Dr. Godwin Ayetor - Impacts of Replacing ICE Vehicles With EVs

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FINAL YEAR PROJECT 2019/2020
GROUP 10
IMPACTS OF REPLACING INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINE VEHICLES WITH ELECTRIC VEHICLES ON
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EMISSIONS AND ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
PROJECT SUPERVISOR: DR. GODWIN K. AYETOR

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The team is very much grateful to the Almighty God for the good health for being able to
complete this project. Without His Grace, this project could not have become a reality.
Next to Him, is our supervisor, Dr. Godwin K. Ayetor, Automobile Engineering Lecturer,
Department of Mechanical engineering whom the team express our sincere gratitude for
providing us his time, commitment and facilities for this research project. His vision
inspired us a lot and it was a great privilege to work and study under his guidance. We are
also grateful to Dr. Eunice Adjei, Lecturer in the department of Mechanical engineering
for her guidance towards the successful completion of our research project.
Special thanks to Mr. Glory Bani, Head of Technical service, Intercity State Transport
Company (ISTC) Limited for accepting and helping with some information for this
research.
We are extremely grateful to our parents for their love, prayers and sacrifices and also for
preparing us for the future. The team is also grateful to friends who directly and indirectly
helped in the compilation of this thesis.
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DECLARATION
We the members of group 10 declare that, we understand what plagiarism entails and are
aware of the University’s policy in this regard-the consequence. We affirm that this essay is
our original work, and where we have made use of the work or ideas of others, be it from
books, journal articles, or online articles, due acknowledgement/credit has been given. We
equally affirm that we did not use another student’s or author’s work and present it as our
own. Finally, we did not give permission to anyone to copy our work and present it as
theirs. We therefore agree to face the consequences if found wanting as to be determined by
the course instructor in line with the course policy and that of the University.
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GROUP 10
GROUP MEMBERS INDEX SIGNATURES
NUMBERS
BASS JOHN 5971416
WEITTY SAMUEL 5983316
NARTEY FELIX TETTEH 5978416
EKOW IMBEAH AMOASI 5975716
MENSAH BENARD OFORI 5977816
KORANCHIE JIM GRAY 5976616
BENSON LESLIE NANA YAHANS 5971716
PROJECT SUPERVISOR
DATE SIGNATURE
DR. GODWIN AYETOR
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ABSTRACT
This research evaluates the impacts of the replacement of engine-powered vehicles with
electric vehicles on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and energy consumption in Ghana.
Bus fleet in Intercity State Transport Company (ISTC) was used as a case study. The
AVL Cruise software was used to simulate two buses – one powered by an internal
combustion engine and the other powered by electrical energy – under the Federal Test
Procedure (FTP)-75 driving cycle in order to calculate and compare their carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions and energy consumption. Two scenarios of favourable and unfavourable
conditions influencing CO2 emissions from electricity generation were considered. The
results from simulation was analyzed for a period of 10 years – from 2020 to 2030 –
considering total and partial replacement of bus fleet. The results from simulation showed
that the fuel energy consumption of the engine bus was almost three (3) times higher than
the electric energy consumption of the electric bus. At the end of the period considered,
the CO2 emissions from electricity generation due to the electric buses will be lower, thus
a factor of 13 of the CO2 emissions from tailpipes of engine buses even considering the
most unfavourable condition of electric power generation. The Total Cost of Ownership
(TCO) of the two buses were also calculated and compared. The TCO of the engine bus
was calculated to be 9.7% less than that of the electric bus, though the electric bus has
some distinct advantages – lower maintenance cost and lower electricity cost in the same
operating range compared to the diesel cost of the Scania Marcopolo.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... ii
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ v
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... ix
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................. 4
1.3 AIM OF THE PROJECT .................................................................................................... 5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 6
2.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................ 6
2.1.1 History of Vehicles ....................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Battery Electric Buses ................................................................................................... 8
2.1.3. Brief information about Ghana................................................................................... 11
2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ELECTRIC VEHICLE PENETRATION IN A

