MANUAL FOR PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

COURSE CONTENTS ::

1. INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION.

A. DEFINITION OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement is comparison of given unknown quantity with one of it’s predetermined standard values
adopted as a unit.

The result of any measurement is a concrete number consisting of a unit of measurement having it’s name
& number which shows how many times that particular unit is contained in the quantity being measured .

B. WHAT ALL TO KNOW ABOUT AN INSTRUMENT ?

1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION.
2. CONSTRUCTION OF SENSING & INDICATING ELEMENT.
3. WORKING OF THE INSTRUMENT & WORKING SUBSTANCES USED ALONG WITH
THEIR MEASUREMENT RANGES.
4. CALIBRATION PROCEDURE.
5. PERFORMANCE CHARACESTICS.
6. ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS, APPLICATIONS ETC.

FACTORS FOR SELECTION FOR INSTRUMENT ::

 ACCURACY - The statistical variance about the exact reading.

 CALIBRATION - Required for most measuring systems since their readings will drift over time.
 COST
 ENVIRONMENTAL - Sensors typically have temperature and/or humidity limits. Enclosures
that protect them also have limits.
 RANGE - Limits of measurement or the sensor.
 REPEATABILITY - The variance in a sensor's reading when a single condition is repeatedly
measured.
 RESOLUTION - The smallest increment the sensor can detect.

C. SUCCESSFUL OPERATION OF CHEMICAL PLANTS DEPENDS ON THE FOLLOWING

REQUIREMENTS ::

 SAFETY,
 PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS,
 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS,
 OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS,
 ECONOMICAL.

D. ELEMENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM ::

 SENSORS
 MEASURING DEVICES,
 TRANSMITTERS/CONTROLLERS,
 CONTROL VALVES,
 AUTOMATION SYSTEMS
  TRANSMISSION LINES AND
 INTERVENTION OF PLANT PERSONNEL

E. OBJECTIVES OF CONTROL SYSTEM ::

 To suppress the influence of external disturbances, i.e. the effect of surroundings on the process.
 To ensure the stability of a chemical process, i.e. to keep process parameters (variables) as close
as possible to their desired values;
 To optimise the performance of a chemical process, i.e. to meet the requirements of safety,
satisfaction of production specification and maximising of economic objectives.

 A transmitter is a device that converts a process variable into a form of a signal suitable for
transmission to another location. Temperature is detected by a temperature transmitter, then it is
converted to an analog electrical (4-20 mA, 0-5 mA, 0-20 mA, 0-10 V, 0-5 V, -10 to +10 V, -5 to
+5 V dc), or pneumatic (20-100 kPa), or digital signal which is proportional to the temperature
under measurement. This signal is sent to a controller. A measuring instrument or transducer must
be capable faithfully and accurately detect any changes that occur with the measured process
parameter.

TRANSMISSION LINES ::

Electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic that carries a measurement signal from a measuring instrument (or
transducer) to a controller

 A . controller
is an element that compares a current value of a controlled variable (the input variable for a
controller) with a desired value (the set point) and takes appropriate control actions to adjust values of
manipulated variables in the way to reach the desired value of process variable. In our example the
controller changes flowrates of steam entering the heat exchanger and effluent liquid.

 B. final control element

is a device which receives the control signal from a controller and changes the amount of matter or
energy entering the process in a way to bring the controlled variable (process variable) to its set point.
As examples, we can mention control valves, relay switches providing on-off control, variable-speed
pumps, etc.

 C. Examples of process variables:

a flow rate of a feed stream into a distillation column; a pressure of gas in a storage tank; a level in a
condenser; a temperature of a liquid stream (feed to a reactor) exiting from a furnace; pH of a
solution in a stirred tank; density and viscosity of liquid products of oil refining (these parameters are
usually used as an indicator of desirable quality of products); a resistance of an electrical circuit; a
speed of rotor revolution, etc.

