applied

sciences
Article
Exhaust Gas Characteristics According to the
Injection Conditions in Diesel and DME Engines
Seamoon Yang 1 and Changhee Lee 2, *
1 Industry-University Cooperation (LINC), Chosun University, 309 Pilmun-daero, Dong-gu,
Gwangju 61452, Korea; smyang@chosun.ac.kr
2 Department of Mechanical and Shipbuilding Convergence Engineering, Pukyung National University,
Busan 48547, Korea
* Correspondence: leemech@pknu.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-51-629-7816




Received: 18 December 2018; Accepted: 12 February 2019; Published: 14 February 2019


Abstract: In this paper, the effect of high-pressure injection pressure on particulate matter (PM)
and nitrogen oxide (NOx ) emissions is discussed. Many studies have been conducted by active
researchers on high-pressure engines; however, the problem of reducing PM and NOx emissions is
still not solved. Therefore, in the existing diesel (compression ignition) engines, the common rail
high-pressure injection system has limitations in reducing PM and NOx emissions. Accordingly,
to solve the exhaust gas emission problem of a compression ignition engine, a compression ignition
engine using an alternative fuel is discussed. This study was conducted to optimize the dimethyl
ether (DME) engine system, which can satisfy the emission gas exhaust requirements that cannot be
satisfied by the current common rail diesel compression ignition engine in terms of efficiency and
exhaust gas using DME common rail compression ignition engine. Based on the results of this study
on diesel and DME engines under common rail conditions, the changes in engine performance and
emission characteristics of exhaust gases with respect to the injection pressure and injection rate were
examined. The emission characteristics of NOx , hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
were affected by the injection pressure of pilot injection. Under these conditions, the exhaust gas
characteristics were optimized when the pilot injection period and needle lift were varied.

Keywords: DME; common rail; direct injection engine; pilot injection; main injection; needle lift

1. Introduction
In order to prevent air pollution caused by exhaust gas from automobiles, exhaust emission
regulations such as Tier-III and EURO-VI have been announced in various countries such as USA,
Europe and Japan. Many researchers are working to reduce harmful emissions by gradually increasing
the allowable regulation of hazardous emissions from automobiles [1]. Diesel engines have been
widely used as power sources for automobiles and ships because of their high thermal efficiency and
fuel efficiency. It has the advantage of low carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC)
because it burns under lean conditions where the fuel consumption rate is lower than that of the
gasoline engine and the combustion state is excess oxygen. However, since it has the disadvantage of
high PM (particulate matter) and NOx (nitrogen oxides) emissions, it cannot satisfy the increasingly
stringent emission regulations [2,3].
Using diesel particulate filters (DPF) together with diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) is a technology
that can reduce the emissions of diesel cars to the level of the latest gasoline vehicles. There have
been many studies on nitrogen oxides in various countries depending on the social environment
and economic conditions. However, in Europe, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and US prefer
the NOx storage catalyst (LNT, Lean NOx trap) [4]. The exhaust emission reduction technique

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647; doi:10.3390/app9040647 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 2 of 19

using the above-described exhaust after-treatment apparatus reduces emissions discharged through
the engine combustion process to a separate device in the exhaust system. The soot purification
apparatus and the NOx storage catalyst are excellent in filtering soot and NOx components, respectively
Performance. However, in order to apply the actual engine, it is necessary to remove the accumulated
soot or SOx through a process called regeneration while monitoring the state before and after the
filter [5–7]. A number of studies have been conducted to reduce exhaust gases such as nitrogen oxides
and soot using various fuel properties and additives [6,7], multiple injection [8,9], EGR [10–12] and
PCCI/SCCI/CAI [13–16].
DME (dimethyl ether, CH3-O-CH3) among alternative fuels for diesel engines has low auto
ignition temperature. It also has good evaporative performance when sprayed into the combustion
chamber and has a higher cetane number (>55) than the diesel fuel. In particular, DME is an
oxygen-containing fuel containing about 34.8 wt% of oxygen, and because there is no direct coupling
between carbon and carbon in the fuel characteristics, almost no PM is being emitted in the diesel
engine [17–23]. Due to these advantages, it is possible to apply a large amount of exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) without much difficulty to the engine, and it can greatly reduce NOx, and it has
many excellent characteristics as an alternative fuels for diesel engines [24–28].
This is because it is easy to change and improve parameters affecting injection characteristics such
as injection timing, injection duration, and injection pressure and injection quantity independently
of engine rotation through electronic control. It is a great advantage to have superior advantages
compared to the existing diesel engines such as output, fuel consumption, noise and vibration, and
reduction of NOx in exhaust gas through electronic control according to each 4 conditions [29–31].
Experiments and numerical studies on spray combustion and exhaust characteristics for compression
ignition engines using DME fuel have been conducted by many researchers. Numerical studies
on compression ignition engines show that the application of diesel alternative fuels is largely
dependent on the physical and chemical properties of the fuel and the application of a chemical
reaction mechanism for combustion simulation Teng et al. [32] used the results of the study on the
thermodynamic properties of DME fuel and the fuel property data of the AVL FIRE program [28] as
input to the fuel material subproject of KIVA-3V code. Numerical analysis of the compression ignition
engine using DME fuel was performed by applying the detailed reaction mechanism of DME fuel
proposed by Fisher and Curran et al. [33,34]. Comparisons with experimental results confirm that the
results of the numerical analysis simulate the spray combustion and exhaust characteristics well.
In this study, the effects of engine performance, injection pressure and pilot injection period using
injection pressure and injection rate on diesel and DME engines, pilot injection rate as a function of
injection timing, and needle lift and injection timing on exhaust gas characteristics were investigated
to optimize the DME combustion engines.