COUNTRY ............................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.1 Total Cost of Ownership Factor .................................................................................. 14
2.2.2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission Factor ...................................................................... 15
2.2.3 The Energy Consumption Factor................................................................................. 19
2.3 CONCLUSION ON LITERATURE ................................................................................. 20
3. METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 21
3.1 OVERVIEW OF METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 21
3.2.1 Determination of the CO2 emissions of the ICE bus – Scania Marcopolo .................... 22
3.2.2 Determination of the CO2 emissions of the electric bus – BYD C9M .......................... 31
3.3 THE TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP (TCO) ................................................................. 37
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3.3.1 Depreciation of vehicle ............................................................................................... 37
3.3.2 Fuel costs.................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.3 Interest cost ................................................................................................................ 38
3.3.4 Insurance cost ............................................................................................................. 38
3.3.5 Maintenance, repair cost and inventory cost ................................................................ 38
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ......................................................................................... 42
4.1 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EMISSIONS......................................................................... 44
4.2 ELECTRIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION ......................................................................... 51
4.3 TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP .................................................................................... 52
4.3.1 Depreciation ............................................................................................................... 52
4.3.2 Total fuel cost and electricity cost ............................................................................... 53
4.3.3 Total interest cost ....................................................................................................... 54
4.3.4 Taxes .......................................................................................................................... 55
4.3.5 Insurance cost ............................................................................................................. 56
4.3.6 Maintenance and Repair cost ...................................................................................... 56
4.3.7 Summary of the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) ........................................................ 56
5. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 61
6. APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 63
References ............................................................................................................................. 63
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... 65
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Electric buses with their corresponding ranges and seating capacities ................. 11
Table 2: Existing power plants in Ghana .......................................................................... 12
Table 3: Parameters meaning ........................................................................................... 26
Table 4 Specifications of ICE bus – Scania Marcopolo (S) ............................................... 28
Table 5: Specifications of electric bus – BYD C9M (B) ................................................... 35
Table 6: Initial prices of vehicle S and vehicle B.............................................................. 37
Table 7: average diesel and electricity prices in Ghana, March 2020 ................................ 38
Table 8: Major vehicle parts changed in Scania Marcopolo – ICE bus ............................. 39
Table 9: Major vehicle parts changed in BYD C9M – Electric bus ................................... 39
Table 10: Tax deductibles for imported vehicles for vehicle engines above 2500cc .......... 40
Table 11: Heating values and densities of diesel fuels ...................................................... 42
Table 12: Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of vehicle S – Scania Marcopolo ........... 42
Table 13: Electric energy consumption of vehicle B – BYD C9M.................................... 42
Table 14: percentage fleet replacement with corresponding CO2 emission savings at the end
of the ten-year period ....................................................................................................... 47
Table 15: Summary of TCO of Scania Marcopolo and BYD C8M ................................... 57
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: First gasoline propelled vehicle........................................................................... 6
Figure 2: BYD K9 electric bus ........................................................................................... 9
Figure 3: Yutong Tce12 electric bus................................................................................. 10
Figure 4: AVASS Augusta electric bus ............................................................................ 10
Figure 5: Speed-time variation of the FTP-75 driving cycle ............................................. 22
Figure 6: experimental setup of the four-gas exhaust analyzer. ......................................... 23
Figure 7: vehicle simulation model of Scania Marcopolo ................................................. 24
Figure 8: Setup of the four essential parts in the bomb calorimeter ................................... 29
Figure 9: bomb calorimeter and bomb respectively .......................................................... 30
Figure 10: fuel density test machine ................................................................................. 31
Figure 11: vehicle simulation model of BYD C9M .......................................................... 32
Figure 12: accumulated fuel energy consumption of Scania Marcopolo – ICE bus ........... 43
Figure 13: accumulated electrical energy consumption of BYD C9M – electric bus ......... 43
Figure 14: accumulated CO2 emissions from Scania Marcopolo – ICE bus ...................... 44
Figure 15: CO2 emissions savings as a result of 25% of fleet replacement of ICE buses with
electric buses ................................................................................................................... 48
electric buses ................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 17: CO2 emissions savings due to 75% of fleet replacement of ICE buses with
electric buses ................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 18: CO2 emissions savings as a result of 100% fleet replacement of ICE buses with
electric buses ................................................................................................................... 50
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Figure 19: CO2 emissions savings for all percentages of fleet replacement of ICE buses
with electric buses............................................................................................................ 50
Figure 20: Total Cost of Ownership of the Scania Marcopolo .......................................... 57
Figure 21: Total Cost of Ownership of BYD C9M ........................................................... 58
Figure 22: The TCO of Scania Marcopolo and BYD C8M ............................................... 59
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Tesla’s announcement and subsequent success spurred many big automakers to accelerate
work on their own Electric Vehicles (EV). In late 2010, the Chevy Volt and the Nissan
LEAF were released in the U.S. market. The first commercially available plug-in hybrid,
the Volt has a gasoline engine that supplements its electric drive once the battery is
depleted, allowing consumers to drive on electric for most trips and gasoline to extend the
vehicle’s range. In comparison, the LEAF is an all-electric vehicle (often called a battery-
electric vehicle), meaning it is only powered by an electric motor.
In the last ten years EV’s have been benefited from European and US programs for the
development of clean technologies to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and from the
adoption of strategic diversification by automotive industry (Dijk et al., 2013). The growing
environmental concerns have accelerated technological evolutions in the automotive
industry to reduce pollutant and global warming emissions. Vehicles powered by Internal
Combustion Engines (ICES) are among major sources of pollutant and greenhouse gases
(Baran and Legey, 2013) and the transportation sector accounts for almost a quarter of
global CO2 emissions (Silva, 2012; Bjerkan et al., 2016). In this sense, electric vehicles can
be a possible solution, as they are considered “zero tailpipe emissions” (Casals et al., 2016;
Driscoll et al., 2013; Morrissey et al., 2016). However, there are still environmental
controversies about the use of electric cars, since the reduction of emissions from cars may
be followed by increased emissions in power generation. So, CO2 emissions reduction
depends directly on the emission factor of the electrical matrix of the country analyzed.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), 42% of the world CO2 emissions
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come from electricity and heat generation from fuel combustion, and 40% of world
electricity is produced by this process (IEA, 2016).
The continent of Africa is urbanizing faster than any other. With this growing urban
population straining existing infrastructure, fuel is also becoming more and more expensive
and even limited, adding up to pollution.
However, there is the need to reduce the emissions of CO2 and other dangerous gases to
help keep the environment safe for generations to come. EVS thereby becomes a perfect
solution for this. Electric vehicles could have a huge impact on African cities and
economies. Carbon dioxide emissions are largely the products of the energy production and
usage mainly by internal combustion engines which are associated with global warming.
So far, a few African countries have taken giant steps at manufacturing electric vehicles. A
classic example is the Kantanka Odeneho II in Ghana designed by Apostle Safo. This
new electric car saves energy and releases zero CO2 emission into the atmosphere. This is
because the car has no internal combustion engine but gets its energy from series of 12V
batteries connected together. This is a big step forward in reducing global warming and
other respiratory diseases.
Kantanka Odeneho II is powered by 12 rechargeable batteries. Each battery has a life span
of over four years. Unlike other electric cars, Kantanka Odeneho II is built on user
friendly technology making it easy to be recharged. Another is The Joule manufactured in
South Africa. The Kiira EV is also another produced in Uganda.
While none of these cars have yet gone onto the global stage, one thing that is more
interesting about the manufacturing of these vehicles is the fact that quite a number of them
were built by university students. It tells of what future the African continent holds for
technology and innovation.
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The shift to EV cars will be a huge boost for Africa and more importantly Ghana, since
most import of cars are almost or a little above the guaranteed period of decent lifespan.
That is to say that, after this guaranteed period of decent lifespan gas emissions is relatively
higher. Most automobiles especially heavy-duty trucks begin to emit more CO2 than before
after exceeding their decent lifespan.
Ghana especially has a lot of ICE vehicles made in 1980-1990’s still running on our road
network and study has shown that newer cars are greener compared to those old vehicles
(https://www.epa.gov/transportation-air-pollution-and-climatechange/accomplishments-
and-success-air-pollution-transportation). In this regard, this we looked at – Intercity State
Transport Company (ISTC) as our case study.
Intercity State Transport Company (ISTC) is a government owned company that deals with
transportation of people and goods within Ghana and some neighboring countries thus,
Benin, Cote d’Ivoire and Burkina Faso. Transportation is a major aspect in the Ghanaian
economy. Furthermore, this work will be using ISTC as a case study and will be
considering the Kumasi to Accra and Accra to Kumasi route because of the frequency at
which the buses travel on that route.
This report/thesis is used to compare the CO2 emissions on partial replacement and total
replacement of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles with fully electric buses and also their
impacts on the energy mix. The Total Cost of owning ICE vehicles compared to these
electric vehicles will be analyzed. A further analysis was made as to whether it will be
feasible to adopt electric vehicles considering the amount of electrical energy produced and
the sources of electricity generation. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) are a
collection of 17 global goals set by United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year
2030 with which every country has to work towards to achieve. Electric vehicles could help
in achieving the 13th goal thus Climate Action as this may reduce CO2 emissions into the
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atmosphere. Governments in Africa also suggests climate change can be addressed by
relying more on renewable energy.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) from engine powered vehicles has been a major
contributor to the world’s greenhouse gas emission and climate change. Ghana’s carbon
dioxide emissions per capita have increased from 0.37 metric tons in 1999 to 0.68 metric
tons in 2018 growing at an average annual rate of 3.64% (knoema.com/atlas/Ghana/CO2-
emissions-per-capita). Ghana’s Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCS)
was submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) in 2016 to unconditionally reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions by 15%
from Business-As-Usual (BAU) levels (73.95MtCO2e) and conditionally by 45% from
BAU levels by 2030. Ever since, Ghana has taken numerous measures to reduce its CO2
emissions. The CO2 emissions from the transportation sector has been one of the key
sectors to be tackled due to its huge contribution to the CO2 emission. Adoption of EVS
could cause reductions in tailpipe emissions but rather increased emissions in electricity
production. Since, EVs would only move the emissions away from the road rather than
reducing them globally, thus, it will bring more challenges and risks for policymakers and
stakeholders to deal with the cost of emissions increase in the electric sector. (Hawkins et
al., 2013). Thus, it is important to conduct detail assessment on CO2 emission between
ICEVS and BEVS. Intercity State Transport Company (ISTC) as a government owned
company in Ghana will be used as a case study considering all Kumasi to Accra and Accra
to Kumasi route buses to evaluate the impacts on electricity energy mix and carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions on replacing 31 ICE buses in ISTC with BYD C9M – electric bus.
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1.3 AIM OF THE PROJECT
The aim of the project is to conduct a feasibility study on the effect of adapting and
replacing 31 ISTC buses with 31 BYD C9M buses on the Kumasi Accra road.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The objectives of the project are;
1. To determine the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions savings due to the replacement of
31 ISTC buses on the Kumasi-Accra road with 31 BYD C9M electric coach busses.
2. To calculate the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of the BYD C9M electric buses
compared to the TCO of conventional buses (Scania Marcopolo) for an estimated
period of 10 years.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BACKGROUND
2.1.1 History of Vehicles
The recorded history of automobile is divided into few eras, based on the propulsion type
and with time the transformation to the trends in exterior designs, colors and sizes. One of
the earliest automobiles was a steam powered automobile engine in 1769 which could be
used for the transportation of humans from one location to another. The steam engine was
designed and built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, and it was in use for nearly a century and
still in use in some parts of the world. In 1808, Frincois Isaac de Rivaz designed and built
the first internal combustion engine which uses hydrogen gas as fuel. Approximately in
1870, Siegfried Marcus built the first gasoline propelled engine but this was later changed
with more upgrades in the next decade leading to two cycle combustion engines.
Figure 1: First gasoline propelled vehicle
Over the years, the vehicle most significant upgrade brought about a four-stroke cylinder
gasoline engine with a steering, clutch and break.
The four-stroke gasoline engine is the most widely used engine to date, another four-
stroke engine was also introduced by Rudolf diesel hence the name diesel engines.
Similarly, the BEV was first designed by Anyos Jedlik but built by William Morrison in
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1890 with a speed of 23kilometers per hour with the help a co-partner by the name
Gaston Plante who invented the lead acid battery in 1859. However, the electrical car has
not been built in mass production until in 2016 to help reduce CO2 emissions and noise
pollutions in our environment. Electric vehicles are on the verge of experiencing rapid
growth in developing vehicle markets and even in developed markets. The large
penetration of electric vehicles will not be significant in technology alone but will help a
country to attain a significant reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the
atmosphere and also improve energy efficiency since they are energy efficient compared
to the conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles have lower service and maintenance cost
due to them having lesser number of mechanical parts though have higher purchasing
cost.
Recent researches on the effects of running electric vehicles has shown some suitability
levels in running these electric vehicles – either Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVS), the
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVS) or the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEVS) – in
some countries. The suitability levels depend on the country’s power generation source,
the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions level in the country and also the cost of ownership of
running these electric vehicles. Most publications on the impacts of running electric
vehicles were centered on these themes because considering for example, a country with
coal as its major source of electrical power generation might not be able to run battery
electric vehicles. Though they produce no tailpipe emissions but their source of power
might come from a high carbon dioxide (CO2) intense source and so running such electric
vehicle would though decrease carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the driving sector but
increase significantly in the power generation sector.
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To reduce carbon dioxide emission levels in the atmosphere is every country’s goal since
it is related to one of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) set by United Nations
(UN) thus climate change. Electric vehicles could be a major contributor to the reduction
of high carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions which is in a way dependent on a nation or
country’s electricity power generation mix.
2.1.2 Battery Electric Buses
Battery electric buses are electric vehicles that are fully propelled by electric energy
generated from batteries. There are several electric buses in the automobile industries this
includes the BYD K9, Yutong Tce12 and AVASS Augusta
2.1.2.1 BYD K9
The BYD K9 is a battery powered electric bus designed and manufactured in china by the
Chinese automobile giants BYD Autos. The BYD K9 is powered by lithium iron phosphate
battery, with a record drive range of 250 km (155 miles) on a single charge under urban
road conditions. BYD’s batteries are recommended worldwide and considered as the safest
in the industry, and with a 12-15-year battery warranty. The first BYD battery electric bus
was manufactured on September 30, 2010 in Changsha city of Hunan province. It followed
models like F3DM, F6DM and e6. K9 has a 12-meter body length. The K9 electric bus has
an estimated price tag of 2–3 million yuan (S$395,000 - S$592,600). It has been tested in
China, India, Japan, Hong Kong, U.S., Colombia, Chile, Spain, Netherlands, Denmark,
Aruba and Singapore. More than 200 K9s in service in Shenzhen had accumulated over
9,216,000 km (or 5,529,600 miles) by the end of August, 2012.
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Figure 2: BYD K9 electric bus
2.1.2.2 Yutong Tce12 electric bus
Yutong electric bus like the BYD is designed and manufactured in china. The TCe12 is
manufactured by the Zhengzhou Yutong Group. It is the first full electric zero emission
coach to be offered in the United Kingdom. Whilst new to the United Kingdom and other
parts of the world, it is already in service in Paris where over 70 equivalent vehicles have
been in operation for the last three years. The TCe12 carries 49 passengers and comes with
front and center passenger doors on the near side. The center door and floor section are
designed to allow the fitment of a slot in wheel chair lift if required. The electric drive line
and control system is identical to that used in the E10, E12 and airport buses. The Tce12 is
fitted with a 258kWh lithium ion battery with a drive range of about 200 miles on a single
full charge. It can be charged with either a 60kWh, 90kWh or 120kWh DC charger making
a full charge possible in less than two hours.
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Figure 3: Yutong Tce12 electric bus
2.1.2.3 AVASS Augusta coach
AVASS is a recognized complete EV manufacturer. They design and build EV’s for
commercial uses globally however, the AVASS Augusta electric bus is still a prototype
which is undergoing testing therefore has not been made available commercially. The
AVASS Augusta is a 12.5m bus with a weight of 16,000kg. It is powered by 3.2V Lithium
iron phosphate battery packs and 1200Nm, 135kW 3 phase motor which provides a range
of approximately 400km on a single charge. Compared to the other electric buses, AVASS
Augusta has a seating capacity of 28 but more room for comfortability. AVASS Augusta
bus was tagged a market price of $650,000 when it was first manufactured. AVASS is a
privately owned business established in Melbourne Australia in 2011.
Figure 4: AVASS Augusta electric bus
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The table below presents some other commercially available electric buses;
Table 1: Electric buses with their corresponding ranges and seating capacities
Electric Bus Type Range per full Passenger

charge (km) Capacity
AVASS Matilda City bus 400 40 + 1
BYD K9 City bus 250 31 + 1
BYD C8M Coach 250 45 +1
BYD C9M Coach 322 49 +1
Yutong TCe12 Coach 322 46 + 1 + guide
Scania city wide City bus 150 >100
2.1.3. Brief information about Ghana
Ghana is a country on the West Coast of Africa with land size estimation of 238,500 km2
and total population of 30,417,856 (https://worldometers.info/world-population/Ghana-
population, 2019). It is known to be one of the fast-growing economies in Sub-Sahara
Africa having achieved an annual average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate of
above 5% in the last three decades (IMF, 2016). Sustained output growth in the industrial
sector has accounted for 23.68% of the country’s GDP in 2017 (Ghana Statistical Service,
2018). Ghana’s nominal GDP estimate is now $68 billion, thus, $2,262 per capita (IMF,
2019). Electricity generation in Ghana in the Gold Coast era was derived diesel fuel sources
until the establishment of Akosombo Hydroelectric Power Station in 1965. This power
station has an installed capacity of 1020megawatts (MW) – 6 turbines × 170MW. Unable to
meet the demands – depending on 900MW of the installed capacity, there have been some
establishments of thermal generation plants and hydroelectric power stations to add up to
the megawatts produced. The table below shows all the power plants in Ghana and their
generating capacities in 2019
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Table 2: Existing power plants in Ghana
Electricity Generation Plants Installed Dependable Fuel Type Used

