Asia-Pacific Edu Res
DOI 10.1007/s40299-014-0195-0
REGULAR ARTICLE
L2 Motivational Self System, Attitudes, and Affect as Predictors
of L2 WTC: An Imagined Community Perspective
Jian-E Peng
Ó De La Salle University 2014
Abstract This study explored the interrelationships
between the three components of second language (L2)
motivational self system (i.e., ideal L2 self, ought-to L2
self, and L2 learning experience), international posture, L2
anxiety, and willingness to communicate (WTC) using
structural equation modeling. Questionnaire data were
collected from 1,013 university students in China. The
results showed that ideal L2 self was predicted by learning
experience, ought-to L2 self, and international posture.
Ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self exerted, respectively, a
negative and positive effect on L2 anxiety. L2 WTC was
found to encompass two distinct factors: WTC inside and
outside the classroom. The former was predicted by L2
anxiety, learning experience, and international posture,
whereas the latter had international posture as its only
direct predictor. This model marks the first step toward
drawing on L2 motivational self system to account for
foreign language learners’ communication intention from
the perspective of an imagined global community.
Keywords L2 motivational self system

International posture
L2 anxiety

Willingness to communicate in an L2

An imagined global community
J.-E. Peng (&)
Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, College of
Liberal Arts, Shantou University, 243 Da Xue Road, Shantou
515063, Guangdong Province, China
e-mail: pengjiane@stu.edu.cn
Introduction
The importance of talking in order to learn (MacIntyre et al.
2003) has been widely accepted in the field of second lan-
guage acquisition (SLA). However, it is not unusual to find
learners unwilling to talk or communicate using the second
language (L2) despite their recognition of the need to do so.
The construct of willingness to communicate in an L2 (L2
WTC) has been accorded increasing research attention in
recent years. L2 WTC refers to ‘‘a readiness to enter into
discourse at a particular time with a specific person or per-
sons, using a L2’’ (MacIntyre et al. 1998, p. 547). It is theo-
rized to energize L2 communication actions and thereby
facilitate language learning. Chinese students have often been
observed to be incompetent in or even shun from English
communication, which cannot satisfy the pressing demand for
competent English users raised by China’s rapid growth
against the backdrop of globalization. It is of utter importance
to research students’ motivational aspirations and in partic-
ular L2 WTC in this context for purposes of promoting their
L2 communication and communicative proficiency.
Many early studies have shown that L2 WTC is intri-
cately related with motivation to learn the L2 and attitudes
known as integrativeness (Gardner 1985) in Canadian
bilingual ethnic contexts (Clément et al. 2003; MacIntyre
and Charos 1996). Integrativeness reflects an integrative
orientation toward learning the L2 with a desire to interact
or even identify with the L2 group. In contexts where
English is learned as a foreign language (EFL), Yashima
(2002) proposed the concept of ‘‘international posture’’ to
capture learners’ attitudes toward what English symbolizes,
or what is termed as an imagined community (Norton
2001). This appears to be a promising perspective to
account for EFL learners’ language learning and commu-
nication in the era of globalization.
123