2. Experimental Apparatus and Methodology

2.1. Experimental Setup

To prevent the occurrence of vapor lock because of the DME characteristics, an experimental
setup was designed and fabricated, as shown in Figure 1, using a vapor lock prevention device (liquid
holding device), a booster, and a special plunger pump (gas booster and liquid pump from HASKEL)
for the adhesion possibility of the sliding parts.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 3 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the liquid fuel supply system.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the liquid fuel supply system.
The experimental engine shown in Table 1 is an engine from Daedong, which is a water-cooled
The experimental
single-cylinder four-cycle engine shown in Table
direct-injection diesel1 isengine.
an engine from Daedong,
Its specifications which
are total is a water-cooled
displacement of
single-cylinder four-cycle direct-injection diesel engine. Its specifications
673 cc, maximum output of 9.11 kW with 2200 rpm, and maximum torque of 4.22 kg m with 1800 rpm.are total displacement of
673 cc, maximum output of 9.11 kW with 2200 rpm, and maximum torque of 4.22 kg m with 1800
rpm. Table 1. Engine specifications in this study.
The injection period pulse (using AM503B current probe amplifiers from Tektronix, Beaverton,
OR, USA) was performed for the common Items rail injector injection
Specifications
characteristics and compared with
the actual injection amount. The line pressure Cycle according to the two-way 4 pulse was measured (using
4067A2000 amplifiers from KISTLER, Winterthur,
Combustion Type Switzerland) to CIconfirm the pilot of the injection
lift operating period and the pressure fluctuation
Compression Ratio of the main injection.
18 The injection needle lift was
measured (using signal condition amplifiers from WOLF, Boston, MA, USA) to compare it with the
Displacement (`) 0.673
line pressure under the loading condition of the engine. In addition, the injection rate, which is the
Bore × Stroke (mm × mm) 95 × 95
core of the common rail high-pressure injection characteristics, was measured (Japan KYOWA
Electric Corporation (Tokyo, Japan), Max. Power (kW/rpm)
signal condition: CDV700A, 9.11/2200
bridge box: DB120, strain gauge:
KFG-03). Figure 2 shows the fuel Max. Torquecontrol
injection (kg m) system and test 4.22
engine configuration. The engine
control system in this study applied the ECD-U2 common rail system manufactured by NIPPON
DENSO The (Tokyo,
injectionJapan).
periodTo input
pulse the engine
(using AM503B revolutions and crank
current probe positions
amplifiers frominto the engine
Tektronix, control
Beaverton,
OR, USA) was performed for the common rail injector injection characteristics and compared pulse
unit (ECU), Ne pulse (crank position pulse) for injection characteristics experiments and Ge with
(cylinder
the actual detect
injectionpulse) embedded
amount. The linein pressure
the supply pump were
according to theused.
two-wayFor the measurement
pulse was measured of exhaust
(using
gases, non-dispersive
4067A2000 amplifiers frominfrared spectrometry
KISTLER, (usingSwitzerland)
Winterthur, MEXA 324JKtofrom HORIBA)
confirm wasofperformed
the pilot for
the injection
CO and THC, the chemiluminescence method (using the 10 AR model of the thermo
lift operating period and the pressure fluctuation of the main injection. The injection needle lift was environmental
instrument)
measured for NO
(using x, and the reflection photometer method (AFT-2000 from World Environment) for
signal condition amplifiers from WOLF, Boston, MA, USA) to compare it with the
smoke. The data obtained
line pressure under the loading from condition
these instruments were used
of the engine. as a representative
In addition, the injectionvalue
rate, using
whichtheis
average value for the three measurement results.
the core of the common rail high-pressure injection characteristics, was measured (Japan KYOWA
Electric Corporation (Tokyo, Japan), signal condition: CDV700A, bridge box: DB120, strain gauge:
Table 1. Engine specifications in this study.
KFG-03). Figure 2 shows the fuel injection control system and test engine configuration. The engine
control system in this study applied the ECD-U2 common
Items rail system manufactured by NIPPON
Specifications
DENSO (Tokyo, Japan). To input the engine
Cycle revolutions and crank
4 positions into the engine control
unit (ECU), Ne pulse (crank position pulse) for
Combustion injection characteristics
Type CI experiments and Ge pulse
Compression Ratio 18
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 4 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

(cylinder detect pulse) embedded in the supply pump were used. For the measurement of exhaust
gases, non-dispersive infrared spectrometry (using MEXA 324JK from HORIBA) was performed for
Displacement (ℓ) 0.673
CO and THC, the chemiluminescence method (using the 10 AR model of the thermo environmental
Bore × Stroke (mm × mm) 95 × 95
instrument) for NOx , and the reflection photometer method (AFT-2000 from World Environment)
Max. Power (kW/rpm) 9.11/2200
for smoke. The data obtained from these instruments were used as a representative value using the
Max. Torque (kg m) 4.22
average value for the three measurement results.

Figure 2. Schematic
Figure 2. Schematic diagram
diagram of
of the
the fuel
fuel injection
injection control
control system.
system.
2.2. Experimental Methodology
2.2. Experimental Methodology
Fuel injection conditions were changed by controlling the injection timing, injection duration,
Fuel injection conditions were changed by controlling the injection timing, injection duration,
injection pressure, pilot injection rate, and injector needle lift using the ECU program.
injection pressure, pilot injection rate, and injector needle lift using the ECU program.
The injection timing (10◦ , 14◦ , 18◦ , and 22◦ before top dead center (BTDC)) was adjusted using
The injection timing (10°, 14°, 18°, and 22° before top dead center (BTDC)) was adjusted using the
the common rail injection device manual controller based on the injection timing (22◦ BTDC) of the
common rail injection device manual controller based on the injection timing (22° BTDC) of the mechanical
mechanical injection pump in accordance with the specifications of the single-cylinder horizontal diesel
injection pump in accordance with the specifications of the single-cylinder horizontal diesel engine that
engine that was used as the test engine. In this instance, the injection lift (0.14, 0.21, 0.24, and 0.36 mm)
was used as the test engine. In this instance, the injection lift (0.14, 0.21, 0.24, and 0.36 mm) was changed
was changed based on the injection nozzle (ψ = 0.22 mm × 5 ea), and the injection characteristics,
based on the injection nozzle (ψ = 0.22 mm × 5 ea), and the injection characteristics, engine performance,
engine performance, and exhaust gas characteristics were investigated according to the pilot and main
and exhaust gas characteristics were investigated according to the pilot and main injections. The engine
injections. The engine revolutions were 1800 rpm, load ratio was 75%, and common rail injection
revolutions were 1800 rpm, load ratio was 75%, and common rail injection pressure was 50 MPa. The
pressure was 50 MPa. The braking thermal efficiency was focused on maintaining the current common
braking thermal efficiency was focused on maintaining the current common rail engine and reducing NOx
rail engine and reducing NOx among the exhaust gases [10–12].
among the exhaust gases [10–12].
3. Results and Investigations
3. Results and Investigations
3.1. Effects of Atomization on Exhaust Gas
3.1. Effects of Atomization on Exhaust Gas
Figure 3 shows the effect of high-pressure injection pressure on PM and NOx emissions. Many
studiesFigure
have3been
shows the effect
conducted byofactive
high-pressure
researchers injection pressure on PM
on the high-pressure and NO
engine; x emissions.
however, Many
the problem
studies
of have
reducing PMbeen
and conducted
NOx emissionsby active
is stillresearchers
not solved. on theexisting
In the high-pressure engine; however,
diesel (compression the
ignition)
problem of reducing PM and NO emissions is still not solved. In the existing
engines, the common rail high-pressure injection system has limitations in reducing PM and NOx
x diesel (compression
ignition) engines,
emissions. the common
Therefore, railexhaust
to solve the high-pressure injection
gas emission systemof
problem has
thelimitations
compressionin reducing
ignition PM and
engine,
aNO x emissions.
compression Therefore,
ignition to using
engine solve anthealternative
exhaust gas fuelemission
was studiedproblem
[21–24].of the compression
In this ignition
study, the exhaust
engine,
gas a compression
problem, ignition
which cannot engineby
be solved using an alternative
the existing common fuelrail
was studied
diesel [21–24]. Inignition
compression this study, the
engine,
exhaust
was gaswith
solved problem, which cannot
the optimization of be solved
a DME by thesystem
engine existing common
that rail both
can satisfy dieselefficiency
compression ignition
and exhaust
engine, was
gas emission. solved with the optimization of a DME engine system that can satisfy both efficiency and
exhaust gas emission.
Appl.
Appl.Sci.
Sci.2019,
2019,9,9,x647
FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5ofof21
19

Figure 3. Effects of injection pressure on the exhaust gas.