Capacity Capacity
(MW) (MW)
Akosombo GS 1020 900 Hydro
Kpong GS 160 105 Hydro
TAPCO (T1) 330 300 LCO/Gas
TICO (T2) 340 320 LCO/Gas
TT1PP 110 100 LCO/Gas
TT2PP 80 70 Gas
KTPP 220 200 Gas/ Diesel
VRA Solar Plant 2.5 0 Solar
TOTAL VRA 2263 1995
Bui GS 404 360 Hydro
CENIT 110 100 LCO/Gas
AMERI 250 230 Gas
SAPP 161 200 180 Gas
SAPP 330 360 340 LCO/Gas
KAR Power 470 450 HFO
AKSA 370 350 HFO
BXC Solar 20 0 Solar
Meinergy Solar 20 0 Solar
Trojan 44 39.6 Diesel/Gas
Genser 22 18 Gas
CEN Power 360 340 LCO/Gas
Amandi 190 190 LCO/Gas
TOTAL IPP 2820 2598
TOTAL (VRA, Bui and IPPS) 5083 4593
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Fast increase in the emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere has become a global concern. In
2011, Ghana emitted 59 metric tons (MtCO2e) which corresponded to 0.13% of the world’s
total – 46,906 MtCO2e. Ghana’s greenhouse gas emissions according to World Resources
Institute Climate Analysis Indicator Tool (WRI CAIT) was dominated by emissions from
the Land-Use Change and Forestry (LUCF) – 53% of Ghana’s total emissions followed by
energy corresponding to 25% and then agriculture – 15%. Energy emissions increased from
1990 to 2011 by 10.2 MtCO2e with transportation contributing the largest in an amount of
40% of the increase (WRI CAIT 2.0, 2015). According to the world bank, the carbon
emission of Ghana per 2014 was 0.53653 MtCO2e per capita. Ghana aims to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, 15% by the year 2030 and actions to help reduce greenhouse gas
emissions include energy efficiency of industrial facilities, replacement of crude oil with
natural gas in electricity generation plants and the reforestation and afforestation of 10,000
hectares of degraded lands annually. These actions are to be undertaken in all the sectors –
energy, transportation, agriculture, forestry, land use, waste and industry – between the
years of 2020 and 2030.
2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ELECTRIC VEHICLE PENETRATION IN A
COUNTRY
It is important to investigate on some factors that influence the penetration of electric
vehicles. These factors include the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO), the carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions that may arise from the energy generation sources and the excess energy
that would be needed to power the EVS.
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2.2.1 Total Cost of Ownership Factor
Total cost of ownership is a financial estimate intended to help owners to determine the
direct and indirect cost of a system or a product. The TCO of a car is not limited only to
the initial purchasing cost but also the service and maintenance cost as long as it is owned.
(Jens, Sofia, Jenny and Yusak Susilo, 2016) defined Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of
car as the sum of the fixed (purchasing) cost of the car, variable cost – maintenance, repair
and tyres and fuel or electricity cost for a standard distance driven per year. The TCO is
always dependent on the Value Added Tax (VAT) on the energy source. One of the
barriers to the adoption of BEVS is the high purchase cost of the vehicles and consumers
most at times consider the initial purchasing cost of BEVS above any other cost involved
in car ownership (K. Lebeau, J. Mierlo, P. Lebeau, O. Mairesse and C. Macharis, 2012).
(P. Lebeau, K. Lebeau, J. Mierlo and C. Macharis, 2013) in another article on a total cost
of ownership analysis identifies two different types of TCO analysis, namely, consumer-
oriented TCO and society-oriented TCO. The consumer-oriented TCO as a model that
usually includes purchasing price as well as the cost related to actual receiving and using
of the product which are borne by the consumer and the society-oriented TCO as the extra
relations between the cost of different vehicle technologies and their societal impacts. In a
TCO analysis between ICEVS and two types of electric vehicles – HEVS and BEVS (Jens,
Sofia, Jenny and Yusak Susilo, 2016) in Sweden found after vehicle model simulation that
BEVS could be cheaper compared to ICEVS and HEVS. The study was based on six (6)
models – depreciation, fuel cost, interest, insurance, maintenance and repairs and taxes
and subsidies – and depreciation is the weightiest factor of the total cost of ownership that
accounts 44% of TCO in a 5-year model.
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2.2.2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission Factor
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from tailpipes of vehicles and electricity generation sites
influences the adoption of electric vehicles. A study evaluated the environmental impacts
on the penetration of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVS) in different countries – United
States of America, France, China and India. (Reed Doucette and McCulloch, 2010). The
aim of the study was to determine the carbon dioxide emissions stemming from the
operation of battery electric vehicle in these countries and to compare those carbon
dioxide emissions from similar ICE vehicles – Volkswagen Polo Blue motion, Ford
Mondeo, Honda CR-V and KEEWAY Hurricane 90(a two-wheel scooter). Road transport
is the cause of almost 17% of global emissions (IEA, 2009) with passenger vehicles
making a greater percentage in the transport section and the fuel energy that power these
vehicles sourced from a CO2 intensive product. The vehicle simulator used in the study
was the Oxford Vehicle Model (OVEM). The simulation considered the BEVS – the type
of electric vehicle with no tailpipe emissions and fully run on high capacity batteries. The
study did not consider the losses incurred in transmitting electric power that will be used
to charge these vehicles from the electricity generation site to the charge stations and also
did not account for the carbon dioxide emissions upstream of the power plant. The high
capacity batteries used in the simulations were Lithium batteries because of high
commercial availability and highest specific energy and power ratings of all technologies
– specific energy of 390kJ/kg and power rating of 3.3kW/ kg (Burke 2007). Vehicles are
allowed to available on the market when they meet the standards of some drive cycles.
The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) was set as a standard driving cycle during
vehicle simulation and the following parameters were calculated – the aerodynamic drag,
the rolling resistance and acceleration – since the NEDC depends on these parameters.
15
The results from the simulations showed that, in USA, in the next decade there will be 1%
rise in carbon dioxide emissions in their power generation sector and adoption of battery
electric vehicles will increase CO 2 emissions and this would be as a result of their
dependence on oil as their major source of electricity generation – already having carbon
dioxide intensity of 169gCO2/MJ. The results went in favor of France that had just
24gCO2/MJ due primarily to the fact that it derives approximately 80% of electricity
generation from nuclear sources and introduction of battery electric vehicles could result
in 90% carbon dioxide emission reduction stemming from the use of personal transport
vehicles. China and India that has carbon dioxide intensities of 241gCO2/MJ and
223gCO2/MJ respectively may experience increases in carbon dioxide emissions on
adoption of battery electric vehicles. Unless electricity power generation is produced from
less CO2 intensity sources such as the nuclear energy and solar energy, introduction of
battery electric vehicle penetration will not yield a significant decrease in CO2 emissions
but rather increased emissions.
(Ana Carolina Rodrigues Teixeira and Jose Ricardo Sodre, 2017) on transportation
research also published on the impacts of replacement of engine powered vehicles with
electric vehicles on energy consumption and CO2 emissions with the aim of calculating
carbon dioxide emissions, fuel consumption and energy efficiency on gradual introduction
of electric vehicles in a taxi fleet operating with a smart grid system in Sete Lagaos, MG
Brazil. This study was also based on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and used
AVL Cruise software in the simulation of four different types of electric vehicles – Citroen
C- zero, Mitsubishi – MiEV, Renault Kangoo and Renault Fluence ZE (Varga, 2013). The
results showed that the largest CO2 emitting source is coal followed by oil and natural gas.
(Cunha, 2011) on a study on gradual replacement of taxi fleets thus 10%, 20%, 30% and
16
100% was analyzed. The results showed that in Brazil, per the electrical generated,
penetration of EVS above 20% as in the case of thermal plants for electrical energy will
further increase emissions in the electricity generation sector.
A well-to-wheel analysis on greenhouse gas emissions on the global perspective of about
70 countries suggested that with the aim of decreasing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions,
adoption of electric vehicles will not be effective in countries that have an environmentally
unfriendly electricity generation mix. (JongRoul Woo, Hyunhong Choi and Joongha Ahn,
2016). In 2013, the energy spent in the transport center comprised of 27.6% of the total
energy consumption in the world and 92.6% of this amount was based on consumption of
oil products (IEA, 2016). This produced a 22.9% of carbon dioxide emissions in the world
(IEA, 2015). A well-to-wheel analysis – that is the entire process of energy flow from the
energy generation center to the vehicle being driven – was used to analyze the carbon
dioxide emissions from different vehicles in these countries. The results from the
simulation showed that countries with high fossil fuel ratios in their electricity generation
sector such as Australia (88%), India (81%) and china (74%) had higher carbon dioxide
emissions on running the battery electric vehicles (BEVS) because the electrical power that
will power these fleets will come from a high intense CO2 source. South Africa that has
93% fossil fuel ratio specifically 102.7 gCO2/km to 149.5gCO2/km will rather experience
higher increase in carbon dioxide emissions on introduction of these electric vehicles. But
for Russia (66% fossil fuel), with much derived from natural gas will experience a small
decrease in emissions. Countries that produce most of its electrical energy from nuclear
energy and renewable energy sources had lower emissions from the operation of BEVs.
For countries like Norway (94% hydropower), Canada (58% hydropower) and France
(76% nuclear energy) recorded low carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere. Norway
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had the lowest carbon dioxide emission on the adoption of BEVs representing 2.3g
CO2/km to 3.4gCO2/km, which is less than 10% of CO2 emitted by their corresponding
ICEVs and penetration of BEVs in South Africa would be associated with 40 times higher
carbon dioxide emissions than BEVs in Norway. The simulated results were based on the
categories of vehicles – subcompact, compact, full-size luxury and Sport Utility Vehicle
(SUV). It was also realized that on the global level battery electric vehicles will have
significant reduction of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases compared to the
internal combustion engine vehicles, both gasoline and diesel. Of the three basic designs of
electric vehicles – Hybrid Battery Electric Vehicle (HBEV), the Plug-in Hybrid Electric
Vehicle (PHEV), and the Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), the battery electric vehicle is the
most electrical power intensive which could in a way increase CO2 emissions in their
power generation source. These authors in their simulation considered these vehicles –
Volkswagen Golf, Ford Focus, Renault Megane, Toyota corolla and Opel Astra – and
compared EV configurations to a regular petrol car, diesel car and parallel hybrid cars. A
study on energy use, cost and CO2 emissions of electric cars (Oscar van Vliet, Anne
Sjoerd Brouwer, Takeshi Kuramochi, Machteld van den Broek and Andre Faaij, 2010)
aimed to examine the efficiency, cost and carbon dioxide emissions of current and future
electric cars considering Netherlands as a case study. This article realized that the world at
large has more than 90% of transport sector powered by fuels derived from oils. The
excessive consumption of petrol and diesel is now a problem due to the cost incurred and
the carbon dioxide gas they produce from the tailpipe of conventional vehicles. The use of
biofuels could reduce CO2 emissions so as the introduction of hybrid electric vehicles.
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2.2.3 The Energy Consumption Factor
An article on the impacts of gradual replacement of taxi fleet in Brazil on energy
consumption (Cunha, 2011) found out that 10% fleet replacement would cause an increase
in electricity demand of 53.3GWh/day representing 1.94%, 20% taxi fleet replacement
causing an increase of 106GWh/day, 3.88% increase. 30% and 100% fleet replacement
could generate corresponding increases of 159GWh/day and 533GWh/day thus 5.81% and
19.4% respectively. Thus, increasing the number of fleet replacement directly increases the
amount of electrical power needed to propel them. Cunha concluded that any replacement
above 20% will cause high electricity demand that would not be possible to produce as in
the case of thermal power plants. (Ana Carolina and Jose Ricardo, 2017) used AVL Cruise
in simulation of the battery electric vehicles through the NEDC. Fuel energy consumption
of an ICE vehicle and an electric vehicle was calculated and they were found to be
0.8873kWh/km and 0.1084kWh/km respectively. This shows that ICEVS consumes more
energy than EVS. In an article with Netherlands as a case study, results from data showed
that 30% penetration will cause an increase of 3% in the total electricity demand and this
could be met per the electrical energy in Netherlands without investment in electricity
generation plants as even full penetration of electric vehicles causing 10% increase could
still be met with the existing generation capacity.
This research on the impacts of electric vehicles on energy consumption and carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions focused on a study of replacing 31 buses in Intercity State Transport
Company (ISTC) that travel Accra to Kumasi and Kumasi to Accra with electric buses –
BYD C9M.
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2.3 CONCLUSION ON LITERATURE
Electric vehicles could help reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere,
which could further help in achieving a Sustainable Development Goal that is Climate
Change. The replacement to the CO2 reduction could be based on mainly the electricity
energy mix – the source of electricity either coal, oil, nuclear, hydropower or renewable
energy. Countries with much dependence on coal or oil as source of electricity could have
high carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Replacing ICE vehicles with electric vehicles in such
countries could lead to increased emissions since it has to produce high amount of electrical
energy to accommodate the high capacity batteries built in them which could even lead to
extra high emissions in the electricity generation sector. However, for countries with very
low dependence on carbon dioxide intense sources like coal and oil, electric vehicle
penetration could lead to a significant reduction of CO2 intensity. The Cost of Ownership
could also mean whether a country should switch to electric vehicles or maintain the
conventional vehicles due to high fixed cost – initial price of electric vehicle.
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3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 OVERVIEW OF METHODOLOGY
In order to determine the carbon dioxide (CO2) emission savings due to the adoption of
electric buses, the CO2 emissions of 31 ICE bus – Scania Marcopolo – and that as a result
of 31 electric bus replacement – BYD C9M – were determined and compared. The number
of buses that was analyzed was 31 because ISTC which was used as a case study has 31
buses that travel Kumasi to Accra and Accra to Kumasi. The tailpipe emissions of the ICE
bus were determined at idle speed using a four-gas exhaust analyzer. The tailpipe emission
gases that were observed were hydrocarbons (HC), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen gas (O2)
and carbon monoxide (CO) – main focus was CO2 emissions. Tailpipe emissions of
vehicles at different speeds were analyzed with the help of a vehicle simulation software –
AVL cruise. In order to also determine the CO2 emissions of the electric bus – BYD C9M,
vehicle simulation was done using on its manufacturer’s specifications. The BYD C9M is a
fully electric bus which does not produce any tailpipe emissions. However, since it is being
charged from electricity grid, CO2 emissions are indirectly been produced from electricity
generation. Ghana has its main electricity generation from hydropower and thermal energy
with small percentage being generated from solar energy. The emission factor of the
generation plants increases or decreases depending on the season the country experiences.
Two scenarios were considered during the simulation of the electric bus – relatively high
emission factor during the dry season and a relatively low emission factor during the rainy
season. For each scenario the travel distance considered was 497km. This travel distance of
497km was chosen because the destinations used in this case study was Accra to Kumasi
and Kumasi to Accra. Simulation of both vehicles were done under the Federal Test
Procedure (FTP)-75 driving cycle. The FTP-75 driving cycle are series of tests defined by
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the US Environmental Protection Agency to measure tailpipe emissions. The FTP-75
driving cycle corresponds to a driving distance of 17.77km (11.04 miles) and takes
1874seconds to be completed at an average vehicle speed of 34.1km/h (21.2mph) with a
maximum speed of 91.25km/h (56.7mph). The entire FTP-75 driving cycle consists of four
segments which is shown in the following diagram.
Figure 5: Speed-time variation of the FTP-75 driving cycle
To be able to assess the impacts of replacing the ICE bus with electric bus on CO2
emissions savings, a simulation of 25%, 50% 75% and 100% was performed and analyzed
for a period of ten (10) years.
The Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of replacing the ICE buses with electric buses was
also determined and compared. The calculation of TCO was based on some cost categories;
the depreciation value of vehicle, interest cost assuming the vehicle was bought on loan,
maintenance and repair cost, average fuel cost during vehicle ownership and insurance cost.
3.2 DETERMINATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION (CO2) SAVINGS
3.2.1 Determination of the CO2 emissions of the ICE bus – Scania Marcopolo
An experiment was carried out to determine the CO2 emissions of an ICE bus – Scania
Marcopolo – using a four-gas exhaust analyzer. The emission test was carried out at an idle
22
speed of 800rpm. The four-gas analyzer is a simple portable equipment that is used to
determine tailpipe emission gases of vehicles at idle speeds.
3.2.1.1 Experimental setup for determination of CO2 emissions at idle speed
The four-gas exhaust analyzer consists of portable screen display that gives clear indication
of the analysis of the exhaust emissions being measured, a probe connected to the screen
display through hose. The probe has all the four gas sensors that gives the specific the
amount of each emission gas in kilograms (kg).
Figure 6: experimental setup of the four-gas exhaust analyzer.

