Earth Science ● solidification can occur along the Magma is a molten rock material

surface of the earth or beneath the beneath the surface of the earth
Coverage: surface of the earth
● Igneous rocks are also classified Lava
● Types of rock and rock cycle
according to silica content and
● Properties of Minerals and Mineral Lava is molten rock material extruded
relative amounts of K, Na, Fe, Mg
Resources to the surface of the earth through a
and Ca.
● Energy Resources central vent (volcano) or as fissure
● They can be classified as felsic,
eruption
ROCKS intermediate, mafic and ultramafic,
practically based on presence of 2 TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
● Rock is a naturally occurring solid light and dark colored minerals.
mixture of one or more minerals ● The relatively dark minerals are Plutonic or Intrusive Volcanic or Extrusive
● olivine, pyroxene, hornblende and from solidified magma from solidified lava at
biotite. underneath the earth or near the surface of
the earth
● The relatively light colored minerals
gradual lowering of fast rate of
are plagioclases, K-feldspars, quartz
temperature is cooling/crystallization
and muscovite indicated by the due to huge variance
movement of magma in the temperature
● Generally rocks are classified on the from depth to surface between Earth’s
basis of the mode of formation and that surface and
FELSIC​: granitic: >65% silica, generally
some of these physical and chemical underneath
lightcolored
properties are inherent on how the causing slow cooling
rocks are formed. INTERMEDIATE​: andesitic: 55-65% silica,⎫ /crystallization
generally medium colored (medium gray) Phaneritic textures common textures:
TYPES OF ROCKS Forms large aphanitic, porphyritic
MAFIC​: basaltic: 45-55% silica, usually dark⎫ interlocking (define groundmass vs
IGNEOUS ROCKS crystals from phenocrysts), vesicular
colored
● these are rocks that are derived cooling
ULTRAMAFIC​: <45% silica, generally very Porphyritic texture:
from the cooling and solidification formed through two
of magma or lava dark colored stages of
● from solidified molten rock crystallization where
materials, usually hard and in magma partly
crystalline cooled below the
MAGMA VS LAVA surface of the earth
● rate of cooling as one of the most
providing time for the
important factors that control Magma large crystals to grow
crystal size
 (phenocrysts) before it Plutonic or Intrusive Volcanic or Extrusive ● these are rocks that are
is extruded to the Beneath the crust Forms on the surface formed at or near the surface
surface forming the of the Earth of the earth
fine-grained matrix Slow ( may take Fast Solidification ● sedimentary processes
(groundmass). thousands of years include:
Light colored Dark colored 1. weathering of rocks
Aphanitic texture: Larger Crystals Small Crystals
fine-grained texture; 2. erosion
minerals not visible to 3. deposition
the naked eye; Volcanic Bombs 4. compaction
relatively fast rates of 5. cementation
cooling/ solidification o are large blobs of lava that harden in the ● sediments are fragments of
prevent the formation air rock
of large crystals. that have been broken down as a
Lapilli result of weathering
Vesicular texture:
● sedimentary rocks are classified
voids created by rapid o are small bits of lava that harden before
cooling which causes according to their sizes
they hit the ground
air bubbles to be ♠ clay
o usually about the size of pebbles
trapped inside. ♠ silt
examples: rhyolite, Volcanic ash ♠ sand
andesite, basalt ♠ pebble
o forms when gases trapped in magma or ♠ cobble
lava from bubbles. When the bubbles ♠ boulder
Examples: granite, pyroclastic rocks: explode, they create millions of tiny ● Sedimentary rocks are the
diorite, gabbro fragmental rocks pieces only
usually associated
type of rocks that may contain fossils, or
with violent or
explosive type of evidence of past life.
