Soil Exploration

Topics Covered

◼ Introduction
◼ Methods of investigation
◼ Methods of boring
◼ Soil samplers and sampling
◼ Location and number of pits and borings
◼ Penetrometer tests
◼ Borehole logs
◼ Geophysical methods
Introduction
◼ Soil exploration is a part of site investigation.
◼ Site investigation, in general deals with
determining in general, the suitability of the
site for the proposed construction.
Site Investigation
Introduction (Cont’d)…
WHAT?
◼ Attempt at understanding the subsurface conditions
such as:
❑ Soil and rock profile
❑ Gelogical features of the region
❑ Position and variation of ground water table
❑ Physical properties of soil and rock
❑ Contamination, if any
❑ General data of adjacent structures, hydrological data,
topography, soil maps, seismicity, etc.
Introduction (Cont’d)…
WHY?
❑ To determine the type of foundation required
for the proposed project at the site, i.e. shallow
foundation or deep foundation.
❑ To make recommendations regarding the safe

bearing capacity or pile load capacity.

❑ Ultimately, it is the subsoil that provides the

ultimate support for the structures.

Failures
Leaning Tower of Pisa
and Sinkholes
Introduction (Cont’d)…
HOW?
◼ The three important aspect are planning,
execution and report writing.
◼ Planning
❑ To minimize cost of explorations and yet give
reliable data.
❑ Decide on quantity and quality depending on type,
size and importance of project and whether
investigation is preliminary or detailed.
 Introduction (Cont’d)…
◼ Execution:
❑ Collection of disturbed and/or
undisturbed samples of
subsurface strata from field.
❑ Conducting in-situ tests of
subsurface material and
obtaining properties directly or
indirectly.
❑ Study of ground water
conditions and collection of
sample for chemical analysis.
❑ Geophysical exploration, if
necessary.
❑ Laboratory testing on samples
Introduction (Cont’d)…
◼ Report writing:
❑ Description of site conditions – topographic
features, hydraulic conditions, existing structures,
etc. supplemented by plans/drawings.
❑ Description of nature, type and importance of
proposed construction
❑ Description of field and lab tests carried out.
❑ Analysis and discussion of data collected
❑ Preparation of charts, tables, graphs, etc.
❑ Calculations performed
❑ Recommendations
Introduction (Cont’d)…
A complete site investigation will consist of:
❑ Preliminary work
◼ Collecting general information and already existing data
such as study of geologic , seismic maps, etc. at or near
site.
◼ Study site history – if previously used as quarry,
agricultural land, industrial unit, etc.

❑ Site Reconnaissance: Actual site inspection.

◼ To judge general suitability
◼ Decide exploration techniques
Introduction (Cont’d)…

◼ Exploration
❑ Preliminary Investigations: Exploratory borings or shallow
test pits, representative sampling, geophysical
investigations, etc
❑ Detailed Investigations: Deep boreholes, extensive
sampling, in-situ testing, lab testing, etc.
❑ Depth and spacing: In general, depth of investigation
should be such that any/all strata that are likely to
experience settlement or failure due to loading. Spacing
depends upon degree of variation of surface topography
and subsurface strata in horizontal direction. Refer to Alam
Singh.
Methods of Investigation
◼ Test pits:
❑ Permits visual inspection
of subsurface conditions
in natural state.
❑ Max. depth limited to 18 -
20 feet.
❑ Especially useful for
gravelly soil where
boreholes may be
difficult.
❑ Sampling/testing done on
exposed surfaces.
 Stratigraphy and Finds
Layer Soil Soil Colour Finds Chronology
L1 Sandy soil Gray 7.5YR 5/1 Modern Rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L2 Sandy soil Pinkish white 7.5YR 8/2 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L3 Sandy soil Reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L4 Sandy soil Gray 7.5YR 6/1 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L5 Loamy soil Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6 Nil (original decomposed soil)
L6 Loamy soil Reddish yellow 5YR 6/8 Nil (original decomposed soil)
L7 Loamy soil, with Light red 2.5YR 6/8 Nil (original decomposed soil)
some
decomposed
bed rock texture

Test Pit Wall Photograph Test Pit Wall Drawing

Western Wall Section Western Wall Section Drawing
Methods of Boring
◼ Auger Borings:
❑ Simplest method of exploration and sampling.
❑ Power driven or hand operated.
❑ Max. depth 10 m
❑ Suitable in all soils above GWT but only in
cohesive soil below GWT
❑ Hollow stem augers used for sampling or
conducting Standard Penetration Tests.
Hand operated
augers

Power driven augers

Methods of Boring
◼ Wash Boring:
❑ A casing is driven with a drop hammer. A hollow drill
rod with chopping bit is inserted inside the casing.
❑ Soil is loosened and removed from the borehole using
water or a drilling mud jetted under pressure.
❑ The water is jetted in the hole through the bottom of a
wash pipe and leaves the hole along with the loose
soil, from the annual space between the hole and
wash pipe.
❑ The water reaches the ground level where the soil in
suspension is allowed to settle and mud is re-
circulated.
Methods of Boring

Another example of wash boring is called mud rotary

drilling (soil) or core drilling (rock).
◼ Mud rotary
❑ Hollow drill rods with a drill bit is rotated into the soil.
Drilling mud is continuously pumped into the hole. The bit
grinds the soil and the return flow brings the cuttings to the
surface.
◼ Core drilling
❑ Used for obtaining rock cores.
❑ A core barrel is fitted with a drill bit is attached to hollow
drill rods.
❑ Examples: diamond coring, calyx or shot core drilling
Schematic for wash boring
 Diamond Drill Bit