3.2.1.2 Experimental procedure for determining CO2 emission at idle speed
The exhaust gas analyzer was after being set up was first zeroed to ensure that the display
screen showed no emission readings. To be able to analyze the tailpipe emissions of the
bus, the engines of the bus was uncoupled from their corresponding drivetrain to ensure no
movement. The tailpipe probe was placed in the exhaust of each of the buses whilst their
engines were running and their emission gases at idle speed through the tailpipes were
obtained.
3.2.1.3 Vehicle simulation using AVL Cruise
To also determine the tailpipe emissions of the ICE buses at different speeds, vehicle
simulation was done using the AVL cruise based on its specifications.
23
Figure 7: vehicle simulation model of Scania Marcopolo
3.2.1.3.1 Description of the Scania Marcopolo model
1. Green lines indicate the data bus input lines
2. Pink lines indicate the data bus output lines
3. Light blue lines show the mechanical input and output
4. Think blue lines show the mechanical connections from one mechanical part to
another
3.2.1.3.2 Vehicle simulation model formulas for Scania Marcopolo
The mean effective radius is the fictive radius, in which the friction force is acting. In the
simple model is: μc1 = μ𝐶𝑡 0.8 while 𝜇𝐶𝑡 = 0.4
24
𝑀𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1)
𝑅𝐶𝑀 =
𝑁𝑐. 𝜇𝑐, 𝑠𝑡. 𝐹𝑐
In the detailed model is:
2(r3 C,o−r3 C,i) (2)

RCM= 3(r2C,0−r2C,i)
Actual friction coefficient
The relative speed between clutches in and out is determined by:
𝜑𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝜑𝑐𝑖𝑛 − 𝜑𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡 (3)
Friction gradient is given as 𝐶𝑐 = 0.01
Therefore, the actual friction coefficient can be calculated by:
|𝜑𝑐
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙|.𝐶𝑐 (4)
𝜇𝑐𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝜇𝑐, 𝑠𝑙 + (𝜇𝑐, 𝑠𝑡-𝜇𝑐, 𝑠𝑙). e(− 𝜇𝑐,𝑠𝑡−𝜇𝑐,𝑠𝑙 )
Transmitted Torque (MC). The transmitted torque is the torque value which goes through
the clutch from the in to the outside. For the sliding clutch it is the possible moment limited
by the friction:
𝑀𝑐 = 𝜇𝑐𝑎𝑐𝑡 . 𝑟𝑐𝑚 . 𝐹𝑐𝑎𝑐𝑡 . 𝑁𝑐 (5)
𝑀𝑐 = 𝑀𝑐𝑖𝑛 − 𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡 (6)
Power losses is calculated as follows
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑐𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝑀𝑐 ∗ 𝜑𝑐𝑖𝑛 − 𝑀𝑐 ∗ 𝜑𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) (7)
In the event that Pin = Pout then Ploss = 0
25
Table 3: Parameters meaning
Friction gradient Cc
Pressure force function of clutch release Fc or Sc
Actual clamping force Fc,act
Transmitted torque MC
Torque on the drive side Mc,in
Torque on the power take-off side Mc,out
Number of Sets of Frictional Surfaces Nc
Actual Clutch Release Sc,act
Inner radius of the clutch Rc,i
Outer radius of the clutch Rc,i
Mean effective radius of the clutch Tcm
Angular acceleration on the power take-off side
Relative speed of the clutch
Actual friction coefficient
Actual gear ratio
i𝐺𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑖𝐺[𝑁𝐺𝑎𝑐𝑡 ] (8)
Angular Velocity and Acceleration:

𝜑𝑖𝑛 (9)
𝜑𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑖𝐺𝑎𝑐𝑡
Inertia moment:
𝛩𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝛩𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 [𝑁𝐺𝑎𝑐𝑡 ] (10)
Torque Losses
Without losses (ZG,i = 1) M𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 =0
The efficiency is now calculated as follows:

26
𝑀𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑛𝑜𝑚 (11)
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝔶𝐺) = 1 −
𝑀𝐺𝑖𝑛
Calculation with use of the efficiency value and the torque loss (ZG,i = 3)
The rotational speed contribution to the torque loss is linear interpolated in the loss curve
M𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑛 = 𝑀𝐺𝑣,4 (𝜑𝐺𝑖𝑛 , 𝑁𝐺𝑎𝑐𝑡 , 𝑇𝐺) (12)
M𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑀𝐺𝑖𝑛 (1 − 𝔶𝐺) + 𝑀𝐺𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑖𝑛 (13)
AVL Temperature Model
The heat produced by the combustion will be computed from this formula:
PE, heat = bE, h, act * 𝜌𝐸, 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 𝐻𝐸,𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 (14)
Mechanical power of take off
𝑃𝐸,𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑀𝐸,𝑎𝑐𝑡 ∗ 𝜑𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 (15)
Power loss in exhaust emission:
𝑃𝐸,𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠 = 𝑍𝐸,𝐸𝐸 (𝑃𝐸,ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃𝐸,𝑎𝑐𝑡 ) (16)
The rest energy has to go into the cooling system:
𝑃𝐸,𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 = 𝑃𝐸,ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃𝐸,𝑎𝑐𝑡 − 𝑃𝐸,𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠 (17)
Heating capacity CEv, cool (J/K):
𝜐𝑉, 𝑎𝑐𝑡 (18)

∝ 𝐴 = 𝐶𝐸,𝑛,𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 (1 + 0.4( )
83
And the engine temperature can be calculated:
27
(𝑃𝐸,𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙 − ∝𝐴∗(𝑇𝐸 −𝑇𝑊,𝑎𝑖𝑟 ))∗ ∆𝑡𝑖 (19)
TE = TE + 𝑚𝐸,𝑒𝑔∗𝐶𝑝,𝐻20
Where Cp, H2O = 4187 J/Kg K
Table 4 Specifications of ICE bus – Scania Marcopolo (S)
Specifications of Scania Marcopolo bus

Bore × stroke 130 mm ×150 mm
Compression ratio 18:1
Volume displacement 13 L
Rated power @ 1900 rpm 360hp / 265 kW
Rated torque @ 1350 rpm 1750 Nm
Fuel type Diesel
Length 12.2m
Height 3.5m
Gross weight 19500 kg
The vehicle simulation of the Scania Marcopolo was done using the FTP-75 driving cycle.
Other parameters such as vehicle fuel consumption, fuel density as well as the heating
value of the fuel used by the vehicle were required for the vehicle simulation of the ICE
bus. Knowing fuel type used by the Scania Marcopolo bus –diesel – an experiment was
conducted to determine the heating value of diesel fuel as well as its density, which their
values were used in the vehicle simulation. The CO2 emissions of the ICE bus were
calculated assuming complete combustion as modelled in equation 1 as:
ECO2 = RCO2 × FC × (MCO2/MC) (20)
where; ECO2 = CO2 emission rate in kg/h
RCO2 = fuel carbon content (%)
28
FC = fuel consumption of vehicle in kg/h
MCO2 = molar mass of carbon dioxide and MC = molar mass of carbon in kg/kmol
3.2.1.4 Experimental setup for heating value of diesel
Diesel fuels was obtained from different fuel stations – Shell, Goil and Total – and their
corresponding heating values were determined and compared using a 6400 Parr bomb
calorimeter. The experiments were on these three (3) diesel fuels because Intercity State
Transport Company (ISTC) as our case study get their diesel fuel from these three stations.
The bomb calorimeter used in the experiment has four essential parts – bomb or vessel in
which the combustible substance can be burnt, a bucket for holding the bomb in a measured
quantity of water together with a stirring mechanism, an insulation jacket to protect the
bucket from transient thermal stresses during combustion process and a thermometer for
measuring the temperature changes within the bucket.
Thermometer
Jacket
Bucket
Sample cup
Figure 8: Setup of the four essential parts in the bomb calorimeter
The materials used in the experiment were the diesel fuels, oxygen and nitrogen gas,
benzoic acid and a heating thread.

