List of studies

PAPER 1
COGNITIVE APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOUR
Studies for Cognitive Processes
Memory models: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966), HM: Milner (1966), Landry and Bartling
(2011), Baddeley and Hitch (1974), KF: Warrington and Shallice (1974).

 Students may be asked an SAQ specifically for the Working Memory Model or the
Multi-store model.
 If students have an essay on memory models, they may use the MSM, WMM or Levels
of Processing.

Schema theory: Bartlett (1932), Brewer & Treyens (1981), Anderson &
Pitchert (1977), Martin and Halverson (1983)
Thinking and decision-making models: Englich and Mussweiler (2001), Tversky and
Kahenman (1986), Tversky and Kahneman (1974), Wason (1968); Stroop (1935)

 The question is about models, so the Dual Process Model is appropriate here. Any study
above may be used to answer a question on a model, but they must be linked to the model
- that is, the student needs to show the difference between system 1 and system 2 thinking
in the study and if asked to explain, they need to explain why the people in the study use
system 1 rather than system 2 thinking.

Intuitive vs rational thinking: Englich and Mussweiler (2001), Tversky and Kahenman
(1986), Tversky and Kahneman (1974), Wason (1968)

 Once again, the same studies as above - but here students need to distinguish between the
two types of thinking in their response. Why don't they use rational thinking instead of
intuitive thinking?
 Since this is a possible question, it makes sense to teach the Dual Process Model rather
than the other models listed in the guide.

Studies for the reliability of cognitive processes

Reconstructive memory: Bahrick et al (1975), Bartlett (1932), Loftus & Palmer

(1974), Loftus & Pickrell (1995), Yuille & Cutshall (1986), Neisser & Harsch
(1992), Martin and Halverson (1983)

 Students need to be able to explain the process of reconstructive memory; this is based on
schema theory.
 Remember, reliability implies no change over time. Brewer and Treyens (1981) is not
highly relevant to this question.

Biases in thinking and decision-making: Englich and Mussweiler (2001), Tversky and
Kahneman (1986), Tversky and Kahneman (1974)
 List of studies

 These are the same studies as above in "cognitive processes." The difference here is that
the cognitive bias must be identified and explained - and not just the model on which the
study is based.he effect of emotion on cognition

Studies for the effect of emotion on cognition

Students only need to focus on one cognitive process - memory or decision-making.
Effect on memory: Brown & Kulik (1977), Kulkofsky et al (2011), Sharot et al
(2007), Yuille & Cutshall (1986), McGaugh & Cahill (1995)

 95% of candidates worldwide will focus on Flashbulb memory. This concept can also be
linked to the HL extension below.

Effect on decision-making: Bechara et al (1999), De Martino et al (2006)

HL Extension: Technology and cognition

Positive effects of technology: Bavelier et al (2011); Glass, Maddow and Love

(2013), Blacker et al (2014), McAvinue et al (2013)
Negative effects of technology: Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014), Sparrow (2011), Storm
et al (2016), Rosen et al (2011)
Research methods: Questionnaire: Chen and Peng (2008); Experiments: Mueller and
Oppenheimer (2014), Sparrow (2011)
Technology, emotion, and cognition: Schaefer et al (2011); Hirst et al (2008); Talorico et al
(2017); Gandolphe and El Haj (2016); Ahern et al (2002).

HOW TO STUDY?

Preparing students for SAQs

Loftus & Palmer: Schema Theory, Reconstructive memory, research method and ethical
considerations in cognitive processes and reliability of cognition
Glanzer and Cunitz (1996): Multi store model, models of memory, research methods
Landry and Bartling: Working Memory Model, Models of memory, research methods
Brown & Kulik (1977): Emotions and Cognitive (flashbulb memory theory), Research
methods and ethical considerations in investigating the role of emotions of memory
Tversky and Kahneman (Anchoring bias): Thinking and Decision Making, Rational or
Intuitive thinking, Cognitive Biases, Research Method in Cognitive Processes and Reliability
of Cognition.
Sample strategy: 5 studies

Preparing students for ERQs

 List of studies

Memory models: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966), HM: Milner (1966), Landry and Bartling
(2011)
Schema theory: Loftus & Palmer (1974), Brewer & Treyens (1981)
Thinking and decision making/Cognitive biases: Englich and Mussweiler
(2001), Tversky and Kahenman (1986)
Reconstructive memory: Yuille & Cutshall (1986), Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Flashbulb memory: Brown & Kulik (1977), McGaugh & Cahill (1995)
Total studies: 10 studies

Preparing students for the HL extension

When students are preparing for the HL extension, students may focus on any of the
cognitive processes. Please note that learning, empathy, and depression, although they have
cognitive aspects, are not in and of themselves cognitive processes and do not earn marks on
the IB exam for these questions.
Question clarifications:

 It is not 100% clear whether the exam will always ask "positive and/or negative
effects." It is, therefore, important that students are able to discuss both.

