CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. TYPES OF WELL FOUNDATION

3. SHAPES OF WELL FOUNDATION

4. COMPONENTS OF WELL FOUNDATION

5. DEPTH OF WELL FOUNDATIONS

6. SINKING OF WELLS

7. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

8. CONCLUSIONS

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 Chapter- 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 FOUNDATION

A structure essentially consists of two parts, namely the super structure which is above the
plinth level and the substructure which is below the plinth level. Substructure is otherwise
known as the foundation and this forms the base for any structure. The function of foundation
is to transmit the weight of super structure to sub soil.

Foundation is one of the most important parts of the structure. Foundation is defined as that
part of the structure that transfers the load from the structure as well as its own weight over a
large area of soil in such a way that the load does not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of
the soil and the settlement of the total structure remains within a tolerable limit. Foundation is
the part of a structure on which the building stands. The solid ground on which the foundation
rests is called the foundation bed.

Foundation should fulfill the following objectives:

 Distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of soil.

 Avoid unequal settlement.
 Prevent the lateral movement of the structure.
 Increase structural stability.

Types of Foundation:-

Shallow Foundation (D<=B) Deep Foundation (D>B)

 WALL FOUNDATION  PILE FOUNDATIONS

 ISOLATED COLUMN FOUNDATION  UNDER-REAMED PILE
 COMBINED FOUNDATION  WELL FOUNDATIONS
 MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION

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1.2 WELL FOUNDATION

Well Foundations are a type of deep foundations which are generally provided below the water
level for bridges. These are constructed by sinking Caissons from the surface of either land or
water to some desired depth. Well foundations provide a solid and massive foundation for
heavy loads and are useful in situations where the loads have to be transferred to a soil stratum
deep below. When the circular well becomes uneconomical to support the pier of substructure,
the well foundation can take other shapes also like double circular, double-D, rectangular,
octagonal etc. Compared to the group of piles, Well foundation are rigid in engineering
behaviour and are able to resist large forces of floating trees or bolders that may roll on the
river bed. Due to large cross sectional area of well foundation, the bearing capacity of soil for
that area is much higher. Well foundation being hollow at the centre has large section modulus
with minimum cross section of area which imparts stability to well foundation.

Well foundations are being used in India from very early days. Taj Mahal was built on such
foundations. Well foundation is preferable to pile foundation when foundation has to resist
large lateral forces. The largest well used in the world in the early part of 20th century is the
73.8-m deep caisson provided for the San Francisco Oakland Bridge, in California. Well
foundations have been used for most of the bridges in India. The main towers of the Howrah
Bridge were provided with 31-m deep well foundations.

Advantages of Well Foundations:

The following are the advantages of well foundations over other types of deep
foundations such as pile foundations:

1. The effect of scour can be better withstood by a well foundation because of its large
cross-sectional area and rigidity.

2. It is easily adaptable to varying site conditions. This means that no matter where the
structure is being constructed, caissons can be easily put in place.

3. There is no danger of damage to adjacent structures since sinking of a well does not
cause any vibrations.

4. A well foundation can withstand large lateral loads and moments that occur in the
case of bridge piers, abutments, tall chimneys, and towers; hence it is preferred to
support such structures.

5. They are very economical. The cost to drill and install the caissons is minimal when
compared to the cost to lay a traditional foundation.

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 Chapter – 2
TYPES OF WELL FOUNDATION :
There are three types of caissons, they are:

1. Open caissons
2. Box caissons
3. Pneumatic caissons

2.1 Open Caissons :

The top and the bottom of the well is open during the construction. It is suitable for use in soft clays
(river beds), but not for where there may be large obstructions in the ground. An open caisson that is
used in soft grounds or high water tables, where open trench excavations are impractical, can also be
used to install deep manholes, pump stations and reception/launch pits for micro tunnelling, pipe
jacking and other operations.

2.2 Box Caissons :

This type of caisson is similar to open caisson except that it is closed at bottom. The caisson is
cast and cured on land and when required, it is launched in water and towed to the site for
sinking. The caisson is sunk by filling sand, gravel, or concrete in the empty space inside.

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2.3 Pneumatic Caissons :

In pneumatic caissons, the internal air pressure of the closed chamber is kept high to prevent
water from entering the chamber .The working chamber is thus kept dry to facilitate skilled
persons to work in the chamber. Air locks are provided at the top. The caisson is sunk under
complete controlled conditions by skilled persons an d supervisory staff in the working
chamber. The working chamber is filled with concrete a fter the final depth is reached and
sinking of t he caisson is completed.

