BUILDING MATERIALS AND

CONSTRUCTION
DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Prepared by:
Ar Akhil P
Asst.Professor
Global Institute of Architecture
2.1 Introduction

• These foundations carry loads from a structure

through weak compressible soils or fills on to the
stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at
depth.
• These foundations are in general used as
basements, buoyancy rafts, caissons, cylinders,
shaft and piles.
Basements
• They are constructed in place in an open
excavation.
• They are hollow substructures designed to provide
working or storage space below ground level.
• The structural design is governed by their
functional requirements.
Buoyancy rafts
• They are hollow substructures designed to provide
a buoyant substructure beneath which net
loadings on the soil to the desired low density.
Caissons
• They are hollow substructures
designed to be constructed on
or near the surface and then
sunk as single units to their
required level.
Cylinders
• They are small single cell
caissons.

Shaft Foundations
• They are constructed within deep
excavation supported by lining
constructed in place and
subsequently filled with concrete.
2.1.2 Pile Foundations
• A pile is an element of construction composed of timber, concrete or steel or a combination of
them.
• Pile foundation may be defined as a column support type of foundation which may be cast
insitu or precast.
• The piles may be placed separately or they may be placed in the form of a cluster throughout
the length of the structure.
• This type of construction is adopted when the loose soil extends to a great depth.
• The load of the structure is transmitted by the piles to the hard stratum below or it is resisted by
the friction developed on the sides of the piles.
• The factors which govern the choice between different types of piles are as follows:
a. Nature of soil at the site,
b. Type, size and weight of the structure to be supported
c. Depth, extent and nature of the strata for supporting the piles
d. Availability of material for piles
e. Number of piles required
f. Facilities for driving piles
g. Durability required
h. Comparative costs of different types of piles
i. Types of structures adjacent to the project site
j. Presence of water if any above the surface into which the piles are to be driven
2.1.2.1 Classification of Piles

Piles are broadly classified on following criteria:

• Classification based on the function
• Classification based on materials and composition
2.1.2.1.1 Classification Based on Function

1. Bearing Pile
2. Friction Pile
3. Screw Pile
4. Compaction Pile
5. Uplift Pile
6. Batter Pile
7. Sheet Pile
2.1.2.1.1.1 Bearing Piles

• These piles penetrate through the soft soil

and their bottoms or tips rest on a hard
stratum.
• The soft ground through which the piles
pass also gives some lateral support and
this increases the load bearing capacity
of the bearing piles.
• These piles act as columns.

2.1.2.1.1.2 Friction Piles

• When loose soil extends to a great depth, piles are driven up to such a depth that frictional
resistance developed at the sides of the piles equals the load coming on the piles.
• The total frictional resistance of piles is obtained by multiplying frictional resistance of soil with
the area of pile in contact with the soil.
• The total frictional resistance can be increased in following ways:
a. By increasing the diameter of the pile
b. By driving the pile to a greater depth
c. By making the surface of the pile rough
d. By placing the piles closely
e. By grouping the piles
2.1.2.1.1.3 Screw Piles

• A screw pile consists of a hollow cast-iron or steel cylinder with one or more blades at the
bottom.
• The blades are generally made of cast-iron.
• The bottom end of the screw pile with blunt point is useful when ground to be penetrated
consists of sand or clay.
• Screw piles when provided with gimlet point, hollow conical point and serrated point are used
for gravelly ground, sand mixed gravel ground and soft rock respectively.
2.1.2.1.1.4 Compaction Piles

• They are used to compact loose granular soils in order to increase their bearing capacity.
• These piles themselves do not carry any load.
• Sand compaction piles are one of the potential methods for improving ground stability,
preventing liquefaction, reducing settlement and similar applications.
• This method involves driving a hollow steel pipe into the ground.
• The bottom is closed with a collapsible plate down to the required depth and then pipe is filled
with sand.
• The pipe is withdrawn while the air pressure is directed against the sand inside it.
• The bottom plate opens during withdrawal and the sand backfills the voids created earlier
during the driving of the pipe.
• The sand backfill prevents the soil surrounding the compaction pipe from collapsing as the pipe
is withdrawn.
• During this process, the soil gets densified.
Advantages

• The primary advantage of these sand piles is that the sand used is often considerably cheaper
when compared to other similar ground improvement techniques like stone columns.
• Construction of the sand columns is extremely fast.
Disadvantages