29
Figure 9: bomb calorimeter and bomb respectively
3.2.1.4.3 Experimental Procedure for determining heating value of diesel fuels
1. The Parr 6400 bomb calorimeter was connected to the electric power source and
started.
2. The calibration of the bomb calorimeter was verified by undergoing a pre-test. The
pre-test was on the combustion of one (1) gram pellet of benzoic acid of known heat
of combustion of 26.454MJ/kg. The value of the heat of combustion that was
obtained after the pre-test was 26.2124MJ/kg which was close to the actual value.
This closeness of the value obtained to the actual value of heat of combustion of
benzoic acid showed that the calorimeter was well calibrated.
3. After the pre-test, each of the samples of diesel fuels were tested. For each sample
test, fuel samples were weighed and kept in a sample cup and hanged on the bomb
of the bomb calorimeter.
4. A heating thread was connected between the heating coils of the bomb and the
surface of the of the fuel sample in the sample cup.
30
5. The bomb was placed back in the bomb calorimeter. The setup was started and the
results were displaced ten (10) minutes after the start time.
3.2.1.5 Experimental procedure for determining the fuel density of diesel fuel
1. The fuel density of the fuel samples – Shell diesel, Goil diesel and Total diesel –
were determined using a fuel density test machine. The fuel samples were injected
into the machine until the tube in the fuel density machine displayed no bubbles.
2. All the densities of the three (3) fuel samples were determined at room temperature
of 25ºC.
3.2.1.5.1 Experimental setup for determining the densities of diesel fuels
Figure 10: fuel density test machine
3.2.2 Determination of the CO2 emissions of the electric bus – BYD C9M
Battery Electric bus like the BYD C9M does not produce tailpipe emissions as the engine
buses do. But since they require electric power for propulsion which is being received from
the electricity grid; they are responsible for some percentage of emissions from electricity
generation. Thus, for the calculations of the CO2 emissions as a result of electric buses, it is
required the vehicle energy consumption and the emission factor of the national electrical
energy grid. The emission factor of all the plants in Ghana as of 2017 is 0.43tCO2/MWh
(Ghana Energy Commission report, 2007 to 2017). The electric bus energy consumption
31
was determined by simulation based on its vehicle specifications under the FTP-75 driving
cycle. The following table shows the specifications of the electric bus.
Figure 11: vehicle simulation model of BYD C9M
3.2.2.1 Description of the BYD C9M model
1. The thick blue lines show the parts of the BYD C9M which are mechanically
connected
32
2. Green lines show the data bus input from one component to another
3. The pink colored lines indicate the data bus out lines
4. Light blue lines are mechanical input and output lines
3.2.2.2 Vehicle simulation model formulas for BYD C9M
Charge controlling
For the generator current conditions
The maximum values for the generator current and voltage (I max, act) for a given angular
velocities is given out of the maps U; Lidle (𝜑L, g, e, n), Lmax (𝜑. L, g, e, n)
The minimum voltage is determined by the equation:
𝐼𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑎𝑐𝑡 (21)
𝑈𝐿,𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑈𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑎𝑐𝑡 − √
𝑅𝐺,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑒𝑞𝑢
For the controller current conditions
The controller current and voltage for a given angular velocity is evaluated out of the maps
U; (Lidle) 𝜑 . IL, max (𝜑,L, cont).
The controller factor is defined as the function of the controller current as:
1 (22)
𝐶𝐿:,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡 = −𝑅𝐺,𝑒𝑞𝑢 .
𝐼𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡
The minimum voltage fixed by the controller;
UL, min, cont = UL, max, cont + CL, cont . IC, max, act (23)
Now the program selects between three conditions:
a) For the generator area higher than the controller minimum voltage:
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(UL, min, cont ≤ UL, min, act) → controller characteristic
b) For generator voltage lower than the maximum controller voltage:
(UL, max, cont ≥ UL, max, act) → generator characteristic
c) For the area between:
.> mixed characteristics
Instantaneous Charge
At first the idle voltage (UQ, idle) and the inner resistance (RQ, act) is evaluated out of the
maps for the current battery charge (QQ, act).
The instantaneous battery current:
𝑈𝑄,𝑛𝑒𝑡 − 𝑈𝑄,𝑖𝑑𝑙𝑒 (24)

𝐼𝑄 =
𝑅𝑄,𝑎𝑐𝑡
The instantaneous charge of the battery is determined by means of a balance computation.
For all the electric modules connected to the battery, such as onboard network, motor, and
generator, this computation serves to total the currents that have just been absorbed
(onboard network, motor) or released (generator) at the mains voltage available with the
correct preceding signs and to multiply them with the dimension of the computational
steps. The result can be added to the existing battery charge.
QQ, act = QQ, act – 1 + tstep . IQ (25)
The electrical consumer is switched on or off dependent on the switch and the regulation
value. The actual inner resistance RX, act is evaluated from the map with consideration of
the current switch position.
With this, the instantaneous current can be calculated:
34
𝑈𝑋,𝑛𝑒𝑡 (26)
𝐼𝑋 =
𝑅𝑋,𝑎𝑐𝑡
IX = Current absorber RX, act = Actual internal resistance UX, net = Net Voltage
Table 5: Specifications of electric bus – BYD C9M (B)
Specifications of BYD C9M

Battery type Iron phosphate
Battery capacity 352kW
Motor type AC Synchronous
Maximum power 180kW × 2
Maximum torque 1500Nm × 2
Range 322km per full charge
Charging time 4.5 to 5 hours
Length 12.2m
Height 3.54m
Gross weight 22,000kg
Curb weight 16,500kg
Therefore, for this work, the emission factors used were obtained from Ghana Energy
Commission which aim to estimate the amount of electric power produced from the various
power plants in Ghana and the amount of CO2 production associated to power generation.
From the energy consumption of the electric bus calculated by the simulations and the
emission factors obtained from the Ghana Energy Commission, the emissions were
calculated using the formula;
𝐸𝐶𝑂2 = 𝐹𝐶𝑂2 × 𝐶 (27)
where:
35
ECO2 = CO2 emissions from the electricity generation (kg/km)
FCO2 = emission factor of CO2 (kg/kWh)
C = electricity consumption of electric vehicle per kilometer (kWh/km)
Aiming to compare and verify the feasibility of replacing the ICE bus with electric bus over
ten (10) years – from 2020 to 2030, two scenarios of emission factors were considered.
From the electricity grid in Ghana, much of electricity generation is derived from thermal
energy and hydropower. At different seasons – rainy season and dry season – different
emission factors are realized. Two different emission factors of 0.036kgCO2/kWh and
0.057kgCO2/kWh were used because during the rainy season, the amount of electricity
from the hydropower increases and this results to a relatively lower emission factor
compared to the dry season when the dependence on thermal energy for electricity
increases due to low output of the hydro plants. It was considered in one calendar year, five
(5) of the twelve (12) months – March, April, May, June and October – of higher rainfall
with lower grid emission factor of 0.036kgCO2/kWh and the other seven (7) months with
lower rainfall with higher grid emission factor of 0.057kgCO2/kWh.
Knowing the CO2 emissions of the ICE bus and that as a result of electric bus, the CO 2
emissions savings were determined by subtracting the total CO2 emissions due to electric
buses from the total CO2 emissions from the tailpipe of the ICE buses. The formula that
was used was:
𝐸𝑆 = 𝐸𝐼𝐶𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸𝐵 (28)
Where:
ES = CO2 emissions savings
EICE = CO2 emissions from tailpipes of ICE buses
EEB = CO2 emissions from electricity generation as a result of electric buses

36
3.3 THE TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP (TCO)
The cost of buying and owning a vehicle entails several different cost categories (Al-Alawi
and Bradley, 2013b; Electric Power Research Institute, 2013; consumer report, 2015). They
include depreciation, fuel cost over vehicle lifespan, maintenance and vehicle parts
inventory cost, interest cost – when vehicle is bought on loan and paid over a time range –
and insurance cost. In the estimation of the TCO of the ICE bus and electric bus, all costs
and prices were converted from Ghanaian cedi to US Dollar with a conversion rate of
1USD to GHS 5.75 as of March 29, 2020, 2020 (https://www.xe.com).
3.3.1 Depreciation of vehicle
Depreciation of a vehicle is the difference between the purchasing price of a product and
the reselling price of a vehicle used over a specified period of time. The depreciation of a
vehicle depends on a number of factors including brand of the vehicle, vehicle features and
sometimes government regulations. These factors account for the high rate of
approximately 50% in the TCO analysis of a vehicle. In this report, a standard depreciation
rate of 80% was used in the calculation of the depreciation value of the buses assuming 10
years ownership of buses. The initial prices of both buses are presented in table 3.3.
Table 6: Initial prices of vehicle S and vehicle B
Buses Prices (USD)

Scania Marcopolo – Vehicle S 199,280.00
BYD C9M – Vehicle B 398,366.22
3.3.2 Fuel costs
Fuel costs also accounts in the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) analysis of a vehicle. This
was calculated by finding the product of vehicle energy consumption cost per kilometer –
either fuel or electricity, total kilometers driven during vehicle lifespan or ownership period
37
and the average fuel price unit within this period. The average fuel and electricity prices in
Ghana as of March 2020 used in the calculation of TCO are presented in the following
table.
Table 7: average diesel and electricity prices in Ghana, March 2020
Prices in Ghana Diesel, per liter Electricity, per kWh