The theorizing of imagined communities has been par-
ticularly pertinent to researching English learning and
communication in EFL contexts. Kanno and Norton (2003)
defined imagined communities as ‘‘groups of people, not
immediately tangible and accessible, with whom we con-
nect through the power of the imagination’’ (p. 241).
Imagination, according to Wenger (1998), is an important
distinct mode of belonging to a community with which one
creates images of the world and the self by transcending
time and space. English is increasingly viewed to be
detached from any specific Anglophone community but
instead represents a worldwide global community. Hence,
English language learning seems to implicate a process of
learners’ negotiation of their identities as members of such
a global community conceived in their minds, or an
imagined global community (Ryan 2006).
The recently proposed theory of L2 motivational self
system (Dörnyei 2005, 2009) also draws on the notion of
imagination. This theory posits that learners’ vision of their
future selves as L2 users engaging in interaction with
members of a given community provides motivational
impetus for L2 learning. This community may be real or
exist in learners’ imagination. This theory has demon-
strated its validity in accounting for motivated learning
behavior in EFL contexts (Csizér and Kormos 2009; Papi
and Teimouri 2012; Taguchi et al. 2009). However, its
influence on L2 WTC, another type of motivational pro-
pensity, remains largely underinvestigated.
From the perspective of imagined communities, inter-
national posture and English-related future selves reflect
learners’ sense of legitimate English speakers in a global
community, which may propel their WTC in English. This
study aims to examine to what extent EFL learners’ WTC
in English is predicted by their L2 motivational self sys-
tem, international posture, and language anxiety, the last
one being an indispensable antecedent of L2 WTC. This
study represents an innovative attempt to explore the pre-
diction of the latest L2 motivation theory coupled with
attitudinal and affective factors on WTC. It provides
implications for constructing EFL learners’ English-related
imagined selves or identities to compensate for their lack of
real-life L2 contact. Since EFL learners have greatly out-
numbered native English speakers (Crystal 2003), this
study can inspire an understanding of EFL learners’
learning and communication as involving a reconstruction
of identities implicated in the process of globalization.
Relationship Between Motivation, International
Posture, and L2 WTC
Willingness to communicate in an L2 was conceptualized
as the last step before overt communication behavior and
perceived to drive learners to engage in L2 communication,
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J.-E. Peng
which opens up more learning opportunities that are
otherwise unavailable in the classroom context. It is both a
factor contributing to L2 learning and a non-linguistic
outcome that educators would desire to achieve among
language learners (MacIntyre 2007).
Reaching the state of WTC is a complex process nur-
tured by many factors, most of which were capsulated in
MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) heuristic L2 WTC model. These
factors are classified as having enduring influences (e.g.,
personality) and situational influences (e.g., state anxiety
and perceived competence) on L2 WTC, which have been
subsequently supported in a large body of studies (Clément
et al. 2003; MacIntyre and Charos 1996; MacIntyre et al.
2003; MacIntyre and Legatto 2011). In-depth qualitative
inquiries have also revealed strong evidence that in edu-
cational settings, L2 WTC dynamically fluctuates in
response to the interaction of individual and contextual
factors such as topics, interlocutors, task types, and com-
munication contexts (Cao 2011; Kang 2005).
Motivation and integrativeness, among many anteced-
ents of L2 WTC, are remarkable variables influencing
learners’ decision to cross their ‘‘Rubicon,’’ a metaphor for
committing oneself to L2 communication (MacIntyre
2007). Early L2 WTC studies succinctly showed the rela-
tionship between L2 WTC and integrativeness and moti-
vation from Gardner’s (1985) socio-educational model
(MacIntyre and Charos 1996; MacIntyre et al. 2003).
Similar results were replicated in Peng’s (2007) study with
174 Chinese EFL college students, except that motivation
and integrativeness only accounted for a small proportion
of the variance of L2 WTC. This result attests to MacIntyre
et al.’s (1998) proposition that L2 WTC is susceptible to
many individual, contextual, and sociocultural factors.
Yashima (2002) proposed international posture to
explore EFL learners’ attitudes toward a global community
connected by English, given the fact that the pervasiveness
of English is blurring boundaries between specific English-
speaking communities. International posture is defined as
‘‘interest in foreign or international affairs, willingness to
go overseas to stay or work, readiness to interact with
intercultural partners, and, one hopes, openness or a non-
ethnocentric attitude toward different cultures’’ (ibid.,
p. 57). It seeks to explain EFL learners’ motivation from
their intended identification with the global community, or
more precisely, an imagined community residing in
learners’ minds. As Lamb (2004) contended, contemporary
aspirations to English learning, such as understanding pop
songs and studying or traveling abroad, reflect one’s
international posture.
International posture has been found to be a valid atti-
tudinal construct closely related to L2 WTC and motivation
in a number of studies (Ghonsooly et al. 2012; Yashima
2002, 2009). Yashima’s (2002) study with 297 Japanese
Self, Attitudes and Affect as Predictors of WTC
students confirmed the direct effect of international posture
on L2 WTC and indirect effect of motivation on WTC via
L2 proficiency and L2 communication confidence.
Ghonsooly et al.’s (2012) investigation among 158 Iranian
university undergraduates replicated the direct influence of
international posture on WTC.
L2 motivation is also gaining theoretical momentum
with the introduction of Dörnyei’s (2005) L2 motivational
self system. This theory draws on the mainstream psy-
chology concept of possible selves (Higgins 1987; Markus
and Nurius 1986) as the source of L2 learning motivation.
Possible selves are future-oriented self-state representa-
tions that include hoped-for selves, feared selves, and
expected selves, respectively, referring to future selves that
one desires to become, fears to become, and is likely to
become (Markus and Nurius 1986). Individuals’ inclination
to reduce the discrepancies between the actual selves and
future selves functions to regulate their actions (Higgins
1987). In the area of SLA, motivation to learn the L2 may
arise from learners’ constant evaluation of the current