• Sand compaction piles have a low stiffness when compared to other methods. Hence larger
percentage replacement of weak soil is required.
• These piles do not have sufficiently high permeability to function as effective vertical drains
during earthquakes.
2.1.2.1.1.5 Uplift Piles

• These piles anchor down the structure subjected to uplift pressure due to overturning
movement.
2.1.2.1.1.6 Batter Piles

• They are used to resist large horizontal or

inclined forces.
• Batter piles are usually considered when the
lateral load exceeds an allowable limit for
vertical piles.
• Batter pile is defined as a pile driven at an
inclination to the vertical to provide
resistance to horizontal forces.
• Batter piles are used to transfer inclined load
and horizontal forces.
• Their distinct advantage over vertical piles is
that they transmit the applied lateral loads
partly in axial compression, rather than only
through shear and bending.
2.1.2.1.1.7 Sheet Piles

• Sheet piles are sections of sheet materials

with interlocking edges that are driven into
the ground to provide earth retention and
excavation support.
• Sheet piles are most commonly made of
steel, but can also be formed of timber or
reinforced concrete.
• They are used as bulk heads or as
impervious cut off to reduce seepage and
uplift.
2.1.2.1.2 Classification Based on Materials and Composition

1. Cement concrete piles

2. Timber piles
3. Steel piles
4. Sand piles
5. Composite piles
2.1.2.1.2.1 Cement Concrete Piles

• These piles possess excellent compressive

strength.
• These piles can be of reinforced or
prestressed type.
• They can be divided into following two
groups:
a. Pre-cast concrete piles
b. Cast in-situ concrete piles
2.1.2.1.2.1.1 Precast Concrete Piles

• These piles are manufactured in factory.

• They may be tapered or parallel sided.
• They may be square, octagonal or round in shape.
• The precast concrete piles are generally used for a minimum design load of about 80 tonnes.
• They may be reinforced to withstand handling stresses.
• They require space for casting and storage, more time to set and cure before installation, and
need heavy equipment for handling and driving.
• They also incur large cost in cutting off extra length or adding more length.
• These piles can be driven under water.
• It is possible to have a proper control over the composition and design of these piles as they
are manufactured in a workshop.
• Any defect of casting such as hollows, etc., can be found out and repaired before driving the
pile.
• These piles possess high resistance to biological and chemical actions of the ground.
• The concrete in the piles should be controlled concrete and should respond to M200 grade.
2.1.2.1.2.1.2 Cast in-situ Concrete Piles

• In this type, a bore is dug into the ground by

inserting a casing.
• This bore is then filled with concrete after
placing reinforcement, if any.
• They may be either cased cast in-situ concrete
piles or uncased cast in-situ concrete piles
depending upon whether the casing is kept in
position or is withdrawn afterwards.
• These piles are easy to handle and to drive in
the ground.
• They do not require any extra reinforcement to
resist the stresses developed during handling or
driving operations.
• There is no wastage of materials as the pile of
required length is constructed.
• The extra cost of transporting pile is also
eliminated.
• The disadvantages of these piles are:
• It is difficult to maintain the reinforcement
in correct position during construction of
piles
• These piles cannot be constructed
underwater
• It is not possible to have a proper control
over the composition and design of these
piles
Under-ream Pile Foundation

• These are short bored concrete piles with a bulb at the base.
• Sometimes, multi-under reamed piles having more than one
bulb along the shaft are used.
• These piles should e anchored to a stable zone which is
generally 3.5m deep where seasonal variation of moisture is
negligible.
• It has been found that the bearing capacity of under-reamed
piles for any type of soil is increased by 50 percent by providing
an additional bulb.
• Multi-under-reamed piles can be used as foundations for multi-
storeyed buildings and also for other structures carrying heavy
loads.
• These piles can carry large uplift forces and lateral thrusts
which may occur in high rise buildings.
• The process of boring, under-reaming and correcting
underwater table of clayey soil should be speedy and
continuous.
• In case of silty and sandy soils with high water table, a solution
of 3-5% bentonite in water is filled in the holes to prevent
caving.
• The bore should be washed with bentonite slurry to clear it of
any muck before concreting pile after the hole is ready for
concreting underwater.
• Concrete od 15-20cm slum is needed.
• The reinforcement can be in the form of single angle iron piece
placed centrally in case of piles up to 30cm diameter
Bored Compaction Piles

• Bored compaction piles are the modification of under-reamed pile.