eruption. Volcanic blocks
COMMON SEDIMENTARY FEATURES
Examples tuff and o are large pieces of solid rock that come
1. fossil assemblages
pyroclastic flow out from a volcano
o remains and traces of plants
deposits (ignimbrite)
and animals that are preserved
in rocks
STRIKING DIFFERENCE(S) IF THEY ARE FORMED 2. Stratification
IN DISSIMILAR WAY
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 o stratification or layering (strata leaving the dissolved pre-existing rock gets in contact
which is >1cm is called bedding minerals to crystallize with magma which is the source of
and < 1cm is called lamination): heat and magmatic fluids where
o layering is the result of a Precipitates​: rocks metamorphic transformations occur
change in grain size and formed when minerals around the contact / metamorphic
from a mineral
composition; each layer aureole of the intruding magma and
supersaturated waters
represents a distinct period of start to crystallize at the rock layers.
deposition the bottom of the ● The aureole occurs on different
solution scales depending on the sizes of the
TWO TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS intruding magma and the amount
Bioclastic​: rock of water in the intruded rocks and
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY NON-CLASTIC
formed from the reactive fluids coming from the
ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
compacted organic magma.
Inorganic land derived Organic or crystalline matter
sedimentary rocks ● creates non-foliated metamorphic
Clastic sedimentary rocks Nonclastic rocks
o conglomerate o rock salt
form by weathering sedimentary rocks ● example: hornfels
o sandstone o rock gypsum
processes which break form from chemical
down rocks into pebble, reactions, chiefly in o breccia o limestone NON-FOLIATED FOLIATED
sand, or clay particles by the ocean. o shale o chert are crystals with Have distinct bonding
exposure to wind, ice, blocky shapes and do
or layers that formed
and water. not have bonding perpendicular to
Compacted and Nonclastic pressure
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
cemented sediments sedimentary rocks are REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
named according to ● formed below the surface of the
the mineral present. ● PRESSURE as main factor: occurs in
earth through the process of
Clastic sedimentary rocks classified as areas that have undergone
metamorphism with the
are named according to evaporites (halite, considerable amount of mechanical
the grain size of the gypsum and recrystallization of minerals in rocks
deformation and chemical
sediment particles dolostone), due to changes in pressure and
recrystallization
precipitates temperature conditions
● occurs in a regional/large scale
(limestone) and ● contact and regional
● creates foliated metamorphic rocks
bioclastics (coal, metamorphism
● examples: schist, gneiss
coquina)
CONTACT METAMORPHISM ● non-foliated rocks like marble also
Evaporites​: rocks form through regional
formed from the ● HEAT AND REACTIVE FLUIDS as metamorphism, where pressure is
evaporation of water main factors: occurs when a
 not intense, far from the main Rocks = Words
geologic event
● shale ● Mineralogy 1. HOMOGENEOUS
● slate The study of minerals o Something that is the same
● phyllite ● Mineralogist through and through
● schist Someone who studies minerals, their o Cannot be broken into simpler
● gneiss composition, uses and components
properties 2. NATURALLY OCCURING
IGNEOUS Formed when molten rock ❖ Minerals are the ingredients of rocks o Minerals are the result of
ROCKS cools ❖ Rock are made up of minerals natural geological processes
SEDIMENTARY Formed by the “ cementing o Man-made minerals are called
ROCKS together” of small grains of synthetic minerals (e.g.