Ghanaian Cedi 5.64 0.98
US Dollar 0.98 0.17
The electricity cost per kWh in the table above represent the business cost
(https://www.globalpetrolprices.com).
3.3.3 Interest cost
Most vehicle buyers sometimes buy vehicles on loan. In this report, it was assumed that the
vehicle buyer provides a 20%-part payment and the remainder being paid on 36 months
installments at 4.63% Annual Percentage Rate (APR).
3.3.4 Insurance cost
Vehicle insurance costs are determined by two factors – vehicle specific factors including
performance of vehicle, safety ratings, weight and other factors and owner specific factors
including the number of accident-free years, age, gender and other factors. In this report,
the manufacturer’s vehicle specific factors, 10 accident-free years, male gender and 30
years of age was used in the estimation of insurance cost.
3.3.5 Maintenance, repair cost and inventory cost
Almost all vehicles come with warranties that covers improper functioning of the vehicle
for sometimes first 3 years of ownership only when the user complies to the vehicle manual
instructions. Maintenance cost was considered none for the first three (3) years of
ownership. Battery Electric Vehicle (BEVS) have mainly DC converter, fuel-cell stack,
electric traction motor in their powertrain and also there are fewer moving parts, no oil
38
change and less brake wear in BEVS than in ICEVS. However, service cost was calculated
using the manufacturer’s estimated service costs; maintenance on tires and wind screens
and screen wipers were considered to be almost equal and therefore were ignored in this
study. Table 3.5 and 3.6 show the major vehicle parts changed in the Scania Marcopolo and
the BYD C9M.
Table 8: Major vehicle parts changed in Scania Marcopolo – ICE bus
Vehicle parts Duration for maintenance Costs ($)

or servicing
Heater plugs 8 years 150.00
Air filters 6 months 15.00
Turbocharger with intercooler After every 160,934km 850.00
Gearbox oiling After every 48,280km 25.00
Oil and fuel filters 3 months 25.00
Fuel injection system 5 years 450.00
Brakes pads 6 months 370.00 per axle
Battery 4 years 550.00
Table 9: Major vehicle parts changed in BYD C9M – Electric bus
Vehicle parts Duration for servicing or Costs ($)

replacing
Battery 10 years 128,000.00
Electric motor 12years 3,001.91
Regenerative brakes 10years 3,974.00
Cabin filters 1 year 32.00
3.3.6 Taxes
Ghana harbor authorities charge up to almost 42% of the price of vehicles imported into the
country. This percentage of tax varies depending on the volume capacities of the engines of
39
vehicles. In this report, with volume capacity of the engine of Scania Marcopolo above
2500cc according to the Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA), the following tax deductibles
were assumed.
Table 10: Tax deductibles for imported vehicles for vehicle engines above 2500cc
Taxes Percentages (%)

Import duty 20
Value Added Tax (VAT) 12.5
National Health Insurance Levy (NHIL) 2.5
Get Fund Levy 2.5
AU Levy and ECOWAS Levy 0.2 and 0.5 respectively
Exim Levy 0.75
Exam Fee 1
Special Import Levy 2
The following equation was used to calculate for the TCO of both the ICE bus and the
electric bus:
𝑟𝑃 (3.3)
𝑇𝐶𝑂 = (𝑃𝑃 − 𝑅𝑃) + 𝐹𝐶 (𝑇𝐾𝐷 ) + ( 𝑁 − 𝑃) + 𝐼𝐶 + 𝑀𝑅 + 𝑇
1 − (1 + 𝑟)−𝑁
where;
TCO = Total Cost of Ownership of vehicle
PP = Vehicle purchasing Price
RP = Vehicle reselling Price
(PP−RP) = depreciation amount of the vehicle
FC = fuel or electric energy cost per kilometer
TKD = Total kilometers driven during vehicle lifespan
FC(TKD) = Total fuel or electric energy cost
r = monthly interest rate
40
P = amount borrowed for the vehicle
𝑟𝑃
(1−(1+𝑟)−𝑁 𝑁 − 𝑃) = Total interest cost paid
IC = Vehicle insurance cost
MR = Vehicle maintenance and repair costs
T = Government taxes on vehicle
41
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The test results of the heating values and their corresponding densities of the fuels obtained
from three (3) different stations are presented in table 4.1. The value used in the vehicle
simulation of the Scania Marcopolo bus was 45.3015MJ/kg and a fuel density of
829.5kg/m3
Table 11: Heating values and densities of diesel fuels
Fuel type Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Density

(MJ/kg) (MJ/kg) (MJ/kg) (kg/m3)
Goil diesel 45.0944 45.2652 45.5684 829.5
Total diesel 45.3945 44.4733 45.3374 828.3
Shell diesel 45.2473 45.3565 45.3006 825.7
The results of the simulation for the fuel consumption and the carbon dioxide emission of
the Scania Marcopolo and the electric energy consumption of BYD C9M are presented in
table 4.2 and 4.3 respectively.
Table 12: Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of vehicle S – Scania Marcopolo
Vehicle S – Scania Marcopolo
Fuel consumption (L/km) 0.3610

Fuel consumption (kWh/km) 3.610
CO2 emission (kg/h) 38.6423
CO2 emission (kgCO2/km) 0.94646
Table 13: Electric energy consumption of vehicle B – BYD C9M
Vehicle B – BYD C9M
Electric energy consumption (kWh/km) 1.4327
42
fuel consumption graph
16 1800
14 1600
VEHICLE SPEED(km/h)
FUEL CONSUMPTION
12 1400
10 1200
8 1000
6 800
4 600
2 400
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
TIME
TIME vs Engine Speed(km/h)
TIME vs Fuel consumption
Figure 12: accumulated fuel energy consumption of Scania Marcopolo – ICE bus
Electrical Energy Consumption For BYD C9M
6 3500
3000
ELECTRICAL CONSUMPTION(kwh)
2500
VEHICLE SPEED (km/h)

4
2000
3
1500
2
1000
1
500
0 0
-500
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
TIME
TIME vs ELECTRICAL CONSUMPTION(Kwh)
TIME vs VEHICLE SPEED (km/h)
Figure 13: accumulated electrical energy consumption of BYD C9M – electric bus
43
CO2 EMISSIONS FOR ICE VEHICLES (ISTC BUSES)
0.8 1800
1600
0.6
VEHICLE SPEED (KM/h)

CO2 EMISSIONS (Kg)
1400
0.4
1200
1000
0.2
800
0.0
600
400
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
TIME
TIME vs Raw_Emission_Sum_CO2
TIME vs VEHICLE SPEED (KM/h)
Figure 14: accumulated CO2 emissions from Scania Marcopolo – ICE bus
Figure 7 and figure 8 show the variation in vehicle speed with fuel energy consumption of
Scania Marcopolo – ICE bus – and the electric energy consumption of BYD C9M – electric
bus respectively, under the FTP 75 driving cycle. The fuel energy consumption of Scania
Marcopolo was 3.610 kWh/km and the energy consumption of BYD C9M was
1.4327kWh/km, meaning that the energy consumption of the EV is almost three (3) times
lesser than that of the conventional vehicle. Fig. 3 shows the vehicle speed during an FTP
75 driving cycle and the CO2 emission from Scania Marcopolo which was 0.75 kg.
Considering the FTP cycle that corresponds to a driving distance of 17.77 km, this is
equivalent to an average emission of 750 gCO2/km which is above 130gCO2/km base line
set as emission standard.
4.1 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EMISSIONS
From equation 1, the CO2 emissions of Scania Marcopolo – ICE bus – are presented below;
44
With vehicle fuel consumption of 14.739litres/hour (or 0.361litres/km), 86.2% carbon
content of diesel fuel, and corresponding molar masses of CO2 and C as 44kg/kmol and
12kg/kmol, the emission rate of Scania Marcopolo was calculated as:
ECO2 = 0.862 × (0.014739 × 829.5) × (44/12)
ECO2 = 38.6423 kg/h.
With vehicle fuel consumption in litres/km, the emission rate was calculated to be
0.94646kgCO2/km.
CO2 emission per one bus in a period of 10 years = emission rate × total kilometers
= 0.94646kgCO2/km × 1,431,360 km
= 1,354,724.986 kgCO2
With a total of 31 buses,
25% of fleet = 7.75, approximately 8 buses
50% of fleet = 15.5, approximately 16 buses
75% of fleet = 23.25 approximately 24 buses
100% of fleet = 31 buses
The estimated calculations of CO2 emissions as a result of the above percentages of fleets
were:
1. For 25% of fleets of ICE buses, emissions = 8 × 1,354,724.986 kgCO2
= 10,837,799.89 kgCO2
= 10,837.800 tCO2
2. For 50% of fleets of ICE buses, emissions = 16 × 1,354,724.986 kgCO2
= 21,675,599.78 kgCO2
= 21,675.600 tCO2
3. For 75% of fleets ICE buses, emissions = 24 × 1,354,724.986 kgCO2
= 32,513,399.66 kgCO2
45
= 32,513.400 tCO2
4. For 100% of fleets ICE buses, emissions = 31 × 1,354,724.986 kgCO2
= 41,996,474.57 kgCO2
= 41,996.475 tCO2
For the calculations of the CO2 emissions from electricity generation as a result of electric
buses – BYD C9M,
Electric energy consumption of BYD C9M = 1.4327 kWh/km.
Higher grid emission factor = 0.057 kgCO2/kWh
Lower grid emission factor = 0.036 kgCO2/kWh
With a total kilometer of 1,431,360 km in a period of 10 years, 11,928 km is travelled by
one bus per month. As stated in the methodology that 5 months of higher rainfall and 7
months of lower rainfall;
Total months of lower rainfall in a period of 10 years = 70 months
Total kilometers for months of lower rainfall in a period of 10 years = 70 × 11,928 km
= 834,960 km
Total months of higher rainfall in a period of 10 years = 50 months
Total kilometers for months of higher rainfall in a period of 10 years = 50 × 11,928 km
= 596,400 km
Therefore, CO2 emission from electricity generation as a result of one bus in a period 10
years = [(0.057 × 1.4327 × 834,960km) + (0.036 × 1.4327 × 596,400 km)]
= 98,946.732 kgCO2
The CO2 emissions as a result of the electric buses with respect to the percentages were
calculated as;
46
1. For 25% fleet of electric buses, emissions = 8 × 98,946.732 kgCO2
= 791,573.856 kgCO2
= 791.574 tCO2
= 1,583,147.712 kgCO2
= 1,583.148 tCO2
= 2,374,721.568 kgCO2
= 2,374.722 tCO2
= 3,067,348.692 kgCO2
= 3,067.349 tCO2
Table 14: percentage fleet replacement with corresponding CO2 emission savings at the end
of the ten-year period
Fleet Emissions from ICE Emissions due to Emission savings

Replacement (%) buses (tCO2) electric buses (tCO2) (tCO2)
25% 10,837.800 791.574 10,046.220
50% 21,675.600 1,583.148 20,092.452
75% 32,513.400 2,374.722 30,138.678
100% 41,996.475 3,067.349 38,929.126
Figure 15 shows the CO2 emissions savings when 25% of ICE buses are replaced with
electric buses. In the year 2030, the emissions of CO2 saved was estimated to be 10,046
tons of CO2 corresponding to a driving distance of 1,431,360 km within the ten-year period
thus, 913 tons of CO2 emissions savings per year.
47
Figure 16 shows CO2 emissions savings of 20,092 tons of CO2 by the year 2030 when 50%
of the ICE buses are replaced with electric buses corresponding to a driving distance of
1,431,360 km within the ten-year period. Thus, 1,826 tons of CO2 per year.
Figure 17 shows the CO2 emissions savings of 2,739 tons of CO2 per year amounting to
30,138 tons of CO2 emissions savings by the year 2030 when 75% of the ICE buses are
replaced with electric buses. Thus, corresponding to a driving distance of 1,431,360 km
within the ten-year period.
Figure 18 shows the CO2 emissions savings when all the ICE buses are replaced with
electric buses. With a driving distance of 1,431,360 km, the total CO2 emissions savings at
the end of the ten-year period was estimated to be 38,929 tons of CO2. Thus, 3,539 tons of
CO2 emissions savings per year.
25% FLEET REPLACEMENT