• The piles are suitable for foundations of heavy structures.
• They are concrete piles in which the compaction of concrete as well as of the soil around the
bore is affected simultaneously by driving the reinforcement cage through the freshly laid
concrete.
• The bearing capacity of the pile increases by 50-100% due to compaction.
• In case of under-reamed piles, the bearing of bulbs is increased considerably as the
reinforcement drags the concrete down with it.
• The depths of these piles vary from 2-4m.
2.1.2.1.2.2 Timber Piles

• Prepared from trunk of trees.

• They may be circular or
square.
• They are 30-50m in diameter
with a length not exceeding
20times its top width.
• At the bottom, a cast iron
shoe is provided and at the
top, a steel plate is fixed.
• If a group of timber piles is
driven, the top of each
member of the group is
brought at the same level
and then a concrete cap is
provided to have a common
platform.
• They have small bearing
capacity and not permanent
unless treated.
• It is very difficult or even
impossible to drive these piles
into hard stratum or boulders.
• Where timber is available
easily, these piles prove to be
economical.
2.1.2.1.2.3 Steel Piles

Steel piles are used in the following three different forms:

i. H-Piles
ii. Box-Piles
iii. Tube Piles
2.1.2.1.2.3.1 H-Piles

• These piles are usually of wide flange section.

• They are suitable for trestle type piers in which
the piles extend above ground level and also
act as columns.
• Since they have small cross sectional area, they
can be easily driven in soils in which it will be
difficult to drive ordinary displacement piles.
• They are used as long piles with high bearing
capacity.
2.1.2.1.2.3.1 Box Piles

• They are rectangular or octagonal in form filled with

concrete.
• These piles are used when it is not possible to drive H-
piles into hard strata.
2.1.2.1.2.3.1 Tube Piles

• In this type, tubes or pipes

are driven into the ground.
• Concrete is filled inside the
tube piles.
• Because of their circular
cross section, these piles
are easy to handle and to
drive in.

Advantages

• These piles can easily withstand the stresses due to driving.

• These piles can be easily lengthened by welding and can also be cut off easily.
• These piles can resist lateral forces in a better way.
• The bearing capacity of these piles is comparatively high.
• These piles can take up impact stresses and can resist lateral stresses.

Disadvantages

• The only disadvantage of steel pipes is their corrosion.

• To prevent corrosion they should be coated with paints or may be encased with cement
concrete.
2.1.2.1.2.4 Sand Piles

• These piles are formed by making holes in the ground and filling them with sand.
• The top of the sand piles is filled with concrete to prevent the sand ejecting upwards due to
lateral pressure.
• Sand piles are spaced at 2-3m.
• Its length is kept about 12 times the diameter.
• They are easy to construct and can be used for any position of water table.
• They are not suitable for wet r loose soils or where there is a danger of scour.
• They are not suitable in regions subjected to earthquakes.
2.1.2.1.2.5 Composite Piles

• A composite pile is formed when it is a combination either of a bored pile and a driven pile or
piles made up of two different materials.
• They are suitable where the upper part of a pile is to project above the water table.
• They are economical and easy to construct.
2.1.3 Caissons
• The Caisson is a structure used for
the purpose of placing a
foundation in correct position
under water.
• The term caisson is derived from
the French word ' caisse' meaning
a box.
• Caissons are constructed in such a
way that the water can be
pumped out, keeping the work
environment dry.
• It is a member with hollow portion,
which after installing in place by
any means is filled with concrete
or other material.
• Caissons are preferred in sandy
soils.
• To install a caisson in place, it is
brought down through soft mud
until a suitable foundation material
is encountered.
• While bedrock is preferred, a
stable, hard mud is sometimes
used when bedrock is too deep.
2.1.3.1 Classification of Caissons

The caissons can be divided in the following three groups

1. Box caissons
2. Open caissons or wells
3. Pneumatic caissons
2.1.3.1.1 Box Caissons

• A box caisson is a strong water tight vessel open at the top

and close at the bottom.
• Once in place, it is filled with concrete to become part of the
permanent works, such as the foundation for a bridge pier.
• They are generally built of timber, reinforced concrete or
steel.
• Hollow concrete structures are usually less dense than water
so a box caisson must be ballasted or anchored to keep it
from floating until it can be filled with concrete.
• Sometimes elaborate anchoring systems may be required,
such as in tidal zones.
• Adjustable anchoring systems combined with a GPS survey
enable engineers to position a box caisson with pinpoint
accuracy
• This type of caisson is suitable where bearing stratum is
available at shallow depth and where loads are not very
heavy.
• To place the caisson in position ,it is launched and floated to
pier site where it is sunk in position.
2.1.3.1.2 Open Caissons or wells