Tricone drill bit

Methods of Investigation

◼ Percussion drilling
❑ Grinding the soil by repeated lifting and dropping
of heavy chisels or drilling bits.
❑ Water is added to form slurry of cuttings.
❑ Slurry removed by bailers or pumps.
◼ In general, a machine used to drill holes is
called a drill rig (generally power driven, but
may be hand driven).
◼ A winch is provided to raise and lower the
drilling tools into the hole.
Methods of Investigation

◼ Probing or sounding methods:

❑ Drive a pipe or rod into the soil.
❑ Measure the resistance offered by the soil. Ex.
CPT, SPT
◼ Geophysical methods:
❑ Seismic refraction method
❑ Electrical resistivity method.
Soil Exploration Part II
Topics Covered
◼ Introduction
◼ Methods of investigation
◼ Methods of boring
◼ Soil samplers and sampling
◼ Location and number of pits and borings
◼ Penetrometer tests
◼ Borehole logs
◼ Geophysical methods
Methods of Sampling
Samples

Disturbed Undisturbed
(The structure of the soil is disturbed (The true in-situ structure and water content
to a considerable degree) is retained as closely as possible)

Remoulded Representative Block Drive

Wash
Methods of Sampling
◼ Disturbed samples used for determining index properties (ex.
gsd, consistency, etc.)
◼ Undisturbed samples used for determining engineering
properties (ex. Density, water content, shear strength
parameters, etc.)
◼ Wash samples obtained from wash boring water or mud.
◼ Representative sample retains all constituents of the soil, but
is disturbed from natural state and structure. (ex. Split spoon
sampler)
◼ Block samples are carved out form sides or bottoms of
excavations, sealed in a box and taken to lab.
◼ Open drive samplers consist of thin walled tubes which are
driven or pushed into the soil at the bottom of the hole. (ex.
Shelby Tube sampler)
Undisturbed Samples
Methods of Sampling

◼ Thin-wall open-tube samplers (Shelby Tube

Samplers) are used for soils that are
particularly sensitive to sampling disturbance.
They are suitable for fine soils up to a firm
consistency, and free from large particles.
◼ Shelby Tubes are available in carbon steel
and in stainless steel. Usual diameters are 3"
or 4" OD.
Shelby Tube
Split spoon sampler IS:9640-1980
Sketch of split spoon sampler
Methods of Sampling
◼ Requirements to minimize.
disturbance to samples
❑ Area ratio = (D2w-D2e) x 100%
D2e
❑ Area ratio should be as low as
possible. (<10%).
❑ It represents the amount of soil
displaced.
❑ Inside clearance = (Ds-De) x 100%
ratio De
Methods of Sampling

❑ The inside clearance allows elastic expansion of the

sample and minimizes frictional drag on the sample.
❑ The inside clearance should be between 0.5% to 3%.
❑ The outside clearance = (Dw-Dt) x 100%
ratio Dt
❑ Outside clearance is necessary to reduce the driving force
and resistance to withdrawal.
❑ The outside clearance should be between 0% and 2%.
❑ Diameter of samples should not be less than 38mm.
(Generally between 50-150mm).
❑ Piston sampler (Osterberg sampler) not covered. Please
refer to any book.
Rock coring

◼ Sampler consists of core barrel and bit is coring

bit.
◼ Core barrel – single tube or double tube of
various dia: EX, AX, BX, NX, etc.
◼ Recovery = Length of sample recovered x 100%
Length of run
◼ RQD = Length of samples >= 4” x 100 %
Length of run
SPT (Standard Penetration Test)

◼ IS:2131 – 1981 Method for Standard

Penetration Test for Soils.
◼ Most important and most commonly used
field test
◼ Typical equipment: drill rig, split spoon
sampler, hammering equipment, casing
pipe.
SPT Procedure
◼ Procedure:
1. Drive a section of casing pipe.
2. Complete wash boring and clean the hole
3. Replace driving bit by split spoon sampler at the bottom end of the
driving rod
4. Drive the sampler by dropping a hammer of 63.5kg weight through a
height of 75 cm
5. The number of blows required to penetrate three successive lengths
of 15 cm are noted.
6. The first 15 cm drive is considered as seating load and is ignored.
The total number of blows required to penetrate the remaining 30 cm
is called the blow count or penetration number N.
7. Raise the sampler to the surface, open it and extract the sample.
8. Drive the next length of casing and repeat the process until required
depth is reached.
9. At the end of the borehole, note the gwt after it stabilizes and then
backfill the borehole.
Corrections to N value

◼ Overburden Correction applied to N value

based on chart by Peck, et. al. (varies from
0.45 to 2)
❑ N’=Cn * N where Cn is correction factor
◼ Correction due to dilatancy for fine sand and
silt below gwt having N’ > 15
❑ N” = 15 + 0.5*(N’-15)
Correlations between N values and soil
properties
Relative
N Compactness fo
Density (%)

0 to 4 Very Loose 0-15 < 28

4 to 10 Loose 15 - 35 28 -30
10 to 30 Medium Dense 25 - 65 30 -36
> 50 Very Dense > 85 > 41
Correlations between N values and soil
properties

Consistency N qu (kPa)
Very Soft 0 to 2 < 25
Soft 2 to 4 25 to 50
Medium Stiff 4 to 8 50 to 100
Stiff 8 to 12 100 to 200
Very Stiff 15 to 30 200 to 400
Hard > 30 > 400
Other test methods

◼ DCPT – Dynamic cone penetration test

IS:4968 -1976 (Method for subsurface
sounding for soils: Parts I and II)
◼ CPT – Static Cone Penetration Test (Method
for subsurface sounding for soils: Part 3
Static cone penetration test)
◼ Plate Load Test (Method of Load Test on
Soils)