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Chemical Bonding
o Chemical bonds are forces that hold atoms together to make
compounds or molecules.
o Atoms reduce their overall energy, and they reach their lowest
energy by achieving a balance between attractive and
repulsive forces. (Bonds minimize energy)
o When two atoms approach each other, the electrong of each
are attracted to the protons of the other. (Electrostatic Force –
like charges repel, opposites attract)
o When one atom is attracted to another, the pull is so strong that
the energy rises when the two are separated, so they stay close.
o When atoms get too close, the nuclei repel each other because
of their like charges, and the energy between them rapidly
increases and they both back off just enough to find perfect
distance between them.
o BOND LENGTH – The distance between two nuclei at the
point of minimum energy. (Where the attractive and
repulsive forces cancel each other out.)
Polarity – Separation of charges
- When the lectrons hang out closer to one side of the bond, it
creates a slight negative charge in that area and a slight
positive charge around the other atom.
Polar Covalent Bond
- A covalent bond in which the two atoms have different
electronegativities, causing a separation of charges.
- Formed by uneven sharing of electrons between two nonmetals
or metalloids.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
- A covalent bond in which the two atoms have identical or very
similar electronegativities, so that the charges are distibuted
evenly.
- Formed by equal (or nearly equal) sharing of electrons between
two nonmetal or metalloid aroms.

COVALENT BOND
o A bond formed by atoms sharing electrons. NONPOLAR POLAR ION
o Atoms with relatively similar electronegativities share electrons
(neutral) (partially charged) (formally charged)
between them and are connected by covalent bonds.
o Tend to form from non-metals and sometimes metalloids,
because most of them hold their electrons so tightly that they’re
more likely to share them with another atom than to gain or lose
them altogether.
o Properties:
 Soft solids, liquids, or gases
 Often not soluble in water (Even when they are, the
solutions don’t conduct electricity)

Electronegativity – The ability of an atom to attract shared electrons.

- The electrons are more attracted to the atom with the higher EN DIFFERENCE (Type of bond)
electronegativity.
0 – 0.4 0.5-1.7 >1.7
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IONIC BOND INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES

o A bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to
another. (Metal to a nonmetal)
o A bond formed between a positive ion and a negative ion.
o Atoms with large differences in electronegativity transfer
electrons to form ions. The ions then are attracted to each other.
This attraction is known as an ionic bond.
o Metals have loosely-help outer electron shells, so they are
constantly dropping electrons and becoming positive ions.
o Ionic bonds are extremely polar, way more polar than polar
covalent bonds
o Properties:
 Often crystalline in solid form
 Generally soluble in water
 Conductor of electricity when dissolved.
Coulomb’s Law – A formula that calculates the amount of
energy that exists in a bond between ions at a given distance.
- Only works for ionic bond because it requires the charges of the
ions, which covalent don’t have.
Example:
Sodium Chlorine (NaCl)
o Forces within the molecule.
o Examples: Covalent bonds, Ionic bonds
o Breaking of bonds = New substances
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
o Forces between the molecules.
1. DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTIONS
- The attraction that exists between molecules with
permanent dipoles.
- Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between the
positive end of one polar molecule and the negative
end of another polar molecule.
- The partially positive end of a polar molecule is attracted
to the partially negative end of another.
2. LONDON DISPERSION FORCES (Van der Waals)
- Temporary attractive force between substances due to
random e- movement.
- Exist in any substance that contains electrons.
3. HYDROGEN BONDS
- Dipole-dipole interaction.
- Occur in molecules where Hydrogen is directly bound to
Fluorine, Oxygen, or Nitrogen.
4. ION –DIPOLE
- Exist between polar molecules and ions

Ion - Dipole

STRENGTH
Hydrogen Bonds
Dipole – Dipole
London Dispersion
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (relationship) SOLIDS
o There are two main categories of solids: crystalline and
Attractive forces = Energy required to overcome IMF
amorphous.
Melting and Boiling Point
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
o Solid that has its atoms, ions, or molecules arranged in an orderly
way.
Nonpolar covalent = Van der Waals force
o Since all the bonds in a crystal are the same length, their all
Polar covalent = check geometry (dipole-dipole) equally strong. Which means they can be broken by the same
amount of energy and their melting points are very specific
Ionic = Ion-ion temperatures, not broad ranges.
o Has repeating patterns/symmetry.
o PROPERTIES:
- Anisotropic - Responds differently to forces, depending
on the direction of impact.
- Brittle than amorphous solids.
o TYPES:
 MOLECULAR SOLIDS
– are made up of covalent compounds that form an
orderly crystalline structure as they solidify, while their
molecules remain unchanged. (Water ice, dry ice,
sugar)
– The molecules are held up by weak Van der Waals
forces, they break down easily.
– Soft, low melting points
 IONIC SOLIDS
– Solid form of ionic compounds (NaCl, CaCO3,
MgSO4)
– Soluble in water and other polar solvent.
– Have very high melting points.
 ATOMIC SOLIDS
– Are made up of individual atoms, not molecules at
all.
– TYPES:
1. NETWORK SOLIDS – The atoms form a rigid crystal
structure. (Diamond)
2. GROUP 18 SOLIDS – are the solid phase materials
of noble gases.
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3. METALS - The atoms form several different
arrangements in order to best take advantage of
the space and the structure, called Closest

