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MODEL AERONAUTrn
ENCYCLOPEDIA
VOLUME TWO

Edited By

MODH AlRONAUTIC PUBLICATIONS

NEW YORK
 FOREWORD

To those who may have "lost"

the or1ginal 1938 YEAR BOOK, may
this reprint be like a return of
an old friend.
To those who may be seeing
it for the first time, consider
its contents as a start of your
effort to add to the sum total
of human knowledge on model aero-
dynamics.
This is a complete reprint
of the 1938 Year Book with ex-
ception of model gliders and other
information which will be found in
the Model Glider Design.

October, 1947
New York City

Copyright, 194 7
by
MODEL AERONAUTIC PUBLICATIONS

PRINTED IN U.S.A.
 THEORY
AEROD~NAMICS

It is common knowledge that flight depends on the difference of

pressure on the upper and lower portion of the wing; high pressures
on bottom and reduced pressure on the top. We can tangle ourselves
in fluid flow theory which would mathematically prove the phenomena,
or we can take the scientists' word for it. But since most of us pos-
sess inquisitive minds, we might as well know what goes on. The fol-
lowing visual picture of the airflow action on wings is intended to
make it possible for us to realize the difference between action at
high and low speeds.
PROPERTIES OF AIR
It is only sensible to know something about air since it is the
medium in which ~e work. To most of us it is still empty void. If
such were the case,we would be flying rockets instead of airplanes.
The flight depends on the physical law of "to every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction." This means that the airplanes must
have some substance to react upon t.o remain aloft and counteract gravi.ty.
We are often reminded of the vast ocean of air in which we live.
Also that if we were to cut a cubic foot of air on the bottom of this
ocean and place it in a vacuum room, it would weigh 1.227 ozs. The
air now has body. Let's imagine that this cubic foot of air is fired
from a cannon at a speed of 300 m.p.h. This speed multiplied by the .
weight of cubic foot of air will provide kinetic energy of 386 ozs.
or 2l7 lbs. Quite a blow from an invisible substance. The wind is this
sort of energy. Nature, with its high and low pressure regions, pro-
vides the propelling forces.

The given flight theory of increased and decreased pressure de-

ceives many of us into believing that we have compression on the lo-
wer portion of the winQ. For practical accurate calculating purposes
we can disregard it as long as we keep under 300 m.p.h. At speeds _
below 300 m.p.h. the wing is a very poor compressor because the air
is a very lively medium, and it escapes in all directions to avoid
being cru•hed. It is not like a bicycle pump where a pressure of 40
or 50 lbs. may be exerted on 2 sq.in. on top of confined air. A much
better thought to keep in mind about the air is to liken it to water
and as such it resents ch~nge of motion.
Besides having weight, the air also has the property of close
cohesion among its molecules. This state of affairs is called vis-
cosity. To have a better visualization of air we might liken its
molecules to tiny octupi with arms all around its body, andthat every
arm is clutching an arm of the surrounding m~lecular octupus.We now
have a sort of a three dimensio~al web. This illustration may be
far fetched but it wi 11 explain many facts now known to us by name only.
 THE NATURE OF AIR FORCES ON WING
ReferrinQ to the sketches you will see t hat a moving andangled
airfoil tries to shove the molecules downward. The l ittle fellows
will natcllrally oppose this suppression and will try to ·push the air-
foil upward. If the section is moving slowly, the molecules will
take the easy way and try to escape from the pressure in the front
and rear of the airfoil. Only the molecules which cannot escape will
bear out the law of "to every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction." We can make a rough calculation of the molecular reaction
under the wing as follows:
Weight of one cubic i nch of air is .000775 oz. Our wing area is
200 sq.in. and the speed is 20 m.p.h. Angle of attack is 6°. Using
approximate ·average pressure developed under the wing as shown by the
pressure graphs, a 200 sq. in. wing will affect, say, 100 cu.in. or
:0775 ozs. of air. The result of multiplying this by 20 m.p.h.2 is:
.0775 x 400 = 31.00 ozs. of kinetic energy acting at a tangent of 5°
The ui:ward component is Tangent 6° = .105 x 31 = 3 .25 ozs.
This force is obtained by the anele effect of" the lower portion.
As you will see later , the curve of the upper surface tends to reduce
the pressure and lets the atmospheric pressure increase the lift many
times. In some cases as much as three times, which would cive us 93
ozs. of total lift for our 200 sq. in. wing.
!These calculations are necessarilly rough. Liberty was taken
to use round numbers. The results, which coincide with actual model
practice was as surpr i sing to the editor as it must be to you. l

_.-- H/NUT£ ~£S"lli.TS '/ • SPACIN4 01\ TDP

OF /#PACT 'f" SPACIAIG O~ BOTTOM

Standard air or atmospheric pressure at the bottom of our air

ocean is about 1.4 .7 lbs. or 235 ozs. per sq.in. Therefore, if we only
have a 1/5300 pressure reduction on the upper surface of a 200 sq.in.
wine, at 2.0rn.p.h. the atmospheric pressure underneath the wing will
surge upward with a powe'!' of ·Oozs. Just how do we obtain this heaven
sent reduction?
Referring again to the illustration you will note that the dis-
tance from the leading edge to the trailing edge is the longest along
the upper curve. This means that the upper molecules have to travel
a greater distance in the same time as their low~r companions ~o re-
meet at the trailing edge. Since the number of molecules on the top
is the same as below we can readily see that they will have to spread
apart a bit to keep the line contact intact. The moment the pressure
is reduced below atmospheric pressure, the reaction from the lower
portion makes itself evident in upward surge. We have already noted
how small this pressure reduction has to be to work wonders with lift.
The quest i on which ~lways pops up i~ why we have the greatest
difference in pressure at the ~ading edge, both top and bottom.
THE EFFECT OF LOWER SURFACE
It is evident that the leading edge is the first portion· of the
wing which comes in contact with almost stationary molecules. lt is
at this point that the molecules are initially driven dowpward, and
in so doing they impart their effect of the minute weight they po5-
sess to the support of the plane. This downward movement is evident
in flow photoeraphs and is termed "downwash". It . changes the anele
of the airflow behind the win~ which makes it necessary to remember
it when designin6 the size , shape and incidence of the tail surfaces.
This reaction between stationary molecules and movin~ win~ na-
turally consumes part of the engine power. Since all factors which
contribute to consumption of power are termed in the general name of
drae, this particular action is called induced drac. The very name
'induced' describes it as something that is brou~ht about by another
action. It is not parasite drag which is a waste without visible re- .
turns. The induced dra~ is the result of the law "to every action
there is an equal and apposite reaction". This drag or reactionva-
ries as the lift varies. For example, ~hen the lift is small,as at
low angles of attack, the downward motion is limited to the nearby
neighborhood and thus resulting in low indueed drag. While a high
lift, which requires high angles of attack, causes the downward mo-
tion to extend beyond the.neighborhood to backup the uppermolecules
against the increased oppression. More will be said under "Stall"
heading.
The induced draQ is a necessary evil. The aviation lads min-
imize it by decreasinQ the chord and increasin~ the span. A glance
at the diaeram will show that of the two airfoils presented the lar-
ger one affects about four times as much air as the lower, although
the size of the section is only doubled. Since the span of thesmal-
ler airfoil need to be only double of the larger chord forsame area,
its induced drae will be only ~ the larger. This principle is applied
in gliders and whenever permissible on the power planes. It has al-
so led many model builders to follow the example. However, as it will
be later pointed out, it is doubtful if this reduction of the induced
drag is beneficial at lower speeds where the lift is hard to produce •

.11ore
,Wit' 41~17£4# /5
CNANqED TO J1A~A,4,.4Ei. ...A
,VITI{ 4/A!F°O/,{,
!=~ OIV

ACTION ON THE UPPER CAMBER

At first thought, we would think that pressure difference would
be equal along the entire upper curve. However, we must remember that
a substance "gives" most at the point of the init.ial attack. The
"eive" or strech is ~hen ttansmitted on all sides. On the airfoil,
it is the abrupt upward curve which attacks the airflow lines first
and it is here that we have the greatest "give" or strecb. We have
already seen that the greater the strech, the greater is the reduction
of pressure. This phenomena can easily be demonstrated on a long wire
spring on which we can see why there is a ereater reduction at high
speed than at low. If the sprine coil is eiven a gentle pull, the
difference in spacing of the first few turns cannot be noticed. But
if the tension is sudden, the increase in spacing is marked mostly
at the point of force application. The tension gradually loosing its
momentum as each and every turn (or molecule! exerts its power of
remaining at fixed point.
6
THE STALL
So far we have covered the ideal manner in which the airfoil
works. The end comes as follows: We have seen that the molecul es
under the wing are given a downward motion. If the · angle of ~ttack
is s mall, they will pass the remaining portion of the win6 without
trying any mischief. But if the angle is increased to such an ex-
tent that they are continually forced downward by the angled wing,
they will b~ building up opposing forces all along the lower camber.
As they come to the t railing edge, they will try to force themselves
upward into area of low pressure. The resultant flow is shown on
the diagrams. Their entry produces a circular motion. If the an~le
of attack is not lowered, this circle will increase its strength and
3ize from the incoming molecules. Soon they will be interfering
with the unbroken upper flow as the circling motion oppossesthe air-
line motion. This will slow down the necessary streamline flowunt i l
it breaks the fi-st line. Now more dead and useless air is dragged
along to interfere w-ith still more upper lines. This process continues
until the upper flow i s destroyed. Since so much of the lift depends
on this reduction of pressure, the result is in complete loss of up-
per camber help and the plane squashes down in the clutches of gra-
vity. To read on with easy minds, let us assume that the pilot managed
to straighten the ship and is again on his course.
The stall treatise will be completed with few remarks on the ac-
tion of slots to extend the stalling range by c learing away the eddies
of stag nan t a i r wh i ch break the s tr ea ml in es • '1' o cl ear these dead air
eddies we must direct against them a strong stream of air. This is
done by setting up vanes so that they direct airflow near the sur-
face towards the trailing edge, and soprolonging the period in which
the stagnant air does not interfere w1th the normal s t reamline flow.

q"°1..1 b6 ~. \1;e "'i"""5 !!.c:.~ '& "'t"E OT

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PA"tH OF A tlAN.0 LAllNCHl:D GLID"f~ /:'OUN!)

!>y ~TOP lllATCH,MfASUfEMENT5 ~ PllOTO.
 LOW SPF.ED At:ROD'\. ~.AJ'UJCS

Most of the experimental aeronautical data . is based on speeas

of 40 m.p.h. and upwards to 300 m.p.h. Investigatio~ now in pro-
gress are reac~.ine for speeds beyond 300 m.p.h. This cannot be used
by model builders. We want information to start from 1 m.p.~. and
continue upward to a reasonable extent in accor<lance with moriel speeds.
A p a r t i a l a n s we r t o t h i s p l e a i s t h e N• A. C. A• r e po r t No • 586 wh i ch
will be resumed later. To understand this report,we must learn ~ore
about the methods used in aviation to compare test model's data with
the final product, as well as know the possible difference in re-
actio~ at low and high speeds.

Data appearing in laboratory reports assumes that the airflow

around bodies will be similar at all speeds. Tbe only dif~erence
bein~ the intensity of the reaction produced by change of speed ve
locity. For this reason the only va~iable in the lift and drag for-
mulas is the speed. The coefficients (indicators of difference in
reaction of one body to another, or one angle of attack to anotherl
are found by tests on scale models and applied to full size calcu-
lations. It was found that there is a difference in th~ final re-
sults between the model and wing. The full size wine has more lift
than the model data indicates. In time this was corrected by adding
a correction factor which covered this scale' effect.
Indications are now for an explana~ion of the lift and draa
formulas so that we may have a better idea where we m~y apply our
slow speed correction.

LIFT FORMULA
Lift ( in lbs.)=CL £ S y2
e
DRAG FORMULA
Drag ( in lb s .) = CD £ S y2
2
CL • Lift Co eff ic ient
Cr;. Drag Co effi c ient
p = De nsi t y o f a i r . 00237
( at 1 50C & 760mm
S =Surface area in sq.ft.
V • Ai r Spe e d in r ' t. Sec,

EXAM PLE
To find lift and d rag of a .
wing wh o•e are a i s 8 sq . f t,,
sec ti on Gott, 49? at 2 0 po s.
Air spe ed ~Omph (29 . 33 f t. s e c . )

Lift = . ? X . OO ll 85 X 8 X 29 , 332
An • , b . <:00 ~ lbs ,
D rag ~ . 045 X . 001185 X 8 X 29 . ~32
·I 0 I
.......,
• l
.1 ......... a..,...•.
I Ht U 1
A ns • • ;)DUSI'~ lb s •

The coefficients are, as mentioned above, reaction difference

between different bodies and angle of attacks. Density of air is an
indicator of the number of molecules in a eiven volume of air where
the plane flies. It thins with increase of altitude. Its inclusion
i n ·t he f o rm u 1a au t o ma t i ca 11 k t a k e s ~ a r e o f t h e s e · c h an ~ e s , s i n c e the
number of molecules will be smaller with increase of altitude.
The wine area is evidently the factor which controls the amount
of air acted upon. The speed, which is squared, determines the num-
ber of molecules which will be attacked within a eiven time. As we
have seen in the first section, it is very important to attack the
molecules suddenly and eive them no chance to escape in a round-
about-way.
 B
Aflout the squaring of speed: As a rule we just take it for grant-
ed without worrying about the reasons behind it. And because of this
attitude, it is more or less a mystery to those of us who have for-
gotten physics. The square law can be developed from a series of
motion and kinetic energy fo~mulas, but the simplest explanation is
as follows: A plane travels at ~O m.p.h. and another at 40 m.p.h.
Logically we would think that we are affecting only twice as much
air, judging by the distance travelled. The point we neglected to
bring in is that when we travel- twice as fast we also attack the mo-
cules twice as hard, and _so affecting twice as much air below and
above the wing. We now have; twice the distance travelled and twice
the downward and upward effect. Results: Four times more reaction
at 40 m.p.h. ~han at 20 m.p.h. See diagram for visual explanation.
Of cours~, ve are not getting anything for nothing as the drag is
also ~quared with doubling of speed for the same reasons. _

REACTIONS AT LOW SPEEDS

The question is if these statements hold true at spee~s . below
those at which the tests we~e made, 40 m.p.h. or so. It might be
safe to . surmise that ~t low speeds the molecules do not react.accord-
ing to the square law because the airfoil is evidently. slu~gish a~d
action of short duration, (small chord) to make worthwile impression
on the molecules. It can be likened to a bicycle pump. If the han-
dle is shoved down fast the air is forced into the inner tube, but
if it is pushed slowly the air manages t~ ooze out between the plun-
ger and the piston wall. Could it be that this is what happens at
low ~peeds? Our job, therefore, during the coming months will be to
prove or disprove these formulas. The coefficients will undoubtedly
be changed. At 40 m.p.h. the air molecules react strongly and deve-
lop increased and decreased pressures as stated. The assumption that
they will react in like manner at 20 m.p.h. minus the square effect
or to only ~ value is the point in question. Experiments tend to
show that we cannot use the assumption of equal relative values.
More about this in the Repo~t 586.
DRAG AT LOW SPEEDS
So far we have surmised that at ~ow speeds the air is sluggi,h
and thereby interfering with the "streching" uppei streamline lines
as well as· givin,2 poor returns on pure reaction difference~. The dra~
also suffers, or should we say rejoices, because of these characte-
ristics. Take the shearing action for an example. As the leading
ed~e plows into our three dimensional web it has to tear the molecules
apart. If it is done slowly their re~istance is great , but do it fast
and the molecules are apart before they realize what has happened.
It is like tearing a rag. Do it slowly and the cloth will bunch,
st,ech and tear in all direction. But tear it fast and the result
is a clean ~ear line. This plowing into molecules at low speeds is
like tTying to get a start; a perpetual initial attempt to overcome
the stati~nary mole~ules. While at high speeds the moleculesare gi-
ven the impulse to move up or down ·a ~pnsiderable distance ahead of
the leadine edge. So, here again the coefficient of drag might be
much higher for low speeds than that given for higher speeds because
of this initial inability of the section to obtain a start.
 9
Still another drag to worry about at low speeds is the skin
friction. It is thought that this might have something to do with
early stalls at low speeds. With air molecules so minute that the y
could hold a political meeting on a pin point, we ~an reason t hat we
carry a great many of them in small cracks, crevices and lean-tos
formed by balsa and paper fibers. All would be well if these mole-
cules were selfish and just filled up the pores. But no, they believe
in cooperation and stick out their tenacles for other molecules to
hold on for a free ride. By now we have a cluster like a swarm of
hees to drag along during the flight.
The results are not proportionate to the square law at hi gh and
tow speeds. At high speeds we manage to clear this cluster almost
to the skin and give the lodged molecules very little chance tolend
a helping hand outward beyond the surface. While at low speeds the
cluster has time to accumu l ate as there is plenty of time to catch
a hold. It is like riding a crowded street car. While the car . is
moving slow, people have t i me to catch the smallest holds and brace
against steps. While at h i gh speeds it is hard to coordinate this
catch, and if successful, the air pressure or wind tends to tear them
from the hold. This picture gives an idea of the boundary layer at
low and high speeds.
ASPECT RATIO AT LOW SPEEDS
It has been shown that the induced drag varies with Aspect Ra-
tio and that this fact is ~sed by full size plane designers. The
question is; how will this wark at model speeds. It was made evi-
dent that the lower surface of the wing contributes a great deal of
lift at low speeds. Therefore, it would be advantageous to favor it
by having large chords. In fact, the induced drag theory might work
hand in hand at low speeds. It might not be beyond imagination to
expect a chord of double size to effect four times as much air. See
3ketch for thought behind it. And with air being so stagnant at our
speeds, it might be to our advantage to react upon it as long as pos-
sible.~ Since most of the drag is usually contributed by the rest of
the mod.el, a slight i .n crease of wing drag in return for more lift at
lower angle of attacks is a worthwhile exchange. However, if you
nave area to spare, us~ high aspect ratio.
To have fair torque and stability control it does not seem ad-
visable to have aspect ratio of below 6-1. The importance of well-
des i gned tips ~annot be overemphasized at low aspect ratio. What
we may gain by having larg~ chord, we might loose through poor tips.
A safe r~le to follow is to .use elliptical tips which have their mi-
nor axis begin at about two chords' length from the tip. The out-
line need not follow the ellipse to the letter, according to Mr.Hof~
man, but it maybe of parabolic nature, which is almost identical ex-
cept that the tip portion is wider. This recalls the recommendations
we made last year of not having the tips of smaller size tha~ 3~ in.
as measured by the continuation of taper lines to the tip chord lin~
The previous discussions bear out this thought. Just remember, the
smaller the airfoil, the less effective it is.
A final word on the Aspect Ratio has to do with the shape of ai~.
foils towards the tip. The airfoil with a large trailing edge down-
jroop develops considerable high pressure under the lower camber• So
to carry out full efficiency to the very tip we must @radually drop
this pres.sure by changing the downw,rd droop to a gradual streamline
't the tip. Luckily the low speed sections lend t h ~mselves to trail-
ing edge tapering without necessitating .individual plotting.
 Resume of
National Advl~ory Committee for Aeronautics
Report No. 5R6
AIRFOIL SECTION CHARACTERISTICS ~S ftFFECTED
BY VARIATIONS OF THE REYNOLDS ~UMBER
By Eastman N. Jacobs and Albert Sherman
(As interpreted by your editorl
The object of the investigation was to make available section
characteristics at any free-air value. Therefore, when data from a
model test ara applied to a full size airplane, the flow conditions
would'be similar in both cases. This is necessary since the aerody-
namic coefficients usually var~ with change in the Reynolds Number,
(the ratio of the mass force to viscous force, usually referred to
as "scale eff~ct".) Mass is weight of air divided by gravity constant
( 32 ft./sec. J, and viscosity is the force with which the air mole-
cules cling together. Molasses has high viscosity, alcohol, small.
Early tests wete made in small open-to-air tunnels which made
it impossible to cover a large range of Reynolds Numbers needed to
bridge the gap between 5 x ~O inch model and ? x 50 foot winQ. The
requirements b&ing that the model should be attacked by the same au•
ber of molecules as the tull size win~ at thP same instant. This means
high compressio~ or close spacing ~f the molecule~ of the air which
runs in the wind-tunnel.
The N.A.C.A. variable density wind-tunnel is a unit all enclosed.
in an elongated tank made of about l i inch steel plates. Powerful
pumps can compress the air contained in it to pressures of 2~ atmos-
phere , or 14.7 lbs.lsq.in. x 20: 2Q4 pounds per sq. in. This in-
creases th~ molecular contents QO times, or havin~ a 5" chord equal
100" (almost 8~ ft. l under normal atmospheric conditions. This __ t.re-
mendous pressure is used to simulate full size conditions for a large
range pf Reynolds Numbers. To test for Reynolds Numbers below the
40 m.p.h. flight speed but still retain this speed for wind-tunnel
work, the pressure was reduced as low as 4 nor~al atmosphere or
3.9 lbs./sq.in., or reducinQ the number of molecules to a number
which would correspond to the number which affects the wing at lower
flight speeds.
The standard 5 x 30 inch test models were made of metal, usu-
ally of duralumin and very highly polished. They were repolished af-
ter every run. The airfoils used were those developed by the N.A.~A
Luckily, some o:f them look good for model work. <In fact, J.P.Glass
recommended some of them for model use in 1936, and they were inclu~
ed in the 1935-35 YEAR BOOK~
The accuracy of these tests is as f in.e as modern enQineerine
permits. Every care and correction factor was applied durine the
run. However, the results, especially the drag and pitching moments
under 800,noo Reynolds Number became relatively inaccurate owing to
the limitations imposed by•the sensitivity of the measuring equip-
ment.. (The equipment is very accurate and sensitive when under nor-
mal fairly high load. J "In fact, it appears t~at the accuracy be-
comes insufficient. to define with certainty the shape of curves re-
presenting variations of these quantities with anele of &~tack or
lift coefficients. Hence. the airfoil characteristica dependent on
the shape of such curves, that is, the opt.imu~ Cbestl, lift coeffi-
 ll

cient and the aerodynamic-center position are considered unreliable

and in most cases are not presented below an effective Reynolds Num-
ber of 800,000". All this simply means that at low speed it did not
seem to make much difference what sort of an airfoil was used.
Airfoils shown herewith were chosen for their possible use in
model design. Some of ' them have curves tested at Reynolds Number of
42,000 (very likely at 4 atmosphere) which is equivalent of a e inch
chord model flying at 9 m.p.h. Mr.Jacobs provided us with a simpli-
fied method for obtainin~ the Reynolds Number.
Reynolds Number - Speed (Ft. per sec.). x Chord ( in Ft. l
- .000157
By using this formula you can determine the Reynolds Number for
your particular use. The gra~hs given for the tests differ ~romothers
mostly in having but only one characteristic on graph. One graph shows
lift coefficients and the other the drag. The drag readings . differ
from standard in that it is plotted a@ainst the lift angles and also
for p~ofile drag only. An example readin~: On the Airfoil No.6412,
the profile drag coefficient at 6° is .025 at Reynolds Number of
41,800. Check: Lift coefficient at 6° is 1.1. drag coefficient on
the 1.1. line is .025. Of course these coefficients c~n be used with
given lift and drag formulas. However, we must not forget that the
drag coefficients given are for profile drag only. To the drag cal-
culated using coefficient from these graphs we must also add the in-
duced drag as found from: C 2
In duced Drag
1'P x

l 0

~
I
'

LL.
t
' ·I -I--•

T_
A,rfo1! NA C A:6412
-1·_--
51Ze:S"x3o··.
Pres(s/nd aim.) : 1/4 lo20
! ~ ·1 jTes t:VOTl/65
I
Vel(fl/sec)6~9 _ 2
Dale:li-34 _
~her"'. les;e'!.:_ ,L "!:~ l • .
·

·
4

-8 - 4 0 4 8 Ii? 16 20 24 28 32
Angle of a/lack for in f inite ospect ratio, ct, (deqr ees)
J2
"Flight conditions as regards the effects of the transition
may then be considered as being approximately reproduced, but it
should be remembered that the flow at the lower Reynolds Number can-
not exactly reproduce the corresponding flow in flight. Both Vhe
laminar and turbulent boundary layers are relatively thicker than
those truly corresponding to fli~ht, and both boundary layers have
higher skin-friction coefficients at the lower Reynolds Number".

The maximum lift coefficient is one of the most important pro-

perties of the airfoils. ·It determines the maximum lift of a wing
as well as its stalling speed. As can be seen from the graphs, this
maximum lift coefficien~ varies greatly with Reynolds Number because
it is-dependent on the boundary-layer behavour, which in turn is di-
rectly a functi9n - of viscosity as indicated by the value of the
Reynolds Number.
"The mechanism of the stall as affected by variations of Reynold
Number: Basically, the discussion is concerned mainly with the air-
flow separation. The · pressure distribution over the upper surface
at the maximum coefficients is characterized by low-pressure point
at a small distance behind the leading edge and by increasing pres-
sure from this point in the direction of flow to the trailing edge.
Under these conditions the reduced-energy air in the boundary layer
may fail to progress against the pressnre differences. When this air
(nex~. to boundary layer) fails to progress along the surface it ac-
cumulates. The accumulating air thereby produces separation of the
main flow. The separation, of course reduces lift." •
A~it was pointed out in the first section, the reduction of pres-
sure on the upper camber depends in having an unbroken airflow from
the leading edge back. We have just been told that at low Reynolds
Number the separation of this flow away from the airfoil happens at
very small angles of attack. A visual proof is given in the first
photograph. Although the flow seems good, the break away has hap-
pened as it can be determined by the fact that the f l ow lines above
the ~irfoil are almost straight back. While the second photo, taken
at h1g~er speeds or Reynolds Number, also shows separation, we still
have lift as can be seen by the curved lines over the airfoil. The
third photo shows a fully developed Stall. Note particularly the 'tear
away of air at the leading edge, and the eddy·ing of air from the lower
high pressure portion. The blac~ space is dead air being dragged a-
lon~, and it just contributes so much more dTa€.