selves against the future possible selves.
The L2 motivational self system comprises three
dimensions: the ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2
learning experience (Dörnyei 2005, 2009). The ideal L2
self refers to the L2-specific desired image of one’s future
self. If one’s coveted future self is a competent L2 speaker,
this vision can motivate learning behavior so that one can
reduce the gap between the actual and ideal self. The
ought-to L2 self concerns L2-specific attributes that one
believes one ought to possess. This self representation is
mostly associated with obligations or duties. L2 learning
experience is related to motives that develop from one’s
immediate learning environment and experience.
The internal structure of the L2 motivational self system
and its role in L2 learning has been explored in a growing
body of research. Csizér and Kormos (2009) reported that
in the Hungarian EFL context, L2 learning experience
significantly influenced ideal L2 self, and the influence of
ought-to L2 self on ideal L2 self was significant for the
sample of secondary students but non-significant for the
university students. Regarding their motivational force,
ideal L2 self and L2 learning experience have been found
to directly impact on intended learning efforts or motivated
learning behavior (Csizér and Kormos 2009; Papi 2010;
Papi and Teimouri 2012; Taguchi et al. 2009). The role of
ought-to L2 self, on the other hand, seems to be less con-
clusive. In Taguchi et al.’s (2009) study, the ought-to L2
self significantly influenced intended learning efforts
among students from Japan, Iran, and China (cf. Papi
2010). This significant relationship was identified among
the university students but not the secondary school
students in Csizér and Kormos’ (2009) study in the Hun-
gary context.
Although stemming from seemingly different theories,
international posture and ideal L2 self both capitalize on
learners’ power of imagination. International posture cap-
tures learners’ attitudes toward the international commu-
nity represented by English. This community apparently
does not have clear boundaries or defining properties but
instead seems to develop from accumulated experience in
learning and using English. Similarly, learners’ visions or
imagery of themselves as competent English users in an
imagined community is the central essence of the ideal L2
self (Ryan 2006). Exposure to media and education may
prompt learners to develop a ‘‘cosmopolitan identity’’
(Kormos and Csizér 2008, p. 330) and visualize ideal
English selves, which motivates their English learning. In
Kormos and Csizér’s (2008) study, results of regression
analyses showed that international posture was the best
predictor of ideal L2 self.
Relationship Between L2 Anxiety and L2 WTC
Counteracting the facilitating impetus brought by motiva-
tion, L2 anxiety is a significant variable impairing L2
learning and communication. L2 anxiety refers to the
‘‘worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when
learning or using a second language’’ (MacIntyre 1999,
p. 27). Anxious learners tend to display avoidance behav-
ior, such as missing class, postponing assignments, or
avoiding conveying complex messages using the L2
(Horwitz et al. 1986). In L2 oral communication situations,
anxiety may consume cognitive resources and reduce one’s
ability to retrieve already limited L2 linguistic forms.
Cumulative findings have been reported that L2 anxiety
inhibited learners from volunteering answers in oral
classroom activities (Ely 1986), negatively correlated to
self-ratings of L2 proficiency (MacIntyre et al. 1997), and
negatively predicted oral achievement in the L2 (Woodrow
2006).
In L2 WTC research, L2 anxiety has been examined
either as an individual variable in its own right or as a
constituent of L2 self-confidence. L2 anxiety as an indi-
vidual variable was found to correlate significantly with
motivation and self-perceived L2 competence (MacIntyre
et al. 2003) or negatively affect self-perceived competence
and L2 WTC (MacIntyre and Charos 1996). As a compo-
nent factor, L2 anxiety mitigated by self-perceived com-
petence has been conceptualized to define L2 self-
confidence (c.f. Clément 1986). Self-confidence in turn
directly influences L2 WTC (Clément et al. 2003;
Ghonsooly et al. 2012; Yashima 2002).
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The Study
This study explored the interrelationships between the L2
motivational self system, international posture, L2 anxiety,
and L2 WTC using structural equation modeling (SEM). Its
results were further interpreted from the perspective of an
imagined global community.
Instrument
The questionnaire used in this study was anonymous and
comprised a demographic section and scales measuring L2
motivational self system, international posture, and anxi-
ety. The scales were adopted from the existing literature
and used a six-point Likert response scale.1The question-
naire was translated into Chinese by the author. Confir-
matory factor analysis (CFA) was performed for each scale
to establish measurement validity (to be presented later).
The description of the items and their internal consistency
reliability assessed using Cronbach’s alpha (a) are pre-
sented below.
1 Ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning
experience. Ideal L2 self was operationalized by six
items used in Ryan (2009) (a = 0.76). These items
elicit the participants’ perceived L2-specific ideal
selves. Ought-to L2 self was measured by six items
adopted from Papi (2010) (a = 0.75). This scale
measures the participants’ sense of duties or obligations
in their pursuit of L2-specific attributes. Another six
items from Papi (2010) were used to measure L2
learning experience (a = 0.83).
2 International posture. This scale, which was adapted
from Yashima (2002, 2009), has three components:
intergroup approach-avoidance tendency (IAAT), inter-
est in international vocation/activities (IIVA), and
interest in international news (IIN). Based on the
preceding CFA results, IAAT subscale contains five
items measuring the participants’ tendency to approach
or avoid non-Chinese people (a = 0.70). The IIVA
subscale comprises four items assessing the extent to
which the participants were interested in living abroad
or engaging in an international career (a = 0.70). IIN
was measured by three items (a = 0.76) that elicit the
participants’ interest in news or issues happening
around the world.
3 L2 anxiety. Six items from Ryan (2009) (a = 0.78)
were used. These items elicit how much one feels
anxious when conversing with fluent or native speakers
of English, or speaking English in class.
1
The questionnaire is available upon request.
123
J.-E. Peng
4 L2 WTC. This scale was adopted from Yashima (2009,
based on Ryan 2009). The results of the CFA indicated
that two distinct factors appear to underlie this scale:
L2 WTC inside the classroom and L2 WTC outside the
classroom (Peng 2013). Therefore, three items were
retained to capture WTC inside the classroom
(a = 0.76) and four to measure WTC outside the
classroom (a = 0.82). Their correlation coefficient was
.07.
Hypothesized Model
Based on the previous research, a hypothetical model, as
illustrated in Fig. 1, was proposed to describe the interre-
lationships of three types of variables: motivational (the
three components of the L2 motivational self system),
affective (international posture and L2 anxiety), and com-
municational (L2 WTC).
As shown in Fig. 1, L2 WTC inside and outside the
classroom, instead of being specified to constitute a higher
order construct, were delineated to be two endogenous
variables due to their very low correlation coefficient.
However, they were hypothesized to share the same pre-
dictors because there have been no previous findings sug-
gesting the otherwise. In the following description of the
research assumptions, ‘‘L2 WTC’’ was used to cover L2
WTC both inside and outside the classroom.
Ought-to L2 self and L2 learning experience are the
exogenous variables that jointly influence ideal L2 self,
which is based on Csizér and Kormos’ (2009) model. With
reference to the models tested in Csizér and Kormos (2009)
and Kormos et al. (2011), L2 learning experience was
hypothesized to influence international posture, which in
turn predicts ideal L2 self. In addition, ideal L2 self and
ought-to L2 self were hypothesized to influence L2 anxiety,
in accordance with Papi’s (2010) study.
L2 learning
experience International
posture
L2 WTC inside
the classroom
Ideal L2 self
L2 WTC outside
L2 anxiety
the classroom
Ought-to L2 self
Fig. 1 The hypothesized model
Self, Attitudes and Affect as Predictors of WTC
L2 WTC was treated as the criterion measure that is
subject to the direct impact of L2 learning experience,
international posture, and L2 anxiety. Learners’ experience
of classroom environment has been found to directly
influence L2 WTC (Peng and Woodrow 2010). Since L2
learning experience captured in this study is conceptually
related to classroom experiences, it was expected to
influence WTC. Additionally, paths respectively leading
from international posture and L2 anxiety to L2 WTC were
hypothesized according to the previous findings (Clément
et al. 2003; Yashima 2002). This study, however, did not
speculate direct influence of ideal L2 self and ought-to L2
self on L2 WTC, because motivational variables have been
widely observed to influence L2 WTC indirectly via their
effects on other more proximal factors such as anxiety or
confidence (MacIntyre et al. 1998; Yashima 2002).
Participants and Procedures
The participants of this study were 1,073 students recruited
from six universities in China. Upon deleting cases with
missing values and outliers, 1,013 valid cases were retained
for data analysis (male n = 671; female n = 342). The
average age of the participants was 19.40 years, with nine
unreported. They were all freshmen and sophomores, for
whom English was a compulsory subject in the first 2 years
of their studies. They majored in one of the following
disciplines: architecture; clinical medicine; business, eco-
nomics, and finance; engineering; law; mathematics; and
history. By the time this study was carried out, the par-
ticipants had been learning English for about 6–9 years.
The targeted universities were approached and permis-
sion to conduct the research was obtained. The teachers in
these universities were contacted and informed of the
research purposes and procedures. The prospective partic-
ipants were told that their participation was optional and no
identifiable personal information would be revealed in any
case. The Chinese version of the questionnaire was
administered to the participants in their regular class time.
The questionnaire took approximately 15 min to complete.
Results
Preliminary Analysis
The hypothesized model was tested using LISREL 8.70.
The assumption of univariate normality was met since the
values of skewness and kurtosis of each item fell within the
range of -2 and ?2 (Kunnan 1998). The data deviate from
ideal multivariate normality, since the Mardia’s coeffi-
cients for the measurement models ranged between 3.08
and 21.54. Robust maximum likelihood estimation was
thus used because it tends to provide estimates robust to
non-normal distribution (Brown 2006).
Testing the Measurement Models
The data were analyzed at two stages: testing the mea-
surement models for the six latent variables using CFAs
and testing the full structural model using SEM. CFA takes
a confirmatory approach to testing hypothesis about the
relationships between observed variables (e.g., scale items)
and latent variables, which is a necessary step before
integrating them into a full structural model (Hair et al.
2006).
The reliability of the instrumentation was assessed by
examining the internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s
a), which was reported previously. The adequacy of the
measurement models and the ensuing full structural model
was evaluated using the Chi square (v2) statistic, normed v2
(v2/df), and other goodness-of-fit measures. The values of
normed v2 ranging from 2 to 5 are deemed acceptable
(Kline 2005). Several fit indexes were considered: the Root
Mean-Square Error Approximation (RMSEA), Standard-
ized Root Mean-square Residual (SRMR), Goodness-of-Fit
Index (GFI), the Normed Fit Index (NFI), and the Com-
parative Fit Index (CFI). Generally, the RMSEA and
SRMR should be lower than 0.08, and the GFI, NFI, and
CFI should have values greater than 0.90 for a model to
display acceptable goodness of fit (Byrne 1998). Items
were dropped from the measurement models based on the
joint guidelines: a) the t statistics for their corresponding
parameter estimate was below ±1.96 and their R2 value
was below 0.30 or greater than 1.00; b) there was theo-
retical justification (Byrne 1998).
The CFAs results showed that the measurement models
for ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, L2 learning experience,
and L2 anxiety were respectively unidimensional with
reasonable goodness of fit. The three-factor measurement
model for international posture was confirmed with four
items progressively removed based on the above-men-
tioned guidelines. The L2 WTC scale, however, was found
to have two dimensions: L2 WTC inside the classroom
(WTCIN) and L2 WTC outside the classroom (WTCOUT)
(see Peng 2013). Table 1 shows the fit indexes for the
measurement model. Following Yashima (2002), item
scores for IAAT, IIVA, and IIN were averaged to form
three composite variables, which were specified as three
indicators for international posture in the full structural
model.
Testing the Full Structural Model
The initial analysis indicated that the hypothetical model
provided an acceptable fit to the data. However, the paths
123
 J.-E. Peng

