Sociocultural approach

The individual and behaviour

Content Research and theories

Ethics of sociocultural approach
Research methods in sociocultural research
Social Identity Theory
Social Cognitive (Learning) Theory
Stereotypes
Deception:, Berry (1967), Tajfel (1970)
Undue stress or harm: Asch (1951),
Bandura (1961)
Experiments: Abrams et al (1990);
Bandura (1961),
Observations: Festinger (1956)
Tajfel (1970); Abrams et al (1990),
Bandura (1961), Charlton et al (2002), Joy,
Kimball and Zabrack (1986).
Origin:
Rogers & Frantz (1961)
Hamilton and Gifford (1976)
Effect:
Steele & Aronson (1995)
Focus on memory distortion: Martin &
Halvorson;

Cultural origins of behaviour and cognition

Content
Cultural dimensions
Effect of culture on behaviour
Effect of culture on cognition
Research and theories
Individualism vs. collectivism: Berry (1967)
(conformity); Kulkofsky et al (2011)
(Flashbulb memory)
Berry (1967) on conformity. Kulkofsky et al
(2011) on flashbulb memory
Kulkofsky et al (2011); Kearins (1981) ,
Cole and Scribner (1974)

Enculturation: Fagot (1978), Hilliard and Liben (2010)

Acculturation: Lueck and Wilson (2010), Miranda and Matheny (2000)

 These two studies are good for comparing methods, with one using an interview and the
other an online questionnaire

Globalization – HL only:

effects on mental health: Ogihara & Uchida (2014); Norasakkunkit & Uchida (2014); Becker et
al (2002);

effect on tolerance/attitudes towards foreigners: Chiu et al (2009); Novotny and Polonsky

(2011); Ariely (2011)

Cognitive approach
Studies for cognitive processes
Memory models: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966), HM: Milner (1966), Landry and Bartling (2011),
Baddeley and Hitch (1974), KF: Warrington and Shallice (1974).

 Remember, students may be asked an SAQ specifically for the Working Memory Model
or the Multi-store model.
 If students have an essay on memory models, they may use the MSM, WMM, Schema
theory, Levels of Processing, or Flashbulb memory.
Schema theory: Brewer & Treyens (1981), Martin and Halverson (1983)

Thinking and decision-making models: Englich and Mussweiler (2001), Tversky and
Kahneman (1986), Tversky and Kahneman (1974), Wason (1968)

 The question is about models, so the Dual Process Model is appropriate here. Any study
above may be used to answer a question on a model, but they must be linked to the
model - that is, the student needs to show the difference between system 1 and system 2
thinking in the study and if asked to explain, you need to explain why the people in the
study use system 1 rather than system 2 thinking.
Intuitive vs rational thinking: Englich and Mussweiler (2001), Tversky and Kahenman
(1986), Tversky and Kahneman (1974), Wason (1968)

 Once again, the same studies as above - but here you need to distinguish between the
two types of thinking in their response. Why don't they use rational thinking instead of
intuitive thinking?

Studies for the reliability of cognitive processes

Reconstructive memory: Bahrick et al (1975), Loftus & Palmer (1974), Loftus & Pickrell
(1995), Yuille & Cutshall (1986), Neisser & Harsch (1992), Martin and Halverson (1983)

 You need to be able to explain the process of reconstructive memory; this is based on
schema theory.
 Remember, reliability implies no change over time. Brewer and Treyens (1981) is not
highly relevant to this question.
Biases in thinking and decision-making: Englich and Mussweiler (2001), Tversky and
Kahenman (1986), Tversky and Kahneman (1974)

 These are the same studies as above in "cognitive processes." The difference here is
that the cognitive bias must be identified and explained - and not just the model on which
the study is based.

Studies for the effect of emotion on cognition

You only need to focus on one cognitive process - memory or decision-making.

Effect on memory: Brown & Kulik (1977), Kulkofsky et al (2011), Sharot et al (2007), Yuille
& Cutshall (1986), McGaugh & Cahill (1995)

 95% of candidates worldwide will focus on Flashbulb memory. This concept can also be
linked to the HL extension below.
Effect on decision-making: Bechara et al (1999), De Martino et al (2006)

HL Extension: Technology and cognition

The exam may ask one of four questions. There is some clear overlap.

1. Discuss the influence of digital technology on one or more cognitive processes.

2. Discuss positive/negative effects of modern technology on cognitive processes.
3. Discuss research methods used to study the interaction between digital technology and
cognitive processes.
4. Discuss the role of digital technology on emotion and cognition.
Positive effects of technology: Bavelier et al (2011); Glass, Maddow and Love (2013),
Blacker et al (2014), McAvinue et al (2013)

Negative effects of technology: Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014), Sparrow (2011), Storm et
al (2016), Rosen et al (2011)