Sample strategy for CAUB HL extension

1. Discuss the influence of digital technology on one or more cognitive processes: Mueller
and Oppenheimer (2014), Sparrow (2011)
2. Discuss negative effects of modern technology on cognitive processes. Mueller and
Oppenheimer (2014), Sparrow (2011)
3. Discuss positive effects of modern technology on cognitive processes. Blacker et al
(2014), McAvinue et al (2013)
4. Discuss research methods used to study the interaction between digital technology and
cognitive processes. Experiment: Mueller and Oppenheimer
(2014), Questionnaire: Chen and Peng (2008)
5. Discuss the role of digital technology on emotion and cognition. Hirst et al (2008);
Talorico et al (2017)
Total studies: 7 studies
Studies for the brain and behaviour
 List of studies

Biological Approach to Understanding Behaviour

Studies for the brain and behaviour
Techniques: MRI: Draganski (2004), HM: Milner (1966); LeVay (1991), Maguire
(2000) fMRI: Antonova (2011), Harris & Fiske (2006), Sharot et al (2007)

 The guide indicates that students need to be able to discusss one technique. The IB
considers MRI and fRMI to separate techniques.

Localization of function: HM: Milner (1966), LeVay (1991), Maguire (2000), Sharot et
al (2007)
Neuroplasticity: Draganski (2004), Maguire (2000), Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond
(1972)

 It is important that any study of neuroplasticity is linked to behaviour. Studies of cortical

mapping are not accepted on the exam.
 Students may be asked about the formation of neural networks and neural pruning.

Neurotransmission: Antonova (2011), Prevot et al (2019), Rogers & Kesner

(2003), Troster and Beatty (1989), Leyton et al (2013), studies of serotonin and
depression

 Although it is true that some hormones can "function as neurotransmitters," the IB does
not accept hormones for this question. Students must use an actual neurotransmitter to
answer the question.
 It is best for students to uses human research for this question, but it is not required. If
they use non-human research, they must make a link to human behaviour.
 Students may be asked about agonists (SAQ only): An agonist is any chemical that
causes receptor sites to lead the firing of a neuron. Any study with a neurotransmitter (an
endogenous agonist) may be used. Letyon et al (2013) is also a study of an agonist.
 Students may be asked about antagonists (SAQ only): Scopolamine is an antagonist for
acetylcholine. Any of the above studies that use scopolamine may be used.
 Students may be asked about inhibitory and excitatory synapses (SAQ only): The
question will always allow students to choose between inhibitory and excitatory
synapses. All studies of acetylcholine are excitatory.

Studies for hormones and pheromones

Hormones: Adrenaline: McGaugh & Cahill (1995); Cortisol: Newcomer et al
(1999), Meaney et al (1988); Oxytocin: Baumgartner et al (2008); Testosterone: Zak
(2009)
Pheromones: Zhou (2014), Wedekind (1995), Doucet et al (2009)
 List of studies

Studies for genetics

Genetic similarity: Bailey & Pillard (1990), Weissman et al (2005), Sorensen et al
(1992), Holland et al (1988), Kendler et al (2006)

 The exam may ask for one twin or kinship (family) study as an SAQ.

Genes and behaviour: Bailey & Pillard (1990), Weissman et al (2005), Sorensen et al
(1992), Holland et al (1988), Kendler et al (2006), Caspi et al (2003), Shmelkov et al.
(2010)

 The guide states that students should know the effect of one gene. Genes to consider are
listed below.
o 5HTT - the serotonin transporter gene (SERT) - Caspi et al (2003)
o Quervain et al (2012) and the α2b-adrenoceptor gene for Flashbulb memory.
o Zeeland et al (2014) and the EPHX2 gene and anorexia
o Farooqi and O'Rahilly (2006) and a mutation of a gene encoding POMC
(proopiomelanocortin) and obesity
o Ponce et al (2008) and the DRD2 A1 allele in alcoholism

Evolution: Wedekind (1995); Ronay and von Hippel (2010), Shackelford and Larsen
(1997), Buss (1989), Raleigh et al (1984), Raison et al (2013)

 It is important to remember that studies of evolution are not studies of genetics. They
make an assumption that behaviour is inherited, but they do not directly study this.