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 " The process o f s ta 11 i n g , i n genera 1 , i s more comp 1 ex than ju s t.
discussed. It has been compared by Jones to a contest between lami-
nar separation near the nose and the turbulance separation near the
trailin~ edge, one or other winning and thus producing the stall."
!Or it mi~ht be a combination of both. l
From this we can see that boundary layer plays a great role at
lower speeds. This would indicate that the upper portion of the
leading edge is most important. We would be led to believe that it
should be highly polished to reduce the boundary layer, yet an ex-
periment made by Hr.Jacobs would prov~ just the contrary.
(This experiment was mostly of an illustrative nature. . It will
very likely not appear in print. We managed to hear of it because
of a personal visit to the Langley Field N.A.C.A. Laboratories. l
While testing a series of 12 inch chord airfoil~ closely resem-
bling the standard sections now used in models, it was found that
the lift developed by the upper camber was practically zero as shown
by the first photograph. Differences in thickness, upper and lower
camber dit not seem to make any change in the flow. Seeing the se-
paration taking place at zero angle of attack, Hr. Jacobs thought of
placing a .1/8" diameter rod a short distapce behind the leading edge.
The idea being to produce a turbulent flow with which to combat tur-
bulent boundary layer. It is a known fact that a turbulent flow di&-
plays much more resistance to separation than the laminar or smooth
flow. The experiment worketi like a charm and the sections followed
the action similar to that or high Reynolds Number.
It might also be mentioned that the above airfoils were made
like model wings. One airfoil did show better characteristics. A
close inspection later on showed that this particular airfoil had
its leading edge spar form a sharp break with the covering, and so
producing the turbulent flow which Hr. Jacobs later reproduced in
other airfoils with the rod.
This then is a condensed version of the N.A.C.A.Report No.See.
The editor has taken rather wide interpretation liberties at cer-
tain points. It is hoped that he was correct in conveying the ori-
ginal meaning, and that the authors would reco·g nize it as their work.
The report can be obtained for ~if teen cents from the
Superintendent of Documents, Govermnent· Printing Office, Washington, O.C.

NATIONAL ADVlSORY COMMJTTEE FOR AERONAUTICS

AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF .uRFOILS

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 14
THE SELECTION OF AIRFOILS
The discussion on the low speed aerodynamics presented a dark
picture for us. And if we were not a1ready flyin g models and get-
tin g fairly good results some of us would become discoura ~ ed. To
be perfectly frank, we must admit that our models are no t such won-
derful performers when compared with full size sh i ps. Our big gest
stock in trade is tre high power we use to literally pull the models
up regardless of their aerodynamic efficiency. Some of us @et a lucky
break to catch a thermal and we ref~ect in th e wo r k doen by natur~
How often have we seen a model practically point down yet being sucked
into the clouds! Those 15-lglides some boys repo r t must be optical
illusions as it is only necessary to do a bit of calculating. If a
:nodel achieves 300 feet. and its speed is 10 m.p.h . and the glide is
15-1, it shou1d take at least 5 minutes to reach t he ground. While
normal average fli ~ hts are within 2 and 4 minutes d4ration, we can
readily come to the conclusion that the average gliding ratio is a-
bout 7-1. This sounds reasonable. Gas mode~s, on the other hand,
with their larAer airfoils, are beginning to show us just how a mo-
del should be flyin g.
Last year a series of glid i ng tests were made on· five wing sec-
tions. The work was done in the stillness of an armory. The area
of the wings was 150 sq. in., round tips, aspect ratito of 6- 1, and
with every wing having the same C.G. point and weight. Admittedly,
these tests were no~ conducted with laboratory precision, but normal
model practice was applied. Wing loading was about 2 oz. per 100sq.in.
The test fuselage was solid balsa sheet with balsa tail surfaces. The
adjustments were made by changing the angle and applying weight ~n
form of modelling clay. Out of the series the Clark Y had the best
gliding angle with a r atio of 6. 5 to 1. The next in line was theRAF
32 wit~ slightly less . A Clark Y top with single surface undercamber
showed up third with about 5.5. to 1. M- 6 showed 5-1 after needed
incidence was applied. Another section of extremely d~ep undercamber
at the trailing edge was tried. This section was too unstable with
the small stabilizer. It was very sensitive with ten dencies to gal-
lop. The glides were timed and Clark Y ha d the best duration.
The above tests mi Aht not prove anything as incr e ase of wing
loading and higher speeds would have shown different charac teristi cs.
It proved, however, that the reaction at low speed is not in pro~or­
tion to the higher s peeds. The performanc e of Clark Y in comparison
with RAF 22 type was a surprise. It is quite possibl e that the RAF's
undercamber provided divin g moments which are normall y taken ca re of
in practice with" large stabilizers and shiftin~ the wi n g until t he
balancine point is reached. While the testing fusela ge ha d fixed
mount arid small tail. However~ the fact t hat deeply under c ambered
sections did have stron e diving .moments woul d prove that t he under -
camber is very effective at low speeds.
While abroad, 'the .oversea lads wanted to know the secret of Ameri-
can phe'nomenal duratioris. The answer was: "Use a lar~e dihedral~a
large tail, lar~e prop, plenty of power, a weak mind a nd strong arm
when yo~ wind to the maximum, launch and pray". This formula has
undoubtedly won most of the contests and it will still keep on doing
it. The idea, of course, being to get the model as high as possible
and hope for thermals. Yet even following this formula we run into
trouble. Sometimes the currents simply are not there and we must
~dmit that as a rule t he glide of a model is pretty poor. We only
need to compare it to the soarers which never seem to come down when
they attempt to land.
 .1:;
The large gas models need not worry about efficiency of their
wings outside of their stability viewpoint. They have sufficient po-
wer in the 10 c.c. to tide them over the tight spots, as well as pro-
duce 'power pull-ups'. The field in which we should be most concernea
is the 500 sq. in. and under. And with introduction of smaller and
lower power gasoline motors, the gas model builders will be in ~he
same lot as t he rubber powered boys.
From the information gathered from the low speed visualizations,
our gues, which is as good as yours, would be to use airfoils which
have the leading or entry edge Qf almost neutral chracteristics, just
as though the airfoil was set at o0 angle of attack. Thia should pro-
vide a good initial airflow with small drag values. Since the upper
flow breaks away so soon at low speeds (pending further investigation
of the Jacobs' turbulent rod) it would seem best to pay more atten-
tion to the lower camber. Referring to Figure 23 airfoil, with flap

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Angle of attack for infinde aspect ratio, ct, (degrees) Lift coe(ficienf, C,
F1GURE 23.- N . A. C. A. 23012 with e'<ternB l-airfoil flap denected 30°.
Main wing section .. . .. .. ... ..... N . A . C. A. 23012 Main winJit chorrl, r1 .. __ . - - 0.833<
Flapsection .•... •. .........•.... :>; . A. C. A . 23-012 Flap chorrt, r2•0.2c'1 .. .16ic

set at 30°, the plotted results show very eood values of lif.t. with-
out increasing the <iraQ beyond uselessness of the section. Of course
the divinQ moment, or bringing of the Center of Pressure to the rear
are great. But since we use laree sta~ilizers this should not worry
us very much after satisfactory fliQht and glide adjustments aremada
Therefore, a good airfoil should embody this. downward droop of the
trailing edge. Perhaps more light will be shed on the subject by in-
clusion of a report sent by one of our correspdndents, Robert .Hawkins.
"Mr. Sullivan, Aerona~tical Professor at Indiana Tech, put me
next to an idea of using the complete plan form of a section then drop-
ping the rear 40~ of Chord about ten degrees. The effect is }hat of
a 40~ flap permanently depressed ten degrees. The N.A.C~A. claimed
at a SAE meeting that the elide was increased, the stalline point r~
maining the same, and the lift increased all out of proportion to the
draQ increase. See sketch for method used. Note that the 'bend' is
carefully faired in~o the airfoil. Now, here is what I don't know
about.. Does the angle of a t tack used at Laneley Field tests include
the drop of the chorG line or is it figured on the original line? If
 J6

the new chord line is used, you hve what we could consider a sort of
a ~lorified R F 38 , which makes one wonder whether its a 'find' or
merely 'one of those things'. The Center of Pressure moves to the
rear as the flap or bend is depPesed, but remains almost constant
through the range of lift."
Reports from the field favor undercambered sections. Results
from airfoils of Marquardt and Ritzenthaler designs proved very good
in a c tual use. Marquardt airfoil is shown somewhere in the book.If
these airfofls are set at a few degrees positive angle of attack,
they would almost meet the specifications we have jus t mentioned. We
mi~ht also recall that birds' win~ section closely resemble this de-
sign. And Hr. Rauol Hoffman mentions this close rela t ion in Hay,1938
issue of Popular Aviation. Since bird flight is very similar to mo-
del, we can be fairly assured that we are on the right track with our
assump~ions.·Also see - Lippisch airfoil design on Page 128. Mr. Lip-
pisch knows his aerodynamics since he has been in the game from the
very be~ining so that we can safely use his design.

Referring to the N.A.C.A. Airfoil 5412 we will note that it a1-

JO meets the qualifications if it is set at about 5°~ In fact, Hr.
Jacobs recommends this section for model use. It has all the needed
features, thickness for spar depth, trailing edge adaptable for tip
tapering and Reynolds Number tests to 41,000. It can be thinned i£
you wish to experiment; just chang~ the thickness ordinates.

The interestin~ experiment tried by Mr. Jacobs to produce a tur-

bulent -airflow should be a welcome test for the wings now being flown.
It just needs cementing of 1/8 dia. rods on some point near the lead-
ing edge. The exact point seems to be important, so ma.k~ several trials.
This idea might be carried on all surfaces. Reports would be most
welcomed and we are sure Mr. Jacobs would like to know how his stunt
works in practice.

With so many doubts in our minds it is dif,ficult to make any other

airfoil suggestions. It is true that we have fOntradictions right
and left but this is because we do not yet have sufficient correct
data to be certain. Since we have a vague ide<a what it is all about
we must present as many possible points for discussion. If tt has
only made you to realize how little is known about low speeds, the
inclusion of this chapter in the book will be justified.

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sively on rubber and glider
models, large ·or small.Very
good results on small slow
ships because of small drag
increase owing to scale-ef-
fect .Concave recommended for
small light models.With flat ~:__-1-..+-!~'-+--'L.=..'--+-=-"-7'~1
-=.::::-+.---7=-=-':--t--=--'-;:::-;::-lundercamber for lift stabi-
11,Zers .-----Van Hattwn
 17
AEROBALAKCE
by A.G.Nymeyer
The idea of the aerobalance suddenly arose in my mind when I was
experimentin~ with my new airfoils. I believe it is quite new,at all
events, I have never seen any means of comparin~ airfoils built like
this.
It can be easily built from very few and cheap parts. To obtain
9ood results it is only necessary to have ~ood bearings and an airfoil
vhose characteristics are absolutely known, I use the well known air-
foil, the Gottingen 497 which has been used very much in Kurnpe and
of whose characteristics are well known even at low speeds. The test-
ing procedure is as follows:
Ill

The test sections are of six inches span and chord. Both the
known and unknown wings are placed on the balance arms of the Aero-
balance. The Gottingen profile is fixed at a certain distance from
the center and all characteristics noted, such as angle of attack and
its C.G. point. The unknown is similarly positioned, following as
close as possible the master win ~ settin gs . Th e AEROBALANCE is now
placed in some sort of an airstream.
The small size of the balance makes it poss ible to use an elec-
tr i c fan. A better flow can be obtained by using a four-bladed pro-
pe l ler. If these means are lacking, the natural wi nd an be used as
knowing the speed is not important since both airfoils have identical
speed. Of course, the set up can be complicated with a regular set
up of honeycombs, contro l led air and speed of the electric motor re-
vo l utions. The readings are taken as follows:
After the balance has been under the wind influence for a suffi-
c i ent length of time to be certain of its action, {he calculations
are made. Say, for example, that the unknown airfoil had an upward
motion which indicated greater lift than the master airfoil. We must
now shorten its arm unti l both section are in balance. Th e equation
presented then is:
Lift of known Airfoil x its rooment crm s Lift of unknown Airfoil x its moment arm
Or - Lk x f4tc • Lu Mu
The only unknown or X, will be the Lift of th e unknown wingT
All other factors ate known or can be measured. However , this equa-
tion does not take care of the difference in wei ght of the balance
halves as the sections are moved for counterbalance, and so movine
the C.G, The corrected diagram is shown in the sketches.
To eliminate all weight factors the AEROBALANCE can be placed
into a. vertical airstream , and since the weight of the various parts
is at right angles to the lift we can forget the weight in the cal-
culations. The drae force can be found on the horizontal airflow as
nere ~he drag force is at right angle to the weight forces.
The method just disclosed to compare aerodynamic characteriaics
of different airfoils can be applied to many other objects, such as
fusela~es shapes. It can be modified to meet a great many condition~
EDITOR'S NOTE: Mr.Nymeyer has provided us with a new method of trying out oar ideas
The idea can be very helpful in deciding which section to us. It is unfortunate
that we do not have more characteristics of the section he Mentioned besides those
listed in the Report shown elsewhere in the book. Offhand, the square planform
seems a bJt on the doubtful aide, althought the six inch chord is a good size to
use. One difficulty in using large spans is that we move out of the current
sphere as produced by an ordinary electric fan. Perhaps some of you can make lar-
ger airflow supply, or wish to test outdoors. Let us, therefore, atandarl1e on the
fol lowi_ng:
Use Clark Y as the Master Air.f oil. Di111ensiona 5• Chord, 15" Span with round
tips. This wing will have an area of 70 sq.in. with an Aspect Ratio of ~.5 to I.
This section should show up the difference between flat and. undercambel'ed lower
surfaces- If tests are made In a steady stream, the lift of the Clark Y can be
found by placing weight on the opposite arm at the point which is the aa11e dis-
tance from center as the Clark Y's C.G. Of course, it is understood that the ba-
lance will be balanced before t~e tests are begun.
There is no limit to the applications of this device. It la hoped that great
many of us will try it and have concrete infor•atlon by next year. If all of ua
were to wait for the other fellow to do the experi11ental work we woyld never make
any progress towards a better understanding of Low Speed Aerodyn .. lcs.
 19
STAB I LI TY
With introduction of higher speeds to meet higher wine loading,
and the universal adoption of the gasoline motors, our stability prob-
lems are growing because speed is one force which shows up the sli~ht­
est defects, no matter be it man or machine. The model has three di-
mensional possibilities and its stability becomes more complex that
that of a two dimensional vehicle such as an automobile or boat.

There are three classes of stability: Loneitudinal, or up and

down. Directional, or right and left. Rolling, or chan~ing the po-
sition of the win~ with respect to the horizon. Although all three
work in cooperation, the last two are almost always used incombination.
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
Longitudinal or up and down stability is required because the
lifting force of the wing does not stay fixed with change in airflow
or angle of attack. It is basically dependent on the position of the
C.G. in relation to the lift resultant. Discounting the effects of
the propeller and thrust line, we can stabilize a model as sketched.

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Most of the adjusting directions mention the position of the

C.G. at 1/3 Chord behind the leading edge. Yet when thi~ is done
the model still stalls. The reasons are sketched. Note that be-
sides having a lift we also have a drag force to counteract if the
C.G. is placed directly below the lift force. The drag force tends
to stall the model, and if the stabilizer is not able to counteract
it, the model will be unstable. As you all well remember after you
have placed the C.G. at the 1/3 point you still had to push the win~
back so that the C.G. counteracted both the lift and the drag moment.
Just how much should we move the C.G. forward to balance both forces?
The simplest trick is to take the resultant formed by the lift and
drag, and extend it through the model. The C.G. can be placed any-
where along this line with assurance that it will be correctly posi-
tioned

To obtain the correct resultant angle we must know ~he forces

acting on the lift and drag lines, as well as the point through which
it acts, or the Center of Pressure. Judging from experience it would
seem that the LID of a wing is about 8 at the angles of attack we use
4° to 7°. The Center of Pressure is between 30 and 40% Chord. This
infotmatipn provides us with a rough means of computing the place and
the angle of lhe resultant so that we can estimate the line on which
the C.G. shoul9 be located for the simplest and the best method of
achieving longitudinal stability.
 This type of stability is used in the regular aircraft design-
ing. Its value lies in . the fact that we have no load on . the stabi-
lizer, and the moment the wing wanders away f~om its setting without
manual control, the stabilizer effect is almost immediate. The de-
signs that require a load, up or down, on the stabil i zer, are always
tricky since we cannot be sure of how the stabilizer will react.
~his method of achieving longitudinal stability can be easily
applied to gas models where the weight is concentrated on the nose.
The resultant line should be known, and if possible marked on the
fuselage. When a model misbehaves you can always begin the checking
1:JY.' starting with the C.G. position.

The stability diagram evolved for rubber models during the last
three years is as illustrated. This 1s the outcome of bringing the
wing forward· and using l:i large lifting tail to balance the upward ten-
dency of the wing force. Note that the C.G. is almost at the trail-
ing edge of the wing. The design is definitely of semi-tandem pat-
tern, and if we make a few calculations you will see that we can
treat it as such~
In the AERODYNAMICS section we have been shown that we have down-
vash. We do not know its angle at low speeds but we can assume 1°.
This would set the actual airflow for the stabilizer at 1° less than
set by the base line. We can also realize t .h at the air is t'a·irly well
mixed up by the time it reaches the stabilizer so that we cannot ex-
pect it to be 100% efficient; 75% efficiency is a fair estimate. Re-
membering these conditions we can go ahead and make few calculations
to familiari7.e ourselves with the action of a lifting tail.
70
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18---..i
8ALANCEO

With the wing lift ahead of tne C.G. it is evident that this
force will try to stall the model unless we have a counterlift on the
tail end. .Just at what angle will the wing and tail f orces balance
each other? Let us take for an example a model using a 200 sq.in.
wing, 80 sq. in. stabilizer, Gottingen 497 for wing, and Clark Y for
stabilizer, 3° incidence (about 1/8" blocking for 5 " chord! on win ~
and 0° on stabilizer. Wing's moment arm is 3" and stabilizer's is 18".
To simplify calculations we will use standard coe f licients, areas
and moment arms We could use the regular formulas but since speed
and air density will be same for both surfaces , we can leave them ou~
Because the tail is only 75% effective we have an effective stabili-
zer area of 60 sq.in. Because of 1° downwash, the angular difference
between the wing and stabilizer is 4°. Therefore:
Results for wing at .3° 200 sq. in. x .75 (coef.) x 3" = 450 units
Results for tail at .. 1° sq sq. in. x .3 (coef.) x 18" • 324 units
Under these conditions the wing will obviously lift the front in-
to a larger angle of attack until a balance of forces is achieved, as:
Results for wing at 7° 200 sq. in. x 1.05 (coef.) x 3": 630 units
Results for tail at 3° 60 sq. in. x .6 (coef.) x 18": 648 units
The balance is now in effect with stabilizer in favor. These cal-
culations come very close to observed performance, especially the 7°
angle of attack.• Mr. R. Hoffman made extensive experim~nts on hand
launched ~liders and he found that e0 was a good avera~e. Having the
C.G. further back on rubber model~ we can concede th~ 7°.
 21
If the weight of our test model is 8 ozs., the above proportion
of moment arms indicate that the wing lifts about 6~ ozs. and the st~
b i 1 i z er H oz s. Th i s e qua t ion or a er o·d y nam i c ba 1 an c e wi 11 ho 1 d true
at all speeds. Speed, not including the effects of thrust line, has
no effect on the balance. It is evident that since both surfaces •
have the same speed they must h~v~ the same proportionate reaction.
The change of speeds, as iL will ·be cleared up in the POWER chapt'er,
determines the flight path in relation to the horizontal line. While
the aerodynamic loneitudinal balance determines t~e position of mo-
del in relation to the airflow. In our case, discountin~ torque and
assuming head-on flight, the base line or fuselage center line would
be 4° positive in relation to the fli ght path. See sketch.
The modern method of adjusting rubber and ~ as models is to first
adjust for the best glide, and ther. for the power climb . The ~lide
adjustments are usually made by movin ~ surfaces back and forth, in-
creasing incidences and moving or addine wel~ht. The f inaY settin2
result is the aerodynamic balance of the tandem set-up just covered,
or the positioning of the c ..\J. on the Lift-Drag resulta'nt line. The
power climb is -controlled by shiftin ~ the thrust line until best re-
sults are obtained. Why must the thrust line be shifted to provide
climbing stability1
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Referrine to the di~grams : If the Thrust Line is passed through

t he C. G. , th e mom e n t s a bo u t t he C• G. s e e m t o be s a t i s f i e d a t a e1 an c e.
But if we were to work out the thrust diagram on the assumption that
the model is set at angle of attack of 4° we will note a~ upward com-
ponent of thrust which tends to nose the model upward. (In experience
this is illustrated by the fact that most models stall under power
Jntil down thrust is applied. l Checking on the down thrust used we
note that model builders use anywhere from 1/32" to l/8 11 down block-
ing on 1~" dia. or heieht of nose plugs. In angles this varies from
1° ~o 5°. The 5° is most applicable to the 200 sq. in. model we are
checking. If we draw this G0 down thrust line in reference to the
base or center line of the fuselage we will note that thrust is now
almost parallel with the fli~ht path. T~e upward thrust component
is lost and we have sl(ght downward effect. However, we assumed a-
bout the maximum downthrust used in practice 3°or 4o is more like
what we actually use. A 4° downthrust would balance the upward com-
ponent. ·While a 3° downthrus\ would still produce ~ s~all upward
force. However, its value is comparatively small and . it can be easi·
ly cc~trolled by the ieneral aerodynamic balance.
22
We have cleared up the upward or upsetting thrust component by
changing the thrust line. But we now have a thrust force line pas-
sing about 1" above the C.G. tending to dive the model. The power of
this forcecan be roughly estimated from the LID characteristics of
the model. If our 8 oz. model has such excellent L/D as 8 to 1, the
drag would be 1 oz. This drag requires 1 oz. of thrust for level
flight. Therefore our diving force is 1 in./ oz. This diving force
is easily balanced by the slight upward component force at the nose.
Since increase or decrease in thrust effects both forces equally,
our balance is assured. This accounts for the fi nal fine adjustments
we all make with down thrust.
From the description given, it would seem advisable to keep to
non-lifting tails on gas jobs, which is understood ~o be th~ pos~­
tioning of the C.G. along the Lift-Dra g Re ~ultant line. Using lift-
ing airfoils on the stabilizer with the C.G. so ~os~tioned that t~ey
do not developed any special dangerous c~aracter1st1cs. In fact,1t
could be used to compensate the thrust line if it is under the C.G.
However, the airfoil effect should be sli gh t or the stabilizer will
assume the upper hand since it has such an enomous moment arm advan-
tage over the wing.
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The formuia for finding an approximate non-lifting tail area is

2iven in the diagram. Note that we have coefficients to justify for
different designs . Rubber models must naturally have larger stabi-
lizers since the motor weight is distributed alor.g the fuselage and
the wing so far back. While easoline models have the wing so far
forward that we can minimize the effect of enertia caused by swin ~­
in~ fuselages. It requires more power LO stop the sw i nging of a long
beam than short one, even if both are of same weight. It mi ght be
~entioned that the formula is simply a check. You may use more or
less area than the formula produces. A smaller area requires fine r
adjustments,while a large area tail gives fair results with rougher
adjustments. In aviation, the tail size is Rept as small &s possible
to cut down the dr~g.

Although a lifting stabilizer is not the ideal stabilizing me-

dium, we are forced to use ~t on our rut~er models. So, we might as
well know how to get the most out of them. When using a lifting tail
tfie first concern is to make sure that the wing stalls before the
t.ail if something unusual happens. The very fact tha t the tailworks
at 4° anale of at~ack less than the wing .should be of some consola-
tion. However, we must not for~et the lifting charac t eristics at
low speeds. We can keep the efficiency of the stabilizer high by
usina d~uble rudders. This has the effect of increasing the Aspect
Ratio or reducing the tip losses without increasing the span. Also,
when the airflow is from a side the blanketing of the stabilizer and
rudder area is less when the rudder is divided into two portions.
Another stunt is to use fairly low aspect ratio to keep the stabili-
zer rs R~ynolds Number comparable to wing. In all, try to make it as
efficient as you can without increasing the angle of attack differ-
ences between wing and stabilizer.
 23
SPIRAL STABILITY
Spiral stability is a combination . of Directional and Rolling
Stability. It was discussed in great length in 1937, but models are
still spinning in 1938 so that some of us must still have vague
ideas about the matter.
I

We cannot avoid making spirally ~nstable models every once in

a while, and most of us have sufficient adjusting experience to ob-
tain some sort of flights from such models. However, we find consi-
derable trouble attached to them as every adjustment we make only
seems to hold fer that particular power. They might fly fairly ~ood
under low power or calm weather, but ~s soon as we pile on turns or
try to fly in rough weather we run into trouble again. This is a
sharp comparison against a stable model which seems to possess mi-
raculous power of adjusting itself to all sorts of weather and power
~onditions. Just what is the difference between a stable and un-
>table design? For the answer we must review the action of themodel
1hile under influence of airflows which effect the model from sides,
just as we di d for the Longitudinal Stability which depended on the
airflow along the flight path.
Offhand, we are led to believe that a model flies with the fu-
selage parallel with the airstream. Very likely, this idea has led
us to minimize the importance of stability required to keep the mo-
del in contro l while side forces are trying to throw the model out
of course. One of the basic forces which we have to keep under con-
trol is the propeller torque. The torque will react against the fu-
selage and try to rotate the model in a direction opposite of the prop
rotation. The moment this force is applied, the lift component of
the wing is no longer vertical, but at an angle. In the head-on view
the result is a side force trying to pull the model away firom the flignt
path. A plan view of the forces would show us this force plus the
thrust force. Since both a r e pulling at angles to each other we have
a resultant which is somewhere between the two. This resultant then
becomes the new flight path with the model at an angle to it asshown.
It is assumed that some force is now counteracting the torque.

