energies

Article
Vibration Characteristics of Compression Ignition
Engines Fueled with Blended Petro-Diesel and
Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Fuel from Coal Fuels
Tiantian Yang ID
, Tie Wang *, Guoxing Li, Jinhong Shi and Xiuquan Sun
Department of Vehicle Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China;
ytt1214@163.com (T.Y.); liguoxing@tyut.edu.cn (G.L.); jhshi25@163.com (J.S.); sxquan62@163.com (X.S.)
* Correspondence: wangtie57@163.com; Tel.: +86-0351-6010580




Received: 4 July 2018; Accepted: 30 July 2018; Published: 7 August 2018


Abstract: Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel synthesized from coal (CFT) is an alternative fuel that gives
excellent emission performance in compression ignition (CI) engines. In order to study the vibration
characteristics, which are important for determining the applicability of the fuel, CFT-diesel blends
were tested on a CI engine to acquire vibration signals from the engine head and block. Based
on the FFT and continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) analysis, the influence of CFT on the
vibration was studied. The results showed that the root mean square (RMS) values of the vibration
signal decrease as the proportion of CFT in the blends increases. The CWT results indicated that the
vibration energy areas motivated by the pressure shock of transient combustion were weak with
increasing CFT proportion for the different frequency bands. The blend of 90% pure petro-diesel
and 10% CFT registered the largest RMS value for piston side thrust response, and the RMS of
high-frequency pressure oscillation response is greater than that of the main response of combustion,
for FT30. Therefore, CFT has the potential to reduce the combustion vibration of the engine at all
frequency bands, and there is a possibility that the proportion of blended fuel can be modified to
satisfy the vibration characteristics requirements in different frequency bands.

Keywords: Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel synthesized from coal (CFT); vibration characteristic;
compression ignition (CI) engine; T-F analysis

1. Introduction
Diesel engines are widely used in transportation, industry, agriculture, and construction owing
to their high efficiency, reliability and durability. However, compared with gasoline engines, a
compression ignition (CI) engine emits more pollutants, especially nitrogen oxides (NOx ) and
particulate matter (PM) [1]. The trade-off relationship that exists between the two main pollutions
makes traditional emission-reduction techniques inefficient. The application of alternative fuels is one
of the effective ways to address this requirement, while helping to alleviate the shortage of fossil fuels.
Among the alternative fuels, Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) fuel is a promising option for CI engines,
and is produced to liquid by F-T synthesis from a wide range of natural materials such as coal,
natural gas, and biomass. Some researches indicate that F-T fuel has a higher mass heating value
and cetane number (CN) than commercial diesel fuel [2,3], which are important properties for fuel
used in CI engine. The F-T fuel synthesis from coal is called CFT, and the F-T fuel synthesis from
natural gas is known as GTL (Gas to Liquid), which both have been studied extensively with regard to
combustion [4,5], emissions, and power output. Lapuerta et al. [6] investigated the emissions of GTL
fuel derived from a low temperature F-T process, and found that GTL has the potential to reduce the
PM emissions. The research of Torregrosa et al. [7] reached a similar conclusion. Li et al. [8] found

Energies 2018, 11, 2043; doi:10.3390/en11082043 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 2043 2 of 15

that GTL significantly reduced regulated emissions, with average reductions of 21.2% in CO, 15.7% in
HC, 15.6% in NOx , and 22.1% in smoke compared to diesel, as well as average reductions of 85.3%
and 43.9% in the unregulated emission of total ultrafine particles number and mass, respectively.
Hao et al. [9] investigated the unregulated emissions from CFT, for instance, carbonyl emissions, and
concluded that CFT could reduce the level of the total and individual carbonyl compounds. The
marked reduction in pollution suggested that F-T fuel is more environmentally friendly than diesel
fuel. In addition, GTL exhibited almost the same power output and torque output as diesel, while
improving fuel economy [10]. Based on the above research results, it can be revealed that there are
a similar combustion and emission characteristics between CFT and GTL, but from the perspectives
of resource abundance, environmental and economic constraints, there are some differences between
CFT and GTL [11]. With the continued development of the F-T process, CFT can be designed to meet
or even exceed the required specifications of fossil diesel [12,13]. At present, CFT is commercially
produced in countries where coal reserves are abundant, such as South Africa and China [3,14,15].
CFT has been selected as the alternative fuel used in CI engine for this study, considering China’s
energy reserves are coal rich, with less gas.
So far, power performance, economy, and emission characteristics are the main optimization
targets of alternative fuel design for CI engines. The combustion-induced vibration response can
significantly affect the fatigue life and maintenance cost of engine structures. If fuel design of alternative
blended fuels could improve the combustion characteristic and its responding vibration response
of CI engines, it may also be of benefit in improvement of service life and operational reliability of
CI engines. However, the study on the difference of vibration and noise caused by the combustion
behavior of different alternative fuels has not been sufficiently deep and extensive concerned.
The mechanical vibration signal of a CI engine is the result of multiple excitations arising from
factors such as gas combustion pressure shock, piston side thrust force excitation, valve seating
shock, and the inertia force in the crank-connecting rod mechanism. These excitations have cyclical
and non-stationary time-varying characteristics. The study and analysis of the vibration signal
are helpful for the fault diagnosis [16–18], knock detection [19,20], identification of combustion
characteristics [21–25], and improving the noise vibration and harshness (NVH) performance of
the whole engine. The two main excitation source of engine vibration are the pressure shock caused
by rapid combustion in the chamber and impact of piston assembly driven by the fuel combustion.
Therefore, the change in the combustion state of the air-fuel mixture has great influence on the
engine vibration signal. The vibration states of engine fueled with diesel fuel and biodiesel are
markedly different due to the differences in the rise rate and oscillation of in-cylinder pressure [26–28].
Li et al. [29] found that the advanced ignition of biodiesel is the main cause of the nonlinear increase in
root mean square (RMS) of vibration response near the combustion top dead center (TDC).The study
by Taghizadeh-Alisaraei et al. concluded that the RMS and kurtosis values of engine body vibration
increase when ethanol is added to diesel [30]. Meanwhile, the RMS value of dual-fuel engine vibration
is lower than that of diesel engine, and the frequency component distribution of dual-fuel engine
vibration is narrow [31].
Different alternative fuels have different combustion behaviors due to their diverse physical
and chemical properties, which gives the engine different vibration behaviors. Therefore, for the
evaluation of alternative fuels, in addition to the combustion and emission characteristics, a certain
understanding of the corresponding vibration characteristics, including typical amplitudes and
frequency distributions, must be developed. The diffusive combustion and multi-point ignition
mode of CI engine necessitates high compression ratios, resulting in vibration and noise that is
greater than that of spark ignition engines. Hence, the vibration performance of CI engine fueled
with alternative fuels should be given special attention. Especially for light-duty high-speed diesel
engines used in passenger vehicles, vibration and noise reduction are very important for the comfort
experience of passengers. At present, there are a few studies about CFT as the fuel of CI engine, and
most of those few studies focus on the performance, combustion, and emission performance of CFT,
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 3 of 15

while the vibration characteristics of CFT have been largely unstudied. In this study, based on the
combustion characteristics of a CI engine fuelled by CFT, the influence of CFT and CFT-diesel blends
on the vibration performance is investigated, using acceleration signal analysis of the engine head
and block.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Setup and Data Acquisition

All tests were performed on a direct-injection light-duty diesel engine whose specifications are
given in Table 1. The engine was coupled with an electric eddy current dynamometer (DW160, Sichuan,
Chengdu, China), and engine operation was controlled using a measurement and control system made
by Sichuan Chengbang (Chengdu, China). An in-cylinder gas pressure sensor is mounted on the
fourth cylinder to detect the combustion pressure.
In this study, the research object is the engine vibration, which is the main source of vibrations
for entire vehicle. The main moving parts of the engine are the piston assembly, connecting rods, and
crankshaft. Vibration in a reciprocating piston engine is mainly caused by the changes in gas pressure
in the cylinder and the alternating inertia force on the different parts. Two accelerometers are used to
obtain the vibration signal of the engine. One accelerometer is installed on the engine head to measure
the vibration along the direction of piston motion, and another one is installed on the engine block
between the second and the third cylinders in the vertical piston movement direction, as shown in
Figure 1. The TDC pulse signal is measured by the Hall sensor and the crankshaft rotation angle was
recorded accordingly. The Hall sensor is connected to the front of the crankshaft. Vibration signals
and TDC pulse signal are recorded by signal acquisition instrument, and transmitted to the computer
through the universal serial bus (USB) port. The schematic diagram of the test engine is shown in
Figure 1.