Figure 3. Effects of injection pressure on the exhaust gas.
Table 2 presents the causes of PM and NOx generation and the mitigation measures. To solve
Table
the problem2 presents
of exhaustthegas
causes of PMfrom
emission and NO x generation and the mitigation measures. To solve the
conventional fossil fuels of compression ignition engines,
problem of exhaust gas emission from conventional
DME, which is a natural gas reforming fuel, was used as fossil fuels of compression
an alternative ignition
fuel. The thermal engines,
efficiency of
DME, which is a natural gas reforming fuel, was used as an alternative fuel. The thermal
the compression ignition engines using the DME fuel was studied to determine the optimal injection efficiency
of the compression
conditions to maintainignition engines
the current levelusing the DME
of common rail fuel was
diesel studied
engines andto determine thereduce
simultaneously optimal
the
injection conditions
PM and NOx emissions. to maintain the current level of common rail diesel engines and simultaneously
reduce the PM and NOx emissions.
Table 2. Causes of PM and NOx generation and mitigation measures.
Table 2. Causes of PM and NOx generation and mitigation measures.
Emission Methods Effects of Reduction

Emission Injection timing delay

Methods
Exhaust gas recirculation
Injection timing delay
Water fulmination
NOx
Exhaust gas recirculation
Fuel–water injection
Pilot injection
Water fulmination
Improving cetane number
NOx Fuel–water injection
After treatment
Pilot injection
Spray improvement
Improving cetanein
Optimization number
combustion chamber
After treatment
Confusion combustion
PM
Spray improvement
Turbo charging
Optimization in combustion
PM Reduction in oil consumption
chamber
Low sulfur fuel
After treatment
Confusion combustion
Lowering ofEffects
combustion temperature [35]
of Reduction
Lowering of combustion temperature [36]
Lowering of of
Lowering combustion temperature
oxygen thickness [37] [35]
Lowering
Lowering ofofcombustion
combustion temperature
temperature [38] [36]
Lowering of oxygen thickness [37]
Lowering of combustion rate in the first period [39]
Lowering
Lowering of combustion
of combustion temperature
rate in the first period [38]
[40]
NOx recharge and resolve [41–45]
Lowering of combustion rate in the first
Air inhalation increase in spray [46]
period [39]
Mixing increase [47]
Lowering of combustion rate in the first
Mixing increase [48]
period [40]
Increase in air usage rate [49]
NOx recharge and resolve [41–45]
Mixing increase [50]
Air inhalation
Increase increase
of smoke in spray
oxidation [51] [46]
LeanMixing increase [47]
burn combustion [52]
Mixing
Air inhalation increase
increase [48] [52]
in spray
Reduction of SOF [53]
Increase in air usage rate [49]
Reduction of sulfur combination matter [53–55]
Mixing increase [50]
Smoke catching and SOF oxidation [56,57]
Increase of smoke oxidation [51]
 Figure 4 shows a comparison of the exhaust gas emission characteristics of DME and diesel
engines depending on the injection speed and pressure of the engines at an injection timing of 14°
BTDC and 25% load factor.
NOx emissions in DME engines are not significantly different from those in diesel engines;
however, the emission characteristics of the fuel injection pressure are different.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 6 of 19
In particular, NOx emissions are lowest at 2100 rpm in DME engines, unlike those in diesel
engines. This suggests that the DME engine used in this study has an unstable combustion state
because of of
3.2. Effects the non-optimized
Injection Pressure onfuel injection
Exhaust conditions,
Gas Emission such as of
Characteristics injection timing
Diesel and DME and amount
Engines
according to the injection pressure of the fuel. Thus, the combustion state of the DME fuel, which is
1. NO emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines
an oxygenx fuel, is generally improved, thereby increasing the combustion temperature and NOx
emission concentration
Figure 4 shows a[58,59]. This isofconsistent
comparison the exhaust withgasthe emissioncharacteristics
emission characteristicsofofDME
otherand
internal
diesel
combustion
engines depending on the injection speed and pressure of the engines at an injection timing of of
engines. Therefore, it suggests that it is necessary to investigate the possibility 14◦
reducing NO x emissions in DME engines using the fuel injection pressure characteristics.
BTDC and 25% load factor.

Load 25%/BTDC14deg./NZ0.22×6
140
1200RPM
120 1500RPM
1800RPM
NOx emission[ppm]

100
2100RPM
80

60

40

20

0
25 30 40 45 25 30 40 45
DIESEL DME
Injection pressure [MPa]
Figure 4. NOx emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines without pilot injection as a function
of injection
Figure 4. NOxpressure
emissionand engine speed.
characteristics of diesel and DME engines without pilot injection as a function of
injection pressure and engine speed.
NOx emissions in DME engines are not significantly different from those in diesel engines;
however, the emission characteristics of the fuel injection pressure are different.
2. HC emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines
In particular, NOx emissions are lowest at 2100 rpm in DME engines, unlike those in diesel engines.
This suggests that the DME engine used in this study has an unstable combustion state because of the
non-optimized fuel injection conditions, such as injection timing and amount according to the injection
pressure of the fuel. Thus, the combustion state of the DME fuel, which is an oxygen fuel, is generally
improved, thereby increasing the combustion temperature and NOx emission concentration [58,59].
This is consistent with the emission characteristics of other internal combustion engines. Therefore,
it suggests that it is necessary to investigate the possibility of reducing NOx emissions in DME engines
using the fuel injection pressure characteristics.