\ \,
\\~'~\
~ \
With the fuselage no longer in line with the flight path, we
present an altogether new face to the airflow. If we glance along
this new flow we will see a compressed side view of the model. Let
us take several designs from this view and find out how they will
react under the same conditions.
24

CASE NI:- Using a flat wfng. The wing halves balance each other. The rudder h~s
a slight counteract ing arm to the horizontal C.G. line but its effect is more thar
balanced by the landing gear. So we can expect the ~odel to keep on rotating un-
der th~ torque force.

CASE #2:- Using a wing with "V" dihedral. The wing has a counteracting force in
form of changed angle of attack on the wing · halves. The inside wing has a posi-
tive angle and the outsidP h~c a negative angle of attack; just what we needed
for counter torque.
CASE #3:- A low wing with 'V" dihedral. The effect is simi l ar t o ~ 2 except that
the lift forces are closer to t he C.G., hence shorter moment arms, and the fuse-
lage is blanketing and spoiling a portion of the outside wing and thereby putting
~realer load on the inside wing.

\:ASE .~ 4:- A reversed dihedral. Works hand in hand with torque until rotation rea·
ches 180° and then the dihedral assumes .the "V" effect.
CASE i15:- Gull Shape dihedral. Shows how inefficient the gull shape is at large
drift angles. Note how the outside tip has a tendency to blanket the inside an-
gled portion of the wing. This shape should be avoided on high powered models
unless exact drift angle can be calculate?, and correct gul l shape used.
~ASE #6:- The Tip dihedral. This is used in many cases. Its effect comes from
the l ong moment arm. Its danger is in ·the excessive upturn which miqht stall at
large drift angles, thereby hastening the spin~
CASE #7:. High rudder to provide a long arm above the horizontal C.G. Its effect
is small since the small chord might not provide the force exoected, and thereby
offsetLng its purpose.
CA5E fl.8:- A low rudder. It wil l help to rota.te 'the model. Dihedral must be in-
creased~ Wheel pants have the same effect.
CASE #9:- Wing set on center fin. Small effect because of it~ short distance from
C.G. Its use will call for a larger rear rudder. Might be of he l p on streamlined
models where the fuselag~ has low dfag and so making regular rudder too effective.
CASE HIO:- Elliptical wing slightly parasol and divided rudders. Advantages of
tip and n~u dihedral, plus no sharp dihedral breaks. Divided rudders keep the
rear portion of the model neutral so that same adjustments wi ll apply to power
and gl ide conditions.
 25

Of . all the cases presented the "V" an4 Elliptical hold best pro-
mis~s. If you plan to use others, be sure to realize their limita-
tions and make up the shortcomings. Also when flying these designs
be sure to watch out for the tendencies mentioned
The next step is to determine just at what drift angle the wing
will stop ro~atinR and torque counteracted. The simplest answer is:
When the wing reaches a point at which the drift an ~ le will pr o vi de
an angle of attack for the wing at which it can t J.h~ c.are uf the torque.
Us in g the 11 V" d i he d r al wi n g far an exam pl e , the f o 11 aw in g ca 1 cul at i or
can be made:
Referring back to our longitudinal stability model, we found
that the 200 sq.in. wing had to carry a load of 62 ozs. The span of
the wing is 40" and the dihedral is 4" under each tip, or 12° The
torque of a tightly wound motor suitable for an 8 oz. model is rough-
ly 40 in./ozs. Shown on the diagram, this torque is distributed on
the two halves of the wi~Q at the 10" points where the lift of each
half is centered, Note that we have upward and downward forces of 2
ozs. To counteract this torque we must decrease the lift of the out-
s i de wi n g t o 1. 3 5 o z • a nd i n c r e a s e t he l i f t o f t h e i n s i d e wing to 5 . 35
~zs. The ratio of the difference i£ 1 to 4. We must now find the
drift angle at which the lift coefficients of the two halves will be
in such a ratio. How to find these angles and more information on
dihedral, we refer you to the ;allowing article by Alban Cowles.

l>IST~80TIOl'C O~ LIFT
IM ~IDf SI.IP

ACTION OF DIHEDRAL IH SIDE DRIFTS

by Alban Cowles
Diaerams from 1 to 4 show front views of dihedral shapes used
in model designing. The various dihedrals were calculated so t hat
the lift is equal for all cases. Using a lift of a flat winR asl00%
efficient, the loss of lift because of dihedral triangulation is 4 %\
or we may term the dihedral 96% efficient. As explained in the 1937

'i\P'
 .I

26
YEAR BOOK, the torque of th e motor produ c es a sid e slip to provide
counter-torque force. The e ffe ct of such a side s lip on the different
dihe drals can be calculat ed by findin g out th e new angle of attack
produced by the new airflow at an an ~ l e ac ros s the win g. The method
used to det e rmine the new a n gl e of a tt ac k is show n on Diagram 5 . The
10" radius se gment is used to simplify t he an gula r calculations.

~ ~--1-~-+--+--+-+-+-++-~~e<-------H
I\'
{t
~ r---1-~-+--+---+"++.''---->''---~~~H

i::::
~ ~-+~--+---H...._..._-¥-~-+~--<~~H
~
~

3.75° 7.5' lO" 12.S l5° 20° %5' 'o"

DUFT AllGLE. OF P\.UE

Usin g the "V" dihedral for example, the calculations are made
as follows : For ' 4 11 t i p d i he d ral on a 40" span wing, t he point "A"
is two inc hes above the base on a 10" radius. Knowin g the drift an-
2l e , the new an gl e of atta c k can easily be found by f i ndin~ the dis-
tance 8- D and solvin g the Sine f ormula o f:
Sine C : _,~- : Angle of attack
Example: If ~5ift angle is 25°, distance BD is 9/16" or .5625. Therefore,
Sine C: ~ : .0 5625. Our trig tables show that the angle for Sine
.05625 is O 3° plus. We now have a wing whose inside half has an
an~le of attack of 3°, and whose outside wing half has -3°, or an anqular
d ifference of 6° in angle of attack.
Usin g a Clark Y airf oi l we c a n make a comple t e table of Angles
o f Attack as developed by t he different drift an gl es. All we need
to know is t he BD distan c e in de c imals; move the decimal point to
the left by one, and then find the Sine angle of this number under
the Sine Table.

Example: Clark Y, Span ~O " , 'V' Shape, ~"under The method used to find
each tip. A:-lnside wing. B:-outside wing. the angle of attack of other
Drift Angle of Attack Lift Coefficients d i he d ral sh a pes is a modifi-
Angle Sine cation of the above system.
"A" "B" "A" "B" Of <;ours e the different di-
50 .015 10 - lo hedral dimensions will chan~e
.~5 .35 the Sine readings as will
10° .0218 I 1/'fJ -1 1/-JJ the d ifferent shapes. The
.5 .3 Gull shape will use 3.9"
15° .0281 I 2/'fJ -1 2/'!' .53 since its maximum dihedral
.27 is at 10 " point. This is
a l s o t r n e f o r t h e t i p di he-
20° .()llJ7 2t 0 2'0
- i' .6 .2 d r al. We will have to have
25° .056 30 _30 .63 • 17 a.double table for the Poly-
d1hedral; one for each sec-
.0687 ~o -~o .7 .I tion.
30°
 27
When using the results thus obtained to find the resultant coun-
ter-torque force remember to apply this force at the correct spot.The
force would be placed at the half-way mark for the "V". While GULL
only gets it at ~ point of the wing half, anq the tip design gets it
way out at the ~ portion. The polydihedral will need two moment arm~
one for each angled section.
Diagram 6 is a comparison graph of the different dihedrals set
at vari-ous drift angles. The graph was _calculated as on .the "V" di-
hedral example for all the shapes given, and the forces applied at
the correct spot as mentioned in the above paragraph. The indi0dual
calculation tables were too lengthy to include in this article. How-
ever, the graph is a true indication of the counter-torque force re-
lation of the dihedrals when all the wings have same characteristics
while flying at same angle of attack and at z.ero d·rift angle. (1' course
any deviation from the forms given would result in different readings
Increasing the tip dihedral of the GULL would undoubtedly make a bet-
ter showing. But since it is the purpose of this article to show the
extremes, modifications and special designs will have to be calcula-
ted by the Teader.
The graph was also plotted without reference to the parasol ef-
fect or the lengthening of the moment arm due to increased distance
between the center of lift and the C.G. An increase in parasol' would
be most beneficial to the GULL, and slightly to the POLYDIHEDRAL.
The results shown are purely mathemathical, and coefficients
used are as listed for regular airplane use. No correction was ap-
plied to possible interference where the change of dihedral is affect-
ed. Results show the Polydihedral to be best of the series, and this
would let us to believe that an elliptical shape, which is similar
but without dihedral breaks would be best.

SPIRAL STABILITY (Continued)

To find the lift coefficient difference of the two halves of
1 to 4 for our test model wing, we must make a table similar to
Cowles'. Except that we will use Gottingen 49? instead of Clark ~
We can use his Drift Angle, Sine and Angle of Attack readings since
they are applicable to our 200 sq.i~. wing which also has a 40"
Span and a 4" tip dihedral. We will add to his table the drag· coef
f icients and the lift ratios of the two halvas to enable us to make
qttick comparison at various drift angles.
Drift Sine Angle of .A ttack "A" Coets. "B" Coefs. Lift Ratio\
Angle Value "A" "B" Lift Drag Lift Drag "B" to "A• .
50 .015 10 .10 •6 .03q .5 .027 5 to 6
10° .022 I I/'!' -1 I/'!' .67 .oqo _q5 .022 q.5 to 6.7
15° .028 I 2/'!' -1 2/i' .69 .oq3 .q3 .021 ij.3 to 6.9
0 3.5 to 7.5
20° .oq3 2a0 -2a .75 .050 .35 .020
25° . •056 30 _30 .80 .055 .32 .018 g,2 to 8

ocP .068 qo _qo .86 .060 .27 .o 17 2.1 to s.G

The above table shows that at a drift angle of ~o 0 we approach

our required ratio of outside and inside wing lift difr~rence of 1
to 4. Th• calculations were made with the assumption that the a~le
of attack ~as o0 when the fuselage is parallel with the airflow.The
lift coefficients for 4° and-4° angle of attack differences for the
 28

two halves mi~ht prove to be two small in value to produce ine r~ ­

quired counter torque fared. Consequently the anele of attack of
the entire wini will have to bt,,iJ~creased until the counter force is
lar~e enough. On our ~odel the.1ngle of attack had to be ? 0 to sa-
tisfy the wing and stabilizer balance. This increase would ~ive us
11° for the inside wing and 3° for the outside wing. Note that we
keep the required 8° difference for the counter torque force. The
which the entire wing lifts e•
torque force is now balanced because we have reached the setting at
ozs. How about our loneitudinal
stability? Using our Lon~itudal Stability calculations, we have:
Results for ino1vldual wing halves, (A) 100 sq. in. x 1.25 (I 1°) : 375 Units
model set at 7° Angle of Attack: (8) 100 sq.in. X .75 ( 3°): 225 Units
A total of 600 Units
Our stabilizer's UNITS totaled to 648 so that the thE :ingle of at·
tack will be decreased slightly until the longitudinal balance is
reached. Eowever, the change will be small since the .stabilizer is
now less efficient because the rudder blankets considerable area at
the drift angle of 30°. The sli~ht decrease in anele of attackshould
not change the counter-torque force because the model w1ll automati-
cally speed up at lower angles because of reduction in drag. So that
we can now assume th~~ we have the model under control in all respects.
A glance at the differences in the drag of the wing halvesshould
explain why the model's natural circle is with the torque. The po-
sltion of the model with respect to the horizon will depend on the
thrust po~er. (The difference between thrust power and torque is
that thrust power is the final pulling force of the propeller; while
torque is the power reauired to run the prop. The torque is h1gh
when pro~ is inefficient and low when it is working under taeal con-
ditions. More about this later. J
'rhe next step is to calculate just what sort of a "face" the
model presents to the airflow. The approximate "filce" can be calcu-
lated as follows: Let's us assume that the maximum thrust for our
model is 2 ozs. Placir.e this force in our 30° drift dia~ram we ob-
tain 116 oz. side force. (It is simpler to work backwards. Too many
unknowns if we start from scratch. J Using a scaled diagram, we find
that the wing has rotated 7°to reach the counter torque point. We
ca ~ n ow " s t o p '.' t he mod e l i n mi d a i r a nd e xa mi ne i t s_ " fa c e " •

~30
(H~«T/YE)

f-A<E' QF A /tftJliE~ A5 l'RE~NTCO

TO AIRFLOJY AT .J() •-'I/Jc /JR/fl
N'ITH T/JR~f/E BAL.4.NCE/J
~T. Box..
The sketch shows us that the inside wing has almost reached the
horizontal position, the d'ifference being 5°. (12°dihedral and 7°
rotation. J The angle of the attack on the inside wing is 11° which
determines the angle of the model as presented by the fuselaee linea.
This then is the position of a stable model when torque forces the
win~ to seek the counteracting force. It is of course assumed that
forces are balanced on ~ach side of the C.G. and that the higher drag
of the inside wing is causing the model to circle with the torqud. ·
But what happens when other or counter forces are introduced?
 29

FIRST CASE: Let us assume that the area behind the c .G. is too small
to balance the area in t.he front In pract.i·ce, rudder area t.oo small.
Referring to the plan view of a model in a 30° drift. angle we cansee
that. the more powerful front force will t.ry to swing the model int.o
still greater anele. If the drag increase of t.he inside wing is not.
sufficient to counter-act the front force, the drift angle will con-
tinue until fuselage will be presentin Q almost the full length view.
Consequently the overall drag will increase and lift efficiency will
drop until the model just flounders. A good indication when a model
has too small rudder is tailwigwags back and forth as it approaches
a stall while under low power. Under high power, the model just m<Es
a rieht or left wing over, and dive for Qround.

\ \

,.,IJ,e~ ~/V.t JC"L'6Yr

,4RF4 $/VllYtF.S NdtlEL
I/I/TO $/De ///EV

SPINNING WITH TORQUE TURN

SECOND CASE: The assumption now is that the rear portion has too large
an area. In practice, rudder too lar~e, Referrin~ again to the plan
view of a model in a drift angle we see that the large rudder tries
to force the fuselage into the airflow, or decrease the drift. angle.
We have just calculated that our design has rotated 7° to achieve
the 30° drift angle. But if the rudder keeps on forcing the mode1
to face the airflow we can realize that the wing never reaches the
30° drift angle, and if this is the angle needed for counter torque
force, the · torque keeps on rotatin g the wing. If we did not have gra
vity, the result would be a horizontal spiral flight with ~ing ro-
tating. But with gravity always waiting to pounce on ~he unwary,we
have the following results when the rotating wing reaches a vertical
position. The lift is now horizontal, which accounts for tight cir-
cles. And the large rudder act like a stabilizer forcing the nose
into a dive. The outcome is the familiar fast twist commonly known
as a "spin". Cure: Reduce the rudder area until the wing can assume
the required drift angle to counter-act the torque. Or increase the
dihedral so that the required force will be obtained at lower drift
angles at ~hich the rudder does not assume dominant posiiion.

CIRCLING AGAINST TORVUE

Durin~ the last four years it was found that a model can be more
easily adjusted if it is flown against the torque. A model which would
normally spin very easily when circling .with the torque, could bezde
to perform good in 'against torque' adjustments. Also that the best
aGjustments were made by offsetting the thr~st line. Adjust.in~ with
the rudder alone usually forced ~he model into a spin after the po-
wer used up.
30
Circling with the torque proved so successful because the side
torque minimized the domination of the extra large rudder, which
caused the spin in with the torque turn. Examinint the diagram you
will see how side thrust balances the large rudae~ effect. If they
balance, the wing reaches its drift an~le and torque control is main-
tained. Normally, our excessive power assumes domination and the
model circles to the right. The drift angle remains as before as
the wing still has to control the torque. The side thrust does coun-
teract the torque in a mi ld way as shown by the force diagram.
This then is the explanation why we are able to use large rud-
ders when we adjust models to fly against the torque . If we adjust
by rud~er alone, we l essen its effective side area. And by thrust
line we provide a counter balance. The scheme of the arrangements
works out well as power becomes exhausted: The drif t angle decreases
and with it the danger of large rudders. A slight r i ght rudder is
usually used in combination with side thrust to cont i nue the cir-
cle after the power is out.

SPINNING WHILE CIRCLING AGAINST TORQUE

At first glance, it would seem impossible to spin circling
with the torque. Especially since our minds are so fixed with the
idea that the inside wing is always low for torque control. It is
hard to reason how a mode l would rotate in direction favoring the
torque. However, the models spin so there must be a reason. Our
reason does not deal with gyroscopic forces which also seem to be
more effective while circ l ing against the torque. A detailed ar-
ticle by Mr. Cameron will cover t hat viewpoint.

Spins while circling against the torque usually occur while we

still have high or excessive power. Referring to the diagram we can
see that if the thrust force exceeds the rudder balance, the model
will 6wing into still greater drift angle. Consequently the wing
will have excessive torque control and it will begin to rotate in
torque direction. If high power still persists, the rotation will
continue until the wing is bankin~ for the right turn. As soon as
we begin to stOepen the bank the lift i s angled and higher speed re-
qu i red for level flight. But at the same time the side thrust is
now no longer sidewis~ but downward. ·with lift lost through steep
banking! ~nd si~e thrust now developing a down force , the result is
our famlllar spin.
Cure for spinning against the torque is to reduce the side thrust..
Increasing the rudder area would help, but it would be a combination
or two wrongs makin~ one rleht with results that as soon as one be-
comes weak the other do~inates. We still come back to our old stand-
by; too large rudder, because if the rudder was not too large in the
first place we would not have to use such excessive side thrust which
would upset the balance. A larger dihedral would also help by keep-
ing the drift angle small and so lessening the rudder and sidethrust
balance.
 SPIRAL STABILITY IN A GLIDE :u
We ~o not have much trouble with spiral stability in a xlide as
we do while under power. This is mostly due to the fact that most
of the present models use considerable dihedral which brings the mo-
del back into fli~ht line if an upsettinP, force is applied. Thetrou-
ble wil~ usually be found on soaring ~liders or models which have
small ·dihedral and large rudder. The action is as follows:

An upse~ting force causes the model to rotate and so brin j in

~ur.fa~ous ~~de force. The action is identical as described u~ d er·
sp1nnin~ '."1th tor9ue" ~ection, except that our "torque" force is
now the we1~ht or inertia of the rotatin ~ wine and model which has
to. be brou~ht back t? a level position. To do this we must 6et our
d~1ft.an~le, a~d so ln~rease.the an~le of attack on the insi;e win~
Wl t h in t r o d u c t ~ o n o f s l d e d r i f t , we can no t k e e p t he r u d d e r o u t 0 f i t.
!f ~he rudder is of correct size, we will have n6 trouble. But if
it is to~ ~a~~e, the w~ng will never reach the required drift ane le
and. the initial upsett1n~ force will continue to rotate the model
u n t i l t h e mo d e l t i g h t e n s Ure ba n k • 'rJ i t h s t e e p ba n k t b e l i f t i s l 0 st
since we have no exc:-ss thrust to speed up the model. With lift
gone, and the mo~el in an almost vertical bank, the rudder does its
dirty work and dives the model into the ~round.

The above action cari be right or left, dependine on the upset

tin~ force. The danger of sharp turned rudders will become apparent
mostly in a glide, especially if the rudder borders near too larJe
area proportions. This action can be best brought home by quotin~
from actual flieht tests made by Mr. Weick as reported in N.A.C.;.
Report No. 4~)4
REPORT No. 494

A FLIGHT INVESTIGATION OF THE LATERAL CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF

SHORT WIDE AILERONS AND VARIOUS SPOILERS WITH DIFFERENT AMOUNTS
OF WING DIHEDRAL
11.1· FHi-:1> 1':. \\'i-:1 cK, ll AHTLJ·:Y .\ . :-i<>1 1 L~: . u11cl :lb:1.v1N :\. l:ol'•ai

