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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 127 (2014) 834 839

PSIWORLD 2013

Inductive reasoning and visual memory. A pilot study

Mihai Aniei*a, Daniela Dumitrub, Mihaela Chraifc
a, b, c

University of Bucharest, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences

Abstract
This study is focused to highlight the possible correlations between visual representation of spatial concrete forms, inductive
reasoning and visual memory recognition on male and female subjects differentially. Method: Participants were 56 undergraduate
students at psychology, University of Bucharest, 27 males and 29 female, aged between 19 and 22 years old (M=20.62;S.D.=
0.92). The results highlights statistically significant negative correlation for the male undergraduate students between variables:
2D visual representation and inductive reasoning (r=-0.412;p<0.033), 2D visual representation and visual memory (r=0.431;
p=0.025<0.05). Furthermore, the results shows there is not statistically significant correlation for the female undergraduate
students between variables (p>0.05).
2014
Aniei. Published
2014Mihai
The Authors.
Publishedby
byElsevier
ElsevierLtd.
Ltd.Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection
Society
of and
Applied
Psychology.
Selectionand
andpeer-review
peer-reviewunder
underresponsibility
responsibilityofofRomanian
PSI WORLD
2013
theirExperimental
Guest Editors:
Dr Mihaela Chraif, Dr Cristian
Vasile and Dr Mihai Anitei.
Keywords: visual representation of spatial concrete forms,visual transformation of spatial concrete forms, visual memory recognition, inductive
reasoning.

1. Introduction
Men are better on high mathematics, metal rotation tasks, mental folding and spatial, visual tasks. So we have
been told and so the stereotypes are in use. This paper is taking seriously the job to demonstrate that some of the
claims are not correct. Researchers had an interesting topic in studying cognitive sex differences, primarily
motivated by the low number of girls/women, compared with the number of boys/men, activating in domains such
as mathematics and engineering (Miller & Halpern, 2013, p. 1). Although results are inconclusive (Miller &

Mihai Anitei tel: +40721232207

Email: anitei.mihai@unibuc.ro

1877-0428 2014 Mihai Aniei. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Romanian Society of Applied Experimental Psychology.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.364

Mihai Aniei et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 127 (2014) 834 839

835

Halpern, 2013, pp. 1-8), some findings are worthy to be mentioned: across-nations studies (the 10 years long PISA
testing results cited by Stoet & Geary, 2013) on 75 nations tested for reading and 53 tested for spatial- visual
performance show females advantages on reading and male advantages on visuospatial ability and mathematics.
Brain differences are studied in other researches (Miller & Halpern, 2013, pp. 1-8), some of them endorsing the role
of testosterone in inhibiting the development of left brain hemisphere, responsible for verbal and reading, leaving
unattained the right hemisphere responsible for spatial visual information processing and mathematics (Tapp et al.
2011, pp. 713-722). Tapps research on twins of different sexes (a boy and a girl) revealed similar high
performances on mental rotation and folding to both twins, meaning that the girl was affected by the high level of
testosterone present in the amniotic fluid increasing the performance of the right brain hemisphere in the same
manner that her brother did. The hormonal influence on cognitive sex difference is one of the fields of research, but
another as important as the previous is cultural and educational influence, as well as stereotypes influence on
cognitive development. The general question to be addressed in those researches is how much the after-birth factors
is influencing cognitive differences and shapers differently boys and girls brains. One hypothesis is that the
community and the society as a whole divide jobs in for males and for females. So, indirectly families and
community directs the boys to activities and educational tracks that will secure a job for males, respectively for
girls a job for females. The result is that children will develop those cognitive abilities that will ensure success in
their present and future activities (Wang, 2013). The stereotype threat against girls is explaining some poor
performance, but not all (Walton, 2009, Moe, 2012, Neuburger, 2012, Shih, 2006, Beilock, 2010, Galdi, 2013,
Ganley, 2013, Eagly & Wood, 2013). In conclusion, biological factors such as prenatal androgens can influence
how individuals select environments and these environments can then cause further biological development (Miller
& Halpern, 2013, p. 5). Also the epigenetic mechanisms have major roles in neurogenesis and in modifying the
cognitive functions (Vasile, 2013).
Most of the history of the memory research assumed that there is a distinction between short-term memory and
long-term memory. The most popular, and traditional view, is the multi-store approach (e.g. Atkinson & Shiffrin,
1968), assuming that there are multi-layers of information differently processed and stored. In the recent years, some
scientist argued in favor of unitary-store models, assuming that the distinction between long- and short-term
memory is not correct. The multi-store model (Eysenck and Keane, 2010, p. 205) assumes that there are three types
of memory: sensory stores (each holding information very briefly and being modality specific, limited to one
sensory modality), short-term store of very limited capacity and long-term store of unlimited capacity holding
information over long periods of time. Our interest in this paper is the short-term store and its components,
especially visual memory and imagery. We shall refer in the following on Baddeley and Hitch model of working
memory (1974) that best suits our research purpose for the present article. The model was proposed in 1974, but
revised over the years, and in 2001 the model has its present, widely accepted form, that has four components
constructing working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and an episodic buffer.
The visuospatial, our interest in this article, is used for temporary storage and manipulation of visual patterns and
spatial movement (Eysenk & Keane, 2010, p. 216). According to Logie (1995, apud Eysenk & Keane, 2010, p. 216)
the visuospatial sketchpad consists of two components: visual cache, it stores information about form and color, and
inner scribe, it is involved in the rehearsal of information in the visual cache and transfers information from the
visual cache to the central executive (modality free and coordination unit situate in prefrontal cortex). Chraif &
6ndulescu (2013) studied the influence of negative wailing words on attention at young Romanian students and
Chraif (2012) was interested to underline the role of motivation from competition at youngsters with mono-parental
family.
2. Objectives and Hypotheses
2.1. Objective
This pilot study is concentrating on researching the relationship between an inductive reasoning task that uses
visual memory components and spatial visual memory.