2. HC emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines

Figure 5 shows the emission characteristics of the unburned HC in DME and diesel engines
depending on the engine operating speed and injection pressure with light load and injection timing
of 14◦ BTDC.
At the engine operating speed of 1200–1800 rpm, the HC emissions were slightly lower than
the diesel engine emissions. However, at the operating speed of 2100 rpm, the HC emissions of the
DME engines were about 2.5 times higher than those of the diesel engines. This indicates that the
combustion characteristics of oxygenated fuel appeared in the low-speed range but in the case of
2100 rpm the emission of HC was increased compared with 1200–1800 rpm by incomplete combustion.
The excessive injection amount because of the high-pressure injection and the inconsistency of the
of 14° BTDC.
At the engine operating speed of 1200–1800 rpm, the HC emissions were slightly lower than the
diesel engine emissions. However, at the operating speed of 2100 rpm, the HC emissions of the DME
engines were about 2.5 times higher than those of the diesel engines. This indicates that the
combustion characteristics of oxygenated fuel appeared in the low-speed range but in the case of 2100
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 7 of 19
rpm the emission of HC was increased compared with 1200–1800 rpm by incomplete combustion.
The excessive injection amount because of the high-pressure injection and the inconsistency of the
injection
injectiontiming
timingwaswasshown
shownininthe
thehigh-speed
high-speedoperation
operationcondition.
condition.In InDME
DMEengines,
engines,the
theeffect
effectof
offuel
fuel
injection
injectionpressure
pressureon onthe
theHC
HCemission
emissioncharacteristics were
characteristics werenotnot
significant at low
significant speeds;
at low however,
speeds; however,at
high speeds,
at high speeds,thethe
higher was
higher thethe
was fuel injection
fuel pressure,
injection pressure,the
thelower
lowerwas
wasthe
theHC
HCemission.
emission.To Tooptimize
optimize
the
the DME
DME engines, it was was necessary
necessaryto tooptimize
optimizethe
thefuel
fuelinjection
injection pressure
pressure andand injection
injection amount
amount for for
the
the engine
engine operating
operating conditions.
conditions.

Load25%/BTDC14deg./NZ0.22×6
1200
1200RPM
1000 1500RPM
1800RPM
HC emission[ppm]

800 2100RPM

600

400

200

0
25 30 40 45 25 30 40 45
DIESEL DME
Injection pressure[MPa]
Figure 5. HC emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines without pilot injection as a function
Figure 5. HC emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines without pilot injection as a function of
of injection pressure and engine speed.
injection pressure and engine speed.
3. CO emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines
3. CO emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines
Figure 6 shows the CO emission characteristics of DME and diesel engines depending on the
Figure 6 shows the CO emission characteristics of DME and diesel engines depending◦ on the
engine operating speed and injection pressure with light load and injection timing of 14 BTDC.
engine operating speed and injection pressure with light load and injection timing of 14° BTDC. The
The emission characteristics of CO were similar to those of HC. The CO emission concentration of
emission characteristics of CO were similar to those of HC. The CO emission concentration of the
the DME engine was slightly lower than that of the diesel engine at all operating conditions and not
DME engine was slightly lower than that of the diesel engine at all operating conditions and not
significantly affected by the fuel injection pressure. This was because of the combustion characteristics
significantly affected by the fuel injection pressure. This was because of the combustion
of the oxygenated fuel of the DME, as described in HC.
characteristics of the oxygenated fuel of the DME, as described in HC.
4. Smoke emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure
and number of revolutions

Figure 7 shows a comparison of the soot concentration with the injection pressure for operating
speed of DME and diesel engines at the engine operating speed of 1800 rpm, light load condition,
and injection timing of 14◦ BTDC. The exhaust gas emission characteristics of DME engines were not
discharged as compared to those of the diesel engine [33,34,60]. As a result of injecting high-pressure
liquid fuel DME, which is a compressible oxygen fuel, the mixing ratio with air in the injection
characteristic improved as compared to that with diesel, thereby enhancing the diffusive combustion
state due to inject the high-pressure fuel.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 8 of 19

Load25%/BTDC14deg./NZ0.22×6
1.0
1200RPM
1500RPM
0.8
1800RPM
CO emission[%]

2100RPM
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
25 30 40 45 25 30 40 45
DIESEL DME
Injection pressure[MPa]
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21
Figure 6. CO emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines without pilot injection as a function
Figure 6. CO emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines without pilot injection as a function of
of injection pressure and engine speed.
injection pressure and engine speed.
Load25%/BTDC14˚/NZ0.22×6
4. 15
Smoke emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure
and number of revolutions
1200RPM
Figure 7 12
shows a comparison of the soot concentration 1500RPM
with the injection pressure for operating
speed of DME and diesel engines at the engine operating 1800RPMof 1800 rpm, light load condition,
speed
and injection timing of 14° BTDC. The exhaust gas emission characteristics of DME engines were not
2100RPM
9
discharged as compared to those of the diesel engine [33,34,60]. As a result of injecting high-pressure
Smoke[%]

liquid fuel DME, which is a compressible oxygen fuel, the mixing ratio with air in the injection
6
characteristic improved as compared to that with diesel, thereby enhancing the diffusive combustion
state due to inject the high-pressure fuel.

0
25 30 40 45 25 30 40 45
-3
DIESEL DME
Injection Pressure[MPa]
Figure 7. Smoke characteristics of diesel and DME engines without pilot injection as a function of
Figure 7. Smoke
injection characteristics
pressure and engineofspeed.
diesel and DME engines without pilot injection as a function of injection
pressure and engine speed.
3.3. Effects of Injection Pressure and Pilot Injection Period on Exhaust Gas Emission Characteristics of
DME
3.3. Engines
Effects of Injection Pressure and Pilot Injection Period on Exhaust Gas Emission Characteristics of DME
Engines
1. NOx emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure and
1. pilot
NO injection period
x emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure

and pilot injection period

Figure 8 shows that the NOx emissions of DME as a diesel alternative fuel was more than those of
Figure
diesel near8the
shows that the
top dead NOx(TDC)
center emissions
at theofsame
DMEdiesel
as a diesel alternative
injection fuel
timing of thewas more than engine.
experimental those
of diesel near the top dead center (TDC) at the same diesel injection timing of the experimental engine.
As the injection pressure increased, the amount of NOx increased, and pilot injection showed that the
diesel could be reduced to 20% (100 ppm) and DME to 10% (50 ppm). In this experiment, based on
improving the diesel injection timing as much as possible and the pilot injection about 15% of the
total injection amount, it was confirmed that NOx could be reduced to about 10–20% of the total
 Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 9 of 19

As the injection pressure increased, the amount of NOx increased, and pilot injection showed that the
diesel could be reduced to 20% (100 ppm) and DME to 10% (50 ppm). In this experiment, based on
improving the diesel injection timing as much as possible and the pilot injection about 15% of the total
injection amount, it was confirmed that NOx could be reduced to about 10–20% of the total emission
rate by high-pressure fuel injection and pilot injection. For pilot injection at 6◦ before the 14◦ BTDC,
where combustion occurred, the thermal efficiency decreased with increasing fuel consumption rate;
however, it was expected that the NOx generated in a high-temperature region would be reduced
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21
because the temperature of the combustion chamber decreases.