Table 1. Main technical specifications of diesel engine.

Item/Parameter Details
Engine type Horizontal, four-stroke, water-cooled
Bore × stroke 100 mm × 105 mm
Displacement 3.3 L
Compression ratio 17.5
Intake valve opening 24 ◦ CA 1 before TDC
Intake valve closing 48 ◦ CA after BDC 2
Exhaust valve opening 65.3 ◦ CA before BDC
Exhaust valve closing 29.3 ◦ CA after TDC
Rated power 70 kW @3200 rpm
Rated torque 240 Nm @2000~2200 rpm
Firing order 1-3-4-2-1
1 CA indicates crank angle; 2 BDC indicates bottom dead center.

Data sampling begins after a steady operation condition has been maintained for more than one
minute. The data acquisition time was set as 30 s in order to obtain enough vibration data for multiple
engine operation cycles and the sampling frequency was 96 kHz. The data acquisition started from the
fourth cylinder TDC during the intake stroke. During tests, all the operating parameters of the diesel
engine should be consistent, including the fuel supply advance angle, supply pressure of the injector
and phase of intake and outlet.
CFT fuel can be blended with commercial petrodiesel in any ratio and fueled in engine without
modifying the engine because its properties are similar to those of petrodiesel. In this study, CFT
fuel and petro-diesel fuel were blended by volume ratio. Four fuel samples with the following
nomenclature and compositions were tested: D100 (100% petro-diesel), FT10 (90% pure petrodiesel
and 10% CFT), FT30 (70% pure petrodiesel and 30% CFT), and FT100 (100% CFT). The fuels were
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 4 of 15

blended and homogenized using ultrasonic stirring. The experimental study was carried out for engine
operation conditions with different loads (10, 50, 100, 150 and 200 Nm) and different speeds (1200,
1600, Energies
2000, and 2400
2018, 11, x rpm). 4 of 15

Cylinder Pressure Sensor Accelerometer

Dynamometer Signal acquisition

Engine system

Measurement and ④ ③ ② ①
control system

Figure 1. Schematic
Figure 1. Schematicdiagram
diagramof
of the
the setup usedininthe
setup used the experiments.
experiments.

2.2.Fuels
2.2. Test Test Fuels
Fuel quality directly affects the ignition, combustion and emission performance of the engine.
Fuel quality directly affects the ignition, combustion and emission performance of the engine. The
The fuel quality parameters that affect the combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engine
fuel quality parameters that affect the combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engine include
include sulfur content, CN, density, and distillation temperature. Table 2 shows the comparison of a
sulfurfew
content, CN, density, and distillation temperature. Table 2 shows the comparison of a few of the
of the relevant physical and chemical properties of CFT and petro-diesel based on the ASTM
relevant physical and chemical properties of CFT and petro-diesel based on the ASTM standard.
standard.

Table Comparison
2. 2.
Table Comparison of
of fuels specifications.
fuels specifications.

Properties
Properties CFT
CFTFuel
Fuel Petrodiesel
Petrodiesel
Density3 (kg/m ) 3 759.9
759.9 831.2 831.2
Density (kg/m )
CN 78.4 55.8
CN 78.4 55.8
Low heating value (MJ/kg) 44.2 42.6
Low heating value (MJ/kg) 44.2 42.6
Kinematic viscosity at 30 °C (mm2/s) 2.029 2.3–6
Kinematic viscosity at 30 ◦ C (mm2 /s) 2.029 2.3–6
Flashpoint (°C) 52 152
Flashpoint (◦ C) 52 152
Initial boiling◦point (°C) 157.6 180
Initial boiling point ( C) 157.6 180
Final boiling point (°C) 306.1 370
Final boiling point (◦ C) 306.1 370

Fuel physical and chemical properties are closely related to its density, which can influence the
Fuel
time physical
at which highand pressure
chemical is properties
produced inaretheclosely
fuel. Asrelated to its
can be seen fromdensity,
Table which can influence
2, the density of CFT the
used
time at in this
which test pressure
high is lower than that of petrodiesel,
is produced which
in the fuel. Asiscan759.9
bekg/m
seen 3. Under the same plunger stroke
from Table 2, the density of CFT
and
used in fueltest
this supply advance
is lower thanangle,
that ofthepetrodiesel,
higher the density,
which the earlierkg/m
is 759.9 3 . Under
the actual fuel injection
the sametime (except
plunger stroke
for high pressure common rail system). The CN value is related to the ignition
and fuel supply advance angle, the higher the density, the earlier the actual fuel injection time (except performance. For a
fuel with a higher CN, it is easier to be ignited. The more stable the working of engine, and the less
for high pressure common rail system). The CN value is related to the ignition performance. For a
prone it is to knocking. In comparison to petro-diesel, the CN of CFT is higher (78), indicating that
fuel with a higher CN, it is easier to be ignited. The more stable the working of engine, and the less
CFT has excellent compression combustion capability. The heating value is usually expressed in
proneterms
it is to
of knocking.
energy per unitIn comparison
mass of fuel.to petro-diesel,
According to thethe dataCN of CFT is
calculation in higher
Table 2,(78), indicating
the low heating that
CFT has excellent compression combustion capability. The heating value is
value (LHV) of CFT is 4% higher than that of petrodiesel of the same quality. The LHV by volume usually expressed inisterms
of energy
equalper unit
to the mass of
product ofLHV
fuel.by According to the data
mass and density, calculation
and hence, in Table
the energy 2, the
released bylow
CFT heating
is 5% lessvalue
(LHV)than
of CFT is 4%volume
the same higherofthan that of petrodiesel
petrodiesel, of the
which is a small same quality.
difference. The LHV analysis
For performance by volume is equal to
of engine,
the product of LHV by mass and density, and hence, the energy released by CFT is 5% lessLHV
the LHV by volume is more significant, and hence, all the LHV mentioned below refers to the than the
same by volume.
volume of petrodiesel, which is a small difference. For performance analysis of engine, the LHV
by volume is more significant, and hence, all the LHV mentioned below refers to the LHV by volume.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Analysis of Combustion Pressure
3.1. Analysis of Combustion
Figure 2a shows thePressure
in-cylinder combustion pressure curve of the engine at a speed of 2000 rpm
and torque of 100 Nm. The peak value of pressure decreases gradually with increasing CFT
Figure 2a shows the in-cylinder combustion pressure curve of the engine at a speed of 2000 rpm
proportion in the blended fuels. The peak pressure value increases with the growth of speed and load,
and torque
and theoftrend
100 Nm. Themore
becomes peakobvious
value of pressure
with decreases
the increase gradually
in load, withinincreasing
as illustrated CFT proportion
Figure 2b. When using
in theblended
blended fuels, there is an observable decrease in the peak value of combustion pressureload,
fuels. The peak pressure value increases with the growth of speed and and the
with the
trend becomes more obvious with the increase in load, as illustrated in Figure 2b. When using blended
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 5 of 15