sediment industrial diamonds)
METAMORPHIC rocks changed by the effect 3. SOLID
ROCKS of heat and pressure
o Minerals must be able to
maintain a set shape nearly
indefinitely
o liquids are not minerals
4. DEFINABLE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
o A mineral can be described by
MINERAL COMPOSITIONS
a chemical formula
● Only about 50% minerals are abundant
● 98.5% of crustal mineral mass is from 8
elements
5. ORDERLY ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS
Oxygen O 46.6%
o Minerals have a fixed atomic
Silicon Si 27.7%
pattern that repeats itself over
Aluminum Al 8.1%
a large region relative to the
Iron Fe 5.0%
size of atoms
Calcium Ca 3.6%
MINERALS Sodium Na 2.8% o Crystal solid, or crystal lattice:
Potassium K 2.6% The organized structure of a
• If geology was a language: Magnesium Mg 2.1% mineral
All others 1.5% o A glass is not a mineral; no
Minerals = Letters of the Alphabet organized structure
6. GENERALLY INORGANIC
 o Organic: A substance composed 2. CARBONATES and time for the
of C bonded to H, with varying o Minerals that contain the elements crystal to grow
amounts of O, N and other carbon, oxygen, and one or more other
elements. C, alone, is not metallic elements
organic! 3. OXIDES MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
o Minerals that contain oxygen and one
HOW MINERALS ARE FORM or more other elements, which are *​ Since we can’t all have x-ray diffraction
usually metals machines and electron microscopes, we
1. Crystallization from magma
4. SULFATES AND SULFIDES identify minerals by visual and chemical
2. Precipitation
o Minerals that contain the element properties called physical properties.
3. Pressure and temperature
sulfur
4. Hydrothermal solutions
5. HALIDES 1. COLOR
MINERAL GROUPS o Minerals that contain a halogen ion plus o Color may be diagnostic for a
one or more other elements few minerals, but in general, a
o Can be classified based on their 6. NATIVE ELEMENTS given mineral can have a range
composition o Minerals that exist in relatively pure of colors.
form 2. STREAK
1. SILICATES o The color of the pulverized
o Silicon MINERAL GROWTH powder of a mineral
and oxygen o More consistent than color
o Minerals can grow by:
combine to form a o Found by scraping a mineral
✔ Solidification of a melt
structure called against a porcelain plate
✔ Precipitation from solution
the silicon-oxygen o Minerals with a hardness
✔ Biomineralization (shells)
tetrahedron. This greater than “7” usually don’t
✔ Fumarolic mineralization (from
silicon-oxygen create a streak on the streak
a gas)
tetrahedron plate because they are harder
provides the than the Porcelain tile (unless
framework of RAL DRAL the streak plate is specially
every silicate made).
mineral. al with well formed al with 3. LUSTER
crystal faces poorly-formed o The way a mineral’s surface
crystal faces scatters light
4. HARDNESS
when there is when space and/or o The measure of a mineral to
sufficient space time is limited resist scratching
 o Represents the strength of
bonds in the crystal lattice
o Measured on a qualitative scale
called Mohs Hardness Scale
o Mohs Hardness Scale from 1-10
o Hardness depends on how
“tightly packed” the atoms are
6. FRACTURE o Emeralds, sapphires, and
o Breaks irregularly, jagged aquamarine are made of the
edges mineral, Beryl
7. LUSTER o Diamonds form in high
o How light shines off a pressure kimberlite pipes
mineral
o Metallic or Nonmetallic Diamonds

SPECIAL PROPERTIES Diamonds originate under extremely

MOH’S HARDNESS SCALE
high pressure
1.) Talc
1.) MAGNETISM 150 km deep – in the upper mantle.
2.) Gypsum
o Attracted to a magnet Pure carbon is compressed into the
3.) Calcite
o Contains IRON, cobalt, or diamond structure
4.) Fluorite
nickel Rifting causes deep mantle rock to
5.) Apatite
2.) DOUBLE REFRACTION move upward
6.) Potassium feldspar
o Looking through it, you see Diamonds are found in kimberlite pipes
7.) Quartz
“double”
8.) Topaz
o Ex. Calcite
9.) Corundum
3.) FLUORESCENCE
10.) Diamond ENERGY RESOURCES
o Glows under ultraviolet (UV)
light Renewable Resources
5. CLEAVAGE
4.) PHOSPHORESCENCE
o Splits along definite planes o “Renewable resource are those
o Continues to glow even after
the UV light has been removed resources which can be regenerated
and replenished through rapid natural
Precious Stones: Gems cycles”
o Water, air, all biological products
● Gems have equivalent mineral names,
o Energies from sun, water, wind etc
but gemologists usually name
gemstones something marketable. Non-Renewable Resources
● Diamonds
o Made of C o “Resources that exists in a fixed
o Form in high pressure volcanic quantity in Earth’s crust and thus
environments called theoretically can be used up are called
kimberlites non renewable resources”.
