sub structure CONstruction

Foundation
• Sub - Structure or Foundation is the lower most portion of
the building, usually located below the ground level, which
transmits the load of super structure to the supporting soil.
• A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is
in direct contact with the ground to which the load are
transmitted.
 Purpose of foundation
• To distribute the total load coming on the structure on a
larger area.
• To Reduce the load Intensity
• To support the structures.
• To give enough stability to the structures against various
disturbing forces, such as wind and rain.
• To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry
work.
• For the Lateral Stability.
 Types of foundation
1. Open Foundation.
2. Shallow Foundation
•Wall footing ,
•Reinforced concrete footing
•Column footing
1. Isolated
2. Combined
3. Raft foundation.
3. Deep foundation
•Pile foundation ,
•Well foundation,
•Coffer dams.
 1.Open Foundation
• This is simply a layer of foundation concrete provided at the
base of a column, pedestal or wall.
• This type of foundation is provided when hard stratum is
available at very shallow depth or the work is unimportant e.g.
Compound wall, pillars for barbed wire fencing etc.
• As the name suggests, open foundations refer to those
foundations constructed by carrying out excavations up to
founding level in the open conditions. When suitable founding
strata or rock exposed in bed or hard strata are available at
shallow depths, the excavations may by done entirely in the dry
condition.
 2.Shallow Foundation
• When the foundation is placed immediately below the
lowermost part of structure it is called as Shallow foundation.
• It can also be defined as, when the depth of foundation is less
than or less than equal to the width;, the foundation is called
as Shallow Foundation

Purpose:
The purpose of shallow foundation is to distribute the
structural load over considerable horizontal area

Limitation:
The load carrying is considerably less as compared with deep
foundation. Can not be used under marshy land, made up of
ground water or water logged area.
 Stepped Foundations
• Stepped foundations: In this case , the base of the
foundation is made wider to distribute the load on wider
area .
A)Wall footing :
1. It can be achieved by constructing several courses of
bricks widening the base, the lowest course is usually
twice the breadth of the wall.
2. The sectional elevation of brick wall footing is shown.
B) Reinforced Concrete Footing :- When the bearing capacity
of the soil on which the wall footing is to rest is very low and
when the walls are subjected to heavy loading , under such
circumstances, the reinforced concrete footing is used
C) Column footing:
1. Isolated : It is provided under a column or other similar
member for the distribution of concentrated load in the form of
uniformly distributed load on the soil below. The shape may
be square, rectangular or circular in plan . It may be
constructed either in brick masonry , stone masonry or R.C.C.
steel grillage etc.
2. Combined Footing:
•Combined column footing is provided as a common footing
for two or more columns.
•This type of column helps in reducing the depth of foundation
and unequal settlement can be avoided.
•In this type of footing, a common P.C.C bed is provided on
which two or more column rest.
•Combined footing is also provided when column are very
near to each other and isolated column will over lap each
other.
•Shear force calculation is
important in combined footing
D) Raft Foundation :-
•When bearing capacity of the supporting soil is very low and
heavy concentrated structural loads are to be supported in case
of marshy land or made of soft clay.
•It proves to be economical under water logged area.
•Raft is acting as a floor consisting of thick reinforcement
concrete slab covering the entire area of the bottom of the
structure.
 3. Deep foundation
• When the depth of foundation is more than its width the
foundation is called as DEEP foundation.
• It can also be defined as , if the depth of foundation is more
than 2.00 m, it called as deep foundation.
Types of Deep foundation
1) Piles
a). Depending upon the function :-
•1. Bearing piles
•2.Friction piles
•3.Sheet piles
•4.Anchor piles
•5.Batter piles
•6.Fender piles
•7.Compaction piles
1. Bearing Piles: These are driven into the ground until a hard
stratum, directly supported on hard base and pile act as pillar
to transmit the load.

2. Friction Pile: When the soil is soft to a considerable depth

the pile which is required to be driven is called Friction Pile.
The load carried by a pile is borne by the friction developed
between the side of the pile and the surrounding is called as
skin friction.

3.Sheet Pile: They are used to retain soil which is liable to

escape laterally when subjected to pressure or to enclose the
area for some foundation and to protect the area from the
flowing water.
Anchor Piles: when piles are used to provide anchorage against
horizontal pull they are called as anchor pile.