fuels,Energies
there 2018,
is an11,observable
x decrease in the peak value of combustion pressure with the increase 5 of 15in the
proportion of CFT. This is mainly because the LHV of CFT is smaller than that of petro-diesel, and so,
increase in the proportion of CFT. This is mainly because the LHV of CFT is smaller than that of petro-
CFT used
Energiesin dieselx engine provides less heat under the same conditions.
diesel, 2018,
and 11,
so, CFT used in diesel engine provides less heat under the same conditions. 5 of 15
Figure 2a also indicates that the amplitude of combustion pressure oscillation is relatively high
Figure 2a also indicates that the amplitude of combustion pressure oscillation is relatively high
whenincrease
D100 isinusedthe proportion of CFT.
in the engine, This
while is the
for mainly because
other fuels,the
theLHV of CFT is
oscillation smaller than
amplitude
when D100 is used in the engine, while for the other fuels, the oscillation amplitude decreases
that of petro-
decreases gradually
diesel,
as thegraduallyand
proportion so, CFT
of CFTused in diesel
increases. engine provides
Theincreases.
oscillation less heat
amplitude under the same conditions.
as the proportion of CFT The oscillationisamplitude
the smallest when
is the FT100
smallest is used,
when FT100 which
means Figure
that CFT 2a
hasalso
a indicates combustion
smooth that the amplitude of combustion
feature due to the pressure oscillation
satisfactory is relatively
evaporation high
characteristic
is used, which means that CFT has a smooth combustion feature due to the satisfactory evaporation
when D100 is used in the engine, while for the other fuels, the oscillation amplitude decreases
allowcharacteristic
the formation of an
allow theeven mixture.
formation of an even mixture.
gradually as the proportion of CFT increases. The oscillation amplitude is the smallest when FT100
is used, which means that CFT has a smooth combustion feature due to the satisfactory evaporation
1200 rpm 1600 rpm 2000 rpm 2400 rpm
characteristic allow the formation of an even mixture.

1200 rpm 1600 rpm 2000 rpm 2400 rpm

(a) (b)

Figure 2. (a)2.the
Figure (a) combustion
the combustionpressure
pressurecurves
curvesof
of all fuelunder
all fuel underthe
thecondition
condition of 2000
of 2000 rpmrpm
and and 100 Nm.
100 Nm.
(b)pressure
(b) the the pressure
peakpeak value
value of all
of all
(a) fuels
fuels underall
under alltest
test conditions.
conditions. (b)

Figure 2. (a) the

Combustion combustion
pressure pressure
shock is the curves of all fuel under
main excitation sourcethe condition
that causesof 2000
the rpm andof100
vibration Nm.
mechanical
Combustion
structures
pressure
(b) the pressure peak shock
in an engine. value ofisallthe
The higher fuels
main
under
the change
excitation source that causes the vibration of mechanical
all test conditions.
rate of pressure, the greater the influence on the engine
structures in anInengine.
structure. order toThe higherdistinguish
effectively the changethe rate of pressure,
differences the greaterpressure
in combustion the influence
when theseon the engine
four
structure. Combustion pressure shock is the mainthe excitation sourcein that causes the vibration ofwhen
mechanical
fuels In
areorder
used, to theeffectively
pressure rise distinguish
rate (PRR) is differences combustion
calculated for extracting thepressure
phase information these
of four
structures in an engine. The higher the change rate of pressure, the greater the influence on the engine
fuels ignition
are used, andthethe
pressure
maximum risePRRrateaccurately.
(PRR) is calculated for extracting
Figure 3a details the variationthe phase
of PRRinformation
at a speed ofof2000 ignition
structure. In order to effectively distinguish the differences in combustion pressure when these four
rpmmaximum
and the and load of PRR100accurately.
Nm. With the Figureincrease in CFTthe
3a details proportion,
variationthe peak at
of PRR value of PRR
a speed gradually
of 2000 rpm and
fuels are used, the pressure rise rate (PRR) is calculated for extracting the phase information of
decreases,
load ignition
of 100 Nm. andWiththe phase
the of the peak
increase in PRR
CFT isproportion,
gradually advanced
the peak because
value of
ofan increase
PRR in the CN
gradually of
decreases,
and the maximum PRR accurately. Figure 3a details the variation of PRR at a speed of 2000
blended
and the fuels. The circle drawn with dotted lines in Figure 3a illustrates that the start timing of
rpmphase
and load of the peak
of 100 Nm.PRR Withis gradually
the increaseadvanced because of
in CFT proportion, theanpeak
increase
value inof the
PRRCN of blended
gradually
combustion is advanced with the increase in the proportion of CFT. Figure 3b indicates that the
fuels.decreases,
The circle anddrawn withofdotted
the phase the peak lines
PRRinisFigure
gradually 3a advanced
illustratesbecause
that the of start timinginof
an increase thecombustion
CN of
maximum PRR changes dramatically with the load, that is, the maximum PRR first increases
is advanced
blended with
fuels.theTheincrease
circle drawnin thewithproportion
dotted lines of CFT. Figure
in Figure 3a 3b indicates
illustrates thatthat
thethe
startmaximum
timing of PRR
gradually and then reduces with load.
combustion
changes is advanced the
dramatically withload,
the increase
that is, in themaximum
proportionPRR of CFT. Figure 3b indicates that the then
The CFT fuel iswith easier to be compression the
ignited compared with first increases
petro-diesel gradually
due to its highandCN
maximum
reduces with PRR changes dramatically with the load, that is, the maximum
load.shorten the ignition delay period, and result in a less combustible gas mixture. In PRR first increases
which could
gradually
The CFT dueand then
fuel is CFTreduces
easier to bewith load.
compression ignited compared
addition, to would release fewer heat energy due to its withlow LHV.petro-diesel
In the end,due thetophase
its high
of CN
The CFT fuel is easier to be compression ignited compared with petro-diesel due to its high CN
whichmaximum
could shorten
PRR willthebeignition
advanced,delay andperiod,
the peak and result
value inbe
will a less combustible gas mixture. In addition,
reduced.
which could shorten the ignition delay period, and result in a less combustible gas mixture. In
due to CFT would release fewer heat energy due to its low LHV. In the end, the phase of maximum
addition, due to CFT would release fewer heat energy due to its low LHV. In the end, the phase of
PRR will be advanced,
maximum PRR will and the peakand
be advanced, valuethe will
peakbe reduced.
value will be reduced.

1200 rpm 1600 rpm 2000 rpm 2400 rpm

1200 rpm 1600 rpm 2000 rpm 2400 rpm

(a ) ( b)
Figure 3. (a) PRR curves of all fuels under the condition of 2000 rpm and 100 Nm. (b) PRR peak value
of all fuels under all test (conditions.
a) ( b)
Figure (a)3.
In3.the
Figure PRR curves
(a) PRR
vibration curvesof of
allall
analysis fuels
CIunder
offuels underthe
the
engine, condition
condition
the of2000
of
excitation 2000 rpm
rpm and
and
produced 100100
by Nm.Nm. (b) PRR
(b) PRR
combustion peakpeak
value
pressure value
of the
of all of all fuels
fuels under under
all all test
test conditions.
conditions.
fuel-air mixture in the cylinder is the main source of engine vibration. The gas pressure excitation is
mainly composed of the compressing force, pressure increment generated by combustion and high
In the vibration analysis of CI engine, the excitation produced by combustion pressure of the
frequency
In oscillation of the of
the vibration gas pressure. The
thefirst two components subject the engine chamber andof the
fuel-air mixture inanalysis
the cylinder CI engine,
is the main source excitation
of engineproduced by combustion
vibration. The pressure
gas pressure excitation is
all
fuel-air its connected
mixture components
in theofcylinder to the
is the main strong impact
source of
of enginedynamic loads,
vibration. which
The produces complex
mainly composed the compressing force, pressure increment generated bygas pressureand
combustion excitation
high is
mainly composed
frequency of theof
oscillation compressing force,
the gas pressure. Thepressure
first twoincrement
componentsgenerated
subject theby combustion
engine chamberandand high
all its connected components to the strong impact of dynamic loads, which produces complex
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 6 of 15