12000
CO2 EMISSIONS SAVINGS (tCO2/YEAR)
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
YEAR
electric buses
48
25000

20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
YEAR
electric buses

35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
YEAR
Figure 17: CO2 emissions savings due to 75% of fleet replacement of ICE buses with
electric buses
49
45000

40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
YEAR
Figure 18: CO2 emissions savings as a result of 100% fleet replacement of ICE buses with
electric buses
ALL P E RCE NTAGE S OF FLE E T

RE P LACE ME NT
CO2 EMISSIONS SAVINGS (TCO2/YEAR)
25% 50% 75% 100%

45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030
YEAR
Figure 19: CO2 emissions savings for all percentages of fleet replacement of ICE buses
with electric buses
50
Figure 19 shows all the CO2 emissions savings for all the percentages of fleet replacement
– 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. The CO2 emissions savings corresponding to a driving
distance of 1,431,360 km within the ten-year period increases as the to the percentages of
bus fleet replacement increases. The CO2 emissions savings trends in all the percentages of
bus fleet replacement are similar in figures 15 to 18 since the same emission factors were
used over the years. The difference between the percentages of fleet replacement is the
quantitative CO2 emissions savings which is highest for the 100% fleet replacement.
The electricity generation mix of Ghana is varies due to the seasons the country
experiences. During seasons of higher rainfall, the electricity mix is dominated by
hydroelectric power which results in lower emission factors since lesser percentage is
derived from thermal energy. Relatively higher emission factors result during the dry
seasons when much electricity is generated from thermal energy. These emission factors
though, favors the introduction of electric vehicles with the advantage of lower atmospheric
CO2 emissions.
4.2 ELECTRIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION
With electricity consumption of electric bus of 1.4327 kWh/km and total driving distance
of 1,431,360 km within the ten-year period;
Electricity consumption of one bus in ten years = 1.4327 kWh/km × 1,431,360 km
= 2,050,709.472 kWh
= 2.0507 GWh
With respect to the percentages of fleet replacement and total of 31 electric buses, the
electric energy consumptions were calculated as follows:
1. For 25% of electric buses, electric energy consumption = 8 × 2.0507 GWh
51
= 16.4056 GWh
= 32.8112 GWh
= 49.2168 GWh
= 63.5717 GWh
In the year 2019, Ghana supplied a total energy of 17,887 GWh including losses. Thus,
40% from hydropower representing 7,252 GWh, 59% from thermal energy representing
10,508 GWh and 1% from imports from Cote d’Ivoire representing 127 GWh. The total
electric energy consumed, 17,887 GWh represented a 12.07% growth over that of 2018
thus, 1,927 GWh. Assuming all 31 ICE buses – Scania Marcopolo – that travel Kumasi to
Accra and Accra to Kumasi are replaced by electric buses – BYD C9M, the estimated
electric energy consumption was 63.5717 GWh for the ten-year period thus, 5.7792 GWh
per year. This represented 0.355% of the total energy produced in 2019. With a projected
growth of 9.5% of that produced in 2019 thus, 1,707 GWh, demands of electric energy for
charging all 31 electric buses can be met since demand may reduce to 0.324% of the total
produce in 2020.
4.3 TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP
The results of the TCO of the two buses are presented below:
4.3.1 Depreciation
For Scania Marcopolo bus,
Purchasing price or initial price = $199,280.00
52
Depreciation rate = 80% over a period of 10 years
80%
Depreciation value = × $199,280.00 = $159,856.00
100%
For 31 bus fleet, the total depreciation values calculated was $4,955,536.00
For the BYD C9M electric bus,
Depreciation rate = 80% over a period of 10 years
80%
Depreciation value = × $378,366.22 = $318,692.98
100%
For 31 bus fleet, the total depreciation values calculated was $9,879,482.26
4.3.2 Total fuel cost and electricity cost
For the Scania Marcopolo bus,
Total fuel cost = fuel cost per kilometer × total kilometers driven for a period of ten years
Fuel consumption = 0.361litres/km
Standard fuel price = 0.98$/liter
Fuel cost per kilometer = fuel consumption of vehicle × standard fuel price
= 0.361litres/km × 0.98$/litres = 0.35378$/km
Distance from Kumasi to Accra and Accra to Kumasi = 497km
With one bus travelling 497km each day for six (6) days in a week, total kilometers of
travel for a period of 10 years calculated was 1,431,360km.
Total fuel cost for a period of 10 years = 0.35378$/km × 1431360km
= $506,386.54
With 31 bus fleets, total fuel cost = $506,386.54 × 31 = $15,697,982.74
53
Electric power consumption = 1.4327kWh/km
Standard electricity cost = 0.17$/kWh
Electricity cost per kilometer = electric power consumption of vehicle × electricity cost
= 1.4327kWh/km × 0.17$/kWh
= 0.243559$/km
Total kilometers driven by one bus for period of 10 years = 1,431,360km
Total electricity cost for a period of 10 years = 0.243559$/km × 1,431,360km
= $348,620.61
With 31 bus fleets, total electricity cost of charging = $10,807,238.91.
4.3.3 Total interest cost
With a 20%-part payment of the initial price for each of the buses and the remainder being
paid in installment within 36 months with an Annual Percentage Rate (APR) of 4.63%, the
monthly interest rate calculated was 0.386%.
For Scania Marcopolo bus,
Initial price or purchasing price = $199,280.00
Remaining amount to be paid after 20%-part payment = $159,424.00
New principal (P) = $159,424.00
Interest rate (r) = 0.368% = 0.00368
Period in months (N) = 36
𝑟𝑃
The total interest cost for one bus = [( ) (𝑁) − 𝑃]
1−(1+𝑟)−𝑁
= [(0.00368×$159,424.00
1−(1+0.00368)−36
) (36) − $159,424.00]
= $11,068.08
The total interest cost calculated as a result of 31 bus fleet = $343,668.48
54
Initial price or purchasing price = $398,366.22
Remaining amount to be paid after 20%-part payment = $318,692.98
New principal = $318,692.98
Interest rate (r) = 0.368% = 0.00368
Period in months (N) = 36
𝑟𝑃
The total interest cost for one bus = [( ) (𝑁) − 𝑃]
1−(1+𝑟)−𝑁
= [(0.00368 × $318,692.98
1−(1+0.00368) −36
) (36) − $318,692.98]
= $22,161.38
The total interest cost calculated as a result of 31 bus fleet = $687,002.78
4.3.4 Taxes
From the tax deductibles, the total percentage of taxes amounted to 41.95%
For one Scania Marcopolo bus,
Government taxes on one bus = 0.4195 × $199,280.00 = $83,597.96
Total taxes for 31 bus fleet = $2,591,536.76
For one BYD C9M electric bus,
Government taxes on one bus = 0.4195 × $398,366.22 = $167,114.63
Total taxes for 31 bus fleet = $5,180,553.51
55
4.3.5 Insurance cost
Third Party Vehicle Insurance – which covers only injuries and deaths of passengers – is
mandatory for every vehicle registered in Ghana according to Motor Third Party Risk Act
1958. In the National Insurance Scheme (NIS) company in Ghana, a minimum of $868.81
is required for Third Party Insurance for all class of vehicles. In this report, a minimum of
$868.81 was used for the Third-Party Insurance for both buses. Thus, for a 31-bus fleet, the
calculated total insurance cost was $26933.11 for both buses.
4.3.6 Maintenance and Repair cost
From the vehicle part lists in table 3.5 and table 3.6, considering a 10-period ownership and
total kilometers driven of 1,431,360km,
1. For Scania Marcopolo the total maintenance cost was calculated as:
6($150.00) + 20($15.00) + 9($850.00) + 30($25.00) + 40($25.00) + 2($450.00) +
20($390.00) +2($550.00) = $20,400.00
As a result of 31 bus fleet, the total maintenance cost was calculated as $632,400.00
2. For BYD C9M, the total maintenance cost was calculated as:
10($32.00) = $320.00.
As a result of 31 bus fleet the total cost on maintenance was calculated as $9,920.00
The maintenance on wind screens, tyres, headlights and screen wipers are almost the same
on both buses and so were neglected.
4.3.7 Summary of the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)
The Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of the Scania Marcopolo bus and the BYD C9M
electric bus is presented in table 4.4
56
Table 15: Summary of TCO of Scania Marcopolo and BYD C8M
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)
Costs Scania Marcopolo BYD C9M

Depreciation $4,955,536.00 $9,879,482.26
Total fuel or electricity cost $15,697,982.74 $10,807,238.91
Interest cost $343,668.48 $687,002.78
Insurance cost $26,933.11 $26,933.11
Taxes $2,591,536.76 $5,180,553.51
Maintenance and repair cost $632,400.00 $9,920.00
TOTAL $24,248,057.09 $26,591,130.57
From the summary of the TCO analysis of the two buses in table 13, the cost of owning
Scania Marcopolo bus – ICE bus – was calculated to be $2,343,073.48 less than the cost of
owning the BYD C9M – electric bus – over a ten-year period of time.
TCO of Scania Marcopolo

$18,000,000.00
$16,000,000.00
$14,000,000.00
$12,000,000.00
$10,000,000.00
$8,000,000.00
$6,000,000.00
$4,000,000.00
$2,000,000.00
$0.00
Depreciation Total fuel or Interest cost Insurance Taxes Maintenance
electricity cost and repair
cost cost
Figure 20: Total Cost of Ownership of the Scania Marcopolo

The graph in figure 4.1 shows a bar chart of the several cost in the TCO analysis of Scania
Marcopolo. The higher cost is the fuel cost and this was as a result of the larger distance of
57
1,431,360km in a ten-year period. Though ICEVS require a lot of maintenance and
servicing compared to BEVS, the lower cost in the graph of figure 4.1 was as a result of the
neglection of maintenance of vehicle parts such as the headlights, vehicle tyres, doors,
windscreens and windscreen wipers since the cost of maintenance of these vehicle parts are
almost equal in both the Scania Marcopolo and the BYD C9M.
TCO of BYD C9M

$12,000,000.00
$10,000,000.00
$8,000,000.00
$6,000,000.00
$4,000,000.00
$2,000,000.00
$0.00
Depreciation Total fuel or Interest cost Insurance Taxes Maintenance
electricity cost and repair
cost cost
Figure 21: Total Cost of Ownership of BYD C9M

In the TCO of BYD C9M presented in figure 4.2, the higher depreciation cost of the BYD
C9M compared to the depreciation cost of the Scania Marcopolo was as due to the higher
purchasing price compared to the initial price of the Scania Marcopolo. This higher initial
price of the BYD C9M is as a result of the higher battery cost which is almost half its price.
One factor of high depreciation in electric buses is battery degradation over a period of
time. Almost all EVs have a guaranteed battery lifespan of 8 years and 100,000 miles –
58
160,934.4km – of which BYD C9M is not an exception. Electric buses like BYD C9M
have an average decline in energy storage as 2.3% per year. Battery degradation is not
linear – a slow rate can be followed by a steep drop. Therefore, in a period of 10 years as in
this case study, battery degradation in BYD C9M may be as much as 40% during its
warranty period. This as a result causes a higher depreciation in the BYD C9M. The higher
initial cost of the BYD C9M also showed higher interest cost and taxes compared to the
Scania Marcopolo.
The overall TCO of the two buses – Scania Marcopolo and BYD C9M – is presented in
figure 14.
TCO of Scania Marcopolo and BYD C9M