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 Chapter - 3
SHAPES OF WELL FOUNDATION :
The following different shapes are used for well foundations, which have their own
relative merits and demerits:

1. Circular
2. Twin Circular
3. Square / Rectangular
4. Double D
5. Hexagonal / Octagonal
6. Twin Hexagonal
7. Twin Octagonal

The choice of a particular shape of well depends upon the size of the pier, the care and
cost of sinking, the considerations of tilt and shift during sinking and the vertical and
horizontal forces to which well is subjected.

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3.1 Circular Wells :

Circular wells are simple in construction, easy to sink, and require minimum steining thickness
due to lower flexural stresses than in other types. A circular well has the minimum surface area
for a given weight, leading to greater sinking effort available.

Circular wells possess high strength and are subject to low bending stresses due to the absence
of sharp corners. They require only one dredger for sinking. As every point on the cutting edge
is at a constant distance from the center of the dredge hole, chances of tilting of wells during
sinking are less. Circular wells can be used for piers of single-line railway or road bridges.

If the length of the pier is long, the use of circular wells will become uneconomical, and
also cause excessive obstruction to the flow. Circular wells offer less resistance to lateral
loads. The maximum diameter of circular wells is generally limited to 9 m.

3.2 Twin Circular Wells :

Twin circular wells are advantageous when the depth of the foundation is small and the
foundation soil has high bearing capacity. However, the main disadvantage is that there
will be a differential settlement and tilting between the two wells with the loosening of
sand between them or due to unequal sinking, even though the two wells are rigidly
connected by a heavy top cap, unless the soil/rock is uniform.

3.3 Square / Rectangular Wells :

A Square/rectangular section is used for well foundations of small depth, of up to 8 m. For

large-size piers or abut-ments, double rectangular wells with two dredge holes are used.
The bending stresses are, however, very high in the steining due to sharp corners. A
rectangular section is more economical than a square section.

3.4 Double- D Wells :

Double-D shape wells are an improvement over twin rectangular and twin circular wells
and have two dredge holes each in the shape of the letter D, as shown in . The main
advantage of double-D wells is their high lateral stability. When the size of the pier or

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abutment is large and cannot be accommodated on a single circular well economically,
double-D wells will become the most economical and commonly used alternative shape.

They are easier to sink than double rectangular or octagonal wells but require larger
sinking effort. The dimensions of the double-D section wells are so determined that the
length and width of the dredge holes are almost equal.

The disadvantage of the double-D wells is that the bending moments are large on the
steining, particularly on the junction wall between the two dredge holes. The well is
prone to more tilting due to unequal width and length of the section.

3.5 Hexagonal / Octagonal Wells :

Hexagonal/octagonal wells have the advantage that the sharp corners present at the
junction wall between the two dredge holes of a double-D well are eliminated, reducing
the bending stresses in the steining. However, the surface area is more than that in a
double-D section well, which increases the resistance to sinking. Concreting is also more
difficult in steining. Double hexagonal/octagonal sections accommodate the full width of
the bridge more econom-ically than single sections.

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 Chapter - 4

COMPONENTS OF WELL FOUNDATION :

1. Cutting Edge
2. Well Curb
3. Steining
4. Bottom Plug
5. Sand Filling
6. Top Plug
7. Well Cap

4.1 Cutting Edge :

The cutting edge is the lowest part of the well foundation and facilitates penetration of the
bottom of the well during sinking. The thickness of the cutting edge and the slope angle of the
inside edge should be such that it should be sharp enough for easy sinking, and at the same
time should not break when penetrating through hard soil or rock. The mild steel cutting edge
shall be made from structural steel sections and shall be strong enough to facilitate sinking of

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the well through the type of strata expected to be encountered. The weight of the cutting edge
shall not be less than 40 kg per metre length and be properly anchored into the well curb.

4.2 Well Curb :

The well curb is designed to support the weight of the well. The well curb shall be such that
it shall offer minimum resistance while sinking, but shall be strong enough to be able to
transmit superimposed loads from the steining to the bottom plug.Additional loads that
need to be considered in the design of a well curb are sand blows and blasting, which may
be resorted to, for sinking of the well. The well curb should be of reinforced concrete of
minimum M25 grade, with a minimum reinforcement of 72 kgf/m3. In case blasting is
anticipated during sinking, the inner faces of the well curb should be protected with steel
plates of minimum thickness of 1 cm up to the top of the well curb.