METHODS OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

1. EXPANSION THERMOMETERS

2. FILLED SYSTEM THERMOMETERS

3. ELECTRICAL TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS .

4. PYROMETERS
EXPANSION THERMOMETERS ARE CLSSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF
SUBSTANCE WHICH EXPANDS :

1. EXPANSION OF SOLIDS –
BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS

2. EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS –
(A) LIQUID IN GLASS . (B) LIQUID IN METAL .

3. EXPANSION OF GASES –
GAS THERMOMETERS

BIMETALLIC THERMO-METERS ;;are made of two metallic strips having different co-efficient of
thermal expansion.the deflec-tion caused in the bimetallic element is used to drive an indicator.

 Liquid in glass thermo-meters are commonly used with glass tube filled either with mercury or
alcohol . it can usually measure temperature up to 600 ˚ c.

The entire system is filled with an appropriate liquid such as mercury,ethyl alcohol,xylene & toluene.
exposure to temp. causes the filling liquid to expand and this expansion forces the bourden tube to
uncoil.the movement of bourden tube may be used to drive a pointer for indication.

 MERCURY IN STEEL THERMOMETER:: It is one of the most versatile and widely used
devices in industrial temperature measure-ments .The entire assembly of bulb, capillary, and
gauge is calibrated directly on the basis of pressure  change . Reading changes corresponding to
temperature. 

 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A FILLED SYSTEM THERMOMETERS :

 THERMOMETER BULB.

 CAPILLARY TUBE .

 BOURDON TUBE

Operation of gas thermo-meters depend upon the ideal gas law which states that volume of gas
increase with temp, if pressure is maintained constant & pressure increases with temp. if volume is
maintained constant .

Nitrogen is filled in gas filled thermometers because it is almost inert and in-expensive. ( helium ,
hydrogen etc. is some times used ) An advantage of gas filled thermo-meter is that the gas in the bulb
has a low thermal capacity than similar quantity of liquid so that response of thermometer to temp.
changes will be more rapid than that for a liquid filled system with a bulb of same size and shape .

There are four types of electrical temperature transducers generally used in industries ::

1. RESISTANCE TEMP. DETECTOR

2. THERMO COUPLE.
3. THERMISTOR .
4. ELECTRONIC TEMP. SENSORS

RTDs are positive temperature co-efficient devices.

rtd elements should have stable relationship between resistance & temperature & relatively high
thermal co-efficient of resistance
 MATERIAL GENERALLY USED FOR RTDs:

 PLATINUM .

 NICKEL WITH IMPURITIES.

( 70 % NICKEL & 30 % IRON BALCO.)

 COPPER.

Among the three metals mentioned above, Platinum is the most commonly used due to its having the
best temperature to resistance relationship, its ability to withstand high temperatures, its limited
susceptibility to contamination, as well as the best stability. Platinum RTD elements are also the most
repeatable and have the broadest measuring range (typically from 200 to +850 degrees Celsius).

RTD platinum resistance element: This is the actual temperature sensing portion of the RTD.
Elements range in length from 1/8" to 3". There are many options. The standard temperature
coefficient is an alpha of .00385 and the standard resistance is 100 Ohms at 0° C.

RTD Tubing Material: 316 Stainless steel is commonly used for assemblies up to 500° F. Above 500°
F it is advisable to use Inconel 600.

RTD Wire Configuration: RTDs are available in 2, 3 and 4 wire configuration. 3 wire configurations
are the most common for industrial applications. Teflon and fiberglass are the standard wire
insulation materials. Teflon is moisture resistant and can be used up to 400° F. Fiberglass can be used
up to 1000° F.

2. THERMO COUPLE.

Working principle of thermo couple depends on thermo-electric effect. if two dissimilar metals are
joined together & if one of the junction is heated a current flows in the circuit which can be detected
by a galvanometer. the amount of current produced depends upon the difference in temperature
between the two junctions & on the characteristic .