frequency oscillation of the gas pressure. The first two components subject the engine chamber and all
its connected components to the strong impact of dynamic loads, which produces complex vibration
response of engine body. The third component is generated mainly by the shock of gas pressure
oscillation due to the uneven distribution of temperature and pressure of the gas in the chamber during
Energies 2018, 11, x 6 of 15
the combustion process. These pressure waves undergo multiple reflections within the combustion
chamber to form
vibration a high-frequency
response of engine body. gasThepressure oscillation.is generated mainly by the shock of gas
third component
Combustion pressure in cylinder has
pressure oscillation due to the uneven distribution typical acoustic characteristics
of temperature whichofinvolves
and pressure the gas in abundant
the
time-domain and frequency-domain
chamber during the combustion process. information. For awaves
These pressure betterundergo
understanding of vibration
multiple reflections withinfeature
thewith
related combustion
combustion,chamber thetospectrum
form a high-frequency gas pressure
of the in-cylinder pressureoscillation.
would be analyzed. Subsequently,
the soundCombustion
pressure level pressure
(SPL)inspectrum
cylinder ofhasthe
typical acoustic
cylinder characteristics
pressure signal is which involves
calculated, andabundant
the reference
time-domain and frequency-domain information. For a better understanding
sound pressure is selected as 20 µPa. Figure 4 illustrates the comparison of the combustion of vibration feature
pressure
related with combustion, the spectrum of the in-cylinder pressure would be analyzed. Subsequently,
spectrum when using different fuels at 2000 rpm and 100 Nm. In the low frequency band of less than
the sound pressure level (SPL) spectrum of the cylinder pressure signal is calculated, and the
500 Hz, the amplitude decreases rapidly, which reflects the frequency characteristics of the smooth
reference sound pressure is selected as 20 μPa. Figure 4 illustrates the comparison of the combustion
curvepressure
of gas combustion pressure in the cylinder. The higher the peak pressure values in the cylinder,
spectrum when using different fuels at 2000 rpm and 100 Nm. In the low frequency band of
the greater the amplitude
less than 500 Hz, the amplitudeof the low frequency
decreases component
rapidly, becomes.
which reflects In the middle
the frequency frequency
characteristics of theband
of 500–4000 Hz, the
smooth curve decreasing
of gas combustion trend becomes
pressure slow, theThe
in the cylinder. amplitude
higher the decreases
peak pressure gradually
values inwith
the the
increase in thethe
cylinder, proportion
greater the of CFT, and the
amplitude difference
of the betweencomponent
low frequency each fuel is more obvious
becomes. than in the
In the middle
frequency band.
low frequency band of This500–4000
frequency Hz, band
the decreasing
reflects thetrend
peakbecomes
PRR value slow,of the
the amplitude decreases The
gas in the chamber.
higher the peak PRR value, the greater the energy in the middle frequency band becomes, is
gradually with the increase in the proportion of CFT, and the difference between each fuel asmore
shown in
obvious than in the low frequency band. This frequency band reflects
Figure 3a. In the high-frequency band above 4 kHz, the amplitude oscillation becomes strong, the peak PRR value of the gasand the
in the chamber. The higher the peak PRR value, the greater the energy in the middle frequency band
energy concentration phenomenon occurs approximately at the frequencies of 4–7, 13 and 16 kHz. The
becomes, as shown in Figure 3a. In the high-frequency band above 4 kHz, the amplitude oscillation
high-frequency components result from the cylinder pressure oscillation in the cylinder, which also
becomes strong, and the energy concentration phenomenon occurs approximately at the frequencies
reflects the maximum
of 4–7, 13 and 16 kHz. acceleration of combustion
The high-frequency pressure
components change.
result from the cylinder pressure oscillation
In
in conclusion,
the cylinder, combustion pressure
which also reflects the oscillation is the main of
maximum acceleration source of the high-frequency
combustion pressure change.component
of CI engine vibration. combustion
In conclusion, The strength of the oscillation
pressure pressure oscillation
is the mainissource
relatedoftothe thehigh-frequency
combustion PRR,
pressure rise acceleration,
component peak value
of CI engine vibration. of combustion
The strength pressure,
of the pressure and is
oscillation crank angle
related to thephases
combustionof these
threePRR, pressureThe
quantities. rise vibration
acceleration, peak value
caused of combustion
by pressure pressure,
oscillation willand crank angle
eventually be phases of theseto the
transmitted
enginethree quantities. The vibration caused by pressure oscillation will eventually be transmitted to the
surface.
engine
The surface. vibration of the engine is closely associated with the pressure change resulting
mechanical
The mechanical vibration of the engine is closely associated with the pressure change resulting
from the mixture combustion in chamber. At the same time, because of the damping effect of the
from the mixture combustion in chamber. At the same time, because of the damping effect of the
mechanical components on the gas pressure spectrum in the CI engine, the vibration spectrum caused
mechanical components on the gas pressure spectrum in the CI engine, the vibration spectrum caused
by combustion
by combustion is quite different
is quite fromfrom
different the SPLthe spectrum
SPL spectrumin theincylinder, but the
the cylinder, butlevel of theofSPL
the level the spectrum
SPL
has an important influence on the vibration signal of combustion. The
spectrum has an important influence on the vibration signal of combustion. The in-cylinderin-cylinder combustion pressure
of a CI engine is relatively high, and the vibration amplitude is also obvious.
combustion pressure of a CI engine is relatively high, and the vibration amplitude is also obvious.

Figure4.4.SPL
Figure SPLspectra for different
spectra for differentfuels.
fuels.
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 7 of 15

3.2. Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Signal

The excitations
Energies 2018, 11, x acting on the engine mechanical components will vary with the movement. 7 of 15 For
the engine head, the main excitation sources include the gas pressure shock, transient impact due
3.2. Time Domain Analysis of Vibration Signal
to seating of the intake and exhaust valves, and gas throttling shock during exhaust valve opening.
The excitations
These excitations act onacting on the engine
the engine head inmechanical
accordance components
with crank will vary with
angle. Under thethe
movement. For
steady operation
the engine
condition, the head, the main
excitation excitation
sources actingsources
on theinclude
enginethe gas pressure
block mainly shock,
include transient
the gasimpact
pressuredueshock
to in
seating of the intake and exhaust valves, and gas throttling shock during
the chamber, inertia force of the piston-connecting rod mechanism, and piston side thrust force. Under exhaust valve opening.
These excitations act on the engine head in accordance with crank angle. Under the steady operation
each test condition, the influence of other engine operating parameters on engine vibration is the same,
condition, the excitation sources acting on the engine block mainly include the gas pressure shock in
except for the difference of fuel type.
the chamber, inertia force of the piston-connecting rod mechanism, and piston side thrust force.
Figureeach
Under 5a,btest
show the time-domain
condition, the influence vibration signals
of other engine collected
operating from the
parameters onengine head andis block,
engine vibration
respectively, during one complete working
the same, except for the difference of fuel type. cycle at the speed of 2000 rpm and load of 10 Nm. In the
two figures,
Figurethe5a,b
vibration
show the of each cylindervibration
time-domain has beensignals
showncollected
according from to the
the engine
firing order.
head andTheblock,
amplitude
of the vibration signal
respectively, duringin thecomplete
one fourth cylinder
working is theatmaximum
cycle the speed compared
of 2000 rpmwith the other
and load threeIncylinders0
of 10 Nm. the
two the
because figures, the vibration
acceleration sensorofiseach cylinder
located close has been
to the shown
fourth according
cylinder. The to the order
firing firing of
order. Theengine
the test
amplitude
is 1-3-4-2-1, andof combined
the vibration withsignal in the timing
the valve fourth cylinder
angle, the is the maximum
sequence compared
of events with the
in Figure other left to
5a from
three cylinders0 because the acceleration sensor is located close to the fourth cylinder. The firing
right is that TDC of the first cylinder, exhaust valve closing (EVC) of the fourth cylinder, TDC of the
order of the test engine is 1-3-4-2-1, and combined with the valve timing angle, the sequence of events
third cylinder, inlet valve closing (IVC) of the fourth cylinder, TDC of the fourth cylinder, EVC of the
in Figure 5a from left to right is that TDC of the first cylinder, exhaust valve closing (EVC) of the
fourth cylinder, and TDC of the first cylinder. In practice, the vibration characteristic of these events
fourth cylinder, TDC of the third cylinder, inlet valve closing (IVC) of the fourth cylinder, TDC of the
can be altered
fourth whenEVC
cylinder, a failure
of theoccurs
fourth at a certain
cylinder, andposition,
TDC of the andfirst
thiscylinder.
failure can be identified
In practice, by detecting
the vibration
the change in theofphase
characteristic these and
eventsintensity arisingwhen
can be altered of abnormal vibration
a failure occurs signalposition,
at a certain from theand failure. Compared
this failure
withcan
petro-diesel,
be identified thebyinfluence
detectingofthe thechange
different combustion
in the phase andcharacteristics
intensity arising ofofalternative
abnormal fuel used in CI
vibration
engine on the
signal fromvibration
the failure.signal has a similar
Compared effect.
with petro-diesel, the influence of the different combustion
characteristics
The vibrationofamplitudes
alternative fuel usedother
of the in CI cylinders
engine on the vibration
decrease with signal
the has a similar
increase effect.
of distance from the
The vibration amplitudes of the other cylinders decrease with the
fourth cylinder in Figure 5a. From the vibration signal near the TDC of the fourth cylinder, increase of distance from thewhich
fourth cylinder in Figure
is approximately 350 ◦ CA, 5a. From the vibration signal near the TDC of the fourth cylinder, which is
it can be seen that with increasing CFT proportion, the amplitude of the
approximately 350 °CA, it can be seen that with increasing CFT proportion, the amplitude of the
vibration signal decreases. In summary, the application of CFT has the potential to reduce the vibration
vibration signal decreases. In summary, the application of CFT has the potential to reduce the
energy of a CI engine. The same conclusion can be obtained from the engine block vibration signal in
vibration energy of a CI engine. The same conclusion can be obtained from the engine block vibration
the time
signaldomain shown
in the time domainin Figure
shown 5b, which5b,
in Figure is which
approximately 540 ◦ CA.
is approximately 540 °CA.