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 Steps followed for construction of well curb:

 Fixing of formwork (shutter) and Rebar.

 Concreting.

 Curing.

 Removal of formwork.

 Sinking of Well Curb.

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4.3 Steining :

The walls of the well foundation are called steining. Steining earlier used to be constructed with
stone or brick, but today it is mostly made of concrete. The steining is also reinforced suitably
to withstand the stresses developed during sinking of the well as well as the design stresses.
The thickness of steining is generally about one-fourth of the diameter for railway bridges, and
one-tenth of the diameter for road bridges.

The steps involved in the Steining are:-

1. Inner and outerformwork.

2. Rebarfixing.

3. Concreting .

4. De- shuttering

5. Sinking

Dredging

Fig : -- Well Sinking

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4.4 Bottom Plug :

After sinking of the well is completed to the required depth, the hollow dredge hole at the
bottom is concreted up to some depth, which is known as the bottom plug. The bottom plug
will enhance the bearing resistance of the well considerably, and provides long-term stability to
the well foundation. The surface of the bottom plug is made bowl shaped so as to have an
inverted arch action.

The bottom plug is generally designed as a thick plate subjected to uniform bearing pressure
under maximum design loads. It has to extend for a minimum height of 30 cm above the top of
the well curb. Concreting should be completed at one stretch for the bottom plug.

The bottom plug is generally designed as a thick plate subjected to uniform bearing pressure
under maximum design loads. It has to extend for a minimum height of 30 cm above the top of
the well curb. Concreting should be completed at one stretch for the bottom plug. The
thickness of the bottom plug maybe determined from Eqs.:

where tb is the thickness of the bottom plug, W is the total design load on the base of the well,
σf is the flexural strength of the bottom plug material, µ is Poisson’s ratio, D is the diameter of
the well, q is the bearing pressure at the base, b is the width of the rectangular well, and a is
the ratio of the width to the length of the rectangular well.

4.5 Sand Filling :

The dredge hole between the top and the bottom plug is filled with sand after sinking is
completed, to increase the self-weight of the well, to increase its stability, and to ensure that
no tensile bending stresses are developed at the base of the well foundation. Sand filling,
however, is not assumed to carry any design loads and the entire design load is assumed to be
carried by the steining.

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4.6 Top Plug :

The top plug is provided after the filling is completed. Top plug helps in transferring the load of
the pier and superstructure to the steining. The thickness of top plug is generally kept greater
than the 50% of smaller dimension of the dredge hole. If the sand filling is used, the top plug is
simply constructed using PCC of 1:2:4 otherwise it is reinforced with steel bars and lean
concrete of 1:3:6 is used.

4.7 Well Cap :

The reinforced cement concrete (RCC) slab provided at the top of the well is known as the
well cap. The well cap provides the required surface for placing the pier or abutment and
transfers its loads safely to the well foundation. The bottom of the well cap is generally
kept at the LWL. The minimum reinforcement in the well cap is about 80 kgf/m 3. The
longitudinal bars from well steining, as many in number as possible, should be anchored
into the well cap.

It is needed to transfer the loads and moments from the pier to the well or wells below. A
reinforced cement concrete well cap will be provided over the top of the steining in accordance
with the drawing. Formwork will be prepared conforming to the shape of well cap. Concreting
shall be carried out in dry condition. A properly designed false steining may be provided where
possible to ensure that the well cap is laid in dry conditions

After water filling, pre-cast RCC slabs shall be placed over the RCC beams as per the drawings,
as non-recoverable bottom shuttering for well cap. Initially built false wall shall act as outer
shuttering for well cap casting. In case, there is no false wall, then steel shuttering is to be put
from outer side.

For well Steining and well cap shuttering, permissible tolerances are as follows: -

Variation in dimension : +50 mm to –10mm

Misplacement from specified Position in Plan : 15mm

Variation of levels at the top : +/- 25mm

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 Chapter – 5
DEPTH OF WELL FOUNDATION :
As per I.R.C. bridge code , the depth of well foundation is to be decided on the following
considerations:

 The minimum depth of foundation below H.F.L should be 1.33D, where D is the
anticipated max. Depth of scour below H.F.L depth should provide proper grip according
to some rational formula.
 The max. Bearing pressure on the subsoil under the foundation resulting from any
combination of the loads and forces except wind and seismic forces should not exceed
the safe bearing capacity of the subsoil, after taking into account the effect of scour.
With wind and seismic forces in addition, the max. bearing pressure should not exceed
the safe bearing capacity of the subsoil by more than 25%
 While calculating max. Bearing pressure on the foundation bearing layer resulting from
the worst combination of direct forces and overturning moments. The effect of passive
resistance of the earth on the sides of the foundation structure may be taken into
account below the max. Depth of the scour only.