HL Extension: Animal research

The exam may ask one of two questions - but each question may be combined with either
"the brain and behaviour", "hormones", or "genetics."
Animal research by topic (HL)
Brain and behaviour: Rogers and Kesner (2003); Rosenzweig, Bennett and Diamond
(1972)
Hormones and pheromones: Meaney (1988); Sapolsky et al (1990)
Genetics: Shmelkov et al. (2010), Cases et al (1995)

HOW TO STUDY?

Preparing students for SAQs

Draganski 2004: Brain Imaging techniques, formation of neural networks, neural pruning
Maguire (2000): Brain imaging techniques, localisation, Neuroplasticity
Martinez and Kesner/Antonova: Neurotransmitters, Agonist, Antagonist, Excitatory
Synapses, RM
Newcomer et al: Hormones, RM and Ethics
Wedekind et al: Pheromones and Evolutionary theory (sexual selection)
 List of studies

Kendler et al: Twin studies and genetic similarities

Weissman et al (2005): Kinship/Family studies and genetic similarities
Caspi et al (2003): Role of one gene, RM, ethics
Sample strategy: 8 studies

Preparing students for ERQs

Techniques: Draganski (2004), Maguire (2000)
Localization: HM: Milner (1966), Maguire (2000)
Neuroplasticity: Draganski (2004), Maguire (2000)
Neurotransmission: Rogers & Kesner (2003), Troster and Beatty (1989)
Hormones: Newcomer et al (1999), Meaney et al (1988)
Pheromones: Zhou (2014), Wedekind (1995)
Genetic similarity: Kendler et al (2006), Weissman et al (2005)
Genes and behaviour: Kendler et al (2006), Caspi et al (2003)
Evolution: Wedekind (1995), Buss (1989)
Total studies: 13 studies

Preparing students for the HL extension

Question clarifications:
When preparing students for the HL extension, remember the following:

A good strategy for addressing the question of animal models is to use one human and one
animal study. So, for example, looking at the role of learning in Rosenzweig, Bennet &
Diamond (1972) and in Maguire (2000).

Remember to always identify the behaviour.. When using Rosenzweig et al, students must
identify the behaviour - social interaction (play) or learning. Failure to do so means that the
study is not acceptable.
 List of studies

SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BEHAVIOUR

Studies for the individual and the group (potential studies)

Social identity theory: Tajfel (1970); Abrams et al (1990), Bagby and Rector
(1992); Drury et al (2009), Levine (2005); Hilliard and Liben (2010)

 Levine and Drury are a good combination as both look at pro-social behavior; a good link
to the social responsibility in human relationships.
 Hilliard and Liben links both to enculturation and to the formation of stereotypes.

Social cognitive theory: Charlton et al (2002) and Joy, Kimball, and Zabrack
(1986), Bandura (1961)

 Bandura has many variations and many students struggle to explain it well on
exams. Both Charlton and Joy et al are much simpler to describe and explain.

Formation of stereotypes: Hamilton and Gifford (1976); Hilliard and Liben (2010)
Schaller et al (1991)

 Hamilton and Gifford have two variations of one experiment on the illusory correlation
 Hilliard and Liben (2010) and Schaller (1991) can be used both for SIT and the formation
of stereotypes. Hilliard and Liben could also be used for the enculturation of gender roles.

Effects of stereotypes: Martin and Halvorson, Steele & Aronson (1995), Payne (2001)

 Martin and Halvorson can also be linked to schema theory in the cognitive unit.

Studies for origins and effects of culture

Cultural dimensions: Berry (1967), Kulkofsky et al (2011), Chen et al (2005)

 Berry is linked to conformity research; Kulkofsky to flashbulb memory. You may want
to wait to teach Kulkofsky until you teach flashbulb memory

Enculturation: Fagot (1978), Hilliard and Liben (2010)

Acculturation: Lueck and Wilson (2010), Miranda and Matheny (2000)

 These two studies are good for comparing methods, with one using an interview and the
other an online questionnaire

HL Extension: Globalization
Effects of globalization on behavior: Norasakkunkit & Uchida (2014), Becker et al
(2002); Ogihara and Ochida (2014)
The interaction of local and global factors on behavior: See above.
Research methods used to study the influence of globalization: Natural
experiment: Becker et al (2002); Correlational studies/questionnaires: Novotny and
Polonsky (2011), Ogihara and Ochida (2014)
 List of studies

Preparing students for SAQs

Students can minimize the amount of research that they need to prepare for the exams. Below
are two different potential strategies.
Strategy 1: 5 studies
Hilliard and Liben (2010), Joy, Kimball and Zabrack (1986), Martin and
Halvorson, Berry (1967), Miranda and Matheny (2000)
Strategy 2: 6 studies
Levine (2005), Joy, Kimball, and Zabrack (1986), Hamilton and Gifford (1976), Steele
& Aronson (1995), Berry (1967), Miranda and Matheny (2000)