Crystal Lattice
Packing Arrangements. Metals are malleable
(able to be pounded flat) and ductile (able to be
stretched into a wire). Atoms in metals are large
that the valence electrons aren’t held very
strongly by the nucleus. They form a sea of
electrons wandering from 1 nucleus to another.
These feely moving electrons are the main reason
that metals conduct heat and electricity so
easily. The nuclei are bonded together by the Unit Cell: Smallest repeating pattern of crystalline solids.
electrons that are all around them, making the Unit cells are like bricks in a wall – they are all identical
metal structure extremely strong. But the bonds and repeating. (can have two types in a crystal lattice)
are flexible, allowing deformations to form metals – Characterized according to its sides and
dimensions.
o CRYSTAL STUCTURE
- Crystal System - used to describe the structure of the Crystal Systems: can be characterized according to the
crystalline solid. dimensions of your unit cell. (Lattice System/Crystal
- Crystal Structure is the structure/arrangement of the Family) The seven crystal systems are a method of
particles in a crystalline solid. classifying crystals according to their atomic lattice or
- TERMS: structure.
Lattice Point: The center of the specific positions
occupied by the atoms, molecules, or ions in a crystalline
solid. (Meeting points)(Not all crystals have their
atoms/molecules found on their lattices – can be found
on sides/phase)
Crystal Lattice: A repeating pattern of atoms, molecules,
or ions in a crystal, that is, the three-dimensional array
lattice points.
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THE SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEMS Tetragonal Cell

Orthorhombic Cell

Simple Cubic Cell

Rhombohedral Cell
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Monoclinic Cell - Properties:
– High melting point
– Low vapor pressure
– Brittle
– Poor conductors of electricity in solid form; good
conductors if melted or dissolved (solution)

Triclinic Cell
2. Molecular Solids
- Solid that is made up of nonmetals and relatively small.
- Molecular solids could either be nonmetals (Sulfur),
diatomic element (HCl), or compounds (ice, sugar).
Dry Ice - Structure:
 Strong intramolecular forces – insulators (don’t
have a lot or free electrons)
 Weak intermolecular forces – low melting point
Hexagonal Cell  Can form polymers – Commercial and biological
applications.

3. Covalent Network Solids

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
1. Ionic Solids
- Solids that are made up of combination of metal and
nonmetal.
- Structure: Made up of ions, which are atoms that either
gained or lost electrons (Cations, Anions)
Coulomb’s law – if they have large charges, it’s going to
have a better structure or lattice energy, and if they’re
smaller it’s going to have greater structure (because
charges are closer together).
- The atoms in network solid exist in a network structure,
which each atom is linked to several others in various
directions.
- Solid that has large structure of covalently bonded
atoms.
- Solids that are made up of vast networks of
interconnected atoms.
- Examples: Diamond, graphite.
- Covalent Network Solids are made up of either one
nonmetal (Graphite, Silicon) or two nonmetals (Silicon
dioxide).
- Covalent network solids are made from the carbon
group (have 4 valence electrons).
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- Structure:  They are good conductors of heat and
 2-dimensional (sheets) electricity.
 3-dimensional (lattices)  They possess bright luster.
(Have different properties depending on their  They have high melting and boiling points.
structure)  They have moderate heats of fusion
- Example:
 Graphite – soft (have soft layers), high melting
point (covalent bonds), share pi bonds
 Silicon – higher melting point, semi-conductor,
doping (add other
 elements to it)
 Diamond – brittle (tend to break along the seam
between atoms called cleavage plane),
insulators, share sigma bonds
- Properties:
 Have high melting point

The difference in the nature and arrangement of their chemical bonds

completely changes their physical, chemical, and electrical
characteristics.