1800RPM/Φ0.22×6/BTDC14degree/Load75%/Pilot 10%
600

500
Main inj.[Diesel]
NOx emissiom [ppm]

400 Main inj.[DME]

300
Pilot+Main inj.[DME]
200
Pilot+Main inj.[Diesel]
100

0
30 40 50 60 80
Injection pressure[MPa]
Figure 8. NOx emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines with and without pilot injection as a
Figure 8. NOx emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines with and without pilot injection as
function of injection pressure.
a function of injection pressure.
2. HC emission concentration in diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure and
2. HC emission
pilot concentration
injection period in diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure and
pilot injection period
Figure 9 shows the HC emission with pressure during high-pressure pilot and main injections.
HCFigure 9 showsby
was reduced themore
HC emission
than 50%with pressure
in this study during high-pressure
as compared to thosepilot and studies
in other main injections.
(injection
HC was reduced by more than 50% in this study as compared to those in other
pressure 20–35 MPa) [24,26] for high-pressure pilot injection. HC was generated in the combustion studies (injection
pressure
chamber20–35 MPa)
wall or in a[24,26] for high-pressure
state where pilotwas
the air–fuel ratio injection. HCitwas
rich, and wasgenerated
generated in in the combustion
a state where the
chamber
fuel was vaporized and not oxidized. Moreover, DME, as an oxygenated fuel, generated almost nothe
wall or in a state where the air–fuel ratio was rich, and it was generated in a state where HC,
fuel
andwas vaporized
generated andfuel
higher not density
oxidized.perMoreover,
unit volume.DME, as an oxygenated
Furthermore, fuel,emission
unlike the generated almost no
characteristics
HC,
of NOand, the
generated
emissionhigher
rate of fuel density
HC was reducedper by
unit
the volume. Furthermore,
increase of unlikebethe
pressure. It could emission
expected that,
x
characteristics of NO x, the emission rate of HC was reduced by the increase of pressure. It could be
as the injection pressure increases, the injection amount in the diesel and DME engines for the injection
expected
period isthat, as the injection
optimized pressure increases,
in the laboratory, the injection
and incomplete amount
combustion in the
is less diesel
likely to and
occur.DME engines
for the injection period is optimized in the laboratory, and incomplete combustion is less likely to
3. CO emission concentration in diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure and
occur.
pilot injection period
Figure 10 shows the CO emission rate as a function of pressure when performing high-pressure
pilot and main injections. CO is generally generated in an incomplete combustion environment because
of lack of oxygen in an excess fuel state, which was not a problem because DME is an oxygenated fuel,
and compression ignition engines are not a big problem because they operate in a lean air–fuel ratio
region. In this study, the CO emission rate was lower than that of the diesel engine.
 Pilot+Main inj. [Diesel]
60
Main inj. [Diesel]
50

HC emission [ppm]
Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2019,
2019,9,9,x 647
FOR PEER REVIEW 11 10
of of2119
40
Pilot+Main inj. [DME]
30 1800RPM/Φ0.22×6/BTDC14degree/Load 75%/Pilot 10%
Main inj. [DME]
70
20 Pilot+Main inj. [Diesel]
60
10 Main inj. [Diesel]
50
HC emission [ppm]

0
40 30 40 50 60 80
Pilot+Main inj. [DME]
Injection pressure[MPa]
30
Main inj. [DME]
Figure 9. HC emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines with and without pilot injection as a
20
function of injection pressure.

3. 10 concentration in diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure and
CO emission
pilot injection period
0
Figure 10 shows the CO emission rate as a function of pressure when performing high-pressure
pilot and main injections. 30 CO is generally40 generated50in an incomplete 60 combustion 80 environment
because of lack of oxygen in an excess fuel Injection pressure[MPa]
state, which was not a problem because DME is an
oxygenated fuel, and compression ignition engines are not a big problem because they operate in a
Figure 9. HC emission characteristics of diesel and DME engines with and without pilot injection as a
lean air–fuel
Figure 9. ratio region. characteristics
HC emission In this study,ofthe CO and
diesel emission rate was
DME engines lower
with andthan thatpilot
without of the dieselasengine.
injection a
function of injection pressure.
function of injection pressure.
1800RPM/Pme 0.7MPa/BTDC14degree/Load 75%/Pilot 10%
3. CO emission 0.6 concentration in diesel and DME engines depending on the injection pressure and
pilot injection period
Pilot+Main Inj. [Diesel]
0.5 the CO emission rate as a function of pressure when performing high-pressure
Figure 10 shows
pilot and main injections. CO is generally generated in an incomplete combustion environment
because of lack of oxygen in an excess fuel state, which wasMain notInj. [Diesel] because DME is an
a problem
CO emission [%]

0.4
oxygenated fuel, and compression ignition engines are not a big problem because they operate in a
lean air–fuel ratio region. In thisInj.
Pilot+Main study, the CO emission rate was lower than that of the diesel engine.
[DME]
0.3
1800RPM/Pme
Main Inj. [DME] 0.7MPa/BTDC14degree/Load 75%/Pilot 10%
0.6
0.2
Pilot+Main Inj. [Diesel]
0.5
0.1

Main Inj. [Diesel]

CO emission [%]

0.4
0
30 40 50 60 80
0.3 Pilot+Main Inj. [DME] Injection pressure [MPa]
Main Inj.
Figure 10. CO emission [DME]
characteristics of diesel and DME engines with and without pilot injection as a
function of0.2
injection pressure.