PAPER 2
Abnormal Psychology
Key concepts and theories for etiologies of depression

 Adverse childhood experiences

 Beck's cognitive triad
 Explanatory models
 Genetic vulnerability
 Globalization
 Prevalence
 Reporting bias
 Rumination and Response styles theory
 Serotonin hypothesis (1967) (depression only)
 Vulnerability models

Studies for etiologies of depression

1. Alloy et al (1999) role of cognitive style

2. Amenson and Lewinsohn (1981) study of gender differences and reporting biases in
prevalence
3. Brown & Harris (1978) sociocultural theory of vulnerability model
4. Caspi et al (2003) Diathesis stress model of genetic interaction with the environment
5. Felitti et al (1998) on the role of adverse childhood experiences
6. Joiner et al (1999) role of dysfunctional thinking
7. Kendler et al (2006) on the role of genetics
8. Nolen Hoeksema (2000) on Rumination theory
9. Weissman et al (2005) a "kinship" study
 List of studies

Key concepts and theories for treatment

 Biomedical approach
 Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
 Effect size
 Etic vs emic approaches to treatment
 Meta-analysis
 Publication bias
 Relapse

Studies for treatment

1. Elkin et al (1989) CBT vs drug therapy

2. Kirsch and Sapirstein (1998) CBT vs drug therapy
3. Marian and Neisser (2000) role of native language in therapy
4. Riggs et al (2007) CBT vs drug therapy
5. Zhang (2009) study of Chinese CBT

HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Key concepts and theories for social responsibility

 Altruism
 Arousal cost reward model
 Diffusion of responsibility
 Empathy-Altruism Model
 Inclusive fitness
 Kin selection theory
 Negative state relief model
 Social exchange theory

Studies for social responsibility

1. Bartal, Decety, and Mason (2011) on prosocial behavior in rats

2. Beaman et al (1978) teaching prosocial behavior
3. Darley & Batson (1973) on dispositional vs situation factors in prosocial
behavior/bystanderism
4. Decety et al (2013) biological argument for why we cannot learn prosocial behavior
5. Greitemeyer and Osswald (2010) Role of video games on prosocial behavior
6. Jeong and Lee (2013) - meta-analysis against learning prosocial behavior
7. Levine (2001) the role of culture in helping
8. Levine (2005) on in-group bias
9. Marsh et al (2014) Biological differences in helping behavior
10. Pilivian et al (1969) Role of situational factors in helping behavior vs bystanderism
 List of studies

11. Toi and Batson (1982) the role of empathy in helping behavior

Key concepts and theories for personal relationships

 Attachment styles
 Attributional styles
 Four horsemen of the apocalypse
 Halo effect
 Inner working model (aka, internal working model)
 Mere exposure theory
 Similarity-attraction model
 Social exchange theory
 Social penetration theory

Studies for personal relationships

1. Baumgartner et al (2008) on role of oxytocin in relationships

2. Bradbury and Fincham (1992) on communication in relationships (cognitive)
3. Buss (1989) on the role of culture
4. Clark and Hatfield (1989) on the role of evolution
5. Dion et al (1972) on the halo effect (cognitive)
6. Fisher et al (2005) on the role of neurotransmitters
7. Gottman (1994) on the role of emotion and communication styles (cognitive)
8. Hazan & Shaver (1987) on attachment style
9. Markey & Markey (2007) Role of similarity in attraction (cognitive)
10. Ronay and von Hippel (2010) on the role of evolution
11. Wedekind (1995) on evolution
12. Zajonc (1968) on mere exposure (sociocultural)

Key concepts and theories for group dynamics

 Contact hypothesis
 Illusory correlation
 In-group favoritism
 Integrated threat theory
 Prisoners' dilemma
 Realistic conflict theory
 Theory of threatened egotism

Studies for group dynamics

1. Fein and Spencer (1997) the role of self-esteem in prejudice (cognitive)

2. Harris & Fiske (2006) the role of the brain in prejudice towards out-groups (biological)
 List of studies

3. Howarth et al (2002) social identity and prejudice/discrimination

4. Novotny and Polonsky (2011) contact hypothesis and conflict resolution (sociocultural)
5. Payne (2001) effect of stereotyping on prejudice
6. Rogers & Frantz (1961) The role of conformity on prejudice
7. Sattler and Kerr (1991) the role of sociocultural factors in cooperation
8. Sherif et al (1954) the role of resources in origins of conflict