t;n-.:cT OF DIHEDRAL
In order to make an a pprnisn l of the effect of dihe-
drnl on thr chnrncteristics of th<' Ynrio11s lnter:il co ntrol
svstems, it wn s first neressni'v to determine thr <'ff<'ct
o.f dihedral on the stability ~ hnrnctcri stics of the nir-
plane . It wns known thnt the dihedrnl principally
nffected the rolling chnrnctcristics of th<' nirplane un<ler
condition s of sidrslip. 1t wn s not <':qwctrd thnt the
longitudinal stab ility would b<' g reatly nffC'cted h.)· the
dihedrnl chnngc and the flight tests sho11·cd this to be
true . The nirplane was longitudinally stable with nil
the dihedrnl :rngl<'s for th<' conditions tested :rnd, ns far
its the pilots co uld dctrrmine, the d1urnderistics wrre
the same in nil cnses . An ntt<'mpt to se pn rn tr the di-
rectional stability chnractcristirs from thr more• general
lateral stnbility chnrnctPristics wns successfu l only at
0° dihedral, where the rolling due to sidrslip wa s.~mnll.
There the tests indi cated thnt th<' nirplnne hnd n fair
degree of dirrctionnl stn hility . • to the right thnn to the left, 'thus introducing so me
With 0° dihrdrnl thr airplanr 11·as definitrly 11nst:1hlc
laterally. WIH•n d C'librrnt <' ly rn11scd to sidcslip in
either direr.lion, it would turn in the dirrction of I he
init.inl slip and. s pinrl indC'finit<'ly 11·h<'ther t h<' rontrol s
were fr<'ed or returned to neutral. By nn increase of
the dihedral to 3°, the stability chnracteri st irs wrrr
l' 11·h11t impro1·ed. Jn tlii;; condit ion, th<' airpinnr
.. s unstnble only with the controls freed. With the
controls neutrnlizecl the nirplnne 11·01 ild reco1·er to
strnight fli ght after a few oscillntions. ""ith G0
. dihedral the nirpkrne wns stable both with free controls
arid with the con tro1s r etu rn ed to neutrnl.
The airplane exhibited instnbi lity of a different ty)l<'
with 9° dihedral and co ntrols free . When sidrslip 11-.1 s
started · to th e right, for example, nnd the controls
freed, the airplane would turn directly to th<' left :mny
from the initial sideslip (w h errns with 0° d.ihedrnl, it
hnd turned in to the sideslip ), and would comme nce a
left nose-down spirnl accompn.nied by n rnpidly increns-
ing air speed. \Vh en the controls were r<'tllrn<'d In
neutral during 11 sid eslip, the nirplnne r<'turn<'<l to
strnight flight with no apparrnt oscillation.
In con nection with these tests it w11s notf>d thnt the
rudder, when frC'ed, hnd n gTenter tendency to deflect
n.~ym~netry in the mo~o(i9t~i,nf\,":~v1jg)k~.)or. left
s1Cleslip . The rrn son for tl11s hn s not been nscertnmed.
The obserrntions on thr la tern! stability preYiously
giYen repr<'se nt aHntg<' ronditions for the two diree-
tions of sidcslip . It wii.s nho observ<'d that in a sidt·
s lip the wide-chord aileron of the forward wing would
:12
trail u p 11·h en t he eontrob w, n· relensed nnd stay t h ere
th rough all th e <'ns uin g m ot io n until s t rnigh t fli gh t , if
t h e ai rpl :111 e were stable, 1rn ,.; r<'ga inecl . If t h e a irpl a n e
11·:1s u ns t a ble, t h e a ilero ns r<' m nined in t h e initial
nosi ti on t nk<' n, regardl rss of t h e form of t h e in s t nh ili ty.
\\'i t h th e win g set at 0° dih edra l th e r ud d er gan'
alm ost in<l Ppend ent direct ion al co n trol, th e bnnkin g
d u<' to th <' ya w produced being n r~· slight wh en th e
:iil ero ns 11·err h eld in n eu t ra l. Tu rn s co uld be m nd e
11·itho u t th e ai leron s b ut th ey 11·ere chnrnctr ri zed hy
s kiddin g durin g ent r.1· nnd sideslip pi ng d u rin g recon' ry,
th r :i m o1;n t d epend ing on the nbn 1pt ness wi th whi r h
th r rndd er wns used . As noted previously, if th e a il-
ero ns were fr eed d uring r uddrr moreme nts, th e trailing
of th e 011t N a il e ron s mi g h t res ul t in t h e wi ng digging
in nnd ba nking in th e wrong d irection for t h e t urn ; a
d elibernt e sid esli p ping th er rfo r r req ui red ca r eful h a n-
d lin g o f th e nil <' rOll s . Th e inc rensed bu nkin g eff ect
o bt nin<'cl 11 ith 3 ° dih edra l elimin nted nil tend ency o f
t h <' fo 1wa rd wing to di g in nn d mnde sid esl ips <'asier to
perfor m . Till' Pff l'rt wns n oticen bl e a lso when rudd r r
turn s were m:ide. T ig h t, or steeply h a n ked , rud der
turn s, h owen ' r , 11·ere di ffi cu lt to entr r ns t h e a irpl nn e
wo uld nose d o1rn duri ng t h e t im e ta k en to roll to t h e
d esired nng le o f ba nk. If nn a ttem p t was t h en mnd r
to b ring up th e n osr wit h th e rndd er , th e a ir plnne would
s tar t sideslipp ing nn d wo uld roll ::m t o f th e bnnk . Th e
nirpla n e nhrnys b nn ked in t l! e di rect io n o f th e turn
se t up by th e ru d d er , wh t't h er th e ni!No ns were h eld in
n e utrnl or freed . Wi t h (i 0 dih ed ral, th e ru dd er had a
powerful bnn ki ng effect llll(I it wns diffi c ul t , wi t h full
a ileron d efl ec ti on , to hold th e win gs level for any but
s m nll nm oun ts o f sid esli p. The ro ll that could b e
genernted by th e rudd er at go d ihed ral W it$ so gr eat th a t
the rudd er h ad to b e h a n d led with d iscretio n a nd
sideslipping was practically impossible. W ith 6° and
go dih ed ral, t h e a irp la ne showed 1t progressively g reater
t end ency th an nt 3° to nose d o wn a nd roll out. o f rudde r
tu rn s.
Areas : s q . rt.
Dihedral. -- l 11 crea~i11 g t h e d il wlrn l, a s ex peetei:l, Wing
inc n •nsrd t he ro ll du e to s idrs li p ; the re,:\ilts ob t a in ed A/leron
Stob 1hz e r
11·itlt th l' inc n' ased d ih ed ral , in ge nrra l, s howed that
t hi;; 11·as th e o nly rn ria b le o f impo r ta nce. Late ra l con -
tro l ~~·stl· m s 11·ith nrg:Jti 1·e ~' a w ing 111 o m Pnt~ arr nd-
1·prsl'l y affe(' kd by in crc':1si11 g t he dih <'drn l. ln t hr
prl'sl' n t lt>:-: t,; wit!t U0 d ihedral it has h<'e n sre n t h irt t he
rollin g m o111 r 11t rP:;u lting fr o nt t hr y aw w11s suffic ie n t
t o co utt te ra d e n tin,ly th at of tl1 r wid e-c ho rd a il er ons. Weigh!, 1500 l b.
En' n t ho ug h t ill' ro lli ng 1110 m ent o f th e a il ero ns was
0
not. t' ntirely cot111terha la nced a t (i nnd 3° d ihr d ral,
inrn•nsed d efl pcti on;; a nd co nseq uently increased forces
were req uired for no rm :tl mn neuveri ng. With t he
s poilers for wh ic h th e ya win g m om ent wns posi ti ve,
th e di hedral ha d co nsiderab le effect in reduc ing t h e
apparen t la g_. . A t 0° dih edrul the rolling set u p t hro ug h
ac tio n of t he 1i'Os iti1·c ya wing m om ent was n ppa rently
s uffi eir n t to coyrr u p t he lag of the s poil ers. This
s latemen t Sl'f'111s to be a co n t rn di c t ion of the fuct that
with t hr saw- tnot hr d s po iler, Ing was record ed wi t h
ins trnm e n ts at 0° dih edra l. A po,:sible r xplan n ti on is
that tl 1e l:ig in t l.1e rolling :1ct io n mn y d e pPn d d irectly
on th1' d r:1g rn ust' d by t l1 P s po ilrr an d th r plain s po ile r
had con:-:id t> r:i lil y 111 o n · drag t h a n t he saw -tooth s poiler.
Thus , th !' sa 11·-too t h s po ile r 111ay c·a ust' co nsiderabl y
It'"-" y awin g t ha n t he pl:1i n s poilt' r a nd h a Ye great er
Ing 11 1 its ro lling nc ti o1i , so t h nt at go d ihednil , t he sa w-
toot h s poil er co ul d "t ill h a 1·e s ho wn so m e a p pare n t
;ag, 11"11 rr<'as t he pl 11i n s poil ers s ho wed no nr . The
ro llin g d ur to th e rudd er 11·:1 s so g reatly inc reused by
t h e d ihedra l t h n t at 9 ° d ih edrn l s ten d y stalled flight
wns m ore nea rly m a inta ined wi t h use o f t h e rudd er
th a n wi t h a n.1· o f t he ln tcra l ro n tro ls.
T he fart tl 1:1t t he a irpl a ne rx h.ibi ted s piral in stabil-
it .v wi t h 0° dih Pdr:1! sho wr d thn t th l' fin nrca wn s too
lnrge fo r t he dih edra l. As the r:1t io o f dih edrnl to fin
a rrn w n~ iner<'nsrd , t he a irplnn e ber nm c l:i tP rnll y
s tnble. The o pLimum d ihed ral nng lc tested was 5c
Wi t h fl 0 , t hl' ·dih r dral W flS too !urge fo r th e fin area
(rndd er free ) n nd instn bili ty wns ngn in prese nt. 11
thi s co nd itio n t h r a irpla n e tu rned o u t o f the sideslip,
mnintni n ing its ini t ia l ya w , a nd s pirnl NI with in c reas-
ing s pel'd in the o pposite dircrti o11.
Th r ab ili ty to s id esli p is i111po r t1t n t i11 a r m1 1·1·11 t ional
uirpl nne with a small ra nge o f g liding a ng l<'s a n d a
poor fi l'ld o f vie w nhend :i nd d o wn , us i t permi ts thr
pil ot to o ht a in a be tte r Yi e11· of th e la nding fie ld be fo re
t he stn r t o f o r du ring th e la ndi ng glide. Dihed ra l
d ec reases th e nbili ty to sidesli p. Th e rolling d ue to
yn w , wi th dih ed ra l angles nbo 1·e (i 0 , 1rns s uffi cie nt to
preclud e t he p rnc ti cn ] u,;e of sideslippiug ns n mnne u Hr .
E vid entl y, t he a bilit y to sid e,;Jip nnd m :i intr nan cr of
la te ral stn bility inrnlve op posite co nsidrra tions co n-
ce rnin g t he dih ed rnl nn d some co mpro111ise mus t be
mad e regardin g tl1 e1n . As In. tern ! stnbili ty is probably
m ore importnn t th nn th e ab ili ty to sid eslip , th e opti-
mu m dih ed ra l a ng le fo r t his nirpla n e with t h e speci nl
wing, con sid Prin g both fcnt iircs, is pro ba bly o f th e
ord er o f 5°- :rn nngle that will g iH a fa ir a m o unt of
lnteml s tabili ty nnd still will pernii t n limited a mount
o f de liberate sid esliJJping.
I ~ 10'0" --1
,67,J --
, --- 1;----;11--- --J
.I
21.!i_
Areas: s q. f f.
172 Elevator 10 .4
29 R udder 6
15.8 Fin 4 .1
( ~-~~
~
~-------n~~f-r....--,.,-------~~
y .-1
Hors e po wer 95
~- 7'7"
rJO~''tr
_] _IL--- ,,e
',:~r
,- . -
F1 r.u1u: 2. ~ T hr ee- v iew dra wing of Fairch ild 22 airplane.
 33
CALCULATING THE DIHEDRAL ANGLE AND RUDDER AREA
C.onsiderin~ how important dihedral and rudder area are,one would
ima~ine that our libraries would be chockfull of formulas whichwould
~ive us the correct answer to all our questions. nowever, the truth
of the matter is that full size craft do not have to be so inherent-
ly stable as models. Besides they do not have to contend with such
out of proportio~ torque as we do. They just allow ~ few d~arees for
dihedral, and calc1late the rudder partly from the precedine models
or by formulas which have a ~reat many unknowns. Most of these for-
mulas depend on accurate data. Since we do not have that, we c annot
use full size formulas as they are.

DIHEDRAL
The dihearal angle can be best decided upon from past exp~r­
ience with models havin~ similar prop and power; especially since
a lar~e dihedral is mostly used to counteract the t9rque. Or you can
check on other models which proved to be stable. An U" for every
foot of span under each tip seems to work well for fairly hi~h po-
wer modds around the 200 sq.in. class. Gas jobs, on the ot he r hand
will r,et away with 1" per foot on laree spans of over i3 feet.. Small
high powered gas jobs will n~ed more, almost as much as hiP,h powered
rubber models. Just remember that the moment arm of the counter-
acting force has a great deal to do with torque control. If you
think that your model does not have enough dihedral, do not hesitate
to add more if ·you intend to use high power. Of course, there is a
loss of lift due to win~ trian~ulation, but the first requirement
is stability.
The shape of the dihedral has been well covered before. A word
of caution on tip dihedral. We realize at what hiah drift aneles
the win~ works. i~ow place your tip into this airflow and see how it
would react. If the reaction is not too hi~h an e led, and tip drag
normal you can safely use it. But if there is a dan-ger of havine the
tip stall, you had better help alon ~ wiLh poly d ihe d ral. The ~llip­
tical would seem best from all viewpoints. Besides intro d ucin ~ lon~
moment arm, the shape of the tip al s o helps to have a more ~ radual
interflowin~ of hi~h and low pressure, and so r ed uc e the tip turb u -
lences which cause considerable dra~.

RUDDER
In the past Year Rooks we recommended the side view pattern of
the mode 1 to ob ta in approx i mate rudder ~re a • T1. 1 s a fa i. 1· rn et hod i f
the user knows its limitations. Just wha~ affects the rud de r area?
First we have to balance the fuselage area on each side of t he C. G.
Normal reactaneular cross section fusela~es have lar~e area in t he
front, and a bit of rudder is needed to affect the balance. A streamlined
model does not have very stron~ resistanc e fa c tors while at an an~le
and its Center of Pressurffi are almost at the usual C.G. So we can
treat streamlined models as sticks. Next in li~c is the win ~ . A
win~ Ln a drift angle usu~lly has excess drag on the inside wing with
the result that it tries to pull the fusela~e into the drift an~le.
Since this is the exact action of a lar ~ e ru dder we would foreet the
wine in rudder calculation if it were not for the fact that the dra~
resultant might be weak if liftin~ tail is used and so brinine the
C.G. far back, and also when drift angle is lar6e. So we add ano-
ther trifle of area to rudder. The landin g gear should be used com-
pletely, as the area presented is directly apposln~ the rudder. It
is in this ~ide drift angle that we note haw ~uch more drag a wheel
has with streamlined than without them. From this viewpointa thick
wheel would ~eem best. Or we can attach the streamlined pants in
34

castor fashion so that they will adjust themselves to the airflow.

The final object is the prop The prop is one member which usually
eats up most of our rudder area.
While under power and at drift an gle the prop influences the
rudder by its slip stream and it s thrust adjustments. The slipstream
is probably almost angled by the airflow by the time it reaches the
rudder, so tts effect will be sli ght. It would call for a bit of ex-
tra rudder area to keep the balance between the rudder and the wing.
The side thrust is alto geth er another problem. It needs considerable
area to keep it balanced as it was shown in prece d in ~ sections. In a
glide t he prop comes into side area picture whenever the model is an-
gle d into a drift . The diff erence of prop reaction under power and
in ~ li 3e is t hat under power t he prop blades actually have hi gh er
air s tream than t he rest o f the model, while in a glide they have the
same, and thereby contributing to the ~ eneral d ra g. Effect of a prop
in a glide durin g a side d rift is to counteract t he rudder area. It
is evident that we must have rudder area to take care of the idling
prop or the front portion of the model will dominate. A freewheeling
prop needs more rudder are~ than one fixed. A fixed prop presents a
definite area, while a freewheeling prop presents a partially com-
pleted circle because of the rotation of the blades.
EFl"CCT V AIHLIW &UA#(E tJF -'llJE
AT.)()•SIN :iii.IP 4RE4 ~tJ.PCES ..W"'1L»
.5/DE AUA TMCES I e.
tJe at"NltYD 15.
(A8d<1r I ro:z1;,)
o4<'.4ra: ~
- -- :-

6VEST/ltf4T/Ntf Rt/OOER AR~4

(cA.esM.eP Tc#P41Te (/S/10,/,£)
After rea d in g these paragraphs you will very likely still be in
dark about how to calculate rud de r area. However, do not blame your
i ~no rance as no one has the exact method. But you sho u ld have an idea
just what influences i t. If you can work out a formula from so many
unknown variables, you may sure that somethi:Q.Q is wrone somewhere.
Ou r bcs L meth od in findin ~ the correct rudder area is to keep a re-
cord of the ~o d els an d their behavior. After a while, the ~u~stima­
tin ~ of ru<lder area will be a second nature, we hop~.

TEMPORARY AnJUST~EHTS

After you have built a model and foun d it uns tab le check over
a ll the points brouQht up, and if you think that you have reached the
t rouble, do something abou t ! You might be wrong but at least you
will begin to investi gate systematically. ~hat good are the builders
who have an unstable model, crack it up, repair it without a thou~ht
of what ie.. wrong, and then go out again for another crack-up. They
are ~ menace to humanity and a black mark against the sport.
If we were to take the present trend in design most trouble will.
come from using too large rwdders. This fact will actually stare us
in the face, yet we will do nothing about it. We would rather do any-
thing else but chan~e the rudder. Ohno, not the rudder! Undoubtedly
this is because we spent so many hours drawing out the beatifool out-
linel And it would hurt our artistic taste if we were to cut off the·
top portion, But science recognizes no arts which would keep it from
 3 -..,
the truth. So use all your will power, and cut that rudder down if
you think that it is the cause of all the troubles. If you cannot
bear to do it have your friends do it for you, but do it!

Another way of temporarily adjusting for spiral instability is

to cock the wing in relation to the fuselage. In front view this will
give us extra incidence to take care of the torque without bringing
the rudder into play. Warping one side also helps if power is not too
large. However, these adjustments usually produce a poor glide be-
cause they naturally bank the model to even up the lift·of the wing.
In banking they usually produce a side flow which attempts to spin
the model to the right afte• the power is out.
SUt-1MARY OF THE STABILITY CHAPTER

It is hoped that the discription of the different stability pro-

blems will give you a better insight of what goes on. If you can un-
derstand clearly the foregoing pages, the explanations should uncover
many mysteries. One of them being why streamlined models did not come
up to expectationd. A streamline fuselage is a very lively thing and
one cannot put a finger on its center of pressure for calculations.
Consequently,most streamlined models had stability problems which pre-
vented them to show up against 'boxes' which in their very sluggish-
ness achieved a sort of balance. However, a picture of the airflow
~bout the model should prove that only a streamlined model can hope
to achieve the acme of perfection. Let's ~pend the next few years
working out the stability problems of streamlined models.
TESTING PROCEDURE
One of the most exasperatinQ experiences is to bring, what we
thought a well adjusted model to a contest only to be bitterly dis-
appointed when we give it the "works", or to give the rnodel full po-
wer wind-up and then have it fly beyond recoYery. A cure for these
heart breaks is to equip your model with a pin-and-tube combination
about 10" from the nose. All you do is to divide the motor in the
fuselage and push a pin through the ring. Now only the front •otor
is used which can be given the works without danger of losing the
model.

,t;z_

NAePJrtNJJJ PP/6 A/IT/I

q,r/:'-tcK!CR 511.VT //di.£
-RdTllTc ,.C-t),e Tlle//.$r
AP./V.$T1N(j
 36
CANADIAN AVIATION
G ~u~~~~l{;:~ ~hheos~:{ie~=~:!:~~
of what a f~· minute! before was a
beauteous creation representing possibly
mo nths of work, and wondered why the
crash occurred , will do well to read care-
fu!J y t he feature article in this ed iti on
of M.A.L.C . News. Jim Cameron, one o'f
the many gas model experts out Van-
couver way, has prepared an article on
thJs subject based on theory and indica-
tive of holding true in practice. We re-
commend .that what J im has to say be
studied carefully and his advice put to
1se.
THE GYROSc.;OPE AND THE GAS
MODEL
By D. J. Cameron
Foreword: Of the fifty thousand or
so gas models in the United States
and Canada, probably forty 'thousand
will crash this year. If the fellows
applied the principles of correction,
and I believe this article will assist.
towa·rd .that end, a total of about $60,-
000 would be saved in crack-up re-
pa irs and far few er builders would·
get discoura~.
I have tried to write the article ~o
that everyone can unden.tand. The
development af the equation may !be
beyond many, but the f inal equation
<No. 4) can be understood and used
·by all. The equation is necessary to
prove to a great many people that
what has gone before is correct. It
may seem like an odd mixture o!
simple and technical terms, but I
is t he ef!ect. We w on't go any furthe r
into why the gyroscope reac ts in this
manner, as it is purely in the realm of
physics, and ca n only be ex plained by
terms and quantities with which you
may not •be familiar . Any good ·book on
elementary m ech ani cs will explain the
phenomenon, if it can be called such,
quite clea rly.
Now consider R, and R, as though they
were applied to the solid a.ssembty in
Illustration II. This whole· asi;.embly
don't think it could be presented in
any other manner.
It is desired to acknowledge the
help given me lby my friends , par-
ticularly Victor Hill, who aided in
bri nging the equation .to a simple
form and made many helpful sug;ges-
tions.
Y~a~~~~~ r:s~i.ldae:~ ~~:~1; a~~~~
1 11
you have crashed your own ship at least
once. It wasn't due to bad workmanship
or design that your model crashed; it
was due, as is the case in nine out of ten
crashes, to the GY'ROSCOPIIC EFFECT
of t he Propeller of your machine. You
may have noticed that models using
motors that turn in a counter-clockwise
direction (Browns and Cyclones) are apt
to crash during right-hand turns. I
cral;hed my first mach ine three times in
rig.ht-hand turns, and ·I have seen more
than 50 other machines crash in similar
turns, but I have never seen a good model
crash in a left turn. Rod Doyle, writing
in Zaic's Year Book, made a similar
d' rvation ; however, he made no at-
t.: .•1pt to explain ~he question.
Mos t of us correct for the torque of the
propeller. It is this correction that causes
the right-hand spiral dives that result in
a crash. You can preven1 your model from
crashing by rem embering just one simple
rule . ADJUST YOUR MODEL TO FLY
STRAIGHT OR TO TURIN WITH
TORQUE.
In the follow ing paragraphs I will
attempt to explain as clearly and simply
c o::========~
ILLUS.] / ILLUS
(think of it as a "T" s quare with a nail at
the point C l is capa.ble of rotating about
th e point C. Wh en R, and R, are applied
to this assembly it will move down and
around. It you do not sEe just why it
moves thus think o nly of the piece AB .
AJl3 would rotate in the directi'On shown
if there was no joining piece CD, but as
CD joins solidly to AB and can rotate
a:bout the point C, you can see why the
whole assembly will rotate about C. The
two forces 'P , and P , are the resultants of
MARCH, 1938
as possi•ble the cause of most gas model
crashes, and to formulate an equation by
means of which you can calculate the up-
setting forces developed by the prope!Jer
of your machine.
The propeller of a gas model seems
insignificant when compared with the
whole of the model. However, ·beca·use of
its extremely high speed of rotation
(4,000-7 ,000 r..p.m.) the ·propeller .has a
rotational or gyroscopic inertia of con-
siderable magnitude, a fact which we can-
not afford to overlook. When the propel-
ler is turned (as the machine turns) the
fo•ces produced by its gyroscopic inertia
are s ufficient to cause what is equivalent
to a 2" sh ift in the Centre of Gravity of •
the model. I am sure you will agr ee that
a 2" shift in the C. G . will cause even
the best of designs to crash.
In order to understand clearly what
takes pl4ce, it is necessary to know some-
thing about a gyroscope. It is a well-
known fact in mechanics that a gyroscope
when forced to turn, reacts at right angles
to the turning forces. Illustration I shows
a simple gyroscope rotating in a counter-
clockwise direction. The initial turning
forces are F, and F,. two equal and
~pMite forces . The resulting forces are
R 1 and R,; you will notice that R, and
R, are in a plane at right ang!.es to that
of F and F . The result is that the
gyroOCope ti&, forward as shown by the
dotted Jines. If F and F were trom the
opposite direction', the gyroscope would
tip back, not forward. To prove these
facts to yourself, try twisting a spinning
bicycle wheel and notice how pronounced
R,)L
ff
R 1 and R,. P hav ing no visi•b le effect at
the fixed point C .
We can now apply this information to
our model. Consider Illustrations I and II
~pplied directly to the model in Illustra-
tion III. Let gyroscope in Illustration I be
the propeller of the model and axis XX
the fuselage; then we can consider the
member AlB in Illustration II to be the
prcpeller, member CD the fu.£elage and
the point C, the C . G . of the model. The
initial turn ing moment of F, and F, (not

shown for reasons of clarity) is the same
as that exerted by the rudder during a
rig·ht-hand turn. R, and R, are exactly
the same. P, is also the same. P, acting
at the C. G. has no moment arm and is
not to be taken into consideration. Now
the force P, acting at the propeHer, times
the moment arm X (distance to C. G . of
airplane) is the upsetting moment during
a right-hand turn and the direct cause of
our trouble. If you understand all this,
you will see that in a left-hand turn. P,
acts upward; conversely, in a dive it acts
to the right; in a cHmb it acts to the left.
The magnitude of the gyro.scopic effect
depends on a number of things: the
radius of turn and ~ed of the model
detenrnining the Angular Velocity of
Precession; the weight, diameter and
r .p.m. of the ·p ropeller, and the length of
the moment arm X. The value of the
force P, can be found by an equation
developed for this purpose.
The following is the development of the
equation to find the value of P,. You
can substitute your own values and
obtain the desired result even though
you may not understand the derivation .
Incidentally, this equation may be applied
to full scale aircraft as well as to our gas
models. The follow ing symbols are used
lo represent the factors involved:
·Machine during turn
P, = The gyroscopic force in lbs.
X = ·Distance of C . G . of .propeller to - - - - - - - - - - - -
C. G. of model.
W = Weight of Propeller (l•bs.)
K = Radius of gyration of the propeller
in feet.
g = Acceleration due to Gravity = 32.17
ft. per sec.
r = Radius of Propeller Cft.)
R = Rad.ius of model's turn.
N = R.P.M . of prqpeller.
V = Speed of Flight CM.P.H .)
The average value of K in our case is
very nearly .3r ft., so that we may say Since K ' = .09r'
K'=-= .09r'. Due to the difficulty of obtain-
ing this value experimentally, you wiU P, =
have to take my word for it The mathe-
matical derivation is too Jer{gthy tor
presentation here.
Illustration IV s hows a model making P, =
a right-hand turn. 0 representing the
angle traversed by the model in one sec-
ond. The propeller has turned through
this same angle 6 as shown by d ctt£d We will now a;pply the conditions that
lines.
The Arc · SMQ=Distance traversed in
cne sec.=V
37
ILLUS.III ~
1uus.N [i
52811
= - V'=l.466V tt.
3600 V = 30 M.P .li. ('Speed of model)
SMQ V r :.=.583 ft. <Radius of 14" propeller)
Angle 0 (radians) = - = 1.466 - X = 12" = I foot
R R R = 20 !t. <Radfos of turn)
0 then , is the Angular Velocity ot Pre- P, = (.000429) C.25) (0000) l30) C.3396>
cession of the Airplane about the paint
0, and also of the ·P ropeller about the (1) (20)
points S. = .32799 lbs. = 5.248 ounces
Turning Moment of Rudd er a:b out
Vertical Axis (through S) = Pitching
Since P, is at:ting downward through
Moment about Transverse Axis (also
the C. G. of the Propeller. with a force
through S) = Load at Centre of Prop "
of 5.248 ounces, the nose of the model
Distance ot Centre of Prop. from S = P,X.
will drop. the speed of t he model will
We can say therefore. that P,X = Reluc- in crease, and the R.P .M. of the propeller
tance of Prop. to swing a.b out S
w ill in crease. As the R .P .M. of Prop. and
= Moment of Inertia of Prop. about
t he speed of th e model increase, the value
its centre x Angular Velocity of Prop.
about crankshaft x Angular Velocity of of the upsett ing force increl!ses. With a
' peed of 40 M.P.H. and an R. P .M. of 7.000
Centre Line of 'Machine.
the value of P , is about 9 ounces. s uffi -
w
.· . P,X =- K' WW, .. . ' ... . .. (2)
cient to move th e C . G . fo rw ar d 2" . In
other word s. th e Gy roscopic Force varies
g
lirectl y as t he velocity of th e aeroplane.
where W = Angular Velocity of propeller t he we igh t. radiu s and R.P.M. of the
2TIN TTN pro9en cr . a nd i nv erse ly -as t he d istan ce
= - - "" - radians per second. from the pro peller t o th e C . G . of the
60 30 'plane and the Radius of turn . Now you
W, = Angular Velocity of Centre Line of can see wh y it is that so many models
crash in ri gh t-hand turns. T he re i5. of
Velocity of Prop. c. G. about s course, a limit to the right-hand turn that
will cause a crash. A t urn of ra dius
x greater than 100 ft . wiH n ot set up forces
Velocity of Prop. about S = XS sufficient to cause a cra sh .
v As we have already observtd , a model
= x 1.466 - flying in a left-hand circle fli es we ll- it
R does not stall as might be expec ted even
though the gyroscopic effect is acting
v upwards. The explanation is this : the
W,= 1.466- radians per second.
righting effect of the stabilizer is suffi-
R
c:ent to counteract the gyroscopic effect
= ;- Kc~: )(
at positive angles of attack si nce the
Centre of Pressure of the wing has moved
.· . P 1X 1.466;) (3)
fcrward . However. in th e opposite case
during a right-hand turn , when the angle
of attack is negative and the Centre of
C.09l Cl.466J (3.1416)( W NV r' ) Pressure has moved backward. the right-
ing moment of the stabilizer is insuffi-
(32 .17) (30 ) XR cient to counteract the downward acting
.~29 ( w::r' ) (4)
gyroscopic forci!. P itching Moment
Curves bear out these s tatemen ts . Thi s
question may have been in your mind ;
I hope the explanation is cl ear.
Thi.5 is the Equation in Usable Form. In conclusion I will say that :b y using
this knowledge of the gyroscopic effect.
bring about a crash during a right-hand an entirely new field of flight and flight
turn. adjustment is open to you . May good
W = 4 ounces=-= .25 tbs. cwt. of Prop.) fortune attend you at future contests!
N=6,000 R1P .M. (Revolutions per
minute of .Prop.)
 311
PROPELLER
The power and propeller question seemed to have been well taken
~are of in 1937. Most of us used large diameters propellers, and
if they proved ~uggish, we put on more power or cut down the dia-
meter. This is the ~implest method of achieving hi gh power tci
weight ratio.
The propeller theor y is undoubtedly known to all by now. The
blades being nothing else but twisted wings. The lift resolves i n-
to a forward thrust, and the drag into torque. Treating the pro-
peller like a wing we can understand that the lift, or thrust, must
qver come the drag of the model If the model has low drag, even a
small thrust will move i t . While a high drag model will need larger
thrust forces. Refferini these extremes against wing theory, we note
tt at for ~ sMall thrust the - propeller can be small or have low rota.
tional speed. But to obtain large thrust force we must either in-
c r ease the speed of a sma l l propeller, ot increase its size, or a
combination of both.
TORQUE AND THRUST
The importance of reducing torque force cannot oe overemphasized.
We have seen what awkward positions our models have to assume to con-
trol this power. Host of the instability forces can be traced to it.
If we knew how to achieve the best .power, propeller and model combi-
nation, our troubles would be over. But these things are still in
the experimental stage. So the next·best thing is to review the rec-
tors which const i tute the propeller forces.
If th~ propeller is too small, in size or rotational speed, for
the model, the blades will assume high angle of attack. And we know
how high the drag is at large angles, and how closel y we are flirt-
ing with stall or nq thrust. On a model this is evident by high speed
pror whizzz with very small forw~rd motion. Cure; larger propeller,
even if it means more power.
Then we have a high pitch prope"ller working on a sluggish model.
Working out the pro~eller and model distance covered during the same
period of time we find we have high angles at the po i nt where we ob-
tain the needed thrust. Cure: Lo~er pitch. Increase of power would
be wasteful as we get ttery poor return for our power.
Th~ ideal propeller l ies between these two extremes. The ideal
prop wou-ld work at comparatively low angles at which the drag is still
small. This brings us right back to our streamlining. So if you want
maximum output for your power, start streamlining. You might have
crackups· when you begin but when you have .the stability pat,you will
really begin to notice· the difference.
You need not be rem i nde.d that poorly out 1 i ne prop blades, care-
lessly carved camber, poorly finished surfaces all contribute to the
torque because of skin fr i ction, tip wiirls and general interferenc&
Some·of us still th1rtk that workihg long on a prop is useless effort.
Th i s mi~nt hold true on gas props where the model is heavier and so
producing 'large inertia force when the model glides into the ground.
However~ rubber propellers can be made strong enough to withstand all
normal landings. Do not be afraid to use 'anchors for Queen Marie'
grade of balsa. Bes~des using tough balsa, be sure to cover the bal-
sa blades with silk and several coats of cement. This will give ~ou
al: the strength you need.