o E.G Minerals like deposits of ores of
copper, Aluminium, Mercury and other
 metals Fossil fuels like ,Coal, Oil, Natural Conventional energy Non Conventional results as a result of Nuclear Fusion
gas sources energy sources reactions
o fossil fuels o Solar energy ● Solar Energy has the maximum
Energy Resources o Coal o Wind energy potential of all the sources of
o Oil o Ocean energy renewable energy
● Energy can be classified as follows
o Natural Gas o Atomic energy ● Sun gives 1000 times more energy than
o Timber o Geothermal we need and if only a small amount of
energy this form can be used it will be one of
o Hydrogen the most important supplies of energies
energy
DIRECT SOLAR ENERGY

● The solar energy is the radiation energy.

ACCORDING TO REGENERATION CAPACITY It can be used for direct heating or
RENEWABLE ENERGY
conversion into electricity
Conventional energy Non Conventional ● Direct heating
o Wind
sources energy sources
o Water ● e.g. Solar cooker
o Solar Energy o Coal
o Geothermal ● Solar heaters
o Wind Energy o Oil
o Biomass ● Solar power generators
o Ocean Energy o Gas
o Solar o Tidal Energy o Petroleum PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
o Geothermal o Nuclear Fuel
Energy ● Photo voltaic cells are made of semi
NON RENEWABLE ENERGY o Biomass conductor materials like silicon, gallium.
Energy When solar radiations fall on them, a
o Natural Gas o Hydrogen potential difference is created which
o Coal Energy causes flow of electron and electricity
o Oil ● A group of solar cells joined to gather
o Nuclear forms a solar panel which can harvest
large amount of energy.
SOLAR ENERGY
INDIRECT SOLAR ENERGY
● Solar energy is the energy obtained
from sun in the form of radiations. Sun ● It is the energy obtained from material
is an inexhaustible source of energy and that have previously incorporated sun’s
pollution free source of energy. It radiant energy.
ACCORDING TO SOURCES
 ● Among the indirect solar energy
biomass is the term used for all material
originated from photosynthesis, It
includes plants, agricultural and forest
residues, biodegradable organic wastes
Advantages of Solar Energy
● Easy Installation & maintenance
● Absence of noise and other form of
pollution
● Solar photovoltaic cell system are
favorable for fulfilling the
requirement of electricity for
decentralized application
● Longer life , makes it favorable for
remote, isolated, forest, hilly areas
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
● Uncertainty of availability of solar
energy due to cloud, wind rainfall
etc.
● Large spaces are required for
collection of solar energy at a useful
rate.
● Amount of sunlight that arrives at
the earth’s surface is not constant.
It depends on location, time of day,
time of year, & weather condition.
● Currently the initial cost is high but
is reducing at a faster rate.
WIND ENERGY
● Wind energy is the kinetic energy
associated with the movement of air It
has been used hundreds of years for
sailing, grinding. Wind turbine
transforms the energy in the wind into
mechanical energy which is in turn
converted into electrical energy
through generators.
● The minimum wind speed which is
required for the satisfactory
performance of wind generator is 15
km/hr . The wind power potential of
India is estimated to be about 20,000
MW, while at present we are
generating about 1020 MW.
Advantages of Wind Energy
● Non polluting and environment friendly
source of energy.
● Important renewable and sustainable
source of energy, available free of cost.
● Generation of electricity is fast.
● Cheaper as compared to other sources
● Easily available in many off-shores,
on-shores and remote areas.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy
● Favorable in geographic locations which
are always away from cities.
● Variable, unsteady, irregular,
intermittent, erratic, and dangerous
● Wind turbine design, manufacture and
installation have proved to be complex
due to widely varying atmospheric
conditions
● Can be located only in vast open areas.