leading respectively from L2 learning experience and L2
anxiety to L2 WTC outside the classroom were non-sig-
nificant. For the sake of model parsimony, they were pro-
gressively removed. The mean and standard deviation (SD)
of these variables and their correlation coefficients are
presented in Table 2.
The final model reasonably fits the data (i.e.,
v2 = 1,945.59; df = 516; v2/df = 3.77; RMSEA = 0.05;
SRMR = 0.06; GFI = 0.89; NFI = 0.92; CFI = 0.94).
The variances of the endogenous variables explained by
this model are 63 % for ideal L2 self, 34 % for interna-
tional posture, 17 % for L2 anxiety, and 28 and 3 % for L2
WTC inside and outside the classroom. The model is dis-
played in Fig. 2.
To further explore these relationships, the direct, indi-
rect, and total effects were examined. A direct effect refers
to the direct influence of one variable on another, which is
often shown beside the single-headed arrow connecting
these two variables. Indirect effects are calculated as the
product of direct effects (Kline 2005). The direct and
indirect effects of one variable on another constitute the
total effect. For instance, as shown in Fig. 2, ought-to L2
self had a direct effect on L2 anxiety (0.41) and an indirect
effect on L2 anxiety (0.068, i.e., 0.25*-0.27 = -0.068)
via its direct effect on ideal L2 self (0.25) and ideal L2
self’s direct effect on L2 anxiety(-0.27), which results in a
total effect of 0.342 (i.e., 0.41 - 0.068 = 0.342).
Although direct effects are of primary interest, Raykov and
Marcoulides (2006) cautioned that unless indirect effects
are considered, the relationships between variables in a
structural model cannot be fully explained. Table 3 pre-
sents the direct, indirect, total effects between the vari-
ables, which are in the form of standardized regression
coefficients.
As seen in Table 3, ideal L2 self was strongly predicted
by L2 learning experience (.64) and international posture
(.42), implying that positive past experience and attitudes
toward the world could inspire learners to envision selves
being proficient in English. The influence of ought-to L2
self on ideal L2 self was comparatively lower (.25), indi-
cating less influence of external factors on ideal L2 self.
International posture was strongly influenced by L2
learning experience.
The strongest predictor of L2 anxiety was ought-to L2
self (0.35), followed by ideal L2 self (-0.27). It is note-
worthy that when the direct effect of ought-L2 self on L2
anxiety (0.41) and its indirect effect via ideal L2 self
(0.25*-0.27 = -0.07) were summated, its total effect on
L2 anxiety was reduced to 0.35.
The strongest direct predictor of L2 WTC inside the
classroom was L2 anxiety (-0.30), whereas L2 learning
experience exerted the largest total effect on this predicted
variable (0.42). These two variables exhibited much greater
effect on in-class WTC than did international posture
(0.18), ought-to L2 self (-0.11), and ideal L2 self (0.08),
which indicates that experience in classroom and L2