• The open caissons are open both at the top and

at the bottom.
• They are used on sandy or soft bearing stratum
liable to scour and where no firm bed is available
for large depth below the surface.
• A caisson is sunk by self-weight, concrete or
water ballast placed on top, or by hydraulic
jacks.
• The leading edge (or cutting shoe) of the caisson
is sloped out at a sharp angle to aid sinking in a
vertical manner.
• The shoe is generally wider than the caisson to
reduce friction, and the leading edge may be
supplied with pressurised bentonite slurry, which
swells in water, stabilizing settlement by filling
depressions and voids.
• An open caisson may fill with water during
sinking.
• The material is excavated by clamshell excavator
bucket on crane.
• They are generally built of timber, metal,
reinforced concrete masonry.
• They from the most common types of deep
foundations for bridges in India.
2.1.3.1.3 Pneumatic Caissons

• A pneumatic caisson is open at bottom and closed at top.

• This is useful at locations where it is not possible to adopt wells.
• They are suitable when the depth of water is more than 12 m.
• The maximum depth of water up to which pneumatic caissons can
be used is limited from the consideration of health of the workers.
• In this method, the compressed air is used to remove water from
the working chamber and the foundation work is carried out in dry
conditions.
• They can be made of timber, steel or concrete.
• They are sunk to the desired depth by excavating in the working
chamber.
• The working chamber is about 2 m high.
• Two vertical shafts for the passage of men and materials are
constructed over opening in the roof of this chamber.
• An airlock allows access to the chamber.
• Sandhogs (workers) move mud and rock debris (called muck) from
the edge of the workspace to a water-filled pit, connected by a
tube (called the muck tube) to the surface.
• A crane at the surface removes the soil with a clamshell bucket.
• The water pressure in the tube balances the air pressure, with
excess air escaping up the muck tube.
• The pressurized air flow must be constant to ensure regular air
changes for the workers and prevent excessive inflow of mud or
water at the base of the caisson.
• When the caisson hits bedrock, the sandhogs exit through the
airlock and fill the box with concrete, forming a solid foundation
pier.
2.1.3.2 Caisson Disease
• .The workers under compressed air suffer a certain type of disease when they return to
atmospheric pressure.
• This disease is known as Caisson disease.
• The main symptoms of the disease are dizziness, double vision, headache, trouble to speaking,
pain in legs,etc.
• The disease results in loss of consciousness, paralysis or even death.
• When a person is subjected to compressed air, nitrogen is also absorbed along with oxygen by
the tissue-fluids of the person.
• The oxygen is dissolved by blood, while nitrogen is kept in suspension as it is not soluble in blood.
• When the pressure of air is reduced, tissue-fluids release the nitrogen content at a certain rate.
• If the reduction of pressure is not gradual, the nitrogen will not be able to come out in the form
of gas.
• But it will from bubbles in different part of the body leading to caisson sickness.
• If the bubbles are blocked in joints, they will cause bends or violent pains in joints.
• If they are developed in spinal cord or heart, it will result in paralysis or death respectively.
• The following precautions should be taken to avoid the happening of caisson disease:
1. No person should work for more than one shift in a day and the duration of shift should
not exceed 12 hours.
2. The temperature of the working chamber should be maintained at 25°C.
3. Persons with strong hearts, relatively low blood pressure and good circulation should be
employed on the work.
4. The rate of compression and decomposition should be properly controlled.
5. The main locks should be well ventilated and adequately provided with suitable sanitary
arrangements.
6. A stand by air compressing plant should be kept ready for use in case of emergency.
7. A medical chamber must be provided just near the side of work.
2.1.3.2 Advantages of Caissons

Caissons are used in engineering field due to the following benefits:

• Caissons are economic.
• Without caissons access to the underwater earth surface is impossible.
• Caissons are environment friendly, because of less noisy and vibratory.
• Being very high in height, caissons are very heavy to pierce deep in the mud.
• Less handling equipments are required to place a caisson in the water.
• Due to heavy weight caissons can be placed very deep.
• Quality control of pneumatic caisson is good, as it is built on dry conditions.
2.1.3.3 Disdvantages of Caissons

• Qualified workers and engineering staff are required for caisson constructions.
• As the concrete work is done underwater, therefore, lack of satisfaction exists.
• It is not suitable at polluted sites.
• As it is highly technical work, therefore the risk of lives is likely in works associated with caissons.
• Skillful labour is needed for caisson construction, which is not easily available.