● Economical only on a small scale
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
● energy that comes from the ground;
power extracted from heat stored in
the earth
● Geo: earth
● Thermal: heat
● Geothermal Energy means heat from
the earth. The Earth’s Core with
temperature as high as 60,000 0C is a
molten mass possessing vast amount of
energy. This energy sometimes breaks
through the earth and produce
Volcanoes.
● Geysers and Hot springs are natural
areas where the hot magma is close
enough to the surface to heat the
underground water. In areas where the
stream is trapped underground.
Geothermal energy is tapped by drilling
well to obtain steam
● The steam is then used to power
electric generators
Advantages of Geothermal Energy
● It is a renewable source of energy.
● By far, it is non-polluting and
environment friendly.
● There is no wastage or generation of
by-products.
● Geothermal energy can be used
directly. In ancient times, people used
this source of energy for heating
homes, cooking, etc.
 ● Maintenance cost of geothermal power
plants is very less.
● Geothermal power plants don't occupy
too much space and thus help in
protecting natural environment.
● Unlike solar energy, it is not dependent
on the weather conditions.
Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
● Only few sites have the potential of
Geothermal Energy.
● Most of the sites, where geothermal
energy is produced, are far from
markets or cities, where it needs to be
consumed.
● Total generation potential of this
source is too small. There is always a
danger of eruption of volcano.
● Installation cost of steam power plant is
very high.
● There is no guarantee that the amount
of energy which is produced will justify
the capital expenditure and operations
costs.
● It may release some harmful, poisonous
gases that can escape through the holes
drilled during construction.
HYDROPOWER ENERGY
● The energy in the form of flowing water
can be used to produce electricity.
Hydropower can be generated using
water collected and stored at high
elevation and led through a tunnel or
pipe line to a turbine located at low tides the sea water flows into the
level. reservoir of the barrage and turns the
● The minimum height of water fall must turbine, which in turn produces
be 10 m electricity. During low tides when the
sea level is low, the sea water stored in
Advantages of Hydropower Energy the barrage flow out into the sea and
turns the turbine.
● Longer life
● Minimum operating staff.
● Non Polluting and hence
environmental friendly.
● Low cost of generation & maintenance.
Disadvantages of Hydropower Energy
● Land acquisition is the major problem
as construction of dam causes large
submergence of land. Many political,
regional, and social hurdles comes in
the process of land acquisition
● Hydro- Power project takes long time
for clearance.
● Rehabilitation and resettlement of
Advantages of Tidal Power Energy
displaced people is a major problem
associated to any hydropower project. ● Can be a Source of Energy for Coastal
● Large scale initial investment is Cities.
required. ● No raw material is required.
● Generation is cheaper.
TIDAL ENERGY
Disadvantages of Tidal Power Energy
● Another form of energy related to local
geological conditions is tidal flow. As ● Availability is for limited duration and
water flow In the form of tides from varies with time and location
higher level to lower level it can be used ● Generation capacity is less.
to generate electricity. ● Operational difficulties during bad
● The tidal energy can be harnessed by weather
constructing a tidal barrage. During high
HYDROGEN ENERGY
● Hydrogen is a combustible gas. In
combustion process it combines with
the oxygen to form water and release
large amount of energy.
● Hydrogen is a clean fuel. A major
problem is of fire and explosion hazard.
Also it is difficult to store and transport.
● Hydrogen can be stored in the form of
fuel cells. The raw material for fuel cell
is water, which is available in
abundance.
● Thus hydrogen as a energy source is a
environmentally compatible fuel
Advantages of Hydrogen Energy
● When it is burnt it produces only water
vapor, and it is pollution free.
● There are no green-house gases, there
is no fear of global warming
● It has lots of applications like home
appliances, transport vehicles and
industrial units.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy
● Still the large scale production for the
commercial use has not been
introduced.
● Its production cost is high
● It needs huge external energy to release
hydrogen from water or coal. i.e. from
hydrocarbon.