① ③ ④ ② ①

(a ) ( b)
Figure 5. Engine vibration acceleration signal in time domain: (a) Head; (b) Block.
Figure 5. Engine vibration acceleration signal in time domain: (a) Head; (b) Block.
In order to intuitively compare the effects of blended fuel used in the engine on vibration
characteristic, RMS values compare
In order to intuitively of engine the
headeffects
and block vibrationfuel
of blended signals
used areinshown in Figure
the engine on 6a,b,
vibration
respectively,RMS
characteristic, which summarize
values the average
of engine head and RMSblock
values of vibration
vibration acceleration
signals signals
are shown for all 6a,b,
in Figure
blended fuels
respectively, which in the mentioned
summarize theoperation
averagecondition.
RMS valuesRMSofvalue is theacceleration
vibration root mean square of the
signals for signal
all blended
and is used to represent the energy in the signal. It can be clearly seen from the two figures that the
fuels in the mentioned operation condition. RMS value is the root mean square of the signal and is
change of the RMS value of the four fuels is almost the same under all operation conditions.
used to represent the energy in the signal. It can be clearly seen from the two figures that the change of
The RMS values show a rising trend as the load and speed increase. For higher loads and speeds,
the RMS value of the four fuels is almost the same under all operation conditions.
the engine combustion becomes more powerful, and the vibration is influenced by the changes in the
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 8 of 15

The RMS values show a rising trend as the load and speed increase. For higher loads and speeds,
the engine combustion becomes more powerful, and the vibration is influenced by the changes in the
high Energies
combustion
2018, 11,pressure
x in the chamber. The RMS value rises with the increase in CFT concentration 8 of 15
in diesel fuel, and the engine structure vibration is weakened. Therefore, although using CFT will
high combustion pressure in the chamber. The RMS value rises with the increase in CFT
reduce the engine power due to its lower LHV, the vibration energy is smaller. CFT helps to reduce
concentration in diesel fuel, and the engine structure vibration is weakened. Therefore, although
the vibration level of the vehicle, which could also be seen from the PRR curve in Figure 3. It also can
using CFT will reduce the engine power due to its lower LHV, the vibration energy is smaller. CFT
be seen from
helps Figurethe
to reduce 6 that the difference
vibration invehicle,
level of the RMS values
which of fouralso
could fuels
be is insignificant
seen under
from the PRR curvelow-load
in
operating
Figureconditions.
3. It also can be seen from Figure 6 that the difference in RMS values of four fuels is
CFT has a higher
insignificant CN and
under low-load a shorter
operating ignition delay period compared with petro-diesel. As
conditions.
proportion CFT of has
the apre-mixed
higher CNcombustion
and a shorter decreases, the PRR
ignition delay andcompared
period combustion withpressure peakAs
petro-diesel. values
proportion of the pre-mixed combustion decreases, the PRR and combustion pressure
drop, resulting in smoother combustion and less combustion-related excitation. Therefore, the fuel peak values
with drop,
high CN resulting in smoother in
is advantageous combustion and less combustion-related
reducing vibration. excitation.
In short, under the low speedTherefore,
and load thecondition,
fuel
with highofCN
the influence fuelis quality
advantageous in reducing
on engine vibrationvibration.
is small.InHowever,
short, under
under the the
lowhigh
speed and load
speed and load
condition, the influence of fuel quality on engine vibration is small. However, under the high speed
condition, CFT fuel for diesel engine will significantly reduce the vibration intensity of diesel engine.
and load condition, CFT fuel for diesel engine will significantly reduce the vibration intensity of
Therefore, according to the characteristics of CFT, the vibration of diesel engine can be reduced by
diesel engine. Therefore, according to the characteristics of CFT, the vibration of diesel engine can be
improving
reduced fuel quality. fuel quality.
by improving