Batter Piles: When the piles are driven at an inclination to resist

large horizontal or inclined forces then the piles are called ac
batter piles.

Fender Piles: when the water front structure or concrete check is

required to protect from impact or abrasion caused by the ship
then the fender pile is used at the front.

Compaction Piles: when the piles are driven to increase the

bearing capacity of the granular soil they are called as
compaction pile
 B) Depending upon the material:
1.Timber piles
2.Concrete piles
3.steel piles

1.Timber pile
• Economical for supporting light structures
• Timber from sal, deodar , babul , khair, is used .
• the pile cap of iron ring of about 25 mm is provided to prevent
the pile head from brooming .
• The lower end of the pile is provided with a cast iron conical
shoe.
• The load transfer mechanism is by skin friction hence there
should a minimum distance of about 60 cm center to center
ADVANTAGES:
• Economical.
• Can be driven rapidly hence saves time.
• Due to its elasticity it is recommended in region
where the piles are likely to be subjected to lateral
forces
• Heavy machinery and skill supervision is not required.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Should be cut of above ground water table to prevent
decaying.
• Timber cannot be driven in filled up ground.
• Likely to decay by salt water or insect.
• Restricted length .
 2. Concrete Pile
Concrete piles are classified as :-
1.Pre-cast piles.
2.Cast in – situ pile.
3.Pre-stressed concrete pile
1.PRE-CAST CONCRETE PILE:
•Precast piles are those which are manufactured in the factory or at
a place away from the construction site and then driven to the
ground at the place required.
•Pre cast pile may be square ,octagonal, or round in cross section
or may be tapering or parallel in longitudinally. The size of these
piles varies from 30cm to 50cm in cross sectional dimension and
up to 30m in length .
•Precast pile are useful in carrying fairly heavy loads through
soft material to firm strata .
2. CAST IN – SITU PILE :
•The piles which are cast in position on site inside the ground , it
may be reinforced when pile act as column and when subjected to
lateral force.
•Normally the cast in situ piles are constructed with an enlarged
bulband corrugated stem.
•A steel tube having internal diameter equal to the diameter of the
pile and 20mm thickness is driven into the ground
•when the has been driven up to the desired depth a charge of
concrete is poured and the tube is gradually withdrawn and thus
alternate pouring and withdrawing of tube , the pile is constructed to
the full length.
•In case the pile is to be reinforced , the reinforcement cage is
lowered in the steel tube before pouring the concrete.
 3. PRE – STRESSED CONCRETE PILES :
Pre stressed piles are stronger than the normal reinforced pile .
Therefore , because of the reduction in cross sectional, they are lighter
and more easily handled.
Advantages of concrete piles :
• It has greater ability to withstand extremely hard driving.
• It more durable in sea water because of the crack.
• It has great column
• It has lesser handling cost because of light weight.
• It has much lager moment of inertia then the
• conventional pile of the same dimension .
Disadvantages of Concrete piles :
• These piles cannot be driven rapidly.
• It requires skilled technical supervision heavy driving
machinery.
• To withstand handling stresses, reinforcement is essential.
3.Steel Pile
• A steel pile may be a rolled section , a fabricated shape or
a piece of sheet piles
• Metal piles have been used in from of cast iron
pipes or solid wrought iron shaft .
• These piles are excepted to penetrate through hard rock.
• Types of steel pile are H-piles, Pipe-pile, Screw Pile, Disc
Pile.
• The pipes is normally filled with concrete and the
diameter varies from 25cm to 125 cm and the depth is
30m or more.
2.Well foundation
Caisson is a foundation which comes under the type of well
foundation.
•The caisson is a structure used for the purpose of placing
foundation in correct position under water.
•It is Permanent in nature.
•Used to pump out water in under water concreting work.
1. Open Caisson
• Open caisson is a box of timber, metal, reinforced concrete
or masonry
• Open at both end (top and bottom)
• Whenever consideration for scour or bearing capacity
required foundation being taken to depth of more than 5 to
7m
• Costly and uneconomical (heavy timbering required)
• Due to greater earthwork, the progress of work is very slow