Thermocouples have become standard in the industry as a cost effective method for measuring
temperature. Since their discovery by Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821, the .thermo electrical.
properties of many different materials have been examined for use as thermocouples. The standards
community together with modern metallurgy has developed special material pairs specifically for use
as thermocouples.

depending upon it’s composition, thermo couples are classified into various types by ISA type
designation :

J - IRON –--- CONSTANTAN (55% Cu+45%Nickel)

T - COPPER –--- CONSTANTAN
K – CHROMEL ( 90 % Ni + 10 % Chromium ) ALUMEL (95 % Ni+ 2 % man + 2 % Al +_1 % Si)
S - PLATINUM --- Pt 90 - Rh 10
R - PLATINUM ---- Pt 87 – Rh 13

THERMOCOUPLE PROBES ARE AVAILABLE IN THREE DIFFERENT VERSIONS :

1. GROUNDED 2. UN-GROUNDED. 3. EXPOSED

 In grounded version third terminal is connected to the sheath wall.response time is better in grounded
versions but are susceptible to electrical ground loops.
in ungrounded version, thermo couple is is insulated from sheath wall.
in exposed versions thermo couple tip is exposed and best suited for air temp measurements .

THERMISTORS

Thermistors usually have negative temperature co-efficient .they are made from specific mixture of
pure oxides of nickel , manganese, copper, cobalt,iron, magnesium, titanium,& other metals sintered
at temp. above 982 ˚c. they come in wide range of various shapes & sizes such as beads,washers,disc
rod etc.

SEMICONDUCTOR THERMOMETERS

Semiconductor thermometers are usually produced in the form of ICs, Integrated Circuits. There are
many types, sizes and models. Most are quite small and their fundamental design results from the fact
that semiconductor diodes have voltage-current characteristics that are temperature sensitive. That
means that semiconductor triodes or transistors are also temp. sensitive.

PYROMETERS

Pyrometers are non contact type thermometers. they measure temperature of moving bodies & that
of high temperature environs where there are limitations in using conventional contact type thermal
measuring devices.

1.RADIATION PYROMETERS. 2.OPTICAL PYROMETERS 3.INFRA RED PYROMETERS

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

 Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure
plus atmospheric pressure.
 Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure
minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted.
 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.

METHODS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

 MANOMETER ( U TYPE & WELL TYPE ).

Manometer bodies are usually made of brass , steel , alu-minium or ss . tubes are made of pyrex . scales
are usually furnished to read in inches of h2o or mercury.they can be provided to read in psi in feet of h20
or in feet of liquid measured ( when used in level applications.

 ELASTIC PRESSURE SENSORS . ( BOURDEN TUBE , DIAPHRAGM & BELLOW

TYPE )

Bourden tubes are among the group of pressure sensors that are known as elastic deformation
elements.they have been used in industry for over 100 years .simple design & low cost make them
extensively acceptable. THERE ARE 3 TYPES OF BOURDEN ELEMENTS . “ C “ SPIRAL &
HELICAL .
DIAPRAGM GUAGES are widely used for pressure measurement in low ranges.diphragm can be of
flat, corrugated or dished plate shape. Metallic diaphragm guages are made of materials either brass or
bronze. The deflection caused in diaphragm due to pressure is used to operate a pointer.

BELLOW TYPE PRESSURE GUAGES are used for measurement of absolute pressures.it is some
what sensitive than bourden gauges. generally a metallic bellow acting with pressure on one side and a
spring on the other is used.the pressure range of the system is determined mainly by the effectve area of
the bellows and spring gradient.
commonly the bellows are of brass or phosphor bronze. these type of guages are generally used to
measure pressure up to 100 psi.
 ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

STRAIN GAGE TRANSDUCERS are available for pressure ranges as low as 3 inches of water to
as high as 200,000 psig (1400 MPa). Inaccuracy ranges from 0.1% of span to 0.25% of full scale.
Additional error sources can be a 0.25% of full scale drift over six months and a 0.25% full scale
temperature effect per 1000¡ F.

 CAPACITANCE PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS were originally developed for use in low

vacuum research. this capacitance change results from the movement of a diaphragm element the
diaphragm is usually metal or metal-coated quartz and is exposed to the process pressure on one
side and to the reference pressure on the other.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GUAGE conductivity of gas decreases as the pressure drops below 1
torr. this principle is employed to measure low ranges of pressure. “ pirani “ guages have a resitance
bridge circuit . increase of filament temperature of sensing resistor causes imbalance in bridge and
consequent flow of current in the galvanometer . this is employed to measure pressure ranges between 10
-4 to 10 -2 torr.