$27,000,000.00
$26,500,000.00
$26,000,000.00
$25,500,000.00
$25,000,000.00
$24,500,000.00
$24,000,000.00
$23,500,000.00
$23,000,000.00
Scania Marcopolo BYD C9M
Figure 22: The TCO of Scania Marcopolo and BYD C8M

BEVS enjoy some distinct advantages over ICEVS. Firstly, the calculated electricity cost
associated with the operating range of 1,431,360 km in a 10-year period of BYD C8M was
significantly lower than the diesel cost of the Scania Marcopolo required within same
59
operating range. And secondly, the maintenance cost of the BYD C9M was calculated to be
less than the maintenance cost of the Scania Marcopolo. This is due to the simplicity if the
battery-electric motor system of the BYD C9M compared to the complex arrangements of
engine and other vehicle parts as well as so many moving parts in the Scania Marcopolo.
With these key advantages explained, the TCO of the BYD C9M was still calculated to be
$2,343,073.48 more than the TCO of Scania Marcopolo which corresponded to 9.7%
difference.
60
5. CONCLUSION
This work evaluated the effects of replacement of engine-powered buses of ISTC with
electric-powered buses of similar model. Simulation of the two (2) buses using the AVL
Cruise software was done under the Federal Test Procedure (FTP) -75 driving cycle. Same
travel distance of 497 km per day was considered for both buses. From the results on CO2
emissions, fuel energy consumption, electricity energy consumption as well as the Total
Cost of Ownership (TCO) obtained for both the conventional and electric bus, the
following conclusions were made:
1. The energy consumption evaluated from fuel energy content for Scania Marcopolo
– engine-powered bus – is almost three (3) times higher than the electric energy
consumption of the BYD C9M – electric bus.
2. At the end of the ten-year period, the total electric energy required to charge the
electric buses will be 63.5717 GWh corresponding to a driving distance of 497 km
in a day and this amount represented 0.355% of the total energy produced in 2019.
3. In the worst-case scenario of higher emission factor of 0.057 kgCO2/kWh, thus with
more thermal electricity generation, the simulation results show that CO2 emission
from the electric bus is 13 times lower for a period of 10 years, when compared
with engine-powered vehicles.
4. The CO2 emissions savings when the engine-powered buses are replaced with
electric buses increases as the percentage of fleet replacement increases. This
represented 50% increase per year for all percentages of fleet replacement. This was
because same emission factors were used over the whole ten years.
5. The results on CO2 emissions savings obtained may vary depending on the emission
factor used.
61
6. Although the purchasing price of electric bus is about 50% higher than the
purchasing price of engine-powered bus, electric buses have the advantages of
lower maintenance cost and lower electricity cost.
7. The replacement of engine-powered buses with electric buses might not be feasible
in Ghana from the perspective of the TCO analysis, because the TCO of the electric
buses was 7% more than that of the engine-powered buses.
62
6. APPENDICES
References
1. https://www.epa.gov/transportation-air-pollution-and-
climatechange/accomplishments-and-success-air-pollution-transportation.
2. Cobb, Jeff (31 January 2017). "Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car
For Second Year in a Row". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 31 January 2017. See also
detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.
3. "Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs)". Center for Sustainable Energy, California.
Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
4. PLUS, Nissan LEAF Nissan LEAF. "Nissan LEAF Sales Hit 450,000: World's #1
Selling EV, But Not For Long". Inside EVs. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
5. https://knoema.com/atlas/Ghana/CO2-emissions-per-capita.
6. Republic of Ghana. 2015. Ghana's intended nationally determined contribution
(INDC) and accompanying explanatory note. Available at:
http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Ghana/1/GH_
INDC_2392015.pdf (Accessed November 17, 2015).
7. Ghana. Ghana's Third National Communication Report to the UNFCCC,2015:
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/ghanc3.pdf.com
8. https://worldometers.info/world-population/Ghana-population, 2019.
9. Ghana Statistical Service, 2018
10. 2019 Electricity supply plan for the Ghana Power System
11. WRI CAIT 2.0, 2015, Emissions including Land-Use Change and Forestry
12. Consumer Reports (retrieved 25th of February, 2015)
http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/2012/12/what-that-car-really-costs-to-own/.
63
13. Jens Hagman, Sofia Ritzén, Jenny Janhager Stier, Yusak Susilo (2016), Total cost of
ownership and its potential implications for battery electric vehicle diffusion.
14. Varga, B.O., 2013. Electric vehicles, primary energy sources and CO2 emissions:
Romanian case study. Energy 49, 61–70.
15. IEA, 2016. Key CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion (2016 edition).
http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/pu (Accessed 14/6/2017).
16. Doucette Reed T, McCulloch Malcolm D. Modeling the prospects of plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles to reduce CO2 emissions. Applied Energy July 2011;88(7):2315e23.
17. Doucette Reed T, McCulloch Malcolm D. Modeling the CO2 emissions from battery
electric vehicles given the power generation mixes of different countries. Energy
Policy February 2011;39(2):803e11.
18. Bogdan Ovidiu Varga, 2012: Electric vehicles, primary energy sources and CO2
emissions: Romanian case study
19. Ana Carolina Rodrigues Teixeira, José Ricardo Sodré, 2018; Impacts of replacement
of engine powered vehicles by electric vehicles on energy consumption and CO2
emissions
20. Van Vliet Oscar, Brouwer Anne Sjoerd, Kuramochi Takeshi, den Broek Machteld
van, Faaij André. Energy use, cost and CO2 emissions of electric cars. Journal of
Power Sources 15 February 2011;196(4):2298e310.
21. 2020 Electricity supply plan for the Ghana Power System
64
Abbreviations
1. BEB – Battery Electric Bus
2. BAU – Business-As Usual
3. BEB – Battery Electric Vehicle
4. CO2 – Carbon dioxide
5. DC – Direct Current
6. EV – Electric Vehicle
7. FTP – Federal Test Procedure
8. GW – Gigawatt
9. GWh – Gigawatt-hour
10. GHG – Greenhouse Gases
11. GDP – Gross Domestic Product
12. GSS – Ghana Statistical Service
13. HC – Hydrocarbons
14. HFO – Heavy Fuel Oil
15. HBEV – Hybrid Battery Electric Vehicle
16. ICE – Internal Combustion Engine
17. ICEV – Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle
18. ISTC – Intercity State Transport Company
19. INDC – Intended Nationally Determined Contributions
20. IEA – International Energy Agency
21. IMF – International Monetary Fund
22. IPP – Independent Power Producer
23. kWh – Kilowatt-hour
24. kgCO2 – Kilogram of carbon dioxide

65
25. LUCF – Land-Use Climate Forestry
26. LCO – Light Crude Oil
27. MW - Megawatt
28. NEDC – New European Driving Cycle
29. OVEM – Oxford VEhicle Model
30. PHEV – Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
31. SAPP – Sunon Asogli Power Plant
32. SDG – Sustainable Development Goal
33. SUV – Sport Utility Vehicle
34. TCO – Total Cost of Ownership
35. TAPCO – Takoradi Power Company
36. TICO – Takoradi International Company
37. TT1PP – Tema Thermal 1 Power Plant
38. TT2PP – Tema Thermal 2 Power Plant
39. tCO2 – Tons of carbon dioxide
40. UN – United Nations
41. UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
42. VAT – Value Added Tax
43. VRA – Volta River Authority
44. WRI CAT - World Resources Institute Climate Analysis Indicator Tool
66

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KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FINAL YEAR PROJECT 2019/2020

IMPACTS OF REPLACING INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINE VEHICLES WITH ELECTRIC VEHICLES ON

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EMISSIONS AND ENERGY

PROJECT SUPERVISOR: DR. GODWIN K. AYETOR

helped in the compilation of this thesis.

theirs. We therefore agree to face the consequences if found wanting as to be determined by

operating range compared to the diesel cost of the Scania Marcopolo.

LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... ix

1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................. 4

1.3 AIM OF THE PROJECT .................................................................................................... 5

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 6

2.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................ 6

2.1.1 History of Vehicles ....................................................................................................... 6

2.1.2 Battery Electric Buses ................................................................................................... 8

2.1.3. Brief information about Ghana................................................................................... 11

2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ELECTRIC VEHICLE PENETRATION IN A

2.2.1 Total Cost of Ownership Factor .................................................................................. 14

2.2.2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission Factor ...................................................................... 15

2.2.3 The Energy Consumption Factor................................................................................. 19

2.3 CONCLUSION ON LITERATURE ................................................................................. 20

3.1 OVERVIEW OF METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 21

3.3 THE TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP (TCO) ................................................................. 37

3.3.2 Fuel costs.................................................................................................................... 37

3.3.3 Interest cost ................................................................................................................ 38

3.3.4 Insurance cost ............................................................................................................. 38

3.3.5 Maintenance, repair cost and inventory cost ................................................................ 38

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ......................................................................................... 42

4.1 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EMISSIONS......................................................................... 44

4.2 ELECTRIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION ......................................................................... 51

4.3 TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP .................................................................................... 52

4.3.1 Depreciation ............................................................................................................... 52

4.3.2 Total fuel cost and electricity cost ............................................................................... 53

4.3.3 Total interest cost ....................................................................................................... 54

4.3.4 Taxes .......................................................................................................................... 55

4.3.5 Insurance cost ............................................................................................................. 56

4.3.6 Maintenance and Repair cost ...................................................................................... 56

4.3.7 Summary of the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) ........................................................ 56

Table 2: Existing power plants in Ghana .......................................................................... 12

Table 3: Parameters meaning ........................................................................................... 26

Table 4 Specifications of ICE bus – Scania Marcopolo (S) ............................................... 28

Table 5: Specifications of electric bus – BYD C9M (B) ................................................... 35

Table 6: Initial prices of vehicle S and vehicle B.............................................................. 37

Table 11: Heating values and densities of diesel fuels ...................................................... 42

Table 13: Electric energy consumption of vehicle B – BYD C9M.................................... 42

of the ten-year period ....................................................................................................... 47

Figure 1: First gasoline propelled vehicle........................................................................... 6

Figure 2: BYD K9 electric bus ........................................................................................... 9

Figure 3: Yutong Tce12 electric bus................................................................................. 10

Figure 4: AVASS Augusta electric bus ............................................................................ 10

Figure 5: Speed-time variation of the FTP-75 driving cycle ............................................. 22

Figure 6: experimental setup of the four-gas exhaust analyzer. ......................................... 23

Figure 7: vehicle simulation model of Scania Marcopolo ................................................. 24

Figure 9: bomb calorimeter and bomb respectively .......................................................... 30

Figure 10: fuel density test machine ................................................................................. 31

Figure 11: vehicle simulation model of BYD C9M .......................................................... 32

electric buses ................................................................................................................... 48

electric buses ................................................................................................................... 49

electric buses ................................................................................................................... 49