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Mihai Aniei et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 127 (2014) 834 839

2.2. Hypotheses
x
x
x
x
x
x

There is a strong positive correlation between visual representation and transformation of spatial
concrete forms and visual memory recognition on male undergraduate students.
There is a strong positive correlation between mental representation and transformation of spatial
concrete forms and inductive reasoning on male undergraduate students.
There is a strong positive correlation between visual memory recognition and inductive reasoning on
male undergraduate students.
There is a strong positive correlation between visual representation and transformation of spatial
concrete forms and visual memory recognition on female undergraduate students.
There is a strong positive correlation between mental representation and transformation of spatial
concrete forms and inductive reasoning on female undergraduate students.
There is a strong positive correlation between visual memory recognition and inductive reasoning on
female undergraduate students.

3. Method
3.1. Participants
Participants were 56 undergraduate students from Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, 27 males and
29 female, aged between 19 and 22 years old (M=20.62; S.D.= 0.92).
3.2. Instruments
Instruments and software: 2D visualization, VISGED and FOLO inductive reasoning tests from Vienna Test
System (2012).
x

2D visualization (Vienna Tests System, 2012) is a psychological test measuring spatial ability test
(Thurstone, 1938) quoted by Chraif (2013). In figure 1 can be seen one item to be solve by the
participants.

Fig. 1. Item sequence from 2D Visualization test (Vienna Tests System, 2012)

VISGED (Vienna Tests System, 2012) is a psychological test measuring visual spatial memory. In
figure 2 can be seen an item sequence from the test.

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Fig. 2. Item sequence from VISGED test (Vienna tests System, 2012)

FOLO (Vienna Tests System, 2012) is a psychological test measuring inductive reasoning. This test is
composed form 25 figurative items using a specific reasoning rule (figure 2). The test measure the
number of correct solved item from the 25 items presented.

Fig. 3. Item sequence from FOLO inductive reasoning test (Vienna tests System, 2012)

3.3. Procedure
The participants to the 2D visualization, VISGED and FOLO psychological test (Vienna tests System, 2012),
were informed about the application procedure and completed the informed consent.
3.4. Experimental design

Experimental group
56 participants

Applications of 2D
visualization, VISGED
and FOLO psychological
tests
Vienna tests System

Data collection as responses to

2D visualization, VISGED and
FOLO psychological tests
Applying corelation statistical
test for the dependent variables

Figue 4. Experimental design for testing the hypotheses

In figure 4 can be analyzed the experimental design for testing the hypotheses.

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Mihai Aniei et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 127 (2014) 834 839

4. Results
Applying the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for the data distribution separately by gender, the date were not normal
distributed (p<0.05). Hence, Spearman's rho nonparametric correlation has been applied.
Table 1 Correlation between variables
Inductive reasoning
correct answers
Spearman's rho

2 D visual recognition and

completing space concrete forms

inductive reasoning

VSGED

VISGED correct answers

-.431*

Correlation Coefficient

-.412

Sig. (2-tailed)

.033

.025

27

27

Correlation Coefficient

1.000

.204

Sig. (2-tailed)

.307

27

27

Correlation Coefficient

.204

1.000

Sig. (2-tailed)

.307

27

27

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

a. Gender = male

The results (for the male undergraduate students group) highlight statistically significant negative correlation for
the male undergraduate students between variables (Table 1): 2Dvisual representation and transformation of spatial
concrete forms and inductive reasoning (r=-0.412; p<0.033), 2D visual representation and transformation of spatial
concrete forms and visual memory (r=0.431; p=0.025<0.05). Hence, the hypotheses were confirmed for the
variables measured with the test 2 D visual recognition and completing space concrete forms and Inductive
reasoning correct answers, and 2 D visual recognition and completing space concrete forms and VISGED correct
answers only for the male undergraduate students. For the group of female undergraduate students the hypotheses
were not confirmed (p>0.05).
5. Conclusions
The results show that there is no statistically significant negative or positive correlation for female undergraduate
students between variables (p>0.05). Male group shows negative correlation between inductive reasoning and 2D
visual representation and transformation because the two tests are actually measuring the same variable, inductive
reasoning (the 2D test is built in the same manner as FOLO inductive reasoning test, there is a missing piece that is
looking for in a set of images). The difference between the two tests is that the 2D test measures inductive reasoning
by a concrete figural task and FOLO measures the same thing by an abstract figural task. Males show a negative
correlation between the two types of inductive reasoning, meaning that when a male obtains high scores to an
abstract inductive reasoning test he will obtain low scores to the concrete figural inductive test. This relation is not
present on females. The figural task asks for a good visual memory and this is revealed also in the male group,
where we have a positive relation between visual memory and 2D representation. Again, there is no relation
between this variable on females. Enlarging the research groups for future studies should highlight if the results can
be extended to female and male general population. Results are valuable, but more research is needed in order to
establish the real cause of those differences.

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