THE POTENTIOMETRIC PRESSURE SENSOR provides a simple method for

obtaining an electronic output from a mechanical pressure gauge. The device consists of a precision
potentiometer, whose wiper arm is mechanically linked to a Bourdon or bellows element. The
movement of the wiper arm across the potentiometer converts the mechanically detected sensor
deflection into a resistance measurement, using a Wheatstone bridge circuit .

 PIEZO ELECTRIC PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS :: When pressure, force or acceleration is

applied to a quartz crystal, a charge is developed across the crystal that is proportional to the force
applied (figure 3-8). the fundamental difference between these crystal sensors and static-force
devices such as strain gages is that the electric signal generated by the crystal decays rapidly.

 MAGNETIC PR TRANSDUCERS :: A number of early pressure transducer designs were

based on magnetic phenomena. These included the use of inductance, reluctance, and eddy
currents. Inductance is that property of an electric circuit that expresses the amount of
electromotive force (emf) induced by a given rate of change of current flow in the circuit.
Reluctance is resistance to magnetic flow, the opposition offered by a magnetic substance to
magnetic flux. In these sensors, a change in pressure produces a movement, which in turn changes
the inductance or reluctance of an electric circuit.

MAINTENANCE:: Without exception, pressure sensors require scheduled, periodic maintenance and/or
recalibration. It is necessary to periodically remove the transducer from the process and to make sure that
this procedure does not require shutting down the process and does not cause injury or damage. Because
the process fluid may be toxic, corrosive, or otherwise noxious to personnel or the environment, it is
necessary to protect against the release of such fluids during maintenance
 LEVEL MEASUREMENT

SIGHT GLASS METHOD :: A sight glass instrument for pressure vessels consists of a graduated tube
of toughened glass which is connected to the interior of the tank at the bottom as well as at the top .
isolating valves are provided .

CONDUCTIVITY TYPE LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEM :: An electrode (metallic rod or tube) is

placed in a conductive liquid (e.g. water, acid, sewage & other solutions) at the point where switching is
required. When the liquid leaves the tip of the electrode, an electrical circuit between it and earth is
completed. This causes a switch to operate in the control unit. This is a very simple, accurate and
economical method of controlling levels in liquids and covers up to 70% of applications.

MAGNETIC FLOAT TYPE LEVEL SENSOR :: The transducer consists of a guide tube onto which
a float is inserted. A magnet inside the float actuates a series of reed switches inside the tube. One contact
of the reed switches is connected to a resistance chain every 10 mm , and the other contact to a common
terminal.

PHOTO ELECTRIC LEVEL SENSOR ::In Interruption mode, a sensing system, including a light
beam source and a photo detector responds to the interruption of the light beam when the liquid breaks
the beam path from the source to the detector. In the reflection mode, an optical prism mounted inside a
tank changes the reflectance of the light when it is immersed in the liquid. The construction of the
transducer is arranged so that a light source and photo detector for sensing the change in the light's
intensity are mounted on the outside wall of the tank. The light beam passes through and is reflected from
the faces of the prism

HYDROSTATIC/PRESSURE TYPE LEVEL SENSOR :: These employ a pressure transducer or

transmitter, when placed in liquid , measures the pressure. changes in the pressure reflect changes in
depth so that a continuous indication of level is obtained.

MAGNETIC LEVEL GUAGE ::Magnetic Level Indicators / Gauges provide clear, high clarity
indication of liquid level.A float containing a magnet rises and falls with the liquid. As the float moves,
this information is transferred to the indication rail mounted on the outside of the tube. The white and red
indication flaps represent air and liquid level respectively.
The magnetic level gauge can be mounted in various orientations, typically onto the side of a vessel,
however it may be fitted onto the top as required.

PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTIVE LEVEL SENSOR :: It is used in application of measurement of the

level of liquid metals and other electro conductive liquids. In one of the designs, a coil is wound around a
tube containing the liquid. The inductance of this coil changes rapidly as the liquid moves and approaches
the coil.