Table 1 Fit indexes for the measurement models of the six latent variables
v2 df v2/df RMSEA SRMR GFI NFI CFI

Ideal L2 self 19.99 8 2.50 0.04 0.02 0.99 0.99 0.99

Ought-to L2 self 18.03 6 3.01 0.05 0.02 0.99 0.99 0.99
L2 learning experience 35.73 8 4.47 0.06 0.03 0.99 0.99 0.99
International posture 270.14 50 5.40 0.07 0.05 0.95 0.95 0.96
L2 anxiety 18.23 7 2.60 0.04 0.02 0.99 0.99 0.99
L2 WTC 58.00 11 2.65 0.07 0.05 0.98 0.98 0.98

Table 2 Correlation coefficients between the latent variables

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Ideal L2 self 4.48 0.81 1.00

2. Ought-to L2 self 3.47 0.84 0.28** 1.00
3. L2 learning experience 3.94 0.83 0.62** 0.20** 1.00
**
4. International posture 4.03 0.69 0.44 0.07* 0.40** 1.00
* **
5. L2 anxiety 3.63 0.86 -0.07 0.25 -0.10** -0.30** 1.00
6. L2 WTC inside the classroom 4.50 0.93 0.28** -0.02 0.33** 0.29** -0.34** 1.00
7. L2 WTC outside the classroom 3.73 1.14 0.10** 0.02 0.11** 0.14** -0.11** 0.10** 1.00
* **
p \ 0.05, p \ 0.01

123
Self, Attitudes and Affect as Predictors of WTC

0.49 0.40 0.91

0.82 like atmosphere
intergroup approach/ interest in international interest in
avoidance tendency vocation/activities international news
0.36 interesting 0.43
0.80 0.72 0.78 0.31
0.61 more lessons
0.63 International
L2 learning 0.58
0.28 enjoy learning 0.85 posture
experience 0.14
0.55 group discussion 0.75
0.70 time passes faster 0.29 0.50 in class
0.68 talk freely
look forward to WTCIN 0.87 0.24
0.54 in class
classes 0.39 0.42 0.80
0.17 talk in front of
the class 0.36
0.63 future career
acquaintance 0.33
things to do in 0.61
0.57 0.82 before you
future
0.66 in a small group 0.68
imagine as WTCOUT 0.56 of strangers
0.79 0.46
someone able Ideal L2 self 0.89
friend before 0.21
0.77 imagine with 0.48 you
international friends 0.66
0.67 -0.30
in a small 0.57
0.54 use effectively group of friends
in future 0.68 -0.27
in future important feel nervous 0.61
0.54 0.25
to use 0.63
my English 0.69
0.74 gain approval 0.56 is strange
with a native 0.42
0.51 L2 anxiety 0.76
speaker
0.86 close friends think
0.63
0.38 0.41 speak in class 0.61
people I respect 0.43
0.49
think 0.71 Ought-to L2 self
people surrounding 0.69 0.64 volunteer answer 0.82
0.52
expect
0.56 stranger asked
let other people 0.59
0.68 me
down 0.59
0.65 people will respect
me

Fig. 2 Full structural equation model

Table 3 Standardized direct, indirect, and total effects for the structural model
Predicted variable Predictor variable Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect

Ideal L2 self L2 learning experience 0.39 0.25 0.64a

International posture 0.42 0.42
Ought-to L2 self 0.25 0.25
International posture L2 learning experience 0.58 0.58
L2 anxiety Ought-to L2 self 0.41 -0.07 0.35
Ideal L2 self -0.27 -0.27
L2 learning experience -0.17 -0.17
International posture -0.11 -0.11
WTC inside the classroom L2 learning experience 0.29 0.14 0.42
L2 anxiety -0.30 -0.30
International posture 0.14 0.03 0.18
Ought-to L2 self -0.11 -0.11
Ideal L2 self 0.08 0.08
WTC outside the classroom International posture 0.17 0.17
L2 learning experience 0.10 0.10
a
Figures in the table may not add up to the totals due to rounding

anxiety played important roles in learners’ WTC in class. Discussion

L2 WTC outside the classroom was directly influenced by
international posture (0.17) and indirectly by L2 learning This study found that L2 learning experience and ought-to
experience (0.10). L2 self directly influenced ideal L2 self, with the former