The effect of skin friction may be allowed on the portions below the max. Depth of scour.
Accordingly for deciding the depth of well foundation we require correct estimation of the
following:

1. Max. Scour depth.

2. Safe bearing capacity.

3. Skin friction.

4. Lateral earth support-below max. scour level.

It is always desirable to fix the level of a well foundation on a sandy strata bearing capacity.
Whenever a thin stratum of clay occurring between two layers of sand is met with in that case
well must be pierced through the clayey strata. If at all foundation has to be laid on a clayey
layer it should be ensured that the clay is stiff.

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 Chapter - 6
SINKING OF WELLS :

 In case of well sinking on dry grounds, an open excavation upto half a metre above subsoil
water level is carried out and the well curb is laid. In case the wells are to be sunk in mid
stream, a suitable cofferdam is constructed around the site of the well and islands are
made.
 The islands in shallow water are formed by an edging of sand bags forming an enclosure
filled with sand or clay. When the water depth is of the order of 3 to 5 m. the site is
surrounded by sheet piling and the enclosure so formed is filled with clay or sand. The
centre point of well is accurately marked on the island and the cutting edge is placed in a
level plain. The wooden sleepers are inserted below the cutting edge at regular intervals so
as to distribute the load and avoid setting of the cutting edge unevenly during concreting.
The inside shuttering of the curb is generally made of brick masonry and plastered. The
outer shuttering is made of wood or steel.
 Initially the well steining should be built to a height of 2m. Only. Later steining should not
allowed to be built more than 5m. at a time. For this bridge the subsequent lifts were of
2.5 m. each.
 The well is sunk by excavating material from inside under the curb. Great care should be
taken during well sinking in the initial stages because the well is very unstable. Excavation
of the soil inside the well can be done by sending down workers inside the wells. When the
depth of the water inside the well becomes more than one meter, the excavation is then
carried out by a Jham or a Dredger.
 The sump position at 8 equidistant locations along dredge hole sides & at well center are
taken & recorded. The dredge water level is also recorded.
 Vertical reinforcement of steining shall be bent & tied properly to facilitate the grab
movement during sinking operations.
 The position of the crane shall be such that the operation shall be able to see the
signalman on the well top at all the times, & the muck is safely deposited away from the
intermediate vicinity of the well.

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  Grabbing process shall commence normally with the grabbing at the above designated
sounding positions.
 If the well is not sinking after reasonable amount of grabbing is done, say after two rounds
of grabbing, the sump position shall be checked accordingly, in combination with the tilt
position, the grabbing pattern shall vary. The sump should not normally exceed 1.75m
average. And thereafter, air jetting or water jetting shall be resorted to.
 The sinking operation shall be done in two shifts, day & night. In normal coarse, the sump
and the dredge hole water levels shall be observed twice in each shift, and the cutting
edge reduced level shall be checked by level at four positions at the end of the shift.
 As the well sinks deeper, the skin friction on the sides of the well progressively increases.
To counteract the increased skin friction and the loss in weight of the well due to
buoyancy, additional loading known as kentledge is applied on the well. The kentledge is
comprised of iron rail, sand bags concrete blocks etc.

 Pumping out of water from the inside of the well is effective when the well has gone deep
enough or has passed through a clayey stratum so that chances of tilts and shifts are
minimized during this process. When the well has been sunk to about 10 m. depth, sinking
thereafter should be done by grabbing, chiseling and applying kentledge. Only when these
methods have failed dewatering may be allowed upto depressed water level of 5 m. and
not more.

In case of sandy strata frictional resistance developed on the outer periphery is reduced
considerably by forcing jet of water on the outer face of the well all round.

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 Chapter – 7
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND THEIR SOLUTIONS :

7.1 Tilts and Shifts:

The main objective in well sinking is to sink it straight and at the correct position. In practice,
however, this is not easy to achieve. It is, therefore, important that adequate precautions are
taken to avoid any tilt or shift during sinking. Also, in case any tilt or shift is observed at any
stage, proper records should be maintained and measures to rectify the same taken.