ULTRASONIC LEVEL SWITCH ::the ultrasonic non-contact solids measure-ment level transmitters
are self-contained solids level transmitters for use over a wide range of dry products from powders to
bulk solids and aggregates.

PADDLE TYPE LEVEL GUAGE :: The Series paddle switch may be used as either a high or low
level limit switch for dry and solids products and is easily mounted through the wall of the vessel such
that the paddle protrudes inside the vessel.

RF TYPE LEVEL SWITCH ::The RF (radio frequency) capacitance dry products level switch is a
microprocessor based, self calibrating level control with no moving parts, operating using the RF
Capacitance principle. Used for either high or low level alarm in silos and hoppers, the CLS level switch
detects the presence or absence of products by monitoring the change in capacitance around the probe as
it becomes covered or uncovered.
CAPACITANCE LEVEL INDICATOR :: It consists of a insulated capacitance probe (which is a
metal electrode) firmly fixed near & parallel to the metal wall of the tank .if liquid in tank is non
inductive, the probe & tank wall form the plates of capacitor & liquid, the dielectric.
if liquid is conductive,the probe and liquid form the plates and insulation of probe , dielectric.
when liquid level in tank increases , capacitance increses & vice versa

LASER LEVEL SENSORS :: In triangular measurement tech-nique, a sharply focussed beam is

directed towards the product level surface. the luminous spot on the product surface is optically projected
to charge couple device.
A CCD consists of memory cells which provide a map of intensity distribution of rflected light. the
respective electronics determine the illuminated CCD zone & therefore the angle to luminous spot.

VIBRATING LEVEL SWITCH :: Vibrating rod dry products level switch is the perfect solution for
single point level switching in free flowing solids and dry products across a wide density range, from fine
powders to grains.

ULTRA SONIC LEVEL GUAUGE :: Ultrasonic level measurement through the wall and from
bottom through the liquid .
An Ultrasonic pulse is transmitted via a coupling media through the wall of a tank into the liquid,
reflected at the liquid's surface and travels back to the sensor. The time of flight is proportional to the
level height. Interface measurement is also possible when there is a sharp interface.

FLOW MEASUREMENT

TYPES OF FLOW METERS

1. VARIABLE HEAD OR DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS.

2. VARIABLE AREA METERS.
3. MAGNETIC METERS.
4. TURBINE METERS.
5. TARGET METERS.
6. THERMAL FLOW METERS.
7. VORTEX METERS.
8. ULTRSONIC FLOW METERS .

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS :: Employ the bernaulli equation that describes

the relationship between pressure and velocity of a flow.

by measuring the changes in pressure, the flow velocity can then be calculated. Many types of
differential pressure flowmeters are used in the industry

1. ORIFICE PLATES,

2. VENTURI TUBES,

3. NOZZLES,

4. PITOT TUBES.

ROTAMETER :: The rotameter is an industrial flowmeter used to measure the flowrate of liquids and
gases. The rotameter consists of a tube and float. The float response to flowrate changes is linear, and a
10-to-1 flow range or turndown is standard. The rotameter is popular because it has a linear scale, a
relatively long measurement range, and low pressure drop. It is simple to install and maintain
  MAGNETIC FLOW METER :: IS VOLUMETRIC FLOW METER .
 NO MOVING PARTS.
 IDEAL FOR WASTEWATER APPLICATIONS OR ANY DIRTY LIQUID WHICH IS
CONDUCTIVE OR WATER BASED.
 LOW PRESSURE DROP .
 LOW MAINTENANCE .

 TARGET FLOWMETERS :: Measure flow by measuring the amount of force exerted by the fluid
on a target suspended in the flow stream. when the flow increases, the fluid generates more force on
the target. the electronic transmitter processes the force signal to determine the fluid flow rate.

TIME TRANSIT ULTRASONIC FLOW METER ;; Requires a clean liquid without particulates or
bubbles and can be used for both liquid and gas applications. It has better accuracy than that of a doppler
flow meter and will typically offer accuracies of ±2% full scale.