123

exerting a stronger effect, which replicates Csizér and
Kormos’ (2009) findings with Hungarian university stu-
dents. This result could be explained with reference to the
intrinsic features of ideal L2 self. Ideal L2 self concerns
one’s internalized aspiration to become a competent L2
user, which presumably can be induced or enhanced by
successful or enjoyable personal experience. In contrast,
because ought-to L2 self reflects externally imposed obli-
gation, it may not be internalized to the idealized images of
the current participating university students who were
growing in maturity and independence.
The model reveals that international posture was
strongly predicted by L2 learning experience, and signifi-
cantly impacted on ideal L2 self. The results are consistent
with Csizér and Kormos (2009) and added evidence to the
proposed close relationship between L2 motivational self
system and international posture (Kormos et al. 2011; Ryan
2006; Yashima 2009). The findings suggest that, although
English learning in this EFL setting is highly examination-
oriented, international posture nonetheless could harness
desired English-related self-guides among the participants.
When students willingly relate themselves to the world or
the global community, they probably can construe a self
image of competent English user in that community.
Mental imagery may empower them to transcend the
constraints of EFL contexts, for instance, a lack of
authentic contact with English-speaking communities.
Ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self, respectively, had
negative and positive influence on L2 anxiety, which
correspond to Papi’s (2010) finding. Dörnyei (2009) reit-
erated that ideal self has a promotion focus whereas ought-
to self has a prevention focus. Learners with strong ideal
L2 selves are likely to align their aspirations to L2-related
attributes expected in L2 use situations, which would
possibly reduce their anxious arousal. However, the very
fear of failure and external pressure embodied in ought-to
L2 selves could turn out heightening anxiety in L2 com-
munication situations. Intriguingly, as the model indicates,
while ought-to L2 self positively correlated with L2 anx-
iety, its indirect effect on anxiety via ideal L2 self was
negative, which coincidently corresponds to Papi’s (2010)
findings. These findings suggest that externally imposed
self-construal could increase learners’ linguistic anxiety.
In contrast, the internalized future self of being competent
in English could reduce one’s L2 anxiety, probably
because the process of ideal self construction involves
somewhat constant self-suggestion like ‘‘I will make it.’’
Although further evidence is needed to confirm this find-
ing, this study brought light to the complex and dynamic
influence of the future self-guides on L2 anxiety. These
findings also justify the importance of considering both
direct and indirect effects between variables in a structural
model.
123
J.-E. Peng
The identified two factors (i.e., WTC inside and outside
the classroom) underlying the L2 WTC scale contributed
evidence to the theoretical aspects of the L2 WTC con-
struct. Previous research has delineated these two factors,
and found that in-class WTC was higher than out-of-class
WTC among students learning French in Canada (MacIn-
tyre et al. 2001) and those learning English in mainland
China and Hong Kong (Yu and Lin 2004). This result
suggests that L2 WTC is unlikely to be a unidimensional
construct and its complexity should be given due consid-
eration in any attempt to measure it.
The model identifies different antecedents of L2 WTC
inside and outside the classroom, indicating that L2 WTC
may operate in different ways across situations. The in-
class WTC was predicted directly and/or indirectly by all
other non-WTC variables. The strong effect of L2 learning
experience on in-class WTC corroborates previous findings
about the influence of experience on motivated learning
behavior in general (Csizér and Kormos 2009; Papi 2010)
and on classroom WTC in particular (Peng and Woodrow
2010). The negative effect of L2 anxiety on in-class L2
WTC was expected and conforms to the previous studies
(Horwitz et al. 1986; Peng and Woodrow 2010). It is
undeniable that speaking English in class is challenging
due to, for instance, fear of negative evaluation (Horwitz
et al. 1986), risks of being laughed at (Peng 2007), and lack
of perceived L2 competence (MacIntyre et al. 1997).
L2 WTC outside the classroom, however, was only
directly predicted by international posture and indirectly by
L2 learning experience. This suggests that when stepping
outside the classroom and not being obliged to speak
English as were in class, the participants who were aware
of the pervasiveness of English and readily identify with
the global community were more likely to sustain their
WTC. This finding supports Lamb’s (2004) proposition
that international posture has the potential to account for
EFL learners’ motivation. It also mirrors the results
regarding international posture’s explanatory power on L2
WTC in the Japanese EFL context (Yashima 2002).
The non-significant direct effect of L2 learning experi-
ence on WTC outside the classroom, however, is in con-
trast with the previous finding that experience influenced
motivated learning behavior (Csizér and Kormos 2009;
Papi and Teimouri 2012) or intended learning efforts (Papi
2010). A possible explanation is that for the participants
whose primary concern was passing exams, learning efforts
were expended more on accumulating test-related knowl-
edge (e.g., vocabulary or grammar) than on practicing oral
skills, not to mention speaking English outside the class.
This finding implies that in this context English learning
and communication may be distinct enterprises that are not
equally prioritized, and hence learners’ WTC may not
parallel motivated learning behavior or efforts in essence or
Self, Attitudes and Affect as Predictors of WTC
magnitude. Another reason may be that the scale items
measuring L2 learning experience are related to in-class
learning. Future research may investigate whether WTC
outside the classroom will be more strongly predicted by
learning experience if out-of-class learning is incorporated
into this scale.
The largely unexplained variance of L2 WTC outside
the classroom is worth consideration. This indicates that
