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Module 1: Introduction

Lecture 2: Foundations of heat transfer

Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer
 Introduction
Three Modes of Heat Transfer:
➢ Conduction
➢ Convection
➢ Radiation

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Convection is referred as heat transfer phenomenon when heat is transferred between solid

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surface and fluid in motion.

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Ex. The flow of fluid over a cylinder, inside a tube and between parallel plates.

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𝑻∞

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𝑻𝒘 N

Convection also includes the study of thermal interactions between fluids.

Ex. Jet issuing into a medium of the same or a different fluid.
𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐
 Important Factors in Convective Heat Transfer
𝑇𝑖 > 𝑇∞ 𝑇∞
′′
𝑞𝑤
Suppose that the exit temperature 𝑇𝑒 is too high and that
𝑟 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑟) 𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑜
we wish to lower it. 𝑇𝑖 𝑥
𝑇𝑒 𝑟
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑟) ′′
𝑞𝑤
What are the options? 𝐿

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• Place a fan and force the ambient fluid to flow over the pipe by increasing the velocity.

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• Change the ambient fluid having higher heat transfer coefficient.

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• Increase the surface area by increasing the length or diameter of the pipe.

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Three factors play major roles in convective heat transfer.

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➢ Fluid motion
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➢ Fluid nature Fu PT
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➢ Surface geometry
 Focal Point in Convective Heat Transfer

Interest:
Determination of surface heat transfer rate, 𝑞𝑤 and/or surface temperature, 𝑇𝑤 .

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Focal point:

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Determination of the temperature distribution in a moving fluid.

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In Cartesian coordinate,

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𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
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 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:
𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
Heat flux: 𝑞𝑥′′
= −𝑘 = −𝑘
𝑑𝑥 𝐿

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The negative sign denotes heat transfer in the direction of decreasing temperature.

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𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2

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Heat transfer rate: 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥′′ 𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴

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𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐿

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General form of Fourier’s Law: 𝜕𝑇

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N 𝑞𝑥′′ = −𝑘
𝜕𝑥
𝑞 ′′ = −𝑘𝛻𝑇 𝜕𝑇
′′
𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘
𝜕𝑦
Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient 𝜕𝑇
W/m2 Material property °C/m or K/m 𝑞𝑧′′ = −𝑘
W/m.K 𝜕𝑧
To obtain 𝑞𝑥 or 𝑞𝑥′′ , we need to find the temperature distribution 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 .
 Newton’s Law of Cooling
Heat transfer rate: 𝑞𝑤 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑼∞

′′ = 𝑞 /𝐴 = ℎ (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑞𝑤
Heat flux:

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𝑤 𝑤 ∞

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Heat transfer coefficient

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W/m2.K

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′′
𝑞𝑤

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Surface temperature: 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑇∞ +

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ℎ
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 Heat Transfer Coefficient
𝑞𝑤
ℎ= Heat transfer coefficient is not a material property.
𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ )
ℎ = ℎ(geometry, fluid motion, fluid properties, ∆𝑇)

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Heat transfer coefficient plays a major role in convective heat transfer.

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Typical values of h

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h (W/m2.K)

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Process

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Free convection

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Gases 5 - 30

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Liquids 20 - 1000

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Forced convection Fu PT
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Gases 20 - 300
Liquids 50 - 20,000
Liquid metals 5,000 - 50,000
Phase change 2,000 - 100,000
Boiling
5,000 - 100,000
Condensation
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
Does 𝒉 depend on temperature distribution?
𝑼∞
′′
𝜕𝑇
Fourier’s Law: 𝑞𝑤 = −𝑘 ቤ
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

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′′ = ℎ (𝑇 − 𝑇 )

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Newton’s Law of Cooling: 𝑞𝑤

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𝑤 ∞

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Combining the above two equations,

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𝜕𝑇

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ℎ (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ ) = −𝑘 ቤ

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𝜕𝑇
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−𝑘 ฬ

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𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
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ℎ =
(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ )

To determine ℎ, we need to find the temperature distribution 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 .