DOPPLER FLOW METER :: Requires particulates or bubbles in the media. The minimum diameter
size of the particulate is typically 30 microns and requires a minimum concentration levels of 25 ppm.
Doppler flow meters are mainly used for liquid applications (roughly 88%) while the rest are used for gas
(11%) and steam (1%) applications

TYPES OF PROXIMITY SWITCHES

 INDUCTIVE
 CAPACITANCE
 PHOTO ELECTRIC
 ULTRA SONIC

 INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY sensor incorporates an electromagnetic coil which is used to detect

the presence of a conductive metal object. the sensor will ignore the presence of an object if it is
not metal.

CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS :: are similar to inductive proximity sensors. The main
difference between the two types is that capacitive proximity sensors produce an electrostatic field
instead of an electro-magnetic field. Capacitive proximity switches will sense metal as well as non-
metallic materials such as paper, glass, liquids, and cloth

OPTICAL ( PHOTO ELECTRIC) PROXIMITY SWITCHES :: are used where higher sensing
distance is required with non contact operation.

ULTRASONIC PROXIMITY SENSORS :: Use a transducer to send and receive high frequency sound
signals. when a target enters the beam the sound is reflected back to the switch, causing it to energize or
de-energize the output circuit

TRANSMITTER

Is a device that converts a process variable into a current / voltage signal suitable for transmission to
another location . Temperature detected by a temperature transmitter, is converted to an analog electrical
(4-20 ma, 0-5 ma, 0-20 ma, 0-10 v, 0-5 v, -10 to +10 v, -5 to +5 v dc), or pneumatic (20-100 kpa), or
digital signal which is propor-tional to the temperature under measure-ment. This signal is sent to a
controller. a measuring instrument or transducer must be capable of faith-fully and accurately detect - ing
any changes that occur with the measured process parameter
The typical 4-20ma current-loop circuit consists of four elements: a sensor/transducer, a voltage-to-
current converter, a loop power supply, and a receiver/monitor. in loop-powered applications, the sensor
drives the voltage-to-current converter, and the other three elements are connected in series to form a
closed loop .

ANSI/ISA-S50.1-1982 (R-1992) standard Compatibility of Analog Signals for Electronic Industrial

Process Instruments established transmitter type classifications as being the number of wires (2, 3, or 4)
required to provide power and output circuits .(Shield and input circuit wiring are excluded.)

THE NEWEST THIRD-GENERATION 4-20MA TRANSMITTERS ARE CONSIDERED

'SMART AND INTELLIGENT'.

They add digital communications which share the twisted-pair line with the 4-20mA signal. The
resulting communication channel can transmit control and diagnostic signals along with the sensor data.

SMART TRANSMITTERS

 WIDER RANGE..
 INCREASED RANGEABILTY.
 CHANGING ZERO AND SPAN BY HHTs.
 TWO WAY COMMUNICATION.
 MEMORISE AND RECALL TAG NUMBERS.
 LENEARISATION OF SIGNALS.
 STANDBY AND MULTIPLE SENSORS.
 AUTOMATIC SPAN SWITCHING

Smart transmitters can normalize gain and offset, linearize the sensor by converting its analog signal to
digital (rtd sensors and thermocouples, for example), process the signals with arithmetic algorithms
resident in the µc, convert back to analog, and transmit the result as a standard current along the loop.

PID CONTROLLERS

There are three basic types of controllers:

• on-off,
• proportional
• PID.
•
On/off control - control signal is either 0% or 100%

• Control at setpoint not achievable, a deadband must be incorporated.

• Useful for large, sluggish systems particularly those incorporating electric heaters.

• Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-off control.
• A proportional controller decreases the average power supplied to the heater as the temperature
appro-aches set point.
• This has the effect of slowing down the heater so that it will not overshoot the set point, but will
approach the set point slowly and maintain a stable temperature.