3.4. Effects of Pilot Injection Rate on Exhaust Gas According to Injection Time in DME Engines
0.1
In this study, the emission characteristics of HC, NOx , CO, and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) were analyzed
for the engine performance tests. DME showed unleaded combustion and no special combustion
0
method was required for exhaust gas reduction. However, NOx and HC vary depending on the
operating conditions and30 40
fuel characteristics; 50reduction rate
thus, the 60 was investigated
80 for each pilot
Injection
injection rate, injection timing, needle lift, and pressure
injection [MPa]
timing in this experiment.
3.4. Effects of Pilot Injection Rate on Exhaust Gas According to Injection Time in DME Engines
In this study, the emission characteristics of HC, NOx, CO, and carbon dioxide (CO2) were
analyzed for the engine performance tests. DME showed unleaded combustion and no special
combustion method was required for exhaust gas reduction. However, NOx and HC vary depending
Appl.
on theSci. 2019, 9, 647
operating conditions and fuel characteristics; thus, the reduction rate was investigated for 11 of 19
each
pilot injection rate, injection timing, needle lift, and injection timing in this experiment.
1. 1. NONO emissioncharacteristics
emission
x x characteristicsofofDME
DMEengines
enginesdepending
dependingononthe
theinjection
injectionpressure
pressureand
andpilot
pilot
injection period
injection period
Figure
Figure1111shows
showsthetheeffect
effectofofpilot
pilotinjection
injectionperiod
periodon onNONO xxemissions
emissionswith withinjection
injectiontiming;
timing;other
other
studies
studies[35,39,46]
[35,39,46]have haveshown
shownthatthatthetheNONO xxemission
emissionrate
rateofofDME
DMEasasa adiesel
dieselsubstitute
substitutefuel
fueldecreases
decreases
asasititapproaches
approachesthe the TDC.
TDC. Therefore,
Therefore, in thisthis experiment,
experiment,the thepilot
pilotinjection
injectionrateratewas
wasexamined
examined from
from 0%
0%to to
30%30% of the
of the total
total injection
injection amount
amount withwith
the the injection
injection pressure
pressure of 50ofMPa50 MPa
and and the injection
the injection timingtiming
at the
atlowest
the lowest
was 10 was◦ BTDC
10° BTDC
and atand
the at the highest
highest ◦ BTDC.
was 22was 22° BTDC. As a NO
As a result, result, NOx decreased as the pilot
x decreased as the pilot injection
injection rate increased.
rate increased. This wasThis was because
because the pilotthe pilot injection
injection before the before
mainthe main injections
injections slowed the slowed the
diffusion
diffusion
combustion combustion
because because of the injection
of the injection periodFurthermore,
period delay. delay. Furthermore,
it reduced it reduced the combustion
the combustion chamber
chamber
temperaturetemperature
and average andeffective
average pressure
effectivebecause
pressurethebecause
injectionthedelay
injection delay thereby
decreased, decreased, thereby
reducing the
reducing
emissionthe of emission
NOx generatedof NOxat generated at high temperatures.
high temperatures. NOx was mostlyNOx was mostly composed
composed of nitrogen ofmonoxide
nitrogen
monoxide
(NO) and (NO) nitrogenanddioxide
nitrogen (NOdioxide (NOwere
2 ), which 2), which were by
produced produced by the combination
the combination of nitrogenin
of nitrogen molecules
molecules
the air and inoxygen
the air and oxygen
at high at high temperatures.
temperatures. NOx in the compression
NOx in the compression ignition engineignition
wereengine
divided were
into
divided
thermalintoNOthermal
and fuelNO NO, and fuel NO,
oxidized byoxidized by the
the nitrogen nitrogenincontained
contained in theoffuel,
the fuel, most whichmostwasof thermal
which
was
NO.thermal NO. The
The generation generation
mechanism wasmechanism
based on thewas based onmechanism
Zeldovich the Zeldovich and had mechanism
a mechanism and (Nhad
2 +aO
→ NO + N)
mechanism (Nin O → NO
2 +which NO +molecules
N) in which NO molecules
dissociated duringdissociated
combustion during
in ancombustion in an excessto
excess air atmosphere
air atmosphere
produce NO. The to produce NO.of
generation TheNO generation of NO by this
by this dissociation wasdissociation was a strong
a strong endothermic endothermic
reaction, which
reaction, whichincreased
exponentially exponentially
at high increased
temperatures at and
highwastemperatures
discharged duringand was the discharged during
expansion stroke. theis,
That
expansion stroke. of
the concentration That
NOis,wasthe concentration
greatly dominatedofbyNO the was greatly temperature,
combustion dominated by andthethe combustion
reaction time
temperature,
and oxygen and the reaction
concentration time
were alsoand oxygen concentration
important factors. were also important factors.

1800RPM/Load75%/Lift 0.21/Pinj.50MPa
500

400 Pilot 0%
Pilot 10%
NOx emission [ppm]

Pilot 20%
300 Pilot 30%

200

100

0
10 14 18 22
Injection time degree[BTDC]
Figure 11. NOx emission characteristics of DME engines with the pilot injection duration rate as a
function of injection timing.

2. HC emission characteristics of DME engines depending on the injection timing and pilot
injection rate

Figure 12 shows the effect of pilot injection rate on HC generation with injection timing.
The comparison in Figure 12 shows that NOx and HC were opposite to each other. Furthermore,
the pilot injection quantity increased and, as the TDC was approached, the HC emission amount
increased [47,49]. This was because, when injecting more than 10% of the pilot injection, the injection
period was delayed, and the amount of HC emission increased because of unstable combustion.
2. HC emission characteristics of DME engines depending on the injection timing and pilot
injection rate
Figure 12 shows the effect of pilot injection rate on HC generation with injection timing. The
comparison in Figure 12 shows that NOx and HC were opposite to each other. Furthermore, the pilot
injection quantity
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 increased and, as the TDC was approached, the HC emission amount increased 12 of 19
[47,49]. This was because, when injecting more than 10% of the pilot injection, the injection period
was delayed, and the amount of HC emission increased because of unstable combustion. Moreover,
Moreover,
HC HC were by
were generated generated
unstablebycombustion
unstable combustion of fuel, generated
of fuel, generated because of because
lack ofofoxygen
lack of in
oxygen
a statein
a state where the combustion chamber wall surface or air–fuel ratio was rich,
where the combustion chamber wall surface or air–fuel ratio was rich, and discharged without being and discharged without
being oxidized.
oxidized. It also occurred
It also occurred when the when
fuel the
wasfuel was evaporated
evaporated duringorfueling
during fueling when the or when the burning
fuel was fuel was
unsafely, similar to CO. The ignition of the fuel sprayed from the fuel injection nozzle ininthe
burning unsafely, similar to CO. The ignition of the fuel sprayed from the fuel injection nozzle the
combustion process of the compression ignition engine occurred at a point
combustion process of the compression ignition engine occurred at a point slightly leaner than the slightly leaner than the
stoichiometricair–fuel
stoichiometric air–fuelratio
ratio(λ
(λ==1),
1),and
andspontaneous
spontaneousignition
ignitioncould
couldnot
notoccur
occuroutside
outsidethethelean
leanburn
burn
limit (A/F = 40) [49]. In such ultra-lean region, unreacted fuel did not end well,
limit (A/F = 40) [49]. In such ultra-lean region, unreacted fuel did not end well, producing unburned producing unburned
fuel(HC).
fuel (HC). TheThe concentration
concentration of of HC
HC generated
generatedininthe
theultra-lean
ultra-leanregion
regionwas
was significantly
significantly affected
affected by by
the
amount of fuel injected during the ignition delay period and the mixing ratio of
the amount of fuel injected during the ignition delay period and the mixing ratio of the injected fuel the injected fuel with
air. That
with is, a large
air. That amount
is, a large of fuelofinjected
amount duringduring
fuel injected the ignition delay period
the ignition or a delay
delay period or aindelay
the ignition
in the
delay period might cause an increase in the amount of generated HC. Moreover,
ignition delay period might cause an increase in the amount of generated HC. Moreover, when the when the injected
fuel became
injected rich, there
fuel became rich,could becould
there two scenarios: (1) the fuel
be two scenarios: (1) remaining in the sack
the fuel remaining in volume
the sackor sack hole
volume or
was injected at a low speed in the latter stage of the combustion process;
sack hole was injected at a low speed in the latter stage of the combustion process; and (2) whenand (2) when the fuel was
the
excessively
fuel suppliedsupplied
was excessively to the combustion chamberchamber
to the combustion from thefrombeginning. In particular,
the beginning. the sackthe
In particular, volume
sack
and the volume of HC tended to be almost proportional.
volume and the volume of HC tended to be almost proportional.