2.Box Caisson
• A box caisson opened at top and closed at bottom.
• It is Made up of timber, concrete or steel.
• Built on land and floated to pier site where it is sunk
in position
• Used where bearing stratum is available and loads
are not heavy
3. Pneumatic caisson 
A pneumatic caisson is a watertight box or cylinder-like
structure that is closed at the top and open at the bottom, resting on
the bed of the waterbody. They are used for underwater
construction of foundations for bridge piers, abutments in rivers,
and foundations for large multi-story buildings

4. Floating caisson 
Floating caissons are also known as floating docks and are
prefabricated boxes that have cylindrical cavities
This type of caisson often is used in the construction of
bridge piers. The caisson is constructed on land of concrete, steel,
wood, or some other material and floated to its intended position in
a river, lake, or other body of water. The caisson then is filled with
gravel, concrete, or some other material and allowed to sink to the
river bed. The filled caisson then becomes the lowest portion of the
new bridgepier.
 3. Cofferdams
• DEFINITION: It is a temporary structure constructed in a
river or lake or any other water bearing surface for
excluding water from a given site to enable the water
building operation to be performed under dry conditions.
walls are water tight
• Temporary structure
• Built within or in pairs across a body of water
• Allows the enclosed space to be pumped out ,creating a
• dry work environment.
Types of cofferdams
1. Earth filled cofferdams
2. Rock filled cofferdams
3. Sheet pile cofferdams
•Single wall cofferdams,
•Double wall cofferdams.
1. Earth filled Cofferdams
• Earthen cofferdam consist of earthen embankment built
around the area to be enclosed.
• It can be constructed if the water depth is more than 1.4
to1.8m and the velocity of the flowing water is very
low.
• Top width of the dam should not be less than 1.00m
and the side slope may vary from 1:1.5 to 1:1.2. the
inner portion called as embankment consist of clay and
sand or clay or gravel
2.Rock Filled cofferdams
• In case of a rock filled cofferdam , the depth of water to be
retained is of order of 1.8 to 3.00m .stone or rubble is used
for embankment
3. Sheet pile cofferdam
1.Single wall cofferdams
•If the area to be enclosed is very small and the depth of water
is about 4.5 to 6.0m then timber piles known as guide piles
are first driven deep into the firm ground below the river bed,
the distance between the piles may vary from 1.7 to 3.5m
depending upon the velocity of the flow.
•Then Wales are bolted to guide piles at suitable distance
•Then sheet or wooden sheet piles are driven into the river
bed along the Wales and secured by bolts to the Wales.
•Thus , the area can be enclosed and the water is pumped out
to start the construction in dry condition.
Single wall cofferdams
2. Double walled cofferdam
• If the area to be enclosed is very large and if the depth
of water is large then double wall cofferdam are used
instead of single wall cofferdam.
• The construction is same , only in case of a single wall
a pair of wall with a gap between is provided.
• This is suitable up to a depth of 10 to 12.0m
• To prevent leakage the sheet piles are firmly driven
into the ground.
Double walled cofferdam
 Dewatering of foundation by
Pumping Method
• For Water Logged Foundation It Is Essential To
Carry Out Dewatering Of Soil Before Carrying
Construction Activity.