~~'~~1~ -
·1 '~-LD. .l./ 0 '-'f •D
 39
The carving 01 a propelier need not be a tiresome chore if the
work is done intelligently and systematically. The time will actual-
ly be shorter in many cases as the prop will be balanced without trou-
ble. Try the following syitem on your next carving job: Carefully
blank the prop block in pencil. Drill shaft hole while you still
have a reo~angular cross section to provide a parallel for the drill.
C~t the blank to the e~act penciled outline. If you did the work
carefully, the blank will balance. Next cut the under camber por-
tion so there will actually be no under camber, but a flat surface.
Now mark with pencil line the point of deepest camber, about 35%from
the leadin~ edge. With the point of the knife cut-in vecy slightly
along this line, and be sure to match both blades equally. ~ow cut
out the front or the 35% portion to this cut-in. When the front por-
tion is cut deep enough, cut away the trailing or the 65% portion.
You cannot help but get the correct undercamber. The prop should now
be in balance, with both blades having identical underccamber cha-
racteristics. The lower camber can be completely finished with sand-
paper.. The upper camber is guided by the lower.., As soon as you come
to the dangerous thickness, stop, and start carving a slice.at a time
with in-between feelin~ with fingers for the blade thickness.You will
be surprised to find how well your fingers will detect true or false
airfoil section. The final steps as with ordinary haphazaraous car-
ving.--The results of using this method of definite stages will be
a guarantee that your prop has equal camber- thickness, weight and
outline of both blades.

61.ADI! PATll-
A.5 PROP ~11/ATES ST!l.J.
IT~ ('4.i'~IED "il£-
/tl'AR/J 6Y TNE Nl1Ylh'ti />/fOP
/)/!A($
lltJ.IJE.l
F.eEE>IHE&UN~

TV'RN/#4 ~'1.eCF PN.5T/~L

P./!PPTVRH~ /tff7.l)E,(,
0111.cee&J.1llc~,t11Ytt- 1r
Ttl~H$ tJIVI V P.eoP

The s~lection of a propeller for a particular model cannot be

given in exact rules. We can make formulas galore but the will on-
ly serve for particular designs. As wit·h other things ., best process
is to keep a note of combinations which worked ·gopd.
FREEWHEELING

T.he drag developed by a freewheeling is surpri'slngly high. Just

remove the prop, glide the·model and note the difference. This is as
it should be expected since some rubber model props have blade area
almost 10% of the wing. It takes power tg turn such props o~er. _The
rough·ly finished props, or those whose freewheeling presses them a-
gai~st the nose plug will naturally have the most drag. And the only
means of overcoming drag is to nose the model down to aevelop suf-·
ficient speed for glide. So, k.eep away from freewheelers that u~e
a spring in the front \o pull the shaft out~ Also use ball bearing
washers between the prop and plug.
 PUSH-PULL SPEED MODELS
by Stanley Clurman
There are two general arrangements for Push-Pullers, i.e., each prop with
its own power, or each prop at the opposite end of the same rubber motor. The
first type seems preferable at first glance since it permits a fuselage of nor-
mal length. But it requires a special winder to wind both mo.tors in same direc-
tion, or each motor must be wound individually; too bothersome when•handlinghigh
JOwer. The second t ype i s the one I have been experimenting.
My first moael was a fuselage which .is shown s0mewherc in this book. It was
or a local contest which stipulated ROG and L2 /100. The cross section rule
worked hardships since the second type must have a long body to have any motor
duration. A body that is, proporiionately, very long has a large moment of iner-
tia, or a great decentralization of we ig ht. The greater the moment of inertia,
(even .i f body has same weight) the greater will be the tendency to resist rota-
tional motion. If such a model is perfectly adjusted and it is raunched correct-
ly, it will keep its course wi t h amazing tenacity. But if it's at all out of ad-
justment and goes int:> a stall, and then a dive, don't expect .it to straighten out
with ordinary tail surfaces. I n heavy models with "super" long fuselages if a
1ive after power is to be avoided, the following precautions must take11 be
1~ The model must ba~ance exactly.
2. Despite the tail moment arm ~f almost twice the normal length, t~e stab
area must be greater rather than smaller . than normal. It may even have to
be 80% of the wing area. This is all because of inertia of the long nose.
3. The C.G. must be very much below the line of thrust.
Another factor which is of specific importance to Push-Pullers is what Mr.
Grant vaguely calls "counter-gyroscopic force". The nature of this force, the true
name of which is "precession", is as follows lyou can observe it on a toy gyro.):

'
,0a.
;, . ;' <?~· it.~~
c-eJ
e
lb~'
- / "
( C
1
I
P• TAIL lfEAV'f ",
b

-,t.\ ;r.(f.SVUAHT o~·c·b·

ED1rorl's COHCEPTllN
An€£ r.t~Dl"6 THf
AR.;ill.E - (5 IT ·(O£fUC. T, ~TAN ~
If a wheel is spinning in direction'a'and a torque is exerted in direction'.b'
the resultant of the two forces will cause the axle to rotate, s l owly perhaps, in
the horizontal plane 'c'. In this case the torque 'b' is the wheel's own we~gh~.
This phenomena is just as I have sketched it here. If the wheel were not spinnrng
and the axle was supported on just one end, the other end would natttrally drop and
the whole business fall off the pivot. However, if the wheel is going at a high
speed you will have the astonishing sight of the axle, instead of dropping off,
spinning around and around.

The reason this is_ so important to Push-Pull speed m~dels is that the propel-
.
have a very high speed an d therefore grea t er pro cessional force. Also
. both
1ers 11 t thfs force so as to complement each other and so causrng the p1ane
prope ers exer · f 1 One quality
to turn and because of the long moment arms they are very power u • . F
· Pu h Pull to overc<Jle this force is a large amount of side area. or
necessary ~~ l~ ins t~e landing gear struts and increase fin area so as to bring the
~::~~c~~ S~de- Area back of the c.G. This procedure will tend t~ ke~p the course
strai ht even if it is flown cross wind, while merely_ a l~rg~ fin will ~ause the
jobtogkite into the wind. Now, remember that prec~ssion isn t brought into play
unless some disturbing torque is brought to bear on the fuselage.
 41
Here is the trouble I had, both on fuselage and stick designs, the weight o!
the rubber was so great that, even though the C.G. of the rubber was only a short
distance behind the wing, it took an awful lot of clay to balance it. When I saw
about an ounce and ! of clay and lead being !ixed to a 60 sq.in. job which already
had q ozs., I began to slow down. The resdt was that I was trying to fly a tail
heavy model with a positive tail---and it was awful to watch each time the power
went out. That is not all, though. The tail heaviness was the torque which
caused the body to'precess' with the result that the model kept swerving to the
·right even with the rudder set a few degrees.At the contest in which I used the
fuselage model, I managed to have the model go upwind with a speed greater than
the winner. However, I kept adding power, thus increasing the tail heaviness and
'precession',and when time came to fly downwind, the "dachshund" couldn't hold the
course. Therefore, it is evident that the model must be balanced.
So much for stability. As far as the efficiency goes, the push-pull offers
the advantages of a twin pusher or tractor but none of their drag. I am positive
that I can get a Push-Pull to go 80 m.p.h. over a fairly long· course. First would
come a change in the props. Those I used had too much area and diameter. The
seemingly high pitch is really efficient, in fact I would increase the P/D to l.8
-or even 2.0. For we know that pitch alone does not determine efficiency. It is
the kinetic an'gle of attack of the blades to the air which is important.
e ~Angle of blade (disregard helix temporarily
and consider whole blade at same angle as tip)
~ = Angle blade advances through to make actual p~tch
~ = 9 - ~ z Angle of attack of blades to airflow
H • Theoretical pitch V • sp~ed of plane ~;,
n : R.P..M. of prop R = Radius of prop .,.'t~-
e = tan- 1 _H_ ~ : tan- I _V__ qt-'°"'
2rt R ·2rt n R ~t.<e.
qi • 9 - ~ - [tan- 1 -"-J
'2nR
- [tan- 1 V l - 'L.
2rtnR ..:/
tan- I _!L!L:._Y
(.2rt R)'2 n +. H V /
Efficiency of props - ktual p~tch : !ooJL
Theoret. P1tch ta"! 9
The efficiency of the props I used was about 70% wh,ch is not bad. The ex-
cessive area absorbed foo much power thoug·h. I would use 6" props with a P/D of
11
2.0 or 7' props with a P/D of 1.8. Both would have ve-ry little blade area. The
next plane would be a "flying broomstick" as shown. The surfaces would be built
up to take off some weight. The boys taught me to make speed jobs light! Lastly
the nose would be just as long as the tail so that I could change power without
affecting the balance.
I wish to call you; attention to the airfoil used, the Bambino 7, because of
its remarkable adaptability to speed models, where as we know, accuracy in airfoil
is more important than on reg_ular rubber jobs. The wind tunnel test of the model
was at 98.q ft./sec. !66.7 m.p.h.l which isn't any higher than some of the good
speed models can do. The airfoil has an LID of 25 at 5 although the CLis low as
you would expect on a speed airfoil. It is the most stable airfoil I have ever
seen. From 15% of the Chord at 2°, the C.P. moves to 33% at 16°! It lends itself
to construction easily since it is flat on bottom from 0.05 to 0.60. --Speed
mod?ls should have a minimum flying speed of about 30 m.p.h. if speeds of 60 to
70 m. p. h are to be top. As per: _, 0 P••·:~· ·~ tt:"" 0 0 , ••••·';&;•·Rln:iu:rcz ro. m
~::
~~IH++~-+-+-+-+--+---+--H~
5::
A : ·-~-­ i~ 1201
or !:: o.ao
Ky y2
10 tt++++-++--+--+---+--+--+--+--t-+-t

l~oittl:::t:t:::::t:::::t:::t::l:=t::::j~~ ibt t;g

..eo g:
o.oo
---,-10
~I I
I

I
15
~ ::5 g::
g:~
v
A
Minimum flying speed w' Weight of plane 1-•!Hc\lonol. ........
Wing area Ky : lift coef. (Cl) at inc.used :'.::.:!1 ~.: ~ ·ee~:;.~,:~~..
H t~
"' ....
rn
1 40
•
ft.n \HY~: D.O.A . ,_~__._:_::_._...~~:IO._
 42
GEARED RUBBER MOTORS
by Fred Rogerson
During past years much has been written on building of geared motors, along
with a few articles on the design of such motors for model USP. 8qt ~hat of the
application of these motors to our models? Are users of geared motors still up
in the clouds or are they afraid to commit themselves on their own experiments.
If I may hazard a r.uess I would say that the former is the case, which would ac-
count for the very poor showing made by them in past years.
Neither is it my intentions to offer formula here, or even rule of the thumb
whereby you might get proper relations between model and· motor unit, but to try
to present a new working angle, with which to approach the problem. For the a-
mount of success we get from geared motors, not only depends 091 "the gear ratios
used and the amount of rubber, but a very definite relation between the geared
rubber motors and the propeller.
Our troubles with rubber mbtors have also ~een increased with increase in
wing loading last year, since the speed of a model airplane is governed by the
wing loading. So that when the wing loading is doubled the speed is increased
by about 50%. This compulsory increase in speed demands a higher power output.
But to increase the rubber motor from say 2 to 4 oz. would give such a heavy
thick skein, that the turns would be considerably reduced. Also during the last
year we have gone to extremes in motor length, so that there is little hope of
adding revolutions in ~hat direction. Thus, we are forced to lo6k for some o-
ther means by which we can retain our turns, increase the power and at the same
time try to reduce the tremendous strain on the fuselage structure.
A couple of years ago, while investigating torque cur~s , for torque de-
livered at the propeller, on gea:ed and straight drive motors , I became tho-
roughly convinced that the geared motor was far superior. Di f ferent gear ra~
tios have to be used, according to the demand placed on the rubber motors, for
models of different weights and performance required. Gearing up reduces ~he
slope of the power. curve and increases the turns available. These two facts
alone I believe have led many builders to use geared motors, only to come to
grief later. If they had investigated further they would have found that, the
average torque decreases, as the slope of the power curve decreases, with the
result that the useless turns at the lower end of the curve are increased. For
instance on 18 strand motor 30 inches long, direct drive, develops 46 in./oz.
of torque at 1020 turns, wrth an average torque of 19 in./oz. Now if we use
2 such motors and gear 2:1, the maximum torque is 45 in./oz. at 2040, while
t.Jte average torque is reduced to 16.5 in./oz. And from the vi ewpoint of pre-
sent design methods, the useless turns are doubled. Since the average torque
has been impaired we find it necessary to add two strands to each 111otor unit,'
to retain our original average torque of 19 in./oz. Now summing up we have;
(1) ~he same average torque; (2lMaximum torque increased 14%; (3) Stored turns
Increased 88%; (4lSlope of the powe! curve reduced 20%; (5 IStored energy increased
122%; (61The lso called) useless turns increased 90%. The increase in stored
energy alone should be sufficient to sell the idea of gearing, for provided it
is properly used, it is sufficient to lift an 8 oz. model to an altilatude of 330
feet.
The job we now have is to turn these advantages to actual gain in motored
flights. It is necessary that we consider the non-useless turns, if we hope for ·
maximum efficiency or maximum performance per oz. of rubber used. Since the
steeper the torque curve inrelation to the revolutions per second, the larger
we must make our propellers. It follows that we should use smaller propellers
on geared motor unit.s where the slope of the torque curve is r.educed since the
propeller usually stalls f 1 rst. In well designed models the blade angle should
nkt exceed a theoretical augle greater than 27° at 3/4 of the diameter fromthe
hub. (On all heavily loaded models, this value or less, has shown improved re-
sults on conjunction with geared motors, direct drive not having been tried.
This angle gives about a 19.5 11 Pitch on a 16 11 Dia. propeller. I In turn this me-
thod allows for more climb to be made on the first part of the powe~ curve
where we have the greatest reserve of power and more of the so called useless
turns to be converted into useful energy. As a matter of fact, I have had pro-
 43
peller, motor unit comb i nations, that delivered scfficient power for climb un-
til practically the last turn. The power duration is nut greatly affected by
this type of propeller, due to the extra turns made available, while the alti-
tude gained is considerably greater in most cases. Propeller and motor or mo-
tor units, are much more closely related than are the model and propeller, and
I think builders would do well to consider this fact when laying out a new pro-
peller. The best torque value for a given model can be determined approximately
by the formula T• A x L x 10 where T-• Maximum torque; A• l~ing area in sq.feet
L • Loading in Oz. per sq. ft., 10 • a constant. Maximum torque is controlled b
by the number of strands rather than the weight of motor. The above being true,
it is quite apparent that the diameter of a propeller should be in relation to
torque curve and indirectly in relation to the wing loading, rather than in re-
lation to wing span .
Figure I shows four relative power curves for various geared motors.
Figure 2 shows the method and equipment used for testing the torque of the
motor.
The Terms Rm and Rp are revolution for motor (or rubber) and revolutions
tor propeller. The Average Torque is determined by adding,in a vertical column,
the maximum torque and torque values at each ioo turns down to zero. Divide the
total by the number of readings taken.
My preference is for a short er motor run and high altitude. Theoretically"
a low altitude and long power run plane has a slight advantage. In practice, hCM-
ever, their flights are approximately the same,with any wind or thermals in fa-
vor of the high climb 3ob. However, the terrain over which the model must fly
may show large advantaees in favor of either. All 'of which tends to bring in
conflicting reports of various types of performance which is all very confusing.
But having flown on the same ground now for four years, under all forms of wea-
ther conditions, using direct drive and various gear dtive combinations, com-
bined with fast and slow climb performances, all on the same model, I feel that
my comparison of results are quite reliable.
I would say that an automatic pitch adjuster would be an 'aid to geared mo-
tors in particular, provided, of course, it reuly worked. I have been .working
on such a device for 2 years, which would just give the thrust required for a
predetermined performance of the particular model. About a year ago, I had it
to work as I had desired, absolutely no stall present regardless of the posi-
tion the model assumed in the air and no altitude lost on the down wind side of
a circle . The t ension of the rubber had no influence on the pitch with this
arrangement. The springs which held the adjustment, however, were so delicate
\hat after a few flights, they were hopelessly bent and the blades out of ad-
justments. Since that time I have been trying to design a much mo.re positive
means of adjustroent with only one spri~g.
When fitting a power unit to · a model, rubber should first be considered.
First, the weight of the rubber. Second ; the length of motor or proper gearing
(both reducing t he slope of the power curve) to reduce the power curve to where
a very litt 1.e or no sharp burst is present on the top end. Third; a propeller
design that will climb the model for 3/~ of the length of the power curve . the
balance of the curve going to level fli ght. The useless turns being a very
small percentage on such an arrang ement .

Ol~ECT ~EADING
SCAl..E - ~ Ot...
R.E.:IPIN6 5
0. 0 TO '7. ozs. Mr.R ode ri ck ' s invention has be an
improv ed ~ in ce pa t en t was grant-
ed. Ac tua l fli ght t es t s o roved
it s va lue; Upper mo tor com ing-in
jus t at t he righ t ti me for ano-
t he r burst of c limb. Not yet ma-
nuf a ctured . All parties int erest-
ed in ma nuf a c turing thi s device,
T~STINq 6QtllPT"MfHi pl eas e contac t Inventorc/oEd1tor.
44
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 45
OUTDOOR MODELS
Reports from the field would have us believe that the rubber mo-
dels are losing out to the gas jobs. We are sure this ls only a mo-
mentary pause because wi th the engines at the present low price all
of us want to have a try at the gas jobs. And as soon as the boys find
out that the troubles begin after the gas model has been build, we are
sure they will swing right back again to rubber powerli.d models with
which the fun begins as soon as the model is finished. How many of
you have seen a gas man pouring out sweat trying to start the' enginE,
look up enviously at a snappy and high climbing rubber job. You car.
just hear him sigh as he goes back to his work.
It ls believe d that eventually it will be required of all model
builders to demonstrate their ability with rubber powered moaels be-
fore they are granted a gas model license. Under the present set-up
it is not unusual to have a man start with a gas model kit without a
slightest knowled5e of aerodynamics and adjusting procedure. Under
~uch conditions the hobby becomes expensive as well as dangerous. Of
course, if you are satisfied to be a chaufeur to a kit job, you are
welcome to spent your· days with gas jobs. But remember that it ta~es
brains to get the utmost out of a rubber -powered model,
The plans disclose almost every conceivable type of construction.
According to the theory we should be definitely convinced that stream-
lining and elimination of protruding parts ls the -order of the ·day.
Our idea of an ideal job is as follows: Fuselage of streamline plan-
form and of round cross section. The prop to be ble,nded into a spin-
ner, folded or perfectly freewheeled or have it idle for a long time
by an auxiliary motor. Landing gear mic,ht- as well be 'fixed for 1938
until a simple and fool proof r~traction idea is found. Tpe wing
should have an elliptical or polydihedral with fair outline. Aspect
:\atio of about 7. It should be mounted about t" above the fuselage.
·r he tail section of fairly low aspect ra~,.io stabilizer flanked with
twin rudders. Twin rudders will increase the effectiveness Of the
stabilizer and have it approach the Reynolds Number of the wing. Their
total area should be very sli,c;:htly more than that of a s,ingle rudr'l.er.
The model just pictured should present no difficulties to build.
Although the fusel~ge might be a bit out of ordinary for some of you.
The mounting of the wing above the fuselage should .be done without
the usual cage like construction. It is s:i,Jnp le to prede~ermine the C.
G. position, and with that fixed the wing mount can be made to just
fit or rt can be even countersunk into the wing and covered with cel-
lophane tape. To predetermine the C.G. just take the cent~r o_f the,.
rubber motor. You may be sure that the C.G. will be plus or min~s l'
from this point. Why? Take an 18 strand, 3/16 rubber, motor, 36 long
which include d 10 11 slack . When this motor is wound, every inch of it
will weigh .09 oz. Now move the C.G. point ahead or behind the 11 center
of the motor. 1 11 change will produce .16 oz. at an end of a 13 M.A.
With motor having so much influence on the C.G. position, you might
• as well use it as thedeterming factor for locating the C.G. Then you
will also be able to change the rubber without change in adjustments •

..._-/3--j-,*-·~--13---/

i.----f,Z ---\o-'-t'----/ J·- -----

EFFECT dF .et/84~/C #1!11/t IJV

rHE. PO.StTfd# N" O.~.

Pei;J:laps a more complete discription of how to. go about in con-

struction of monocoque fuselagEBmight entice more of -you to build
them. The Fir~t Step: Decide on the cross section shape. Round is
best. If you need room for two motors, use elliptical. If you want
 46

lrre~ular sh~oe, you will have to plot out individual bulkheads. Se-
cond Step: Draw full s ize plan and side views which provid e the ma-
jor anc minor ax i s . Use the approximate method for developing e llip-
tical bulkheads. For ever chang ing cross-sections, draw two outlines
of the largest (Julkhead over which are superimposed the smallest end
bulkheads. Count the numb e r of interv enin s bulkheads and space them
between the two extremes .

~ ---·-~ · ~
I A e c
The elliptical and vary in5 cross section bulkhead outlines are
drawn on ·stiff paper. To transfer the outlines to balsa, tr i m and
smooth the paper to the first or lar5 es t bulkhead . Circumscribe the
outline on balsa, and an extra one on paper to ke ep the outline for
future use or if th e bulkhead. breaks. Cut away to the next outline &
carry on. In transfer ring the outlines to balsa, be sure to have
vert i ca l and horizonta l reference lines on balsa over which to su-
perimpose pattern. The circular bulkheads can be outlined directly
from drawings by compa ss.
The bulkheads can be s ingle balsa sheet providing that balsa is
fairly heavy and of "C" or quarter grained to provide the stiffness.
Rigidity counts mostly during assembly. Once th e job is completed
the cemented junction between the b ulkhead and planking provide~ the
11
T11 section. No stringe rs are needed if model is planked with 1/16
or thicker ulanks. 1/20 or under co v er in g require stringers force-
menting surf ace . It ffi i ght be mentioned that it takes twice as long,
with poorer results to cover ~ith thln sheets than it is to use
planking. Since s ing le sheet bulkheads are liable to crack if cut
with razor, a f in e scro ll saw is just the thing.