1800RPM/Load 75%/Lift 0.21/Pinj.50MPa

45

40 Pilot 30%
Pilot 20%
HC emission [ppm]

35
Pilot 10%

30 Pilot 0%

25

20

15
10 14 18 22
Injection timing degree[BTDC]
Figure 12. HC emission characteristics of DME engines with the pilot injection duration rate as a
Figure 12. of
function HCinjection
emissiontiming.
characteristics of DME engines with the pilot injection duration rate as a function
of injection timing.
3. CO emission characteristics of DME engines depending on the injection timing and pilot
3. CO emission
injection rate characteristics of DME engines depending on the injection timing and pilot
injection rate
Figure 13 shows the CO emission from the injection timing and the pilot injection amount. It also
shows that the amount of CO decreased with the increasing injection delay and pilot injection amount.
CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas that was generated in the engine when operating at rich air–fuel
ratios. When there was not enough oxygen to convert all the carbon in the HC-based fuel to CO2 ,
some of the fuel would not burn and remained as CO. Maximum emission of CO occurred when the
engine’s fuel was operating in a rich state, that is, at start-up or under accelerated load. Even when
the intake fuel–air mixture was at the theoretical mixture ratio or the lean mixture ratio, CO was also
generated in the engine. The fuel–air mixture was poor or there was a local rich mixture, resulting in a
knock in incomplete combustion.
air–fuel ratios. When there was not enough oxygen to convert all the carbon in the HC-based fuel to
CO2, some of the fuel would not burn and remained as CO. Maximum emission of CO occurred when
the engine’s fuel was operating in a rich state, that is, at start-up or under accelerated load. Even
when the intake fuel–air mixture was at the theoretical mixture ratio or the lean mixture ratio, CO
was also generated in the engine. The fuel–air mixture was poor or there was a local rich mixture,
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 13 of 19
resulting in a knock in incomplete combustion.

1800RPM/Load 75%/Lift 0.21/Pinj.50MPa

0.12

Pilot 0%
0.1
Pilot 10%
Pilot 20%
CO emission [%]

0.08
Pilot 30%

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
10 14 18 22
Injection time degree [BTDC]
Figure 13. CO emission characteristics of DME engines with the pilot injection duration rate as a
Figure 13. CO
function emissiontiming.
of injection characteristics of DME engines with the pilot injection duration rate as a function
of injection timing.
4. CO2 emission characteristics of DME engines depending on the injection time and pilot
4. CO 2 emission
injection ratecharacteristics of DME engines depending on the injection time and pilot injection
rate
Figure 14 shows CO2 emission characteristics of DME engines according to the injection timing
Figure 14 showsrate.
and pilot injection CO2COemission characteristics
2 was checked as it is of DME engines
identified accordingcausing
as an emission to the injection timing
global warming,
and
and,pilot injection
similar to therate. CO2 was checked
CO generation shown inasFigure
it is identified as an results,
13, from these emissionthecausing global
reduction of COwarming,
through
2 15
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 21
and,
DME similar
enginetoalso theshowed
CO generation
a tendency shown in Figure
to decrease 13,pilot
as the from these results,
injection amountthe reduction
increased [39].of CO2
through DME engine also showed a tendency to decrease as the pilot injection amount increased [39].
1800RPM/Pinj.50MPa/Load 75%
7
Pilot 0 %
6

5
CO2 emission [%]

Pilot 10 %
4
Pilot 20 %
3
Pilot 30 %
2

0
10 14 18 22
Injection timing degree [BTDC]
Figure 14. CO2 emission characteristics of DME engines with the pilot injection duration rate as a
Figure 14. CO
function 2 emission characteristics of DME engines with the pilot injection duration rate as a function
of injection timing.
of injection timing.

3.5. Effects of Needle Lift on Exhaust Gas According to Injection Timing in DME Engines
Figures 15–17 show the exhaust gas rates (HC, NOx, and CO) for the engine performance tests. In this
experiment, the exhaust gas characteristics were examined by applying the DLL-AP type needle lift of 0.14,
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 14 of 19

3.5. Effects of Needle Lift on Exhaust Gas According to Injection Timing in DME Engines
Figures 15–17 show the exhaust gas rates (HC, NOx , and CO) for the engine performance tests.
In this experiment, the exhaust gas characteristics were examined by applying the DLL-AP type needle
lift of 0.14, 0.21, 0.24, and 0.36 mm nozzle (DL-AP type), which was one of the injector improvements,
different from the examination result by the condition change of the ECU program.

1. NOx emission characteristics of DME engines depending on the injection timing and needle lift

Figure 15 shows the effect of needle lift on NOx emissions with injection timing at a loading rate
of 75% at an injection pressure of 50 MPa. In this case, the effect of the needle lift on the NOx emission
was found to increase as the injection timing was delayed and decreased as the injection angle was
advanced. Further, the needle lifts showed low values at 0.36 and 0.14 mm, while at 0.21 and 0.24 mm
showed an increasing trend. First, the increase in the injection timing was caused by the temperature
rise of the combustion chamber because of diffusion combustion from the delay of the injection period.
The decrease of 0.14 and 0.36 mm of needle lift at 22◦ BTDC caused incomplete combustion at 0.14 mm
due to the long supply period because of the common rail characteristics for the required fuel supply
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21
when injected with the required injection period.

1800RPM/Pinj.50MPa/Load 75%/Pilot 10%

1000
0.14
0.21
800 0.24
NOx emission [ppm]

0.36
600

400

200

0
10deg. 14deg. 18deg. 22deg.
Injection timing degree [BTDC]
Figure 15. NO emission characteristics of DME engines with nozzle needle lift as a function of injection
Figure 15. NOx xemission characteristics of DME engines with nozzle needle lift as a function of injection
timing degree.
timing degree.