• PID CONTROLLER provides proportional action with l with two additional adjustments,
integral and derivative, which helps the unit automatically compensate for changes in the system.
 • Integral and derivative, are expressed in time-based units; they are also referred as RESET and
RATE.
• The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be individually adjusted or “tuned” to a
particular system using trial and error.

• It provides the most accurate and stable control of the three controller types, and is best used in
systems which have a relatively small mass and those which react quickly to changes in the
energy added to the process.
• It is recommended in systems where the load changes often and the controller is expected to
compensate automatically the amount of energy available, or the mass to be controlled.
•
• Examples of "continuous process control" are temperature, pressure, flow and level control.

• PID controller functionality is a common feature of (PLC). Software PID loops are the most
stable, because they do not wear out as compared to mechanical control systems.
•
• The characteristics of P, I, and D controllers
•
A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce ,but never
eliminate, the steady-state error. An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-
state error, but it may make the transient response worse. A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of
increasing the stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.
Effects of each of controllers Kp, Kd, and Ki on a closed-loop system are summarized in the table shown
below.

CONTROL VALVES

The most common final control element in the process control industries is the control valve. the control
valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds, to compensate for
the load distur-bance and keep the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point.

SOLINOID VALVE .
HAND OPERATED CONTROL VALVE .
PNUEMATIC CONTROL VALVE.
MOTORISED CONTROL VALVE.
HYDRAULIC CONTROL VALVE

CONTROL VALVE ASSEMBLY TYPICALLY CONSISTS OF ::

THE VALVE BODY,
THE INTERNAL TRIM PARTS,
ACTUATOR TO PROVIDE THE MOTIVE POWER TO OPERATE THE VALVE,
AND A VARIETY OF ADDITIONAL VALVE ACCESSORIES SUCH AS ::
POSITIONERS, TRANSDUCERS, SUPPLY PRESSURE REGULATORS, MANUAL
OPERATORS, SNUBBERS, OR LIMIT SWITCHES.

THE GATE VALVE is a general service valve used primarily for on - off, non-throttling service. The
Valve is closed by a flat face, vertical disc, or gate that slides down through the valve to block the flow.

MODERATE CONTROL / LOW PRESSURE DROP

PROCESS CONTROL LARGE FLOW /PULP

 THE GLOBE VALVE :: Effects closure by a plug with a flat or convex bottom lowered
onto a matching horizontal seat located in the center of the valve. Raising the plug opens the
valve, allowing fluid flow. The globe valve is used for on - off service and handles
throttling applications.

PRECISE CONTROL /MODERATE PRESSURE DROP

UTILITY AND PROCESS CONTROL LOW CV APPLICATIONS
 
THE NEEDLE VALVE is a volume-control valve that restricts flow in small lines. The fluid
going through the valve turns 90 degrees and passes through an orifice that is the seat for a rod
with a cone-shaped tip. The size of the orifice is changed
by positioning the cone in rela-tion to the seat.

THE PLUG VALVE :: Is used primarily for on - off service and some throttling services. It
controls flow by means of a cylindrical or tapered plug with a hole in the center that lines up with
the flow path of the valve to permit flow. A quarter turn in either direction blocks the flow path.

 THE DIAPHRAGM VALVE :: Closes by means of a flexible diaphragm attached to a compressor.

When the compressor is lowered by the valve stem onto a weir, the diaphragm seals and cuts off flow.
The diaphragm valve handles corrosive, erosive and dirty services.

THE BALL VALVE :: Is similar in concept to the plug valve but uses a rotating ball with a hole
through it that allows straight-through flow in the open position and shuts off flow when the ball is
rotated 90 degrees to block the flow passage. It is used for on - off and throttling services.
HIGH CV APPLICATIONS
COOLING OF CHEMICAL REACTORS

THE PLUG VALVE:: Is used primarily for on - off service and some throttling services. It
controls flow by means of a cylindrical or tapered plug with a hole in the center that lines up with
the flow path of the valve to permit flow. A quarter turn in either direction blocks the flow path

THE CHECK VALVE :: Is designed to prevent backflow. Fluid flow in the desired direction opens the
valve, while backflow forces the valve closed.

