
 When construction is to be done in the middle of the lake or on the shore.
 When deep excavation is to be done at a place of deep granular soil.
 When deep excavation is to be done on clay soil.
 When excavation is to be done below ground level.
 When there is a possibility of landslides due to deep excavation.
 When private or government property is located near the excavation.
 When water is likely to seep into the excavation from the surrounding area.
 Uses of cofferdams:

 To facilitate the work of laying piles in the ground.

 Laying of raft and mesh foundation
 Laying of Grillage foundation.
 To construct the foundations of embankments, piers, and abutments.
 Surround the work area and prevent water from entering the space.
 To provide a working platform when water leaks during the foundation excavation of
buildings.
 To take out a submerged ship from water and to encircle the place.
 To provide working space without damaging the surrounding structures such as
buildings, pipelines, sewer line etc.
 To construct the foundation and top of the concrete dam.

C. Tremie Method :-Tremie strategy is perhaps the most widely recognized

strategies that is utilized for cementing submerged. In this strategy, a long steel pipe
(named as tremie) having a distance across of 15 to 30 cm is embedded upward into
the water. The line ought to be long sufficient that it compasses to the bed of water
keeping its one end over the water level. The tremie is then fitted with a container at
the upper end for pouring cement inside the line. The lower end of the tremie pipe
should be shut with a check valve prior to embeddings it into the water. From that
point forward, newly blended cement is poured with the assistance of container.
D. Pump Method :-Underwater cementing utilizing siphoning strategy is a created
adaptation of Tremie pipe and it is speedier technique for cementing in regions that
is hard to access, for example, under wharfs. Siphoning give a few benefits that
Tremie pipe is missing for instance, pouring cement from blender to formworks
straightforwardly, address blockages in the line in light of the fact that cementing is
through siphoning as opposed to utilizing gravitational power, and hazard of
isolation is diminished.
 Case study
Poseidon undersea resort

is a luxurious hotel located in Fiji, offering guests the unique opportunity to stay in
underwater suites and experience the beauty of the ocean up close.

The resort features a variety of amenities, including a restaurant, bar, spa, and even
an underwater wedding chapel.

Structural Design

The structural design of the Poseidon Undersea Resort is based on a modular system
that allows for easy expansion and customization. Each module is made of reinforced
concrete and steel, and is designed to withstand the immense pressure of the ocean.

The modules are connected by a series of tunnels and walkways that allow guests to
move freely throughout the resort. The walls and floors of each module are lined
with thick acrylic windows that provide guests with stunning views of the
surrounding ocean.

Modular construction systems usually consist of several composite panels or

elements, which are bonded together to form a membrane structure and provide
complete structural integrity without additional framework.
Single modular form