2. HC emission characteristics of DME engines depending on the injection timing and needle lift
2. HC emission characteristics of DME engines depending on the injection timing and needle lift
Figure16
Figure 16 shows
shows the
the effect
effect of
of needle
needle lift
lift on
on HC
HCemissions
emissionswith
withinjection
injectiontiming
timingatata aloading
loadingrate of
rate
75%
of 75%atatananinjection
injectionpressure
pressureofof50
50MPa.
MPa.In Inthis
this case,
case, the
the HC emission fluctuation
HC emission fluctuation waswasnotnotlarge
largewith
with
different injection timing delays. The 0.36 mm needle lift showed a HC emission
different injection timing delays. The 0.36 mm needle lift showed a HC emission concentration lower concentration lower
than0.21
than 0.21mm,
mm,suggesting
suggestingthat
thatthe
theDME
DMEsupply
supplyper perunit
unittime
timewas
wasoversupplied
oversuppliedtotothe theengine.
engine.Thus,
Thus,
theneedle
the needle lift
lift of
of 0.21
0.21 mm
mm was
was useful
usefulfor
forengine
enginegas;
gas;however,
however, it it
waswasnotnot
good
good in terms
in termsof exhaust gas.
of exhaust
gas.

1800RPM/Pinj.50MPa/Load 75%/Pilot 10%

50

40
m]
 Figure 16 shows the effect of needle lift on HC emissions with injection timing at a loading rate
of 75% at an injection pressure of 50 MPa. In this case, the HC emission fluctuation was not large with
different injection timing delays. The 0.36 mm needle lift showed a HC emission concentration lower
than 0.21 mm, suggesting that the DME supply per unit time was oversupplied to the engine. Thus,
the
Appl.needle lift9, of
Sci. 2019, 6470.21 mm was useful for engine gas; however, it was not good in terms of exhaust
15 of 19
gas.

1800RPM/Pinj.50MPa/Load 75%/Pilot 10%

50

40
HC emission [ppm]

30

20
0.14
0.21
10 0.24
0.36
0
10deg. 14deg. 18deg. 22deg.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Injection timing degree [BTDC] 17 of 21

Figure
Figure16.
16.HC
HCemission
emissioncharacteristic
characteristicofofDME
DMEengines
engineswith
withnozzle
nozzleneedle
needlelift
liftasasa afunction
functionofofinjection
injection
timing
timingdegree.
degree.

3. 3. CO
COemission
emissioncharacteristics
characteristicsofofDME
DMEengines
enginesdepending
dependingon
onthe
theinjection
injectiontiming
timingand
andneedle
needlelift
lift

Figure
Figure1717shows
showsthe
theeffect
effectof
of needle
needle lift
lift on CO emissions
emissions with
with injection
injectiontiming
timingatataaloading
loadingrate
rateof
of75%
75%atatananinjection
injectionpressure
pressure of 50 MPa. The CO emission slightly fluctuated at 0.36 mm
of 50 MPa. The CO emission slightly fluctuated at 0.36 mm because of of because the
the injection
injection timing
timing delay;
delay; however,
however, there there
was no was nofluctuation.
large large fluctuation.
This wasThis was expected
expected to be
to be incomplete
incomplete
combustion combustion
because of because
the longerof injection
the longer injection
period period
caused caused
by the by the
injection injection
timing delay,timing delay,
as in the case
asofinHC.
the case of HC.

1800RPM/Pinj.50MPa/Load 75%/Pilot 10%

0.08
0.14
0.21
0.24
0.06
CO emission [ppm]

0.36

0.04

0.02

0.00
10deg. 14deg. 18deg. 22deg.
Injection timing degree [BTDC]
Figure 17. CO emission characteristics of DME engines with nozzle needle lift as a function of injection
Figure
timing17.degree.
CO emission characteristics of DME engines with nozzle needle lift as a function of injection
timing degree.

4. Conclusions
Based on the results of this study on diesel and DME engines with common rail conditions
applied, we examined the engine performance changes and emission characteristics of exhaust gases
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 16 of 19

4. Conclusions
Based on the results of this study on diesel and DME engines with common rail conditions
applied, we examined the engine performance changes and emission characteristics of exhaust gases
with varying injection pressure and injection rate. The emission characteristics of NOx , HC, and CO
were investigated for different injection pressures of the pilot injection. The exhaust gas emission
characteristics for the pilot injection period and needle lift were investigated as follows:

1. For DME engines, the effect of fuel injection pressure on HC emissions was not significant at
low speeds; however, at high speeds, higher fuel injection pressures caused lower HC emissions.
To optimize the DME engine, it is necessary to optimize the fuel injection pressure and injection
amount depending on the engine operating conditions.
2. The emission characteristics of CO were similar to those of HC. The CO emission concentration
of DME engines was slightly lower than that of diesel engines. The fuel injection pressure
did not have a significant effect at all operating conditions. This was because the combustion
characteristics of the oxygenate fuel of DME described in HC. As the liquid fuel DME, which is a
compressible oxygen fuel, was injected at high pressure, the mixing ratio with air was improved
in the injection characteristic as compared to that with diesel. Further, it was expected to enhance
into a diffusive combustion state.
3. The HC emission can be extremely low, as it was generated by oxygen deficiency in a state
where the combustion chamber wall surface or the air–fuel ratio was rich, and because DME
was generated in a state where the fuel was not vaporized and the oxidized fuel was an oxygen
fuel. Moreover, as the injection pressure increased, the emission rate of NOx reduced. This was
because the injection rate in diesel and DME engines was optimized according to the injection
period, and incomplete combustion is not expected.
4. The NOx emission was reduced at the injection pressure of 50 MPa, with pilot injection rate
increasing from 0% to 30% of the total injected amount, and the minimum and maximum injection
timing being 10◦ and 22◦ BTDC, respectively. The NOx emission decreased with the increasing
pilot injection rate because the pilot injection before the main injection delays the rapid diffusion
combustion. This was because the injection period delay lowered the combustion chamber
temperature; and it was considered that NOx emissions generated at a high temperature were
reduced because the average effective pressure caused by the injection delay decreased.
5. It can be seen from this experiment that NOx and HC were opposite to each other. Further, as the
pilot injection amount increased, or as it got closer to TDC, the HC emission amount increased.
When pilot injection was applied in this study, it was expected that the injection period would
be delayed if more than 10% was applied, so that the HC emissions would increase because of
unstable combustion.
6. The increase in injection timing was caused by the delay in injection period, occurring with the
temperature rise in the combustion chamber because of diffusive combustion. The decrease of
0.14 mm and 0.36 mm of needle lift at 22◦ BTDC was caused by incomplete combustion because
of the longer supply period of the characteristics of common rail for supplying the required fuel
when injected with the required injection period at 0.14 mm.

Author Contributions: S.Y. and C.L. conceived and designed the experiments; S.Y. performed the experiments;
C.L. analyzed the data; S.Y. contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; C.L. wrote the paper.
Funding: This study was supported by the development of key fusion technology of the industry–academia
research cooperation cluster support project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 647 17 of 19

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