there may be more variables influencing out-of-class WTC
that have not been included in the present model. For
instance, sociocultural factors such as face concern and
social support (MacIntyre et al. 2001) would also influence
learners’ WTC. Another possibility is that the communi-
cation situations described in this scale were of little per-
sonal relevance or contextually unexpected (e.g., ‘‘when
you find your acquaintance standing before you in a line’’).
Understandably, monolingual interlocutors would converse
in their mother tongue unless otherwise required by spe-
cific contexts (e.g., course requirements in a language
class). On the contrary, if the scale items present more
‘‘natural situations’’ where English is the necessary med-
ium (e.g., ‘‘when sitting next to a foreigner on a train’’),
out-of-class WTC may be more accurately measured (Peng
2013).
The present findings have inspired further reflection on
how to interpret EFL learners’ learning and communication
in a globalized era. The notions of future self-guides and
international posture appear to apply to the current context.
It seems plausible that the widespread use of English aided
by information technology facilitates learners’ imagination
of membership of an imagined global community. Ener-
gized by imagination, learners would be able to envision
English-related possible selves (Dörnyei 2009), or the
selves situated in an English-used community, however,
spatially and temporally remote from the real world
(Yashima 2009), which accelerate their motivation to learn
and communicate in English.
On the other hand, the model suggests that the total
effects of the self-constructs on WTC were not substan-
tially strong, implying that the formation or motivational
capacity of English-related selves among EFL learners may
not be taken for granted. As Dörnyei (2009) emphasized,
the future self-guides should be elaborate and vivid. An
imagined future self is not formed out of nothing, but
should be experiential, representing ‘‘‘self state’ that peo-
ple experience as reality’’ (ibid, p. 16). The reality of
English learning and teaching in the current context
remains largely exam-oriented. Success in examinations is
a key to winning competitions for tertiary education
opportunities or job openings. The intensified need for
success in English examinations may undermine learners’
tendency or energy to identify with the global world. While
globalization is changing the world, its influence on EFL
learners’ learning behavior may not be explicitly discern-
ible. As Ryan (2006) stated, ‘‘it is incredible to argue that
individuals feel like ‘global citizens’ all the time’’ (p. 33).
Therefore, it requires significant others such as language
educators and parents to shepherd learners toward a vision
of ideal L2 selves and an awareness of their participation in
the global community.
This study has certain limitations that need to be taken
into account. First, this study adopted a model generation
strategy (Jöreskog 1993) that allows model modifications.
Its findings require support from further research. In
addition, although the findings have been interpreted with
reference to the notions of imagination and imagined
communities that underpin the theories of L2 motivational
self system and international posture, this quantitative
study was unable to provide rich and contextual descrip-
tions in these regards. Future research may adopt qualita-
tive methods to probe learners’ perspectives in depth. In
particular, EFL learners’ WTC may be explored from the
novel perspective of English as an international language
(EIL) (Alsagoff et al. 2012). From this perspective, if
learners accept that the localized Chinese English is a
legitimate variety of the EIL and that they have the own-
ership of the EIL, their perceptions of the imagined com-
munity and their WTC may be redefined. The EIL
perspective may shed new light on future L2 WTC
research.
Despite its limitations, this study may suggest some
implications for teachers of EFL learners. Considering the
significant effect of international posture on ideal L2 self
and L2 WTC, teachers need to enrich students’ global
vision. They can provide students with world news reports
on newspaper or TV and guide them to relate what are
happening around the world to their lives. Explicit
instructions on unleashing one’s imagination would be
desirable to stimulate students’ vision of future selves. For
instance, they may ask students to picture scenarios
involving using English in the future in their ideal work-
place, or to share information about and their attitudes
toward their idols who happen to speak English profi-
ciently. Multimedia and multimodal materials such as
English films and television series can also be incorporated
into class to visually incite students’ imagery of the global
world to which they are readily connected by English.
Ultimately, teachers’ such endeavors may help to situate
students in an imagined global community and promote
their WTC in English.
Conclusion
The results of this study have demonstrated that the L2
motivational self system is applicable to this research
123

context. L2 learning experience and international posture
were the two strong predictors of ideal L2 self, which
justifies the needs to endow EFL learners with positive
language learning experience and a world perspective that
favors the value of English. The effects of ideal L2 self and
ought-to L2 self on L2 anxiety indicated that a vision of
English-related ideal self could reduce anxiety in English
use. L2 WTC inside the classroom was predicted by a
number of variables examined in this study, whereas there
seemed to be more factors that would account for L2 WTC
outside the classroom. The results were further interpreted
from the perspective of an imagined global community.
This study is of far-reaching pertinence for understanding
EFL learners’ English learning as involving a reconstruc-
tion of identities implicated in the process of globalization.
Acknowledgments I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers
for their insightful comments on the earlier versions of this paper. The
study this article reports on was supported by the Ministry of Edu-
cation of China (MOE) Project of Humanities and Social Sciences
(Project No. 13YJA740041)
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