THE BUTTERFLY VALVE :: Controls flow by using a circular disc or vane with its pivot axis
at right angles to the direction of flow in the pipe. The butterfly valve is used both for on - off and
throttling services .
Standard butterfly valves are available in sizes through 72-inch for misc-ellaneous control valve
applications. Butterfly valves exhibit an approx-imately equal percentage flow characteristic.

MODERATE CONTROL/ LOW PRESSURE DROP

PROCESS CONTROL/SLURRIES

THE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE :: Is designed to provide protection from over-pressure in

steam, gas, air and liquid lines. The valve "lets off steam" when safe pressures are exceeded, then
closes again when pressure drops to a preset level.

CAPACITY & FLOW COEFFICIENT (CV):

RATE OF FLOW THROUGH A VALVE UNDER STATED CONDITIONS.

 A constant (cv) related to the geometry of a valve, for a given travel, that can be used to establish flow
capacity. it is the number of u.s. gallons per minute of 60f water that will flow through a valve with a one
pound per square inch pressure drop.

RANGEABILITY

The ratio of the largest flow coefficient (cv) to the smallest flow coefficient (cv) within which the
deviation from the specified flow characteristic does not exceed the stated limits..

RATED TRAVEL

The distance of movement of the closure member from the closed position to the rated full-open position.
the rated full-open position is the maximum opening reco-mmended by the manufact-urers.

A MEASURE OF DEVICE RESPONSE :

:
Usually measured by a parameter that includes both dead time and time constant. when applied to the
valve, it includes the entire valve assembly. it is measured by applying a small (usually 1-5%) step input
to the system. t63 is measured from the time the step input is initiated to the time when the system output
reaches 63% of the final steady-state value. it is the combined total of the system dead time (td) and the
system time constant (t).

VALVE CHARACTERISTIC

QUICK OPENING

EQUAL PERCENTAGE.

LENEAR.

THE CONTROL VALVE REGULATES THE RATE OF FLUID FLOW AS THE POSITION OF THE
VALVE PLUG OR DISK IS CHANGED BY FORCE FROM THE ACTUATOR. TO DO THIS, THE
VALVE MUST:

CONTAIN THE FLUID WITHOUT EXTERNAL LEAKAGE;

HAVE ADEQUATE CAPACITY FOR THE INTENDED SERVICE;
BE CAPABLE OF WITHSTANDING THE EROSIVE, CORROSIVE, AND TEMPERATURE
INFLUENCES OF THE PROCESS
INCORPORATE APPROPRIATE END CONNECTIONS TO MATE WITH ADJACENT PIPELINES
AND ACTUATOR ATTACHMENT MEANS TO PERMIT TRANSMISSION OF ACTUATOR
THRUST TO THE VALVE PLUG STEM OR ROTARY SHAFT.

SELECTION CRITERIA OF CONTROL VALAVE

Type of fluid to be controlled

Temperature of fluid
Viscosity of fluid
Specific gravity of fluid
Flow capacity required (maximum and minimum)
Inlet pressure at valve (maximum and minimum)
Outlet pressure (maximum and minimum)
Pressure drop during normal flowing conditions
Pressure drop at shutoff
 Maximum permissible noise level,
if pertinent, and the measurement reference point
Degrees of superheat or existence of flashing, if known
Inlet and outlet pipeline size and schedule
Special tagging information required
end connections and valve rating
(screwed, class 600 rf flanged,
class 1500 rtj flanges, etc.)
action desired on air failure
(valve to open, close, or retain last
controlled position)
instrument air supply available
instrument signal (3 to 15 psig, 4
to 20 ma, hart, etc.)
In addition the following information will require the agreement of the user and the manufacturer
depending on the purchasing and engineering practices being followed.
Valve type number
Valve size
Valve body construction (angle, double-port, butterfly, etc.)
Valve plug guiding (cage-style,port-guided, etc.)
Valve plug action (push-down-to-close or push-down-to open)
Port size (full or restricted)
Valve trim materials required
Flow action (flow tends to open
valve or flow tends to close valve)
Actuator size required
Bonnet style (plain, extension, bellows seal, etc.)

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