2400 rpm
2000 rpm
2000 rpm
2400 rpm
1200 rpm 1600 rpm
1200 rpm 1600 rpm

(a ) ( b)
Figure 6. (a) RMS value of engine head vibration signal under different working conditions; (b) RMS
Figure 6. (a) RMS value of engine head vibration signal under different working conditions; (b) RMS
value of engine block vibration signal under different working conditions.
value of engine block vibration signal under different working conditions.
3.3. Frequency Domain Analysis of Vibration Signal
3.3. Frequency Domain Analysis of Vibration Signal
The frequency characteristic of the engine vibration signal is important for the NVH
performance
The frequency of characteristic
the vehicle, passengers, and drivers.
of the engine CI signal
vibration engine is
is important
rotary power formachinery, and the
the NVH performance
rotation of the parts supplies a certain excitation which generates
of the vehicle, passengers, and drivers. CI engine is rotary power machinery, and the an amplitude response in the engine
rotation
structure during normal operation. During a complete working cycle
of the parts supplies a certain excitation which generates an amplitude response in the engine (720°), the crankshaft rotates
two revolutions for the test engine. In each revolution (360°), combustion events happen twice, and
structure during normal operation. During a complete working cycle (720◦ ), the crankshaft rotates
intake and exhaust valve seating events happen once in each cylinder ◦ for the engine. For example,
two revolutions for the test engine. In each revolution (360 ), combustion events happen twice,
when the engine speed is 2000 rpm, the rotational frequency is 33.3 Hz, the frequency of combustion
and intake and exhaust valve seating events happen once in each cylinder for the engine. For
events is 66.6 Hz (2000/60/2 × 4 = 66.6 Hz), the frequency of valve seating events is 133.3 Hz (2000/60/2
example, when
× 8 = 133.3 Hz),theasengine
shown in speed
Figureis7a,b.
2000Therpm, the rotational
amplitude at the twofrequency
characteristicis frequencies
33.3 Hz, the frequency
(66.6 and
of combustion
133.3 Hz) isevents is 66.6
the largest, Hz (2000/60/2
indicating × 4 = 66.6
that combustion shockHz),
and the
valvefrequency of valve
seating impact seating
are the events is
two main
133.3excitation
Hz (2000/60/2sources× for8 the
= 133.3
engineHz), as shown in Figure 7a,b. The amplitude at the two characteristic
head.
frequencies (66.6 and 133.3 Hz) is thefrequency
In Figure 7b, a large amplitude at 333.3 Hz that
largest, indicating (10 times of rotational
combustion shockfrequency)
and valve can be
seating
observed
impact are theintwo addition
mainto the two characteristic
excitation sources for frequencies. Analysis of the forces on the engine body
the engine head.
suggests
In Figurethat 7b,the accelerometer
a large amplitude thatfrequency
measures engine
at 333.3block
Hz (10vibration
timesisofalso sensitivefrequency)
rotational to the piston can be
side thrust impact because the reciprocating motion of the piston assembly and the inertial forces
observed in addition to the two characteristic frequencies. Analysis of the forces on the engine body
resulting from combustion act in the horizontal direction. From the principles of CI engine dynamics
suggests that the accelerometer that measures engine block vibration is also sensitive to the piston side
[17], the frequency of the piston side thrust impact event during the up and down motion of the
thrustpiston
impact because
is 333.3 the reciprocating
Hz (2000/60/2 × 5 × 4 = motion
333.3 Hz). ofTherefore,
the pistonthisassembly
value isand the inertial forces
the characteristic resulting
frequency
from of
combustion act in the horizontal direction. From the principles of CI engine
the piston side thrust impact events during the up and down motion of the piston assembly. Figure dynamics [17], the
frequency of the piston side thrust impact event during the up and down
7b also indicates that the engine block mainly bears the action of three excitations: the combustion motion of the piston is
333.3pressure
Hz (2000/60/2
shock, valve × 5seating
× 4 = 333.3
impact,Hz).and Therefore, this value is the characteristic frequency of the
piston side thrust.
piston sideBesides,
thrust the amplitude
impact eventsofduring
the frequency
the up andat 333.3 Hz motion
down decreasesofsignificantly with the increase
the piston assembly. Figure in 7b also
CFT proportion
indicates that the engine as observed in Figurebears
block mainly 7b. This
the is because
action the piston
of three side thrust
excitations: theiscombustion
the result ofpressure
the
combination
shock, valve seating of the combustion
impact, force and
and piston sidethe reciprocating inertia force of the piston assembly. The
thrust.
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 9 of 15

Besides, the amplitude of the frequency at 333.3 Hz decreases significantly with the increase in
CFT proportion as observed in Figure 7b. This is because the piston side thrust is the result of the
combination of the combustion force and the reciprocating inertia force of the piston assembly.
Energies 2018, 11, x 9 of 15
The
inertia force is equivalent under the same speed, so the smaller the peak in-cylinder pressure (Figure 2),
the smaller the piston
inertia force side thrust,
is equivalent andsame
under the the speed,
smallersothe
the excitation
smaller theresponse amplitude.
peak in-cylinder pressure (Figure
2), the smaller the piston side thrust, and the smaller the excitation response amplitude.
It can be seen from the above analysis that there are differences among the main excitation forces
acting onItdifferent
can be seen from the
engine above
parts. In analysis that thereanalysis,
the subsequent are differences among the
the vibration of main excitationparts
the different forcesshould
acting on different engine parts. In the subsequent analysis, the vibration of the
be analyzed with due emphasis. The characteristic frequencies of the routine events in the engine different parts should
be analyzed with due emphasis. The characteristic frequencies of the routine events in the engine are
are not affected by the fuel combustion behavior in the cylinder. However, the combustion of fuel
not affected by the fuel combustion behavior in the cylinder. However, the combustion of fuel in the
in the chamber will directly affect the combustion excitation force and the piston side thrust force,
chamber will directly affect the combustion excitation force and the piston side thrust force, which
which affect
affect the the dynamic
dynamic response
response and high-frequency
and high-frequency radiationradiation noise
noise of the of the
engine. engine.
Varying the Varying
engine the
engine
condition will change the frequency and amplitude of the corresponding frequency in the spectrumin the
condition will change the frequency and amplitude of the corresponding frequency
spectrum
diagram.diagram.

① ② ① ② ③

66.6 Hz 133.3 Hz 66.6 Hz 133.3 Hz 333.3 Hz

(a ) ( b)
Figure 7. Low frequency band of engine vibration: (a) Head; (b) Block.
Figure 7. Low frequency band of engine vibration: (a) Head; (b) Block.
3.3.1. Engine Head Vibration Signal Analysis
3.3.1. Engine Head Vibration Signal Analysis
In order to study the influence of CFT and CFT blends on the vibration characteristics of CI
In orderthe
engine, toamplitude
study the spectrum
influence curve
of CFT ofand
the CFT
engine blends
head on the vibration
vibration signal atcharacteristics
a rotational speedof CIofengine,
the amplitude
2000 rpm and spectrum
load of 100curveNmof asthe
shownengine head 5a
in Figure vibration
is obtainedsignal at afast
by the rotational speed of 2000 rpm
Fourier transformation
and (FFT).
load of The
100 transformation
Nm as shown results are in Figure
in Figure 8. The frequency
5a is obtained bandFourier
by the fast of vibration acceleration of
transformation the The
(FFT).
engine head is relatively wide. There are high amplitudes in the frequency
transformation results are in Figure 8. The frequency band of vibration acceleration of the engine head range of 1~9 kHz and
approximately
is relatively wide. 13 and 16
There arekHz.
highCombined
amplitudes withinthetheSPL spectrumrange
frequency of the of
combustion
1~9 kHz and pressure curve
approximately
in Figure 4, it is found from Figure 8 that there are four frequency components in the highlighted
13 and 16 kHz. Combined with the SPL spectrum of the combustion pressure curve in Figure 4, it is
response area: 5, 6.48, 13.2 and 16 kHz, which are the dynamic response frequencies of engine head
found from Figure 8 that there are four frequency components in the highlighted response area: 5, 6.48,
induced by combustion.
13.2 and In16 order
kHz, to which are the
facilitate dynamic response
the identification frequencies
and analysis of engine
of the time head
at which induced by
a particular combustion.
frequency
In order to facilitate the identification and analysis of the time at which
event occurs, a continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) is applied to the raw acceleration signal a particular frequency
of
eventthe engine head (as shown in Figure 5a) is shown in 2D in Figure 9. The mother wavelet used by thesignal
occurs, a continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) is applied to the raw acceleration
of the engine headis(as
transformation theshown
Morlet,inand Figure 5a) is contents
the critical shown in are2D in Figure
clearly 9. Theby
highlighted mother
the CWT wavelet used by
analysis.
For the subsequent
the transformation analysis,
is the Morlet, valve-close
and the timing
criticalinformation
contents are is also indicated
clearly because,by
highlighted compared
the CWTwith analysis.
exhaust
For the valve opening
subsequent (EVO)valve-close
analysis, and inlet valve opening
timing (IVO), the dominant
information response isbecause,
is also indicated still caused by
compared
the combined IVC and EVC [32]. At 360 °CA, the prominent response
with exhaust valve opening (EVO) and inlet valve opening (IVO), the dominant response is stillenergy areas are in frequencies
of 5, 6.48, 13.2, and 16 kHz. These four frequencies are the excitation responses of the combustion and
caused by the combined IVC and EVC [32]. At 360 ◦ CA, the prominent response energy areas are
pressure oscillation from the time-frequency distribution. The response energy area at the frequency
in frequencies of 5, 6.48, 13.2, and 16 kHz. These four frequencies are the excitation responses of the
content of 5 kHz remains basically unchanged for all fuels, but the response energy areas of the other
combustion and pressure
three frequency contents oscillation
are weaken from thethe
with time-frequency
increase in CFTdistribution.
proportion. TheTheprincipal
responsefrequency
energy area at
the frequency content of 5 kHz remains basically unchanged for all fuels,
content induced by the combustion pressure impact is approximately 5 kHz; meanwhile, the but the response energy
high- areas
of the other three
frequency frequency
response energycontents are weaken
is significantly reduced, with the increase
especially aroundin CFT
6.48 proportion.
kHz, when blended Thefuels
principal
frequency content induced by the combustion pressure impact is approximately 5 kHz; meanwhile, the
are burned.
high-frequency response energy is significantly reduced, especially around 6.48 kHz, when blended
fuels are burned.
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 10 of 15
Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 15
Energies 2018, 11, x 10 of 15

① ② ③ ④ ⑤
① ② ③ ④ ⑤

Figure 8. Frequency domain curve of cylinder head vibration acceleration.