The asserr.blins is begun by using two 1/16 x i mas}er planks on

which th e bulkheads spac i ng are marked. (2 11 spacing seems about the
max irium allowable.) Tack to the strips with cement the two bulkheads
which are on either side of the largest . Be caraful in doing this as
it forms the base for the ent ire structure. Check up for line-up of
two strips by..,brlnglng the ends together, and pinning them tempora-
rily while the rest of the bulkheads are cemented into place. With
a ll bulkheads in place start planklng.(Planks should be of llgth and
soft balsa.) Begin by cementing top and bottom, to prevent twisting
or curving . To cove r angles, just measure the l ength of the angle to
the point where the width equals plank. width, and cut a straight an-
gle. The softness of the wood will alldw jamming and so fill cracks.
While planking be sure to mark all cut-outs deeply, such as the
~lng mountings, and also cement-in all wire fittings to the bulkhea~
with plenty of cement. When planking ls complete, sand with medium
 47
paper as lon 0 as the planks resist bending or have no ll ght spots .
Final f in e sandins after a light coat of dope. Cover with paper,liGht
color pref e red as dark color \1ill sho11 up junction s tr eaks and P.lso
cove r uo the natura l wood grain, coat with 6 application of banana
oil with final fine sandinc and waxing . The banana oil is best as it
dries up rock hard with lit;h tn ess. --- You now have a li ght fuselage
which will take 40 strands of 1/8 with ease even if they smash back .
Af ter e \'lhi le you vtill find partB of bulkheads miss ins without· weak-
ness showine:; up. Or after a series of head on smashes the front mi; tt.
weaken and crack off , but you just f1t1it back and smea r it with ce-
ment. The mode l Will be re ady to fly as soon as cement dries .

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 48
LANDING GEAR: The beauty of wire landing gear is that it never breaks.
But it sometimes proves a disappoin tment in way of ground stability.
Single wire strut seems ideal but the gauge .will have to be large to
sustain the weight of the model. Abamboo or hardwood stiffener helps,
but there is still another weakness; the ease with which the wire may
be twisted. Sketch shows how bends weaken the landing gear struts.The
ideal strut would be as shown which just enough free wire to provide
the neP.ded "spring" • . Be sure to use silk to bind wire to wood.

S/N6LE l/.t'c .fl//#

IMO Jr't?tJO /j4Ct;'/VtJ
~/,f'O .fllT/I .f/.(.A:;'
~ Jl'/.t'E ~ UKc//Ei~

PROPl!LLEe <S euese~ FIXINGS

 49
INHERENT RUBBER TENSIONERS: The original was developed by H.White of
the Nothern Heights M.F.C.,London. The idea is sketched below. The
initial turns are critical as they decide the tightness of the en-
~wined motor. Used extensively in England. ---Bob Copland

FRCM AMERICA: Use few strands with an apposing prewind. This pre-
wind will turn the motor backwards until both torques are equal.
While unwinding, the entire motor will only turn to this balance of
prewound strands and main portion. ------Albon Cowles.
PUSH-PULL WINDING: To obtain equal number of turns and wind at the
same moment with ordinary winder, wind in tamdem. --Walter Erbach.
TESTING DIFFERENT GRADES OF RUBBER: Wind the two grades in tam4~m.
Weaker will break first. Winding and then unwinding ONIX ONE, shows
which has most torque. The more powerfull will naturally have less
turns. This test may be applied to many variations. ----by Editor

41U6~ TAl'ettl> ~E
,f.S .JNDJllJV- l'tN#e /K
NNJEO ,(.6fl)- P~4
//It.es /,# J.EAI> Alie 44·
.UKa-PNIS-¥ strtJllT#
Jy Rl)t',er NM ~.es
RUBBER
'IUrns per inch on Two Strands--Weight per inch of Single Stran:l
Size 1/32 3/64 1/16 5/64 3/32 7/64 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4
Turn 225 189 163 145 130 I 124 115 108 94 80
Wt. ,0005644 .0011288 90016932 .00 21576 .0033864
oz. .0008466 .0011411 ,0019756 .0028220 .0043152

Tl:lrils per Inch on Multiple Strands (For 1/30 Brown Rubber)

No.Str. 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

1/8 80 64 55 50 44 40 36 34 32
5/32 68 59 50 46 41 38 34 29 24
3/16 60 54 46 42 38 35 32 27 24

1/4 56 44 '67 33 29 27 25 23 21
&O GEODETIC CONSTRUCTION
by Roy Marquardt
Two years ago British Enginners brought a sensational new developement in
aircraft construction --geodetic or surface construction. By it.'s use much
longer and more efficient wings could be used with still a weight saving. ~1 -
tho some work has been done along model lines (see 1937 Year Bookl model builder
have been slow to take advantage of the things this now construction has to of-
fer. Model results do not seem to indicate that longer wings are advantageous.
However, a distinct weight saving are easily made, both indoor and outdoor.
The indoor design shown in this edition has the wing and tail weighing only a-
bout 2/3rd as much as the light est similar model the writer has used successful -
11 and yet the wings show not t he slightest sign of washing out in dives or un-
der power. A microfilm prop so .constructed is as stiff as a solid prop of twice
its weight. A round fusehge has been turned out using _this type.of ~onstru~tion
around a solid form. The weigh t was low but so far the construction is difficul t.
Geodetic construction is especially effective outdoors. Excellent rubber po-
~er wings have been made and a gas job is under construction. The best method
is to use ribs cut as top and bottom strips with a template from·sheet balsa.Wi th
a tapered wing simply cut ribs from the rear to size. Place ribs same as on the
indoor model. Use a single th i n spar the same height as the ri b. Use stand~~~
leading and trailing edg"e . With a light wing, cover the leading . edge only with
sheet balsa. On a weight rule j ob the entire wing may be covered and still the
wing will not weigh more than t he usual type. In plotting ribs t he horizontal or-
dinates of the diagonal ribs should be lengthened by about ~0%.

~lfll.I!~ I

I~~a-1
. 4e

f A' a. CllO.<'D

SOME OF MY FINDINGS
by William W.Saunders
DIHEDRAL- ---Too much dihedral makes a plane rock back and forth . and too
little makes it spiral tlive or take too long to recover from a side slip. For
this reason in recent years I have made all my planes with adjustable dihedral .
For rubber bank models it cons i sts in taking 3/16 11 birch dowels and drilling the
ends to take a 1 /i6" music wire. The dowels ( 2 to each wing loc ated at approx .
30% and 70% of the Chord) are gl ued in the wing at the root. The dowels need not
be any longer than about l~". The 1/16 11 wire is bent to the desired dihedral.
Such a plane is very flexible and pra~tically crash proof. ·
C.G.----I found that the C.G. can be located within the "A" dimension shown
Ln the sketch and be stable depending upon the size of the stab1li zer. The larger
the stab. the further to the rear the C.G. can be located. With the C.G. at· the
furthest forward position, the plane will have the poorest glide but the most sta-
bility in very rough weather. As the C.G. is moved toward the rear, the stab.be-
comes. a lifting tail and t he plane squashes out of stalls and has that floating
characteristics. I have found the C.G. location to be independent of the location
of the wing above or below the b.ody. A low wing Plane will definitely fly with
a lifting tail. Sipce a ·1ow wing plane does not have the pendulum stability of
~ high wing plane the stab. must do a little more of the cor recting of stalls
and therefore the C.G. is moved forward'.
VERTICAL POSITION OF WING---- I have had my aest luck with mid-wing planes.
High wing planes require too much down thrust. Strange as it seems I have found
that low wing planes requ i re more down thrust than pigh wing planes. I dislike
down thrust because it is t he same as addiag weight to the nose of the plane wh (·•'
under power. . I do not th i nk that a down thrust plane !lies along it• s thrust
line. My wings are always placed on the body at the best LID.
 51
AIRFOILS----For rubber models modify a RAF-32 by reducing the upper camber-
20%. For tail surfaces whether lifting or non.liftin g use a thick section. I al-
1ays use a M-6. When the plane starts to stall the tail snaps up in place and the
plane does not lose atlt1tude. Take advantage of the late stalling angles of
thick tail sections.
TAIL SURFACES ---- The larger the stabilizer the greater the stability and
flatter the glide. I use stab. on rubber models about 40% of wing area and for
gas jobs about 30%. A plane will fly in a calm with a~ab equal to 15% of wing
but keep the C.G. well forward. The glide will be poor. The fin area is inde-
pendent of the stab. area. Keep it small --about 13% of the win g for rubber mo-
dels and 8% for gas models.

FORMULAE FOR CALCULATING MODEL AIRPLANES

Ily ARVID PAl.'.'lGREN
The following formulae are approximately valid for single skein rub ber po-
wered model airplanes of standard design.
SYMBOLS
R rubber skein sectio, sqmm D Propeller Diameter, cm
w total weight of model, gr B max. propeller blade width, cm
s Span of main wing, cm model flying speed, m per sec.
M motor torque, mmgr "q specific main wing loading, gr per sqdm
n propeller speed, r.p.m. N •umber of winding turns
s propeller slip, 3 L oriainal skein length, cm
f propeller thrust, gr c tot;J rubber weight, gr
p propeller pitch, cm (spec. gravity : 0:9
Recommended maximum rubber section ---- = 0. ~ ( W S ) 2 s qmm
(Conversion for 1/30" Gage--- 1/8 = 2. 7 sqmm 3/ 16 = 4.0 sqmm i/4 = 5 .4 sqmm

Rubber to r que ------Mmean = 9'\[R3'"" mmgr --------Mmax = ~~ mmgr

(Valid for 30 R 90 sqmm Rlack Rubber and re cornmended degree of windin g)
Propeller Speed---- n = ~7000'\l~M~
r.p.m.
~ Pso3
Propeller Thrust (assumed) ----T • O. 13 · ~ ~ s - 10 gr
( s = 15% at · ~ean --- 52% at ~ax l
Model flying speed (minimum horizontal speed) v = 1.5~ q m per sec.
L
Winding turns (black rubber) Nf i rst • 6S 'fR Nfinal = 80-L-
'fR
3
= 12 :
+
Propeller Pitch------ (for max. altitudel: Pm in
(for good altitudel: P111 ean • 18 ~ 3
cm (fornxxleratealtitudel: Pmax = 2ij
3

( Pmax to be used for handlaunched models only l

Propeller Diameter:--- D • 5. 7 ,~"'--i~ cm

Maximum Altitude labove starting pointl and flight duration (no vertical windl
Maximum alti- Motor time ~Totaltime; sec. Total time in seconds
Propeller tude in meters in seconds freewheel prop Ret. Ld. nr. & Free prop.
175 ~
w
600 _L
w q
1~00 ~
wq 1800 t-q
130 ~ 900 1525 _c_ 1850 fq
w wQ
Pmax ·. 105 ~ 1200
_c_ 1650 _c_ 1900 _L_
w w Q wq w q
 EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE RECEIVED
from Henry Stiglmeier
After making a long list of data gathered from flight experimenting on va-
rious wing sections, the comment ..was: "Power - variable, weather - variable, ad-
justments variable, effort- too much, no fun.---Now I thinkkthat almost any air-
foil will ride thermals. However, the glide seemed to be more affected by the
airfoil than the climb."
"I tried a feathering prop with large'blades on a stick model. After the
blades feathered the tail of the model would swing from side to side on the glide
I tried t,he same prop on a cabin model which flew well but trouble was again expe-
rienced in tail swinging. I increased the rudder area but it did not help. Next
I found that if the prop was given a chance to freewheel, it would do so rather
than feath.e r until the speed of the model was slowed down very much at some time
dur1ng the flight. Usually if the model stalled slightly the blades would fea-
ther and then the plane would weave sideway or stall depending on whether the
prop stopped vertically or horizontally, respectively. Later I made tests on
o! the draf! of the feathering prop by putting it on a shaft with a weak spring
behind it and then running inn the wind. I would start with the prop feathered
and when I gained enough speed, the prop would suddenly begin to freewheel and
continue until I slowed down to a walk. When the prop was freewheeling the com-
pression on the spring was about twice as much as that of feathering position."
"llarry Johnson tried a number of different % stabilizers, while I tried the
airfoils on my stick. General impressions gained from the tests was that 45$
tail area gives best results for stick models apd about 40% for cabin jobs.-
We also reduced the size of our props for the increase in weight rule.--I've
learned a few things about rubber tensioners. The spring must not be too weak
the stop arm must really be soldered to the shaft, and there must be plenty of
cleararice around the motor for large knots.--If a tow line glider tows up with
side diving tendencies, place the hook on the side of the fuselage opposite the
tendency and the glider will make a straight up tow."
GAS MODELS
"The winning model had a crank thru the fuselage with cords f(!.Stened to
~hort heav'y rubber, which was fastened to the wing. He cranked until the wing
was held on tight .--The t.iest position of the wheels ·on small gas jobs is about
half way between th'e'" prop and leading edge"of the wing. This ?OSition prevents
the tai 1 from banging to the ground and it improves the taxing ability of the
model very much. Broken props from nosing over the grass are rare.---The size
of the fin on high powered gas models is very important for good flights. About.
7~X of the wing ar~a is the best to start with. The area should be changed if
necessai'J' after flight tests have been made.---Tempered dural is very good for
engine mounts, however, plain aluminum or soft dural mounts \crack before long
from vibrations."
TWIN ENGINED GAS MODELS
"The original idea in mind for flying a twin engined model, which was made
by my brother, was to set the thrust line. of each motor so that it would .counter-
act its off-center turning moment. If each engine could be separately adjusted
to fly the model by itself, then it would not be necessary to synchronize the
engines. However, in practice the idea did not work so well. Either engine, with
the other dead, would fly the ship but even with a large outward slant of the
thrust line, the plane could not be made to fly the same way. Then we obtained
an engine ignition circuit which would keep the engines synchronized. Also, if
one engine stopped, the other would ·a lso. This special circuit did operate but
then we experienced considerable trouble in getting the engin~s perfect~y syn-
chronized and also to prevent both engines from stopping. About four flights of
short duration were made with the engines running on the special circuit and
about ten flights on regular circuit. On two.occasion~ o~e engine stopped and
the plane flew in tight circles and lost altitude until it struck the gr?und.
HoWever, slight damage resulted. In summing up, the tro~b~e.encounter7d rn try-
ing to synchronize the two engines and ~he two fo~d posibility of engine trouble
made this particular arrangement of engines undesirable.
 WINGS 53
by Dick Everett
During last summer and fall I made many experiments with wings. I found that
Aspect Ratil does not matter but it is more to the liking of a model builder . Al l
I can say is that whoever said that a low Aspect Ratio wing is better than a. Ii i ~h
Aspect Ratio wing never took time to build and try a good Aspect Ratio that was
fairly high (18-1). An d also, whoever said that Low Aspect ratio i s poor nev e r
took time to build a good low Aspect ~atio wing. Now these ar e very st r o n ~ state-
ments. But I have reall y gone to extremes by building wings of J-1 and so:ae o!
18-1 Aspect Ratio. I have tested models with medium ratios lfi-1, 9 -1 and l c- 1)
The extremes climbed and glided better than those commonly used. If one makes
wings with identical wing loading, Aspect Ratio does not seem to matter as long
as you use a good airfoil IRAF-32 can't be beat) . It would seem that Aspec t Ra-
tio is a matter of preference rather than practicability.
If someone woW:I publish full size airfoils instead of ordinates, I think
that better times could be m.:lde. It takes an expert draftsman to draw an exac t
airfoil.I also think that it would be a good idea if the balancing point is gi-
ven when plans are drawn. This would give the builder a much better chance to
duplicate the model in all respects.
Wing construction varies with individuals. Cleveland fellows use the multi-
spar type ·and they get some wonderful flights but brea}cage is very high. Some of
their wings have small braces on top of the airfoil to keep the wing from fold-
ing iip. (I realize that in• New York your models last for years and years . How-
ever in CLEVELAND we usually lose our models on the second or third flight.--
from Jim Ryan~letter, ED.l Another design is the single spartype which is 'good
in having low breakage. But did you ever notice the sag between the ribs? Then
we have balsa sheet covered leading edge with full depth spar. This is trong but
the sga behind the spar ruins the airfoil section. A type I developed is to build
a skeleton wing of two spars and leading edge, space ribs 3 apart, cover top \oi. th
11

sheet balsa, and cement 1/32 x 1/16 ribs every 1 on the bottom which is covered,
11

with paper. Of course all balsa covered would be best .

· A small streamline section mount seems to be'the best means for fixing the
wing to the fuselage. The mount can either be fixed to wing or fuselage, or free
from both. If this type of wing mount is used the dihedral can be decreased to
l"for every foot of span. While a wing-on-fuselage needs at least l 11~" per ft
of span under each tip. ·1 prefer the tip type of dihedral <'.:: it seems that the
model is stable with less dihedral and at the same time the flat center section
give full lift . --- When adjusting plane never war!J the wing unless it is abso-
lutely necessary. Warpage will weaken the the wing as well as jam .up the glide.

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 54 RUBBER TURNS & TOR~UE and PITCH
by J.P.Glass
Basic formula for f inding numbe-r of turns that can be stored in a
rubber JT'cto"' is: K_x Leng_!.h
TURNS =
Area of Rubber Cross Se9tion
The following calculations are based on 1 strand of 1/8 x 1/30
Brown Rubber as a unit of Area (A), and on 'K' whose value was found to
be 163 when using Brown Rubber. Our turn formula (good only for Brown
Rubber,T56,) is as follows:
163 x Ler.gth of motor of new rubber inches
TURNS =
Number of 1/8 strands
EX: 10 Strands, 1/8 163 x 30 4890
Width, _3 0"long. Turns
10 3.16
= 1540 Turns

It was found by experience that as the strands multiply or have a

thick · motor, you will fall a little short of the above formula value.
Therefore, for 10 strands you can safely expect 1500 turns. With thic~
er motors you will have to subtract even more. With motors using less
than 6 strands the formula ·Will produce the correct number of turns.
The length of the motor has no bearing on the number of turns. Turns
~alculated from this formula are on _s"afe side. (Turn tablesshown else-
where in the book were originally calcula ted by this formula. Editor
made actual tests to check the values, and test turns were so close
that the above· formula can be accepted as a sure thing.Ed.)
Do not forget that the formula is based on cross section of rub-
ber in terms of number of 1/8 strands. For example: 2 strands of 1/16
Will equal 1 strand of 1/8. nr: 18 P-trands of 1/4 will equal 36 of 1/8-
FUl..L. a. ~

P,eflf' .P/lltUH!
(> '

TORQ.UE 3
Basic Torque Formula~~~ Torque = K (~)3 or (KAZ)
For convenience it i s bet te r to express torque as a matter of work
done in one revolution, which is r e ally 2~x Torque. If we use inches
in the 21f product t he r esults will be in inch/ounce. This 21P factor is
already taken care of in t h e 'K' value. Formula for torque on rubber
motor is:
. .J.
Work per Revolution • K x (Number of Stra nds of 1/8)2·
'K' or the coefficient va ri e s with torque curve. For example:When
you start -to unwind a rubber motor the torque at 'a' is several times
greater than at center 'b'. The average torque is at point 'c'. But for
practical purposes it is much better to use the torque at 'b' or half
unwound po1nt because the propeller is very inefficient at high torque
and throws away the initial burst of power. Since we are most interest..
ed in the portion which last longest and on which we hope to continue
having a good cruise or moderate climb, we should use the point 1 b 1 as
the determining factor in finding the value of 'K'. Experience and prBG
tice showed .4 as a good value for 'K' when T56 Brown Rubber is used.
Our torque formula tqen is: .,!.
Work per revolution = .4 x ( Number of s t rands of 1/8)~ in/oz.
Ex: Using our 10 strands of 1/8 motor (Length has no bearing) we get:
J
Work per revolution ~ ,4 x (lO)j- .4 x (31.6) • 12.65 in./oz. per rev.
( The power
{third power
f means to extra ct .s~rg root of the numb e.r and ra1e~ to',
Ex : ( 10 )i = ( '(10.) = ( 3 .16 ) 3 = 31.6 l
This means that one turn of the 10 strand .motor will lift one oz .
l~ .65 inches 1f pulLey is 100% efficient. At start 1t would of course
lift several times ,as much. This applies only at the instant when the
motor has been tighly wound and half unwound. It represent s a good ave-
rage value on which the model should cruise.---This also means that if
the plane has a drag of 1 oz. and if the prop is 100% effi c ient, the
rubber has en ough po'uer to pull t he model 12 .65 inches in one pron re-
volution. Or if t he drag is 1/3 oz . the pull will 38" ine one rev: But
experience has shown th a t prop8 a re inefficient:
55% to 40% for Indoor. 60% to 50% Out d oor. (Dependins on care and finieli
This means t hat our 12 .65 in ch pull is r e d~cel to 7 inches, and the 38"
to 20" ~f the prop efficiency 1f 55%. --We now have numerica i val ues
for torque, deve lop e d aud deliv e r e d. (Del. Tor .•Work per rev. x prop eff.
PITCH
Geometrical Pitch i s found by knowing torque, dra~ of the model,
actual pitch and slip percentage. We have already calcula ted for torque
The drag is found by gliding the model, in still air, without prop
whose weight is substituted. EX: If model glides 100 feet from launch~
height of 16 feet, the L/D is about 6. If the plane weighs 2 oz. the
drag is 1/3 oz. For 8 oz. model the drag is 1 1/3 oz. Actual Pitch . is
found by:
Actual Pitch • Work per rev. x oroo efficiency Ans.,inches
Dra g of the model
EX: 10 Str.__ 12.65 in/oz. x.55 _ 20 911 A P.12.65 in/oz. x.55_ 11Ac?.
1/8 motor .33 oz. - • c.. . 1.33 oz. - 5 •2 ·
Before g iving values for Slip Pe rcentage we must make clear the
difference between i t and the prop efficiency. Slip is the difference
between actual and geometrical pitch, and it determines the angle of
attack of the b lades. While prop efficiency depends almost ent1r·e1y
Jn the L/D of the blade section under actual opera ting conditions.That
is, high angles of at t ack, rough surfaces, poor airfoil sectibn will
produce low efficie n cy value because so much pow e r is wasted in over-
coming the prop defects. 'While low angles of attack, highly polished
blades and good airfoils will pr oduce high efficiency props. By know-
ing these r equire ments you can estimate the efficiency v a lues. EX: If
we assume that of the 100% ava:lable power or Work per Rev. we use 45%
to overcome the drag and other fq..ctors .of the prop1 we will only ha ve
55% of it to convert into forward action o r thrust
. t h rough
.
the prop.
Under most condition3, of proper blade area, rubber length,_P/D
ratio and etc., 25% added to the above Actual Pitch is a good g~ess
for Geometrical Pitch. Therefore, our 20.9 11 A.P. becomss a 26" Geo.P.
and 5.2" A.P. will be 6.5" Geo.P. The exact Slip Percentage will de-
pend mostly on blade area. Comparatively large blade area will have
less slip so that 26" Geo.P. can be cut down to 23". But if the area
is small, you cannot add more Geo.P. because the blades wil+ stall &
so increase drag. It is better to be on the safe side with enough a-
rea, especially since large blades would be more efficient at start.
We can now calculate for Geo.P. on Which we can qase the size of
our prop block. Pitch/Diameter Ratio determines the Diameter. P/D for
models using rubber motor is 2. Take our word for it. Ex: 26"/X =2
X = 13" diameter. · Next job is to determine width and thickness. -----
Sorry but we have no simple formula available to take care of this.
But we can keep this in mind. A low pitch travels at high speed and
needs l,ess ,area. A high pitch travels slow and needs larger blade A-
rea. perhaps we could evolve a formula based on wing area and loading
which would furnish us with speed, weight and dra~ of the model. But
until more tests are made, we w!ll resist the temptation of working
out theoretical ~alues. However, it mighlbe mentioped t~at correct
Geo. P. is more important than the blade area, especially under pre-
sent trend of using qonsiderable blade area. So use the calculated
Pitch and estimate the blade area according design~ cleanliness.
 GAS OJ,J~E ~IOD ELS

Th e most pressing problem in gasol in e mode l f iel d i s the spiral

stability. It i s hoped that befo re you attempt your next tes i g n you
will have a good menta l pictur es o f what g oes on by ge ttins thorouc h-
ly up with the theo ry herein p r esented . I f your o r e sent moJe ls are
givin5 you tr ouble, check on ' the point s specified. and do no t be af-
rai ~ to make chances . It i s the one and only sur e way o f tracking
dovm t he tr.ouble.