 When the well is moved away horizontally from the desired position, it is called shifting
of the well foundation.
 When the well is sloped against vertical alignment, it is called tilting of the well
foundation.

7.2 Precautions to Prevent Shifting and Tilting:

 The outer surface of the well curb and well steining must be regular and as smooth as
possible.

 The radius of the well curb should be kept about 20 mm to 40 mm larger than the outer radius
of the well steining. The well curb thus projects out from the well steining. This projection
should be equal and uniform on all sides.
 Cutting edge should be of uniform thickness and sharpness.
 Dredging should be done uniformly and on all sides of the well. For a twin well, dredging
should be done in both dredge holes uniformly.

 Tilt and shift of a well, if any, should be carefully checked and properly recorded. The
well is constructed in stages and correct measurements of tilt and shift are the most
important field observations required during well sinking. In case a well shows a
tendency to tilt, dredging should be done not bring about any improvement, the sinking
should be suspended and necessary measures to rectify tilts and shifts should be taken
before resuming the sinking.

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7.3 Limitations:

 The maximum tilt allowed in case of well foundation is 1 in 60.

 The shift in well foundation should not be more than 1 % of depth of sunk.
 Beyond the above limits, well foundation is considered as dangerous and in such a case,
remedial measures to rectify shifting and tilting should be followed.

7.4 Rectifying Methods:

Rectifying methods for Rectification of shifting and tilting problems in well foundations are as
follows:

 Eccentric loading
 Excavation on higher side
 Water jetting
 Pulling the well
 Using hydraulic jacks
 Using struts
 Excavation under cutting edge
 Wood sleeper under cutting edge

7.4.1 Eccentric Loading:

The well tilt can be rectified by placing eccentric loading on the higher side. Higher side is
nothing but the opposite side of tilt or lower side.

 A loading platform is constructed on the higher side and load is placed on it.
 This eccentric load will increase downward pressure on higher side and correct the tilt.
 The amount of load and eccentricity is decided based on the depth of sinking.
 Greater is the depth of sinking of well, larger will be the eccentricity and load.
 Kentledge is normally required to accelerate the process of well sinking.

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 Fig – Eccentric Loading

7.4.2 Excavation On Higher Side:

 When well is tilted to one side, excavation should be increased on the other side which
is opposite to tilted side.
 This technique is useful only in the initial stages of well sinking.

Fig :- Excavation On Higher Side

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7.4.3 Water Jetting :

 Water jetting on external surface of well on the higher side is another remedial measure
for rectifying tilt.
 When water jet is forced towards surface of well, the friction between soil and well
surface gets reduced and the higher side of well becomes lowered to make well vertical.

Fig : Water Jetting on Higher Side

7.4.4 Pulling The Well :

 The well can be pulled towards higher side using steel ropes.
 One or more steel ropes are wound around the well with wooden sleepers packed in
between well and ropes to prevent damage to the well steining by distributing load over
to larger area of steining.
 Pull should be carefully done otherwise, shifting of well foundation may occur.

Fig : Pulling the Well Foundation

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7.4.5 Pushing Using Jacks :

 Another method to rectify tilting and shifting of well foundation is using hydraulic jacks
or mechanical jacks, the tilted well can be pushed from lower side to higher side.
 Neighbor vertical well foundations or suitable arrangements made will give support to
the jack system.
 Care should be taken while pushing the well otherwise the well may shift.

Fig : Pushing using Jacks

7.4.6 Using Struts :

 By providing struts as supports on the lower side or tilted side of well, further tilting can
be prevented.
 Wooden sleepers are provided between struts and well steining to prevent damage to
well steining and to distribute pressure to larger area.
 Struts are rested on firm base having driven piles.

Fig : Strutting the Well From Lower Side

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 Chapter – 8
CONCLUSIONS :

 In this study, it is concluded that Caissons or well foundations provide an alternative

means to achieve adequate founding at intermediate to significant depths in both land
and water environments.
 Caissons serve a wide variety of purposes in bridge, quay, lock head, breakwater or
many other projects.
 Well foundations provide a solid and massive foundation for heavy loads and are useful
in situations where the loads have to be transferred to a soil stratum deep below.
 Due to large cross sectional area of well foundation, the bearing capacity of soil for that
area is much higher.
 Well foundation is preferable to pile foundation when foundation has to resist large
lateral forces
 This form of foundation construction is subject to various degrees of financial, technical
and physical risk because of the uncertainties and arising from deep foundations in
ground conditions which can be highly variable and environments which often have high
water tables or are subject to flooding.

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