Figure 8. Frequency
Figure 8. Frequencydomain
domaincurve
curve of cylinderhead
of cylinder headvibration
vibration acceleration.
acceleration.

16 kHz
16 kHz
Ⅱ Ⅰ
Ⅱ Ⅰ D100
D100
① ③ ④ ② ①
① ③ ④ ② ①
13.2 kHz
13.2 kHz FT10
6.48 kHz FT10
6.48 kHz

EVC-4 EVC-1 EVC-3

EVC-4 EVC-2 EVC-1
EVC-2 EVC-3 FT30
IVC-2 FT30
IVC-4
IVC-3 IVC-4 IVC-2 IVC-1
IVC-3 IVC-1

FT100
5.0 kHz FT100
5.0 kHz

Figure 9. CWT transformation of engine head vibration signal.

Figure 9. CWT transformation of engine head vibration signal.
Figure 9. CWT transformation of engine head vibration signal.
3.3.2. Engine Block Vibration Signal Analysis
3.3.2. Engine Block Vibration Signal Analysis
3.3.2. Engine
The Block Vibration
amplitude spectrum Signal Analysis
curve of the engine block vibration signal (shown in Figure 5b) is
The amplitude spectrum curve of the engine block vibration signal (shown in Figure 5b) is
obtained by FFT transformation, and the transformation result is shown in Figure 10. It is evident
The amplitude
obtained spectrum curve
by FFT transformation, andofthe
thetransformation
engine blockresult
vibration signal
is shown (shown
in Figure inisFigure
10. It evident5b) is
that the engine block vibration is mainly distributed in the frequency band below 8 kHz. The
obtained
that by
the FFT
frequency transformation,
engine
bands
block vibration
of engine block andis the transformation
mainly
vibration
distributed result
in the is
acceleration is showninin2.5–3.5,
frequency
concentrated Figure
band 10.and
below
4–5 It
8 is evident
kHz.
6–7 kHz. that
The
frequency
the engine blockbands of engine
vibration is block vibration
mainly acceleration
distributed in the is concentrated
frequency bandin below
2.5–3.5,84–5
kHz.andThe6–7frequency
kHz.
Due to its complexity, different parts of the CI engine have different response frequencies and modal
bands Due
of to its complexity,
engine block different parts of the CIisengine
vibration have different response4–5frequencies and modal
frequencies. The first frequencyacceleration concentrated
band in the signal spectrum ofinthe2.5–3.5, andis6–7
block vibration notkHz. Due
obvious in to its
frequencies.
complexity, The
different first
partsfrequency
of head
the CIband in the
engine The signal spectrum
haveamplitude of the
differentofresponse block vibration
frequencies is not obvious in
the signal spectrum of the vibration. three frequency bandsandtendsmodal frequencies.
to a decrease
the signal spectrum of the head vibration. The amplitude of three frequency bands tends to a decrease
withfrequency
The first the increase in CFT.
band in the Meanwhile, the amplitude
signal spectrum corresponding
of the block vibration to isFT10
not at a frequency
obvious in theofsignal
with the increase in CFT. Meanwhile, the amplitude corresponding to FT10 at a frequency of
spectrum of the head vibration. The amplitude of three frequency bands tends to a decrease with the
increase in CFT. Meanwhile, the amplitude corresponding to FT10 at a frequency of approximately
6.5 kHz is higher than that of petro-diesel. Combined with the conclusions from the analysis of engine
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 11 of 15
Energies 2018, 11, x 11 of 15
Energies 2018, 11, x 11 of 15

approximately
headapproximately 6.5 kHz is higher
vibration acceleration, than
it can be that of petro-diesel.
speculated Combined with
that the frequency bandtheat conclusions
5 and 7 kHzfrommaythebe the
6.5 kHz is higher than that of petro-diesel. Combined with the conclusions from the
analysis
response to of
the engine head
combustion vibration
event acceleration,
excitation. it can be speculated that the frequency band at 5 and
analysis of engine head vibration acceleration, it can be speculated that the frequency band at 5 and
7 kHz may be the response to the combustion event excitation.
To verify
7 kHz maythe above
be the speculation,
response the time-frequency
to the combustion transformation of the vibration signal as
event excitation.
To verify the above speculation, the time-frequency transformation of the vibration signal as
shown inTo Figure
verify5bthe
is above
carriedspeculation,
out, and the theresult is shown transformation
time-frequency in 2D in Figure of11.
theThe vibration
vibration response
signal as
shown in Figure 5b is carried out, and the result is shown in 2D in Figure 11. The vibration response
◦ CA
of theshown in Figure 5b isnear
carried out, and theposition
result is shown in 2Danalyzed
in Figure because,
11. The vibration
of the second cylinder near the 540 °CA position is mainly analyzed because, as the engine blockblock
second cylinder the 540 is mainly as the response
engine
of
vibrationtheaccelerometer
second cylinderhas near the 540 °CAdistance
a minimum position from
is mainly analyzed
thesecond because, as
secondcylinder,
cylinder, the engine block
vibration accelerometer has a minimum distance from the thethe vibration
vibration response
response
energyvibration
at 540 accelerometer
◦ CA is the has
largest.a minimum distance from the second cylinder, the vibration response
energy at 540 °CA is the largest.
energy at 540 °CA is the largest.

① ② ③
① ② ③

Figure 10. Frequency domain curve of engine block vibration acceleration.

Figure Frequency
10.10.
Figure Frequencydomain
domaincurve of engine
curve of engineblock
blockvibration
vibration acceleration.
acceleration.

6.65 kHz Ⅳ
6.65 kHz Ⅳ
Ⅴ D100
Ⅲ Ⅴ D100
Ⅲ

FT10
4.6 kHz FT10
4.6 kHz
① ③ ④ ② ①
① ③ ④ ② ①

FT30
FT30
3.0 kHz
3.0 kHz

FT100
FT100

Figure 11. CWT transformation of engine block vibration signal.