4. Metallic Solids
- Solid that is made up of metal.
- In these type of solids, the constituent particles are metal
atoms. The interparticle forces in these solids are metallic
bonds. In the metallic crystals the metal atoms occupy
the fixed positions but their valence electrons are mobile.
- The close packed assembly of metal kernels (part of
metal atom without valence electrons) remain immersed
in the sea of mobile valence electrons. The attractive
force between the kernels and mobile valence electrons
is termed as metallic bond.
- Characteristics:
 They generally range from soft to very hard.
 They are malleable and ductile.
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Classific Particle Forces ples
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS ation s
o Amorphous means “without shape” Atomic Atoms London Soft, very low Noble
o Solid whose particles have no orderly patter dispersion melting, poor gases
o Includes foams, gels, colloids, mayonnaise, rubber, waxes, and forces thermal and
fat. And also coal, silicon, and glass. electrical
o Amorphous doesn’t mean soft or flexible, although some conductors
amorphous solids are. The classification is about their atomic
Molecul Polar or Vander Fairly soft, low to Dry
structure is disordered or random.
ar non – Waal’s moderately high ice
o Amorphous solids include both natural and man-made
polar forces melting points, poor (solid,
materials. The most frequently cited example of an amorphous
molecul (London thermal and meth
solid is glass. However, amorphous solids are common to all
es dispersion, electrical ane
subsets of solids. Additional examples include thin film lubricants,
dipole – conductors
metallic glasses, polymers, and gels.
dipole forces
o PROPERTIES:
hydrogen
 The strength of the bonds holding them are also random. bonds)
 Amorphous solids melt gradually.
Ionic Positive Ionic bonds Hard and brittle, high NaCl,
 Amorphous solids don’t have the sharp discrete melting
and melting points, high ZnS
points. They melt over a range of temperatures as the
negativ heats of fusion, poor
heat energy increases.
e ions thermal and
 Amorphous solids also respond to stress very differently
electrical
than crystalline solids.
conductors
 Isotropic – responds the same to forces from every
Covale Atoms Covalent Very hard, very high Diam
direction.
nt that are bonds melting points, poor ond,
connec thermal and quartz
ted in electrical ,
covalen conductors silicon
t bond
network
Metallic Cations Metallic Soft to very hard, low All
in bonds to very high melting metall
electro points, excellent ic
n cloud thermal and elem
electrical ents,
conductors, for
malleable and exam
ductile ple,
Cu,
Fe, Zn
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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
POLYMERS
METALS o Brittle or hard or elastic
o Tough, heavy, shiny o Covalent bonding
o Metallic bonding o Resist electric conductivity
o High electrical, thermal conductivity o Low melting points
o Medium to high melting points o Plastics
o Ferrous  Thermoplastic
- Do contain Iron - Can be reformed by heat
- Magnetic - Nylon, Acrylic, Polyethylene, Polypropylene,
- Promote corrosion Polystyrene, PVC, Teflon
- Examples: Cast iron, wrought iron, iron alloys, high carbon  Thermoset Plastics
steels, stainless steel - Once formed, cannot be reformed
o Non Ferrous - Epoxy Resins, Polyesters Resins, Polyurethanes,
- Do contain iron Bakelite, Melamine
- Non magnetic o Elastomers
- Prevent corrosion – Elastic in nature
- Aluminum, Magnesium, Titanium, Gold, Copper alloys, – Nature rubber, Polybutadiene rubber, Butyl rubber,
Bronze, Brass Neoprene
CERAMICS COMPOSITES
o Brittle, hard, heavy o Strong, light, durable
o Covalent and ionic bonding o Made from two or more materials to attain require properties
o Resist electrical, thermal conductivity o Fiber + Matrix = Composite Material
o High melting points o Fibers
o Traditional – Glass fiber – Strong
- Clay products: Pottery, bricks, concrete pipe, tiles – Carbon fiber - Light weight
– Aramid fiber – High impact strength
- White wares: Porcelain, bone china, crockery, sanitary
– Metallic fiber – to make more stronger material
ware
– Natural fiber – for low strength require materials
- Silica and silicates: Feldspar, quartz, blown glass o Matrix
o Advance
– Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) – Chemical resistant
- Alumina: Insulating plugs, resistor, microchip, optical fiber – Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) – Heat resistant
- Zirconia: Dental bridge, automobile engines, rocket nose – Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) – Less dense
- Silicon carbide, Silicon nitride: Refractory materials,
furnace
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Hardness
– Resistance to scratching, cutting, abrasion.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS – Ability to resist material to plastic deformation, by indentation or
MECHANICAL pressure.
o Strength – Affected by the strength, not easily deform, scratch proof.
ELECTRICAL – Diamond, quartz, etc.
o Resistance
MAGNETIC Toughness
o Attraction – Resistance to breakage, fracturing, cracking.
OPTICAL – Ability of material to deform plastically and absorb energy
o Transparency before fracture.
PHYSICAL – Affected by rate of loading, temperature, notch effect.
o Density – Metals, Steel, etc.
THERMAL
o Conductivity Brittleness
CHEMICAL – Ability to break or shatter without significant deformation when
o Corrosion under stress.
GENERAL – Brittle materials do not show deformation.
o Price – Brittleness is affected by pressure or stress.
– Ceramics, cast iron, etc.
Strength
– Strength is the capacity to resist load. Ductility