The new we i g ht rul e change s the picture considerably. Heretofore

we st re ss e d t he wing loading , low as prudence allowed . But with the
Wing load ing fix ed to a minimum of 10 oz. pe r sq .ft. our next bag of
tricks i s ~ow powe r l o a d i ng , or is it hi5h power load ing . A lot of
powe r for the we i ght is what we wan t. For examp le: Say we need 1/5
H.P. to fly a se v en p.ound model wit h a v1ing load ine; oflO oz. per sq.
ft. It i s ev ident that i f we dec r ease the wei ght to 3~ lbs . and still
have the same wi ng loading , th e powe r could be a l mos t cu t to 1/10 H.P.
The H.P. r equ ired formula being : H.P.= Drag__ .~._Y~ l9f_i~ _9.!'__§_Q~e d
375
Wins loading remaining the same , the v e l ocity s t ays as on the hea vier
model. But be c ause of sma ll er s ize the Drag will become much smaller
and t he extra power can be used f or the cl i rr:b . 3ecaus e any power ex-
ce ss of that r equired for horizon t a l fli gh t can be turned into a clirrb
So, the new rul e defeats it s purpose of keep in : the model in the field
but it does comp l e the builder to build s trbnse r mod els wh ich is a
step in ri ght d i rect ion. Duration shoul d not suffer becau se of increase
of win5 load ing s i nce most of the durat ion come s from th e g lide. If we
a re careful in our sel ec tion of a i rfo ils and espe ci ally t h e trim~in3
Ne can almost make up for the increased win3 l oad inc .

Since it is our a i m to get th e max i mum p erfor manc e out of a mo-

del ~e are compelled to assw1e the h i 3h powe r means of t r yi n G to keep
ahe ad of the field. The i dea l j ob wou l d be a stream lined power plant
With i ma5 inary wing and tail. The c l oser you achieve thi s point in
practice, so much bette r are your chances . Bu t t~is hi 5h power ~ill
b ri n 0 up new p r oblems which usual l y crop up with i nc r ease of spe e d.
So t h at the d i scuss ions on ·rubbe r models shou ld be time ly for g as mo-
dels. Also, it will be doub l y mo r e i mpor tant to know your aer odyna-
mics. The models will a l so have to be made stronger to stand up a-
e;a i ns t t he gaff. We have seen. oany j o bs fold up i n a ir because of too
light construction. The plans shown in th e book have fair s p a r sizes
but you must be careful to use hard balsa. The const ruction of mono-
coq u e fu selages i s similar to that dE s cribed under Rubber Models . The
only difference being is that p l anking should be t h ick er , the bu lk-
heads ne ed not be cu t out , mode l covered with s ilk a nd doped. with c o-
lo red dope. Ordinary " boxes " are a l so showing up wi t h bal sa sheet &
si lk covering ~ombination .
Coc ens us of opinion on wi ng constru ct ion is for standard frame-
work with s ilk cover in5 . Also tha t co lor dop ing should be thin to al-
low light to show t h rough the covering for better vis i b ility. Airf o il
G5tting e n 497 seems to be the f av orit e now . Inspe ction of the plans
and ~heir perforrnace shou l d give you a good. idea wha t i s bes t. In
f a~t , the reason for includinc so many plans is to p resent a f a ir
cross sect i on of the art so that you may prof it by others' experi en ca
The prop b r ekage is g o ing on day in a0d day out . Th e folding prop pre-
sented here has hkd a ~reat many succesfu l f li 5 hts with l and ings that
wiped off the landing gear . It was a lso noted that too stron5 props
ei the r wood or metal tend to crack c rankcases with sad reg ularity.

En5ine r ecomme ndations: Plans list t he make of engine used. We

are sorry that we cannot t ear e v e ry e ng in e apart and g ive you the low
down. Some eng ines are excel l en t while othe rs ne ed immense patience &
and kindness o f heart . A good stunt would be to have the club poo l to
buy a particular engine, . s ive it the works , and orde r in the future
ac co rding to the performance .

CANADIAN AVIATION
The Single-Bladed Propeller
By DON G. McLEOD
E~~~:in~~ ~h~i~7f;-bi~d~~:rti'n~:~
States some time ago on a Taylor Cub, a
great dea.J of interest has been aroused
a mong aviation fans in all walks and
Equipped with a single-bladed propeller,
Don McLeod's CW-3 soared out of slgh-t
af.ter 30 minutes. The ship and its builder
are shown above.
particularly in model bu ilding circles.
Two thoughts have sprung up, th ose for
and those against. T o those die-hard5
who are afraid of their crankshafts. the
author begs their undivided aitenlion
later in the article. He also wishes lo
state that there is quite a field open in
this direction and the words, statements,
etc., hereunder are subject to some de-
bate. This is written with the hope that
other experimenters may profit by his
ex perience.
The first experiment that I can re-
member took place about ten years ago.
An old standby, an R. 0 . G., cracked up ,
shearing off one of the detachable prop
blades; a safety pin and a paper clip
restored balance and the R. 0 G. flew
very well until its ultimate destruction
took place as is wont to happen . Obser-
vation showed a faster climb and flight .
Several subsequent models , when acci-
dentally flown with broken prop blades
<what model builder has not done this?)
showed a beautiful series of.. 'galloping
oscillations," rendering the flight of the
model unfit to be talked about excei:tt
after contests. In spite of the wiggles,
they did ~anage to speed along a bit.
1,
I
D'll.dV.$T STA<K. ~ ,lldJ..ii
.J. ~~r11ve aua:
Nothing further was done along this line
then . due to pressure of schoolwork
brought about by thoughtful parents.
In 1933 it was my intention lo use a
single- bladed prop on my Wak e field
model , but unfortunately for some reason
or other the idea wa.s discarded . Conse-
quently it was not until 1935 that it was
again tried. this time on a · semi-scale
Dewoitine of some 44 in . span . Eriefly
some improvement was noted but the
model was washed out on a house top
and lack of time prevented following up.
Th en came gas models. In. the spring
of '37 the first single-bladed prop was
tried on my Brown Jr. Several experi-
ments foll owed until the final desi gn as
tried on CW-3 resulted in a new npen
class record. Let me state here that I do
not believe the flight was due entirely
to the prop in this case but it was partly
responsible
'T'h e fir st prop used was, for si mplicity
made with a fixed pitch. This gives
much bet ter results at the take-off than
the two-bladed prop as the single travels
in undisturbed air and takes a perfect
bite; ronsequently the climb after the
take-off is also better. The actual
result s of th e L / D ratio of the prop will
more nearly reach the theoretical : thtl s
a much higher L ID section may be used.
A slightly higher pitch may be used and
the di ameter may be increased; the
latter should not be more than eight to
ten per cent of the original diameter.
Both P and D should. of course. depend
on the type of aircraft ; I have found here
that practice 1s ahead of theory. The
angle of pitch of the blade should not be
excessive, however, as the blade will
stall.
The area of the prop sho\lld be at least
8G per cent of that of the standard prop.
It shouldi have a taper ratio of at least
two to one, i.e., the blade should be twice
as wide at the centre of the radius as at
the tips; in fact it can quite profitably
be 2.!> or 3 to one. One must remember
that the tip speed is twice as great as
half way out; also remember that double
the speed gives four times the lift. A
good clean blade shape with as narrow
a hub as possible is essential to cut down
any blanket area1;.
The blad~ profile is also very import.-
ant. Too many fellows are inclined to let
any old thing do. It may do for· fooling
about with but no real value will ever be
~.4-'.ANCE ,V//'11° ,r;a
OM:- B.f.AlJ..flJ 6.tlS-p.eoP
Pere-e. tkJA/eRS
8cNPIN6 Ail/.wf/Nt/,N/ -A .JllA.ePtlr/VD
AleAP t>;£C£ ..-1LL e,ey.sr1u.1ze Arre~ rElfl
"~ $/1££r NdV.ets ~F &N61N.e .ef/NtrlNG
#e!'4.l
4~KO 11'/JPv
4111~
ANJJ
learned. Pick cut a good' 'foi1 and stick
to this as clo,ely as po.<sible. Absolute
accuracy is impossible for us as the
;ection is t oo small.
Here also . i' where th" sing!~ ha.< i;
Jver the standard prop. Due to th " small
Jrofi le shap e it is pra~ticall~· i mp n<~i bk
to get both blad e' ide nti ca l. With the
:; ingle thi s is not necessary and ~1~ ::i
<tat ically ancl dynamical!\· balancerl pr<"lp
.s more easily obtain ed. NeverthcleH
profile shape is important. On P mu>t
remember that sligh t changes affect 1he
performan ce quite readil y. This m«,. be
easily und erstood when one real iz(·'\ tt~·tt
the tip ' pe ed with the Brown f0r
instance. run~ frum 250 m .p.h . a t 6.000
r .p.m to 400 m .p.h . at 10.000 r .p .m .
The wcightPd end of 'he prop 'thC'
balla~t hPre ronsi >ts of Jead1 sh0 uld not
be great.er than 20 per cert o f tl'c µrop
radiu, . The clo,er the bett er but natu r-
ally the weight w ill be excessive if rare
is not used. The we ight <h ,1li :d he
secu r ely ra , ten ed on by a c!cat of shee t
metal a.< the ce;1trifugal force is qu ite
h igh and increases t o th e square of !he
r.p.m .
Th e design of th e blad e s hou ld b{: rnch
3s to all ow the C G .. if. possible. to be
right on the centre line. This makes it
easier to balance as well as giving a
s mooth~r running prop. To those die-
~a rd s, please note: the centri'uga' forct '
of the blade is balanced bv the cu itri-
fugal force of the lead. only, however, if
the prop is in static .balance to begin
wi th. The crankshaft is in no danger of
being twisted off as many gassies and
aircraft men were wont to thjnk .
In closing, tests showed that the fl ow
of air behind the single ·was much
>moother than that of the two-blad~d
prop, especially as the speed increased.
<This was accomplished by cementing
threads to a rod at intervals of an inch
md then placed in the slipstream The
higher the speed the more voticeabk was ·
the difference.)
Unfortunately the thrust balance nec-
e£ ~ry for making a direct comparison is
not• completed as yet. However. very
>hortly data on the single fixed pitch , a
constant speed single. a standard pr op.
1pd a controllable pitch two-bladed prop
will be available . Space perrrutting. this
will be published in a future issue of
::ANADIAN AVIATION.
A¥t1Lt= RJR
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 58
LAMINATED BULKHEADS: CASCO Case in glue is best for 3-ply gas model
bulkhe ads . Of course the 2 in . wide sheets are cemen te d with cellu-
lose cement edge t o edge . The the p l ys are joined with CASCO. It is
e xce ll ent fo r l a rge s urf ac e ba lsa j oints such as l eadins edge spli-
ces on gas mode l s . CASCO does not soak away , and wh il e it is setting
it is part l y independen t on the exposur e to t he a ir. It does not
tak e mo r e than ov l; rnicht to h a rden.-----H erber t J. Drake East on,Pa.
FOR TYING PARTS With rubber on gas j O.JS , use st rips of inner tube
cut spirally under wa t e r with sc i ssor s . This rubbe r is less a ffec t ed
by ligh t and ai r. It streches enouch for mos t uscs.--Curtis Janke
BABY CYCLONE SUCT I ON FEED: 11 I use suct ion feed on Cyc lone to keep i t
fro m revving down i n ~ steep c limb whe n it is inv e rt ed , or when the
intake is too clo se to the leve l of the t ank. The i dea i s sket ched.
That i s all there is t o it, just stoppins up one of the holes in the
ne ed le va l ve seat. The tube i dea is not or i2inal wi th me. I saw it
first used by Howard Rober t s of Pa l o Alt o o~ an inv e rted Cyclone.The
motor i s start ed on gravity feed, but once runn ing , it will fe ed by
suc tion from the tank , even thou;h i t is fa r be l ow the intake.Since
t he Cyclone 'i s so economical on fuel, it has not enough suction to
be ab l e to s t a rt well on it, a l though some of the boys manage to do
it."------P ete r Bowers
ANOTHER .MAN With same idea. "I have had it on my mo t or for 5 months
a nd if you shut you r eyes and star t the moto r you would think it was
a Brown.--From now on a lw ays moun t the gas t ank below th e l eve l of
the intake and you-can forget about turning t he need le off. The mo-
tor will run on same n eedle ad _jus t ments . "----Clement Turansky
CJ

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 IS9
GAS MCIDEL ADJUSTMENTS: "For slow and medium ships I use just. enough
right thrust to counteract the engine torque,· so that the turn is con-
trolled by the rudder , and the circle in the glide and under power is
always the same size.--- On h igh power thirty seco~ds motor run jobs
I use the good old hand launch glider adJustments; ri5ht turn·urider
power and left circle for the g lide. It sure grabs altitude! On these
fast jobs, too I mount the batteries and coil high. This makes the
turns flatter.d----Peter Bowe r~,
IDENTIFICATIOil SLIPS: 11 Instead or typing the identific at ion slip on
white card, do it on the covering tissue. This· makes a neat and per-
manent job after it is doped over."---Gilbert Wehrenberg.
ELECTRICAL REMINDER: For best results use fresh batteries, solder all
connections and do not mount . coil with metal straps.--N.Smith MFG.Co.

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 60 THE IMPORTANCE OF STREAMLINING GASOLINE MODELS
by Carroll P. Krupp
A group of young men from Akron, Oh i o, under the ab l e guidance of Mr. Geu rg(;'
Evans, of the Goodyear Zepp lin Co rp., went into the sub j ect of s tr eamlining ga-
soline models in the spring of i936, and as a res ult sever al wi nd tunnel tests
were made on gasoline model fuselages and l andin g gears. Although the work was
never completed, suffi cient i nformati on was gained to prove that streamlining
would not only help but would be of the utmost importance in t he future develop~
ment of gasoline models.
The necessi t;,· !or keep i n~ down the drag of a model airplane is evi<len t, al- .
though the means of accomplishin g this end is not at all obvious. What little i s
known about streamlining has been l earned from l ong experience, for knowled ge of
the subject i~ still so incompl ete that no scientific system or theory abo ut it
e xist as ;,·et.
Before the various charts and graph s are discussed, one should first have a
clear idea of what drag (Parasitic" drag) i·s , and wh at terms i t .is measured and
calculated. To save sp ace and time the explanation of drag and its measurements
is given in short statements rather than as a complete discussion. It has been
,f ound that air resistanc.e may be reduced t o a minimum by s treamlinin g , which means
that the shape of all parts of an airplane exposed to the air stream are moulded
so as to permit the air to flow around them with the least amou.nt of resistance.
Information concernin g "Parasitic" drag' ,has been gat he red throu gh tests in
wind tunnels and bl practical experience. The drag of the compon ent parts of an
airplane as given i n aeronautical handbook is given in th ei r drag areas or in the
form of their drag coefficients.
I. Drag area is defined as the'area having a drag coefficient of 1, and the
same resistance as the part to which the coefficient applies. It is computed by
the following formula: Drag~ .00256 (drag ·area) X (velocity)2.
2. The equivalent f lat plate area is the area of a circular plate at right
angles to the airstream having the drag equal to that of the parts compared.
(Drag area and the equivalent flat plate area must not be confused because
the drag coefficient of a flat plate is greater than I. It is 1.28; Hence~
Drag---Area • I. 28 (equivalent fl at p I ate area.)
3. The drag coefficient is comput ed by dividing the drag area by the cross
section of the object, at right angles to the path of motion.
RESU LTS OF WIND TUNNEL TESTS
The group mentioned in the beginning of the article planned to make complete
drag tests of the component parts of gasoline models and the effect of strearn-
li~ing the fusel age , landing gear, strut s , control surface~ and motors. The re-
sults of the te ~ts ran at the Guggenheim Ai r s hip Institute at the Ak ron Airport
are presented in this article.
Two types of fuse l age were usect in these tests. Ship A~- a simple fuselage
with no fairing on the motor or landing gear . Sh ip B -- a fus elage with the nose
rounded off to a fa~r deg r ee, and the motor cowled, excPpt for the cylinder,ti-
me r arm and carburetor. Both fuselage were of rectangular cross section and had
i/8 dia. wire landing gear. Shi p A had ~ x 3 /1~ wooden wh eels. Ship B had 3 i/2 11
M & M airwheels.
Fig. I. Gives the relat ive shapes of the models tested.
Fig. 2. Is a graph ic illustration of the drag found in terms of equivalent
flat plate area, in both square centimeters and in square inches, of the A &B
models with and without landing gear and wheels.
Fig. 3. Is also a graph of the drag found for the two models with and with-
out landing gear and wheels as given in the actual amount recorded in the instru
ment in grams at various speeds.
If one looks over these various charts you can· get a good idea of what a
l i ttle streamlinin g will do for the reduction of drag. The comparison of A and B
 61
in Fig.3 should be proo! enough that streamlining is a· sure step in the right di-
rection. At the speed o! 24 m.p.h. the ship "B" has only i/2 the drag o! ship A.
From the.se graphs we also see that the landing gear and wheels constitute about
i/2 o! the total fuselage drag and that the yheels alone produce about 2/2 o!
that amount.
When we consider that the "Parasitic" drag o! an airplane is very near to
9oi of the total drag and when this .is thought o! in terms o! power required to
overcome this resistance one begins to wonder and worry; !or the climbing abili-
ty o! an airplane .is proportional to the available horsepower divided by the
weight. Since this available horsepower, lwhich is the amount in excess to that
which is required to sustain the airplane in level !lightl as equal to the pro-
duct of the total drag o! the~·~lane and the velocity at which it !lies divi-
ded by a constant, thatis. ' r •
The Available Horsepower. It places direct
bearing on the importance o! t reduction o! drag on gasoline models, to in-
crease the climbing ability as well as other !light characteristics.
There are many ways in which gasoline models maby "cleaned up" and their per-
formance materially improved. By the streamlining o! the lanaing gear or possibly
the eli•ination o! it in favor o! a wheel protruding from the bottom o! the fuse-
lage, the total drag o! a gasoline model may be reduced by as much as 40 or soJ.
General improTement in gasoline model design is not far o!! as the "!ever stage'~
is over now and the model builders are trying to improve their design and conse~
quentlv their performance; and not being satisfied to merely "turn out" models.

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 62
RADIO CONTROL
The thought of Radio Control is old; the actual development work is in its
second year. Fair resul t s have been produced by those who know something about
remote controi by radio. lt was done by sweat of the brow since the re~uirements
are mighty tough, and most of the work if of experimental nature. It is a spe-
cialized field into which very few radio technicians stray, so that even radio
engineers are in quandry about the exact specifications. So, until the radio end
is perfected for commercial distribution the average model builder can only dream
o! the possibilities. But if you want to be one of the early birds in this field
get into the amateur radio game. It is a mighty fine hobby. Our only !ear is that
you will desert the model field. But we will take our chances &ince you will un-
doubtedly combine the two and give us the perfect radio control.
Mr.Ross A.Hull, associate editor o! QST, is undoubtedly one of the most sy-
stematic experimenter in this field. He has been succesful in controlling a
large model sailplane, not once but time after time. Quoting from his article
in Oct. 1937 issue of QST: "Casual glance at the problem would lead anyone to
imagine that it is all a perfectly simpa:e business. All one needs is some sort
of receiver that produces enough change in the plate current of an output tube
to operate a relay of some kind, the relay then being connected to a control de-
vice which produces the necessary effect. Closer examination, however, reveals
a host of problems which are juicy morsels for any experimentally inclined man.
---Our only hope .is to open the subject wide in knowledge that a few hundred of
us hammering at the same objective will have the problem really licked in short
tim~. • The receiver and rudder control which did thP trick on the sailplane are
snowu. We strongly recommend that you obtain this issue of the QS1. If you have
a slightest thought of working on the radio control, or if you wish to know just
makes a radio tick, government regulations on transmitting and licensing, and
.construction of receivers and transmitters, obtain a copy of the RADIO AMATEUR's
HANDB(X)K from American Radio Relay League, West Hartford, Conn. Price $1.00 P.
I Lm.,,t ol Molfon
RF C. 1
I

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annat ure and
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FIG • .J-THE CIRCUIT OF THE PREFERRED RECEIVER

C 1 - 17.S-,,.,.~d. mid:fet variabk (Hammarlwnd HF-15).
- - Armature held '
hy SP"nt/"' ~Uf "
pas1~1on

C2-1()()..,,_,. d . fix• condenKr. Wn(ro/ m~t

c.---0.01-~ d. fixed mica.
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conknser, with tM ~PP'- t>late bent at r.i•lu angk To/"l'!shl19h l
cdltn S<:rrt!S
with k nJd11rc
R1-I or .z..mesahm 1rid kak. re.lo'( amtact.s
R.-150.000-0hm. ~fixed ruiMor.
Ra-~a:ohm,, 'h""Watt /ixcd ra:Ur:or .
R4-S-ohm fixed raUtor.
~~g~::gtd'ts"~fr·i~·chok.
L1, ~Each 4 tunu No. 14 •-41lre, JA-inch dianlekf' . .
T1-Ant:e7i:':"f,!:;:,c;;:,~r=~~~h ;,: ::'hol:'::;o"~i rHE EXPERIMENTAL ESCAPEMENT USED TO
The ~efu~d.an Eby Ty~ ERJ2 wirh a 500()...ohm
CO '1VERT THE RUBBER-BAND MOTOR TORQUE
winding.
INTO RUDDER MOTIONS

RA~IO CONTROL FOR MODEL PLANES

by John S. Lopus W8LUZ
There have been many s1stems of radio control built for use in model planes.
Most o! them are simple and inexpensive, in fact they are too simple. Due to this
.the writer has made an' attempt to build a system which is not necessarily simple
but embodies the features which a good control system should have. These good
features consist of two thing, flexibility and rapid control action.
To achieve flexibility one must be able to operate three ~ontrol; eleva-
tor, rudder and motor. With these controls one can do most of t he plane ma~
aeuvers. Each control must be able to move instantly either ·side of neutral,
 63
and also the degree of moveRJent must be under the operator's control. The
system developed by writer and which was shown at the 19 37 'fatio:ials is still
in process of develoomcnt but it holds p~ar~ise of being something really dif-
ferent. Since the wor % is incomplete, only an explanation of the system will
be given.
ln this system, a tone signal is first generated and impressed upon a ra-
dio wave . This wave is picked up by the receiver and the "tone signal" portion
fed into the circuit 3!1-ector which operates the desired motor via relay. The
tone generator is of tuning fork variety. This is not too much trouble as
each signal generator consists of few parts. The Jiffe,•ent control signals are
obtained by using differeat generators.
The circuit selector is most important or "brains" of the whole control
system. It is of the resonant reed type. In this circuit selector the control
signal is fed into a coil which is wound on a transformer core that has an air
gap cut into it. Across this air gap there are mounted six steel reeds. The
co~trol signal causes a varyin~ magnetic flux across the air gap, which causes
all the reeds to vibrate slightly. One of the ree<ls, however, has the same na-
tural frequency as the control signal and it will vibrate strongl;i· due to reso-
nance. The reed rapidly makes and breaks a contact and acts as a switch which
closes a small relay. There are six reeds which control six relay, one for
each control function. The controls are operated by small reversable motors
which work through worm and gear to push or pull the control rod. When the mo-
tor stops the control will stay in position because of the worm and gear com-
bination.
The radio Transmitter is a standard five-meter transreceiver. The control
tone signals are fed into the niicroµhone circuit of the transmitter. The com-
plete system used on the plane weighted a 1i t lle over five pounds. Since then
it looks quite likely that the total will not exceed four pounds. This is a
very sketchy description of the control system but one can readily see that it
has features which are not contained in any other system. For instance, each
control can be operated instantly without going through any ~equence. This makes
for rapid control selection. Also many control signals can be impressed on the
same radio wave so that more than one control can be operated at a time.

RADIO CONTROL CIRCUITS

By Chester Lanzo

I have drawn a group of different types of radio control apparatus for the
experimentally i nclined radio control enthusiast. cannot say wh .i ch is the
best receiver as each has its advantages and disadvantages; experiment alone
Wi 11 tell .
r r4o MMl'.="-IUGE.rl. TO .5ELEl.TO~ oe
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I seem to have most success with this type of receiver using the 80 Meter
Band. I will switch to the 160 Meter Rand as I think more consistant ,results
will be obtained.
 80
I
METE~
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IN'DUGTAHce. MADE
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Regenerative-Detector with 2 stages of Audio Amplification

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Two types of circuit have proven their worth on the s meter band, the su-
perhet and the superregenerat i ve receiv~rs. The superhet rrquires many tubes
and high plate voltage to obtain consistant results. The superregenerator may
not equal the results obtained by the superhet but it is a lot easier to con-
struct and operate and it uses few tubes

Trees, hill and fences decrease or cut of! the signal to a great extent.
The lower frequency seem to produce a more stable and dependable receiver.
 6/i
The relays respond to different tones transmitted.