Figure 11. CWT transformation of engine block vibration signal.
Figure 11. CWT transformation of engine block vibration signal.
At the frequency of 6.7 kHz, there are two highlighted response energy areas at 180 °CA and
At the frequency of 6.7 kHz, there are two highlighted response energy areas at 180 °CA and
540 °CA for petrodiesel fuel, and the one that is closer to the TDC is caused by the combustion
At
540the
°CAfrequency of 6.7fuel,
for petrodiesel kHz, andthere are two
the one highlighted
that is closer to theresponse energyby
TDC is caused areas at 180 ◦ CA and
the combustion
◦excitation. It is found from the longitudinal comparison of response energy of the two positions for
540 excitation.
CA for petrodiesel fuel,the
It is found from and the one that
longitudinal is closer
comparison of to the TDC
response is caused
energy by positions
of the two the combustion
for
different fuels, that the response areas are weakened rapidly with the increase in CFT proportion.
different
excitation. fuels, thatfrom
the response areas are weakened rapidly with the energy
increaseofinthe
CFTtwo proportion.
The right-side highlighted response energy area at 6.7 kHz should be the piston side thrust impact for
It is found the longitudinal comparison of response positions
different right-side
The fuels, that highlighted response
the response areasenergy area at 6.7 kHz
are weakened should
rapidly be the
with the piston
increasesideinthrust
CFT impact
proportion.
The right-side highlighted response energy area at 6.7 kHz should be the piston side thrust impact
response, which weakens with the increase in CFT proportion. However, its attenuation is not as
fast as the left-side one caused by the combustion excitation. Therefore, the response area is driven
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 12 of 15
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response,
by the which
piston side weakens
thrust with the
impact. Theincrease
piston in CFTthrust
side proportion. However,
is affected its attenuation
by combustion is not as fast
excitation to some
as the left-side one caused by the combustion excitation. Therefore, the response area is
degree, and the block vibration accelerometer is more sensitive to the piston slap events, so that driven by thea clear
piston side thrust impact. The piston side thrust is affected by combustion excitation to some degree,
piston side thrust response area could still be seen, while under the same conditions, the response area
and the block vibration accelerometer is more sensitive to the piston slap events, so that a clear piston
driven by combustion was relatively weak. In addition, the frequency bands around 3 and 4.6 kHz are
side thrust response area could still be seen, while under the same conditions, the response area
combustion excitation responses as the highlighted response area is closer to TDC.
driven by combustion was relatively weak. In addition, the frequency bands around 3 and 4.6 kHz
are combustion excitation responses as the highlighted response area is closer to TDC.
3.3.3. Evaluation of Vibration Signals for Diesel-CFT Fuel Blends
3.3.3.numbers
The Evaluation I, IIofmarked
Vibration in Signals
Figure for Diesel-CFT
9 and III, IV, VFuel Blends
marked in Figure 10 represent the main vibration
events related to combustion.
The numbers I, II marked I isincaused
Figure 9by andtheIII,vibration
IV, V marked energy of combustion
in Figure 10 representpressure-driven
the main
high-frequency oscillation
vibration events related for the engine head.
to combustion. II denotes
I is caused the mainenergy
by the vibration response induced by
of combustion combustion
pressure-
driven
pressure forhigh-frequency
the engine head. oscillation
III andfor IV
the represent
engine head. twoII main
denotes the mainresponses
vibration response induced
excited byby the
combustion pressure for the engine head. III and IV represent two main
combustion pressure on the engine block. V signifies the response inspired by the piston side thrust vibration responses excited
forcebyonthe combustion
engine block.pressure
The RMS on values
the engine block.
of the fiveV marked
signifies the response inspired
time-frequency by were
areas the piston side
calculated in
thrust force on engine block. The RMS values of the five marked time-frequency areas were calculated
order to ascertain the effects of the blended fuel on the areas, and the results are shown in Figure 12.
in order to ascertain the effects of the blended fuel on the areas, and the results are shown in Figure
It
12.
can be perceived that the response energy of each area attends to decrease with the increase
of CFT proportion, overall.thatBut
It can be perceived thethe RMS-Ienergy
response of FT30 is significantly
of each area attends toless than the
decrease withvalue of II. This
the increase
means that proportion,
of CFT the vibration response
overall. But theofRMS-I
FT30ofisFT30greater around 5.5
is significantly kHz,
less thanwhile theofvibration
the value response
II. This means
aroundthat14thekHz is smaller.
vibration response Compared
of FT30 is withgreaterFT100,
aroundthe 5.5 combustion
kHz, while the ofvibration
FT30 is response
more powerfularound due
to the14higher heatingCompared
kHz is smaller. value. Moreover,
with FT100,the thecombustion
combustion ofofFT30 FT30 presents
is more onlydue
powerful moderate concerns
to the higher
heating value. Moreover, the combustion of FT30 presents only
regarding the atomization [30] because CFT is more volatile relative to D100. So, FT30 generatesmoderate concerns regarding thefewer
atomization [30] because CFT is more volatile relative to D100. So,
high-frequency contents. In addition, the RMS of FT10 is maximum for V. It may be that the addition FT30 generates fewer high-
frequency contents. In addition, the RMS of FT10 is maximum for V. It may be that the addition of a
of a small proportion of CFT has less impact on the cylinder pressure. However, it may weaken the
small proportion of CFT has less impact on the cylinder pressure. However, it may weaken the
attenuation effect on the side thrust of the piston by diluting the oil film due to its low viscosity [33].
attenuation effect on the side thrust of the piston by diluting the oil film due to its low viscosity [33].
Thus,Thus,
the accelerometer could receive more excitation energy induced by the piston side thrust force.
the accelerometer could receive more excitation energy induced by the piston side thrust force.
For other blended
For other blendedfuels, RMS-V
fuels, RMS-Vvalues valuesdecrease
decrease withwiththe theincrease
increase inin
CFTCFT proportion
proportion suchsuch that the
that the
effecteffect
of cylinder pressure
of cylinder pressurereduction
reduction ononthe
theside
sidethrust
thrust is is more
moresignificant.
significant.

4.6 kHz
6.65 kHz

14 kHz
5.5 kHz

Figure 12. RMS of the five marked areas in CWT diagrams.

Figure 12. RMS of the five marked areas in CWT diagrams.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this study, the combustion and vibration characteristics of a CI engine using CFT blended
In thiswere
fuels study, the combustion
investigated. and
The four vibration
fuels used arecharacteristics of aand
diesel, 10%, 30%, CI 70%
engine
CFTusing CFT blended
in petro-diesel, and fuels
were pure CFT, respectively.
investigated. The fourAfuels
four-cylinder
used areengine
diesel,was operated
10%, at loads
30%, and 70% of 10,in
CFT 50,petro-diesel,
100, 150, andand
200 pure
(except 1200 rpm) Nm loads and speeds of 1200, 1600, 2000, and 2400 rpm.
CFT, respectively. A four-cylinder engine was operated at loads of 10, 50, 100, 150, and 200 (except
1200 rpm) Nm loads and speeds of 1200, 1600, 2000, and 2400 rpm.
The peak values of the combustion pressure and PRR decrease with the increase in CFT proportion.
The phases of peak value and ignition timing also advance gradually. There are three frequency
Energies 2018, 11, 2043 13 of 15

contents of energy concentration caused by cylinder pressure oscillation at approximately 4–7, 13, and
16 kHz from the SPL pressure spectrum.
Maximum amplitudes of vibration signals of the engine head and block in the time domain reduce
with the increase of CFT proportion. RMSs of the signals enlarge with the increase of rotational speed,
increasing at first and then decreasing as the load is augmented. RMSs reduce with the increase of CFT
proportion under most operation conditions.
The frequency components of head vibration signals are abundant and the responses induced
by combustion are quite notable. There are four frequency contents at 5, 6.48, 13.2 and 16 kHz from
the spectrogram and CWT diagram. The highlighted areas in the CWT diagram of the larger three
frequency contents are weaken with the increase in CFT proportion, and the highlighted area at
5 kHz is basically unchanged. The engine head vibration signal is more sensitive to high-frequency
combustion excitation.
The frequency component of block vibration signal is mainly distributed below 8 kHz. There are
three frequency contents around 3, 4.6 and 6.65 kHz in spectrogram and CWT diagrams. The left-side
highlighted areas of 6.65 kHz and the responses of frequency contents at 3 and 4.6 kHz are related to
combustion excitation, and these responses are weakened rapidly with the increase in CFT proportion.
The right-side highlighted area of 6.65 kHz is impacted by the piston side thrust. These responses are
also weakened with increasing in the CFT proportion, except for FT10.
In brief, CFT has the ability to reduce CI engine vibration. The results and conclusion of this study
can pave the way for the optimal design and development of fuel blends based on vibration analysis.

Author Contributions: The contributions of the individual authors to this research work are as follows:
T.W. designed the bench test for measuring the vibration signals; T.Y., J.S. and X.S. performed the experiments; T.Y.
and G.L. analyzed the data; T.Y. reviewed previous research work and wrote the paper.
Acknowledgments: Thanks are due to Ruiliang Zhang, Zhifei Wu, Jing Peng, and Zhen Zhao of the Taiyuan
University of Technology for the valuable discussions, and to Fengshou Gu of the University of Huddersfield for
his help with the data processing method.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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