 Nusselt Number
Convective Heat Transfer ℎ ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢 = = =
Conductive Heat Transfer 𝑘/𝐿 𝑘 𝑼∞
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
−𝑘 ฬ −𝐿 ฬ
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0 𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

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ℎ𝐿

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ℎ =

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𝑁𝑢 = =

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(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ ) 𝑘 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ )

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Non-dimensional temperature: Non-dimensional 𝑦 coordinate:

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𝑦

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𝑇 − 𝑇∞

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∗
𝑦 =
𝜃=

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𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ 𝐿

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𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝜃 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ 𝜕𝜃

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ቤ = 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ ቤ = ቤ

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𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0 𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
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𝐿 ∗
𝜕𝑦 𝑦∗ =0

𝜕𝜃
𝑁𝑢 = − ∗ ቤ
𝜕𝑦 𝑦∗=0

So Nusselt number is non-dimensional temperature gradient at the wall.

 Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation
The total emission of radiation per unit surface area and per unit time from a blackbody
is related to the fourth power of the absolute temperature 𝑇𝑤 of the surface by the
Stefan–Boltzmann law of radiation.
Energy outflow due to emission:
𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇𝑤4

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Emissive power

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Stefan-Boltzmann constant

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of a blackbody 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2.K4

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W/m2

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For a real surface:

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𝑞𝑟′′ = 𝜀𝐸𝑏 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇𝑤4

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Radiative flux Surface emissivity
W/m2
0≤𝜀≤1
Energy absorption due to irradiation: 𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝛼𝐺
Irradiation
Absorbed incident Surface absorptivity W/m2
radiation
W/m2 0≤𝛼≤1
 Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation
Special case of surface exposed to large surroundings of uniform temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
𝐺 = 𝐺𝑠𝑢𝑟 = 𝜎𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟

If 𝛼 = 𝜀, the net radiation heat flux from the surface due to

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exchange with the surroundings is

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𝑞𝑟′′ = 𝜀𝐸𝑏 − 𝛼𝐺 = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑤4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4
)

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𝑞𝑟′′ = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑤2 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
2
) (𝑇𝑤2 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
2

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𝑞𝑟′′ = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 ) (𝑇𝑤 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 ) (𝑇𝑤2 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
2

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or, 𝑞𝑟′′ = ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 ) Fu PT
where ℎ𝑟 = 𝜀𝜎 (𝑇𝑤 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 ) (𝑇𝑤2 + 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
2 )
N

Radiation heat transfer coefficient

W/m2.K
For combined convection and radiation,
𝑞 ′′ = 𝑞𝑐′′ + 𝑞𝑟′′ = ℎ(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ ) + ℎ𝑟 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 )
 External and Internal Flows
External flows involve a flow, that is essentially infinite in extent, over the outer surface
of a body.

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Internal flows involve a flow through duct or channel.

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𝑇𝑖 > 𝑇∞ 𝑇∞

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𝑞𝑤

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𝑟 𝑥 𝑟𝑜
𝑇𝑖

𝐿
 Forced, Natural and Mixed Convection
The fluid motion is
caused by some external The flow is generated by
means such as a fan or the body forces that
pump. occur as a result of the
density changes arising

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from the temperature

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changes in the flow field.

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 Incompressible Flow Equations
Assumptions:
➢ Incompressible flow
➢ Newtonian fluid flow
➢ Constant properties

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In Cartesian coordinates (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)

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Continuity equation:

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𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤

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+ + =0

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𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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𝑥 − component momentum equation:

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𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢

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𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− +𝜇 + + + 𝜌𝑔𝑥

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𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

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𝑦 − component momentum equation:
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− +𝜇 + + + 𝜌𝑔𝑦
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑧 − component momentum equation:
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕2𝑤
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =− +𝜇 + + + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
 N
Fu PT
Pr nd EL
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Incompressible Flow Equations
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Thank You