• Methods Of Dewatering
1. Sumps and Ditches
2. Well Point System
3. Deep well System
4. Vaccum Method
 1. Sumps and Ditches
• This is the simplest form of dewatering used in shallow
excavation in coarse grained soils.
• Sallow low pits ,calls as sumps are dug along the periphery of
the area drainage ditches.
• The water from the slope or sides flows under gravity and is
collected in sumps from which it is pumped out.
2. Well point Systems
• A well point system is a perforated pipe of 5 to 8 cm in diameter
and one metre long covered by cylindrical wire gauge screen
known as STRAINER.
• These pipes are joined to a horizontal pipes known as HEADER
pipe.
3. Deep well system :-This system is suited when the
depth of excavation is more than 16m.
 4. Vacuum Method
• In this method a hole of 30cm diameter is bored around
the well point and the riser pipe.
• It then sealed using bentonite, soil- cement or clay. The
header pipe is then connected to vacuum pump for
removal of water.
 Special Foundation
• These foundations are provided when the bearing
capacity of the soil is low and hard strata is not
available on the given site.
• The most commonly constructed special foundation
are 1. Mat or raft foundations , 2.Under-reamed piles .
Under- Reamed Piles
• The under reamed piles are the best solution for foundation
• black cotton soil.
• Bored cast in situ concrete piles having bulb shaped enlarge
base
• Such structure is anchored to the ground at depth where ground
movement due to change in moisture content negligible
• Bearing capacity increased by increasing the number of bulbs
• Hand auger or machine auger used for boring with extension
• rod
• After boring upto certain depth the base of hole is enlarged in
the form of bulb
Under- Reamed Piles
 Setting out of foundation
1.Site Clearance
•Site Clearance is an important factor to be considered in the job
layout plans , before commencement of project work
•There should not be any obstruction like trees , plants , shrubs,
bigger size stones, etc.
• Approach road should be wide so as to allow the truck
for loading and unloading the constructional material .
If site ground is uneven , then it should be made plane ,
for this contouring is done in advance.
• In short site should be cleared by all the way, otherwise
no activity can be launched in construction processes.
 2. Preparing Job Layout
1. A plan in which the arrangements for placing site office,
store room , labour quarter, medical aid center, godowns
for keeping construction materials and other facilities are
properly prepared is called as Job layout or site layout .
2. The arrangements for processes should be such that the
work is done smoothly and in orderly manner.

3. Job layout depends upon three factors as follows,

•Location , area and topography of the site .
•Method of construction.
•Nature and type of work.
•There should be proper co-relation and co- ordination among the
different units.
4. Precautions while Marking Layout on Ground
• Correct measurement of distances , preferably by steel tape.
• Use of level , either dumpy level or mason’s level.
• Correct marking of face -line or center – line.
• Use of correct plumb –bob for transferring points on ground
• Checking of distances from at least two independent
measurements .
 Causes for failures of foundations and remedial
measures
1. Unequal settlement of sub-soil.
Unequal settlement of the sub-soil may lead to cracks in the
structural components and rotation thereof. Unequal settlement of sub-
soil may be due to (i) non-uniform nature of sub-soil throughout the
foundation, (ii) unequal load distribution of the soil strata, and (iii)
eccentric loading.
The failures of foundation due to unequal settlement can be checked
by :
(i)Resting the foundation on rigid strata, such as rock or hard moorum,
(ii) Proper design of the base of footing, so that it can resist cracking,
(iii)Limiting the pressure in the soil, and (iv)avoiding eccentric
loading
2. Unequal settlement of masonry.
As stated earlier, foundation includes the portion of the
structure which is below ground level. This portion of masonry,
situated between the ground level and concrete footing(base) has
mortar joints which may either shrink or compress, leading to unequal
settlement of masoray. Due to this, the superstructure will also have
cracks.
This could be checked by
(i)using mortar of proper strength,
(ii)using thin mortar joints,
(iii) restricting the height of masonry to 1 m per day if lime mortar is
used and 1.5 m per day if cement mortar is used, and
(iv) properly watering the masonry.
3. Sub-soil moisture movement.
This is one of the major causes of failures of footings on
cohesive soil, where the sub-soil water level fluctuates. When water
table drops down, shrinkage of sub-soil takes place. Due to this, there
is lack of sub-soil support to the footings which crack, resulting in the
cracks in the building.
During upward movement of moisture, the soil (specially if it is
expansive) swells resulting in high swelling pressure. If the foundation
and superstructure is unable to resist the swelling pressure, cracks are
induced.
4. Lateral pressure on the walls.
The walls transmitling the load to the foundation may be
subjected to lateral pressure or thrust from a pitched roof or an arch or
wind action. Due to this, the foundation will be subjected to a moment
(or resultant eccentric load). If the foundation has not been designed
for such a situation, it may fail by either overturning or by generation
of tensile stresses on one side and high compressive stresses on the
other side of the footing.
5. Lateral Movement of sub-soil
This is applicable to very soft soil which are liable to move out
or squeeze out laterally under vertical loads, specially at locations
where the ground is sloping. Such a situation may also arise in
granular soils where a big pit is excavated in the near vicinity of the
foundation. Due to such movement, excessive settlements take place,
or the structure may even collapse. If such a situation exists, sheet
piles should be driven to prevent the lateral movement or escape of the
soil.

6. Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and shrubs.

Sometimes, small trees, shrubs or hedge is grown very near to
the wall. The roots of these shrubs absorb moisture from the
foundation soil, resulting in reduction of their voids and even
weathering. Due to this the ground near the wall depresses down. If
the roots penetrates below the level of footing, settlements may
increase, resulting in foundation cracks.
7. Atmospheric action. 
The behaviour of foundation may be adversely affected
due to atmospheric agents such as sun, wind, and rains. If the
depth of foundaion is shallow, moisture movements due to rains
or drought may cause trouble. If  the building lies in a low lying
area, foundation may even be scoured. If the water remains
stagnant near the foundation, it will remain constantly damp,
resulting in the decrease in the strength of footing or foundation
wall.
Hence it is always recommended to provide suitable plinth
protection along the external walls by 
•filling back the foundation trenches with good soil and
compacting it, 
•providing gentle ground slope away from the wall and
•providing a narrow, sloping strip of impervious material (such
as of lime or lean cement concrete) along the exterior walls
 Precautions to be taken while constructing the
foundation black cotton soil
• Break direct contact between soil and masonry.
• Construction should be taken in dry season.
• Masonry should be start at least 15 cm below the ground
level.
• Mostly raft foundation should be provided.
• Under reamed pile foundation is ideal foundation.
• To take the foundation at such depths where cracks cease
to extend.
• To provide reinforced concrete ties or band all around the
main wall of the building.
• Under –reamed piles are ideal for foundation in black
cotton soil.
 Excavation for Foundation
• Excavation of foundation ,trenches can be done either
manually with the help of conventional implements or with
the help of special mechanical equipment.
• Excavate foundation along the line created by batter boards.
• Excavate remainder of soil inside the perimeter.
• Don’t excavate inside soil if slab is on the grade.
• If foundation is deep , taper edges are used to prevent
the collapse.
• If soil is unstable or very deep , Use shoring method.
 Timbering and Strutting
• Timbering and strutting is a method of giving the temporary
supports to the sides of trench , when the depth of trench is
large or when the sub-soil is loose.
• Timbering is also called as Shoring . It consists of timber
boards and struts to give temporary support to the side of the
trench.

Following are the methods of timbering and strutting :

1. Box sheeting
2. Stay bracing
3. Runner system
4. Vertical sheeting
5. Sheet piling
1. Box Sheeting
• If depth of the excavation is upto 4m and soil is loose ,
the box sheeting method is used.
• It is just like box consisting of vertical sheets held in
position by horizontal row of wales and made tighten by
providing strut.
• If soil is very loose, that time horizontal sheets are
provided and supported by vertical wales and made
tighten on both sides
by horizontal strutting
• Braces are provided
when the height is
more.
2. Stay Bracing
• When the depth of excavation is upto 2m , then stay
bracing method is adopted to support the sides
excavated in fairly firm soil.
• It consists of a vertical sheets or polling
• boards opposite to each other against the two walls of
the trench and held these vertical sheets in position by
strutting
3. Runner system
• This is used in extremely loose and soft ground which need
immediate support as excavation process.
• This system is similar to vertical sheeting of box system,
except in place of vertical sheeting, runner, made of long
thick wooden sheet or plank s with iron shoe at the end are
provided.
• Wales and Struts are provided as usual.
• These runner are driven about 30 cm in advance of progress
of the work, by hammering.
4. Vertical Sheeting
• It is similar to the box system , only difference is that
in this case excavation is progressed in stages by
providing an offset at the end of each stage.
• This method is best suited for deep trenches in soft
ground.
5. Sheet Piling
This method is adopted as follows :-
•When soil to be excavated is soft or loose.
•The Depth of excavation is large.
•When the Width of the trench is large.
•When there is sub soil water.
•Sheet piles are used to resist the lateral earth pressure.
•These are driven in ground by mechanical means.
•They can also be used for excavating for very large depth.
Runner system Vertical Sheeting Sheet piling