– High strength materials are hard to be broken. – Ability of a material to be stretched out into thin wire by a tensile
– Ability to withstand the applied forces without failure or plastic stress.
deformation. – Ductile materials can be rolled into wires.
o Impact strength – Ductility is affected by the grain size.
o Tensile strength – Ductility is affected by temperature.
o Yield strength – Copper, wrought iron, low carbon steel.
o Fatigue strength
Malleability
Stiffness – Ability of material to deform and shaped under compressive
– Stiffness is the rigidity of an object. stress.
– High stiffness material are hard to be deformed. – Malleable materials can be rolled into sheets.
– Ability to resist bending or deformation of elastic body when – Malleability is affected by the crystal structure.
stress is applied. – Increasing of temperature, increases the malleability.
– Opposite to flexible. More flexible, less stiff. – Gold, silver, aluminum, metals at higher temperature.
o Rotational Stiffness (applied moment divided by the rotation)
o Axial stiffness (tension or compression)
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Fusibility
– Ability to change easily into a molten state when heated.
(without chemical breakdown or burning)
– Used for metals and polymers which are to be cast, molded or
welded.
– Bronze, brass, iron, fusible plus, fusible resistor.
Plasticity
– Ability to retain the new shape when a force is removed.
– Plastic deformation is irreversible.
– Permanent deformation.
– Plasticine, clay, copper, etc.
Elasticity
– Ability to return its original shape when a force is removed.
– Elastic deformation is reversible.
– Temporary deformation.
– Rubber, spring, mild steel, etc.
Flexibility
– Ability to bend or deform in response to an applied force.
– Flexibility is how much a material can be repeat breaking.
– Plastic ruler, elastic rubber, electrical wire, etc.
Creep
– Slow and gradual deformation of material with respect to time/
– Creep results from sustained loading below the measured yield
point.
– Tendency of material to slowly stretch or deform permanently
under the constant force over a period of time.
Fatigue
– Weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads.
– Fatigue occurs when stress or strain is cycled.
– It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs
when a material id subjected to cyclic loading.
Cost
– Materials are usually sold by weight or by size.
– Therefore material costs are given as cost per unit weight or cost
per unit volume.
– Note that, the cost of a product is not the same as its price. The
cost is how much the manufacturer has to pay for it, while the
price is what the product is sold for, and the difference is profit.
Durability
– Ability to withstand wear, pressure, damage or corrosion.
– Ability of a physical product to remain functional, without
requiring excessive maintenance or repair, when faced with the
challenges of normal operations over its design lifetime.
Viscosity
– Resistance of fluid to gradual deform or change in thickness by
tensile or shear stress.
– Honey is more viscous than water.
Density
– Density is mass per unit volume.
– The denser the material is, the heavier it is.
– Mercury is denser than water.
– Silver is denser than aluminum.
Absorbency
– Ability of a material to soak up liquid.
– The more porous the material is, the less dense it is.
– Sponge, wood, cork, etc.
Waterproof
– Resistant to penetration by water, wetting and liquids.
– Synthetic fabrics are laminated to or coated with a
waterproofing material such as rubber, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polyurethane (PU), silicone elastomer, fluoropolymers, wax, etc.
to make water resistant.
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Optical Properties
Corrosion Resistance o Transparency
– The ability to withstand environmental attack and decay. - Property of materials that allow light to pass through
– A range of coatings and surface finishes are used to resist them and do allow objects behind them to be seen
corrosion and to enhance materials appearance and durability. clearly.
– Chemical properties – These are, for example, relevant in o Translucency
considerations of corrosion and solvent resistance. - Property of materials that allow some light to pass
through them but don’t allow objects behind to be seen
Thermal Conductivity clearly.
– Ability of material to transmit heat. o Opaqueness
– Most metals are good conductors of heat. - Property of materials that don’t allow light to pass
– Poor heat conductors are called thermal insulators. through them and other objects can’t be seen through
– Wood, ceramic, fabric, etc. are good insulators of heat. them
– Thermal properties – These are displayed when there is a heat o Shiny
input to a material and include thermal expansion and heat - Surfaces reflect light.
capacity. – Optical properties – Measure of light transmission.

Electrical Conductivity
– Ability of material to transmit electric current.
– Metals, graphite are good electrical conductors.
– Electric insulators do not conduct electricity.
– Wood, plastics, rubber, ceramics, etc.
– Electrical properties – These are seen when the material is used
in electrical circuits or components and include resistivity,
conductivity, and resistance to electrical breakdown.

Magnetic Property
– Some metals (most steels) can be magnetized.
– Ferrous metals are able to be attracted by a magnet.
– Magnetic properties – These are relevant when the material is
used as, for example, a magnet or part of an electrical
component such as an inductor that relies on such properties.
Properties such as ferromagnetism, paramagnetism or
diamagnetism (magnetic permeability).