~"5-M_M_F_.,..___T_lc_~-~-R------------~

Type 19 TUBE is
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type. Two tri-
odes enclosed
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I am working on this device at the present time. The receiver is installed

in a car. No more lost gas jobs with this idea. The transmitter can be built to
weigh about 10 ounces and is installed in the plane. If after a length of time
the model goes out of sight or i s lost the transmitte~ signal is picked up by
the loop antenna and the direct i on in which the model lies is determined. Then
the volume of t he received signal will .tell wether you are approaching or going
away from the model.
 '"'
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SPECIAL NOTES ON MODELS SHOWN AS GLEANED FROM CORRESPONDENCE

Ilage 66 Peter Bower ,\n1phibian c'a s tlodel
The biggest problem wJ.s the desif;n of the hull. I took it up with ~the prof.
of the Guggenhe i m Aero nautical Lab down at Stanford, but he was not much help.
All he said was th at once it got up on the step, it would be able to get off the
wate r, . if I kept to the win g area and power 10ariini:; I had designed fo r. fl is only
suggestion was the addition of s tep vents , to cut down the water suction and en-
able the ship to get on th e step itself O!course , a push will get it up, hut,
what is the fun of that? Another reason "why I am sure it will be able to take
off the water is that the win g and tail have a positive angle of attack, rela-
tive t o the foreward motion of the ship on the wa ter. This means that before
the plane is moving fast enou gh to get lift from the top surface of the wing, it
is sort of kiting on the lower surface and so helping to ease the ship off water.
The m~del was first tried as a seaplane, and it did not get off the water,
al thought 1t go t up on the step quite nicely. Next I tried it as a landplane, and
it still did not get off the ground. Adding a couple of degrees of up-thrust
c ured the high-thrust-line trouble, and she got off alright for three . sweet flights-
She is quite f ast, and not as steady as big light jobs go, but she is stable, and
that is what counts. Due to the very high line of thrust, she flies with tail high
and starts a loop when the motor cuts. She pulls out of that, and comes in on a
flat circling glide.
The upthrust ·cured her water troubles too, and she takes off like a real
boat, planing alon g for nearl y a hundred yards before breaking off and climbing.
I go t .only one water-hop out of her as something slipped i n the air. The only
damage was a smash ed pilo ts cabin when the model hit the water. I shudder to
think what would have happe ned if she had hit on land. I f or~ot to mention that
on one of the previous tries, wh en she was planning at fu ll speed , one of the
win g floats snaggeri ·a fl oatin g bush and Hipped t he ship over on it's back. I
pulled it out,took th e cylrnde.i; off the engine, dumped out the water, put i.t
back t ogether and tried it again. The bus was bujit to take just such beatings.
The ship does and is st rong enough for a Cyclone. I had it in mind when I
designed it as I had my douhts about the Brat eeing able to get it off the wa-
ter. Howeve r, the Brat has plenty of power and t akes that plane to places ina
hurry. It is quite faster than any of my, other ships, even though it is .big for
a. Brat. It does not need much headwind to get off, just enough t o ruffle the
water is all th at i s necessary.

Page 94 Lawrence Faulkner Geared Model

"The gear arrangement is very good for . flyin g scale models. These models
are usually smaller, re quiri ng shorter motors which would be easy to handle. The
gears put weight in the nose and make possible a short fu s elage and small propel-
ler, all of which are very desirable in flying scale models. The model and the
gea rs were finished in NOV. 1937· It has had approximately 90 flights. I live
close to a lake and mos t of the flights were made using the ice of the lake as a
flying field. I make about s flights before the motor becomes so cold that the
model will not climb. Winder wound, the average duration is ~os. I expect bet-
ter flights in wammer weather . "
"During first flights I used right hand prop but later changed to a left
hand so that the motor could be wound right. I spent about a week experimenting
to build the gears. The chief trouble was:in finding bushings to fill the space
between a 1/16 shaft and the shaft hole .already in clock gears. Also I had such
a large collection of wheel~ and clocks that I did not know what I wanted to us~.
I have tried rear gear ar.rangements, but I had trouble in getting the lower mo-
tor to unwind . After considerable'experimenting with gears I have decided that
a f airly long fus6age wi th rubber tensioner combination is better for purely du-
ration models. I might mention that I nad bent shafts with my _front gear assem-
bly but this did not bind the runningaf the gears, very likely because of thin
lower gear which can swi ng on upper teeth without binding."
 139
Page 82 J.E. Adams Geared Wakefield Entry
"The biggest bug in using a gear device is the general weakness of the as-
sembly c9upled with a terrific loss of power in friction. Npw~on my motor I went
through a lot of trouble reducing friction in it, and except for a weakness which
I have now rectified, the gear device was as strong as necessary. To my way of
thinking usin~ a large supply of rubber is the best way to bring up the weight.
I definitely approve use of gears.
My model flew perfectly on its very first test and according to Rushy when
he flew it, it was the most stable of ships. Lovely climb and good duration. The
first flight was well over three minutes and the model most certainly would have
placed high had not one of the gear shafts given away. You see, instead of bend-
ing the hooks in the ends of the shafts to take the "S" hooks I foolishly went &
drilled small holes in them. This so weakened the shafts that they would nottake
strain imposed by so much rubber
The motor was ma.Cle up from brass gears procured from Boston Gear-Works, and
the box containing the gears was machined from a piece of celeron, a very tough
sort of fibre composition. Ball bearings eliminated a lot of friction.I certain-
ly expect to hang on to the gear idea."

Page 96 Fred Mayfield Paper Mach~

"I have nothing new on the paper mache but ]I might say that ·such mode ls work
out swell with the new weight rule because a large model may now be given an extra
coat of paper and a couple of coats of dope thereby making the model much. stronger
than before. All class "C" and ~"D" models should have four layers of paper excep\
in an unusual case such as the 011EY I drew plans for where I used a wing mount to
bring the fuselage up to the correct cross section. All paper mache fuselages
should be given one or two coats of clear dope with a light sanding after each
coat. They may then be given a coat of colored dope."

Page 112 Jacob Kosofsky Twin Pusher

"This pusher will fly without much trouble, just push the wing and elevator
forward and backward until suitable adjustment is found. The plane made qre on its
first flight before it entered a cloud about 1500 feet overhead. It was seen co-
ming in and out of the cloud several t : mes before it was completely lost. Since
then three more pushers have been built, identical with exception of using one
bladed props on the last one. The model with half blades also flew qm on only
half possible winds. This design of the prq;> helps to reduce drag in the glide
which brings the design in par with single prop models. It is my belief that with
the rise of the weight rule, the twin pu~her will come into its own since they
have normally been always over weight. With tractors and pushers on almost e-
qual weight rule conditions, all we need is proper streamlini'ng on pushers to
make the tractors watch out for its standing."

Page io2 Norman C. Schaller Push-Pull Fuselage

"To convert the ship to 3 oz. per lOO sq.in., use 16 strands, 30!" motors.
The fuselage will easily take this extra rubber as I am now using 18 strands.
The only other change is in the props, use 30" Pitch with no greater than i6"
diameter. A greater diameter effects the spiral stability too much. The props
could be cut• 'from i!" x l~ x 16 blanks. The new props should not weigh more
than s and q gr. for front and rear respectively. You may think my props ex-
tremely light for outdoor shjp but I found that light flexible props survive
crashes better than rigid. Also, there are very few crashes with this type of
ship as a stall results in no spiral dive or crash. The only real danger is that
the mod~l may not stall but continue on up and over. And then, what speed! Warn-
ing: Make sure the surfaces are held with ti~hlly streched bands so that they
will take high external load without 'givingJ but will break if there is an ex-
cess load due to a mishap
HISTORY: Tu start with, the P-P'idea seemed to.me the practical method by
which a 1 argr amount of rubber could be used and at the same time to do away
with large torque reaction which is ordinarily evident on fuselage models. It
140
~eemed better than to use gears or co-axial props for a number of reasons. \Vi th
a gear d . ive quite a bi t of weight is added and they are rather hard to get ope-
rating efficiently in actual service. Also there would still be the torque of
a single prop even though it was running at a high speed and comparatively low
torque. Co-axial props bring up the mechanical difficulties and efficiency of
props working one behind the other.
These considerations led me to experimenting with small stick jobs. I found
that I could almost double the length of power flight but the glide was poor.b-
ever with the advent of freewheeling props and with tbe application of a good
type of freewheeler paFticu1arly Lu the rear pro~ - I am able to ~et a glide and
sinking rate comparable -with the best tractor models.
The first fuselage des i gn had consistant flights but maximum duration was
only lm 30s. It would cruise at low altitudes and then just settle to earth. It
showed no soaring tendencies. I changed the wing design, hig h lift, low drag &
thin airfoil section. The rnodel then tried to loop under power and "gallop" in a
glide. If it did not l oop, it stalled, slipped back, recover and etc. lt be-
haved better when both thrust lines were adjusted to go throu gh or above the C.G.
but then it had a crazy tendency to come down in diving spiral. The real solu-
tion came when I used a larger and a lifting elevator and by experimenting set
the rudder so that the ship would fly right or left circle accord i ng to which
way it wanted to fly nMurally.
The stability attained when the model was correctly and finely aajusted was
as good as that of a tractor. The lateral stability and freedom f rom dives or
stalls was also improved by experimenting. Proof ; the original 19 33 fuselage is
still servicable .
ADJUSTING P-P-: The tail should be set to give eno ugh lift so that the plane
has a good glide when t he s hip balances between the rear third and half of the
wing. The prop thrust angles are then adjusted accordingly so that the ship does
not stall or turn over when under power. Iloth thrust lines should be changed at
once so that their int e rsec t ion lies along the vertical G.G. of the ship.
Both, lon gi tudinal and spiral stability can be improved by using a fuselage
whose sha,pe does not contribute much lift or which has a negative Center of Pres-
sure tr~vel. llence the reason for the odd shape of 1;1y fuselage. It would have
been st ill ·better if the general contour was followed but use an elliptical cross
sectiou instead of rectangular. The important thing to keep in mind about P-P
cabin design is to minimize the effect of the side fuselage area. Use high lift
wing, lifting tai 1, adj ust tnrust lines very carefulli. and allow the ship to
turn on its natural ci rc le.

Page io3 Richard Schumacher Brown - 3 Flying Scale

" As for flying scale, before the advent of the gas model, it was the most
popular model around here. And as the result, I think the State Fair has the best
set of rules used. I picked the Brown because it had fairly simple lines and was
to my esti~ation, well proportioned for a model, i.e., enough rudder, stab area,
snappy looks and some dihedral, which means that by putting some more dihedral
for good stability it would not go as hard with your rating as if the real plane
was rigged with none. The results proved very gratifying.
I had one at the '.39 Fair that had a M-6 airfoil and a motor stick. The mo-
del flew well but the glide was not the best; placed 2nd with it. Last year I
built another one and put a rubber tensioner and an undercambered wing section
and took away the motor . stick. The performance was, as you would suspect,remark-
ably improved Th·e airfoil section (suggested by Rod Doyle and drawn up by me)
worked like a charm and the model has a good glide as th~ average fuselage design.
The ten strands of 3/16 gives the model a near 'Tulsa Climb'. I hadn't played a-
round with it enough but I think that it would almost give the fuselage a com-
petition if it was pr perly tuned up .
Incidently, the fact that it is a low wing doesn't seem to hurt the perfor-
mance a bit . As you notice, it has no down thrust which helps a bit to prove
that the right thrust adjustment is better than putting more negative in the
stabilizer of a low wing. It allows the model to be adjusted for the best glide
 141
dnd power flight, and not the best power fli ght alone . .Uso note that if yo u
choose the ri ght plane, it is not necessary to ehlarge the t ail surfac es ~nd so
make people ask if you des i gned it all by yourself. 11
'37 CALIF. STATE FAIR FLYl"G SCALE MODEL EVENT
SPECIFICATIONS: A flyinq scale model shall be as nearly as possiole a replica of
a U.S. Military or Commercial man carrying airp lane manucatured .in the U.S. sin ce
Jan. 1st, 1936 and shall represent to scale all the esst!ntial parts riccess3ry Lr
controlled stable flight. ~irfo11s shall be double surfaced. Plans must accom-
pany the entry blank.
D~AWINGS: Of the actual airplane model are to be obtained from U.S. Ch1mber of
Com~erce Year Book, Aero Digest, or the ~nnual Directory of National Avi3tion.
The 5cale to which the model is constructed shal I be clearly indicated on the
drawing.
SCALE: Models built 1o any of the foll~wing scales will be given a bonus for con-
struction: 4" equals I ft.; ~"e quals I ft.; d" equals I ft.; and I" equals I ft.
Models may be built to other scales but are not desired.
PROPELLER: May be any shape, but shall have a ground clearance of 9" measured
1

to the same scale to which the model is built. The propell er diameter shall
not be greater than 1/3 the wing span unless the authentic drawing call spe-
cifically for a larger propeller.
WING LOADING: Shall be at least I oz . (Av.) for each area uriit of 50 sq.in.
of effective wing area when ready to fly.
CREDIT: A maximum of 200 points may be credited to the ffiodel for construction
features based on the following score:
Craftsmanship-------------- SO pts. Power plant, etc.----------100 pts.
(Fidelity to the authentic drawing, Color arid Finish----------- 2D pts.
fuselage, wings, empenage, Originality in indication
landing gear) of parts -------------------1~-~is.
Total 200 pts.
A model will be disqualified in this event if the construction credits are below
100 pts. To the construction will be added the total time for three official
flights •
. LAUHCHING TECHNIQUE: The Model shall be launched by holding it by the tip of
one wing and the propeller to prevent an initial start. The model is required
to R.O.G. from a standstill under its own power.

Page 81 Franlt Zaic 193 7 Wakefield Entry

The model has had many changes since it was built. During the initial
trials the model flew normally under low power of 24 strands of 1/8. Bu t spun
while under full power of i 8 strands of i /q . Very ~ensitive to rudder con-
trol. Dihedral increased from 4 11 to 6 11 • Spinning tendency almost removed
but the model still banked steeply while under full power, and also still
sensitive to rudder control. Later changes reduced the rudder area to out-
line as shown in dotted lines. Also a short motor trial idea was used for
full power testing. The results with reduced rudder area were sati sfacto ry,
the model would almost keep level under full power. The climb was steep in
a large circle. Th e only fault left was that the model tended to rock every
once in a while.
From these tests our theory of correct rudder, dihedral and power combi·
nation seems t o be substantiated. A dihedral decrease to 5 should cure the
11

rocking. Therefore, the design may be accepted for proportions. The stabi-
lizer area was also reduced to 33% by cuttin g off the tip portion. No loss
of longitudinal stability noticed.
142
OFFICIAL LIST OF UNITED STATES MODEL AIRCFAFT RECORDS
Approved by Contest Board of the Ii.A.A. March 1st. 1938

INDOOR OUTDOOR
STICK CLASS 'A' (30. · sq.in. orunderJ STICK CLASS 'C' (zoo I 150 sq. in.)
RISE OFF GROUND HAND LAUNCHED
12.rn 27s JR: William Jackson Hornell,N. Y. 7m 44.2s
i~~ ~~l~ ~~~:er 15m 47.4s SR: Jerry Kolb
llJn 33.8s OP: Bernarr Anderson
Cleveland 1 Ohio
Akron, Ohio
41m 15s
12.rn 52s
OP: Joe Matulis
STICK CLASS 'D' (1 50 -300 sq.in.!
RISE OF F WATER
7m 2..'Js HAND LAUNCHED
JR : W.K. Hewson Atlant ic City , N.J.
8m 5.4s JR: Henry Falkowski Buffa.lo,N. Y. IDm lls
g~; rr~~ey,~~h~t A;i!~;d:mMa~:: 8m 42.2s
gt~~!i~~a;
SR : Edward Swort 1 2m 35.5s
OP: Harry Walker ooio 36m 38.4s
STICK CLASS 'B' (30-100 sq. in.!
CABIN FUSELAGES CLASS 'C'
HAND LAUNCHED
RISE OFF GROUND
JR: John Stokes Jr. Huntingdon Val.Pa. 16m 12. 2s
Sr. Wallace Simz:iers Chicago, Ill. 21.m 3Js JR: Wesley Peters Akron Ohio l&n 42. 41
OP: Ernest A.Walen Springfleld,Ma.ss. 18m 46.5s SR: Wafi:e Fullmer Camillusb N. Y. 4lm 3J. 5s
OP: R. Bodle Akron, 0 io 1111 5ls
RISE OFF GROUND
RISE OFF WATER
JR: John Stokes, Jr. Huntinl!don Va.l. Pa. 1 ?rn 19. 3s
SR: Milton Huguelet Chica.eo 1 Ill. l?rn 36.4s SR: Roy E. Stoner Rockford, Ill. 1m 12s
OP: Ernest A. Walen Springfield,Ma.ss. 17m 42.es
CABIN FUSELAGES CLASS 'D'
RISE OFF WATER RISE OFF GROUND
JR: David Call Philadelphia,Pa.. lOm 41.~s
JR: Robert Guilfoy
SR : Walter Lees Philadelphia, Pa. 14m 35. 4s ~~~ui~fu~~· 1m 32s
22n1 l.2s
OP: Wm. Latour Philadelphia, Pa. 13m 15s 8~~ M~t:r~ai~~d~r. Cleveland, Ohio 54m 1.3s
STICK CLASS 'C' (1oa-150 sq.in.! RISE OFF WATER
HAND LAUNCHED SR: Roy E. Stoner Rockfor.d , . Ill. 1m 13s
JR: John Stokes Jr. Jluntingdon Val.Pa. 20Di 53s
SR: Robert Jaco~son Philadelphia , Pa. 25m 29s GASOLINE POWERED FUSELAGES CLASS 'E'
OP: Carl Goldberg Chicago, Ill. 23m 29.3s RIS .' OJ.l'F GROUND (300 sq. in. and over-J
CABIN FUSELAGE CLASS 'B' .SR: Fiske Hanley Fort Warth 1 Tex. OOm 29s
RISE OFJI' GROUND OP: Maxwell Bassett Philadelphia,Pa. 'IDm 2s
JR: John Stokes,Jr. Huntin11don Val.Pa. 14111 15.'l!l OUTDOOR GLIDERS CLASS 'B'
SR: Charles Heintz Philadelphia,Pa.. 13ltl 15.3s HAND LAUNCHED
:JP: John Gi.ml.etti Atlantic City,N.J. 1'7111 48.6s
RISE OF!" WATER ~~ ~~t~~ll~~~!f~ teiett,MMass. 1ro 42.Ss
12ni 57e
JR: Matthew Smith W h·ngt 0 D C ?m 50s OP: Bruno Marchi Medr~~~. A!:;. 46n
SR: Sidney Axelrod
OP: Wm. Latour
ch~c!go rh.. .
Phila.delphia ,Pa..
&u 32.2s
5rn 42a
OUTDOOR GLIDERS
HAND LAUNCHED
CLASS 'C'

CABIN FUSELAGE CLASS 'C' JR: Horace Sllith Jacksonville,Fla. 3os

&n 3'.).4s
RISE OFF GROUND ~~; J~!~ ~~Ph~~~,Jr~s~:~ Yo~k;·N.Y. 31.5s
JR: John Stokes, Jr. Huntingdon Val. Pa. 15£ 5. 6s
SR: John Haw Philadelphia, Pa. l?m 14.Ss TOW LINE LAUNCHED
OP: Roy Wriston Tulsa, Okla. 141n 44.9s JR: Ralph Brown Arlington Mass 9m 32s
b ·1 Colwnbus ,6bio ' 2an 1~
HAND LAUNCHED GLIDERS CLASS 'A' ~~; ~er~teTasker Beeton, M11>ss. 4111 25s
i~~ ~!il~~eH~:;~;
OP: Carl Goldberg
~~~~: m:
Chica.go, Ill.
~:~:
45. 4s
OUTDOOR GLIDERS
HAND LAUNCHED
CLASS 'D'
1 1
HAND LAUNCHED GLIDERS CLASS B SR: lldward L.Smith Jacksonville,Fla.. 38s
JR: Robert Gelbard Chicago, I ll. 49.2s TOW LINE LAUNCHED
SR: Wallace Simmers Chicago, I ll. 58.4s
OP: Carl Goldberg Chicago, Ill. 47.5s JR: Paul Durup Boeton,Mass 57.Bs
SR: Dick Everett Elm Grove, \i, Va. :dll 38s
AUTOGIROS, Launchinf Optional No Classes OP: Roland Buhrig Canastota, N, Y. 1.m 18s

~~ ~~~~~l~:;k1
OP: Carl Goldberg
g!~=~: m:
Chicago, Ill.
4111 29,23
2ni 26. 5s
548
OUTDOOR GLIDERS
TOW LINE LAUNCHED
CLASS IE I

HELICOPTERS, Launchinf Optional, 1io Classes SR: Jack Smith,Jr. Dayton, Ohi>o l.m 23.4e
AUTOGIROS, Launching Optional, No Classes
~; ~t~t~~ro~rski lfJ~~~~~ntn~s.
2ni 15.58
4m 35s SR: Sanford Clevinger Kansas City, Mo. 21. 4s
OP: Carl Goldberg Chicago, Ill. 2m 46.2s
HELlaJPTERS, Launching oPtional, No Classes
ORNITHOPTERS, Launching oPtional, No Cla.sses SR: Glen O ' Roak Boston, Mass. 15s
JR:. Mil ton Huguelet Chicago, Ill. 1m 36. Sa
:IB: Derua..is Turner Chicai;o, Ill. 4rn 19.2s ORNITHOPTERS, Launching Optional, No Classes
OP: C<ll'l Goldberg Chicago, Ill. 1m lBs SR: Leona.rd Elgenson Chicago, Ill. 6s

QUALIFICATIONS: Min.Fuselage cross section area 12/100. Min. weight for outdoor
models is 3 oz./100 sq.in., except gliders for which the min. is 2 oz./100 sq'.in.
Max.Towline, 100 feet. Best flight of three trials. Delayed flights dnd model fol-
lowin~ by timer allowed. JR: Up to 16 years. SR: Between i6-21. OP: Over 21.
 GAS MODEL PLANS

Carl Goldberg----66 E.J. Weathers----74 Peter Bowers-----82

Carroll Krupp----57 Bob Jeffery------75
Al van Wymersch--68 Chas. T. Marcy---76
~tto M1chal1cka--69 J.Tom Laurie-----77
Michael J. Roll~-70 H. Stiglmeier----78
Bob Jeffery------71 Frank Ehling-----79
M. Lartigue------72 Frank Ehling-----80
R. Schumacher----73 Ted Foti---------81
W.A;KIE·F'IELD PLANS
Ennnanuel Fillon--89 Dick Korda-------94
Jim Cahill-------90 Alvie Dague------95
Andre Vincre--·---91 Robert Copland---96
Al van Wymersch --92 H. Kerkhoff------97
Frank Zaic-------93 K. Schlhidtberg---98
OUTDOOR FUSELAGES PLANS
Harald W. Orvin-101 Wayne Fulmer----109
1'l.C.Schaller----105 Vernon Grey-----110
John Kubilis Jr-106 L.Faulkner------111
H. Stiglmeier---107 W.B.Mackley-----112
Dan Halacy------103 Stan Clurrnan----113
OUTDOOR STICK PLANS Stan Clurrnan----113
Lockton Park----118
John Kubilis Jr-106 J. Stormont-----119
H. Stiglmeier.:.--107 Roy Marquardt---1~
INDOOR STICK PLANS INDOOR I:USELAGE PLANS
Thos. G.Harris--125 Ernie Barrie----129
Walter Erbach---126 Vernon Grey-----130
Roy Marquardt---12? John T. Dilly---131
Vernon Parker---128
HELICOPTER AUTO GIRO
Richard Obarski-135 Milton Huhuelet-136
CONTRIBUTIONS.
Frank Ehling-----83
Leighton Webb----84
L.M.Adams--------85
J.K.Coppage------86
Leon Shulman-----87
J.& R. Guillemard88
M.E. McKinney----99
G. Haase--------100
J.E.Ada~s----~--102
B. Anderson-----103
Bob Chatelain---104
Chester Lanzo---114
Richard Korda---115
Fred Mayfield---116
R. Schtnnacher---117
Harry Walker----121
Jim Noonan------122
A.c.cowles------123
Jacob Kosofsky--124
INDOOR R.O.G. PLANS
Vo~non Grey-----132
Ralph Brown-----133
Milton Huguelet-134
ORNITHIPTER
Dennis Turner---137

Resume of 1'iT .A. C. A. Report 1¥586---- by Jacobs and Sherman-'---- ---12

Aerobalance---- - - --.---------------by
Action of Dihedral 1n Side Drifts-by
Effect of Dihedra.l: '!\l"ACA Rep. -#494--by
The Gyroscope and the Gas Model---by
Push-Pull Speed Models------------by
Geared Rubber Models--------------by
Geodetic Construct1on-------------by
Some of my Findings---------------by
Calculations Formulas-------------by
Extracts from Cdrrespondence------by
Wings---- - ---~--------~---~-------by
Rubber Turns, Torque and Pitch----by
The Single Bladed Gas Props-------by
Streamlining Gas Models-----------by
Radio Control for Model Plans-----by
Radio Control Circuits------------by
A.G. 'llTymeyer---- .- - ..: ----~--17
Alban Cowles Jr.----------25
Weick, Soule and Gough----31
D.J.Cameron---------------36
Stanley Clurman-------- - --10
Fred Rogers·o n-------------42
Roy Harqu a rat---- - ------- - 50
William W~ Saunders-------50
Arvid Palmgren------------51
Henry Stiglmeier----------52
Dick Everett--------------53
J.P.Glass-----------------54
Don G. McLeod-------------57
Carroll P. Krupp----------60
John s. !:.opus-------------62
Chester Lanzo-------------63

GENERAL THEORY & PRACTICE

Aerodynamics--------3 Spiral Stab~lity---23 Outdoor Models-----45
Low Speed Aerodyna.-9 Dihedral & Rudder--33 Gas Models---------56
Select.of A1rfo1ls-14 Testing Procedure--35 Outdoor Model H1nts48
Longitudinal Sta.--19 Propeller Theory---38 Special Notes-----138
 MODi.L GuoEa 0ES\GN
~ ;:.-~

If you have the above two books and this

Volume #2, you have the world's most complete
collection of data on Model Aerodynamics and
a grand total of 220 plans of every type of
model known. If you lack one of them, it am
be obtained from your dealer or direct. The
price is $1.00 each, Postpaid.
At present we only have three books. We
would like to prepare and publish a new Year
Book, but circumstances are not very favorab]e
right now. We will advertise it when and if
it is published.
MODEL AERONAUTIC PUBLICATIONS
203 EAST lSrn STREET NEW YORK

• by Fred Colbus, &in Francl~

(via Weathers)

'Ale Encl