Non Renewable Energy Sources
FOSSIL FUELS​: Fossil fuels such as coal , oil and
natural gas all of which are mixture of
compounds containing carbon and hydrogen.
These are formed by the decomposition of the
remains of plants and animals buried under the
earth millions of years ago.
● Coal
The ancient plants along the bank of river and
swamps were buried after the death
under the soil and due to heat and
pressure gradually got converted into
peat and coal.
Coal Energy
Advantages
● The coal reserves are huge.
● The cost of production and transport is
less. •
● The low quality coal can be used for
production of tar.
Disadvantages
● It creates air and water pollution.
● It is heavy and bulky, so storing needs
large areas.
● The ash produced on burning of coal
creates health problems.
Oil Energy
● This liquid oil is most commonly used in
generating electricity and as a fuel in
cars. Oil is burnt to run steam turbines
to produce electricity. This is highly
efficient way of generating heat to
support production of electricity.
● Oil is extracted form the earth and it is
taken to oil refineries via oil tankers.
This oil is processed to diesel, ethane,
gasoline, jet fuel, fuel oil, kerosene,
liquefied petroleum gas and petrol.
Advantages
● The transport of liquid fuel is easy.
● The liquid fuel is lighter than coal so it
can be used in air transport.
● The liquid fuel has lots of bi-products.
● The liquid fuel does not require very
huge area of storing.
Disadvantages
● The fuel is evaporable and so it is to be
stored in closed tankers
● The production cost is higher than that
of coal.
● It creates air pollution through the
pollutants like NO, SO2 , CO, CO2 .
● The reserves of fuel oil are lesser than
that of coal
Nuclear Energy
● Nuclear Energy is the energy trapped
inside the atom. Nuclear energy can be
generated by two types of reactions
● Nuclear Fission:
● An Atom nucleus can be split apart this
is known as fission when this is done a
tremendous amount of energy in the
 form of both heat and light is released
this energy can be harnessed to
generate electricity
● Nuclear Fusion​: Nuclear fusion can also
be harnessed by fusion. A fusion
reaction occurs when 2 atom combine
to form larger atom. This reaction takes
place all the time in the sun, which
provides us with solar energy.
● Nuclear energy has tremendous
potential but any leakage from the
reaction may cause devastating nuclear
pollution.
● nuclear power plants in operation
generating 4,120 MW
Advantages
● It’s production cost per unit of power is
much lesser than the thermal power
production.
● The area required for the radioactive
fuel like uranium or is smaller than the
coal mines or the huge reservoirs to
generate energy.
● Heat generation in the nuclear power
plant is much higher than the heat
generation in any thermal power plant
of same size.
DISADVANTAGE
● The high technology required to
generate nuclear power is not available
in all the countries
● The nuclear waste are radioactive in
nature and so are harmful to the living
beings.
● There is a danger of misuse of the
civilian nuclear power plant. i.e. It can
be used to produce the nuclear
weapons for the mass destruction.
Biomass Energy
● Biomass is the organic material
which has stored sunlight in the
form of chemical energy
● Biomass include, wood, bio-fuel,
and biogas
● Bio-energy is generated when
biomass is burned.
Energy Plantation
● By photo synthesis plant convert
radiant energy into chemical energy
which in turn can be store and used
as a fuel in various forms
Bio Fuel
● Certain latex containing plants are rich
in hydrocarbon and can yield an oil like
substance under high temperature and
pressure. This oily material may be
burnt and can be used as a fuel.
Biogas
● In biogas plants animal wastes and
sewage sludge etc in the form of slurry
is fermented aerobically to form biogas.
● Biogas has high calorific value and can
be used for operating small engines for
pumping water
Advantages of Biomass Energy
● Plants ensures a continuous supply of
energy due to their continuous growth.
● Potential for rural areas
● Biogas can be used for cooking purpose.
● Can be used for operating small engines
for pumping water, for lighting
● Waste can be used as an excellent
fertilizers.
Disadvantages of Biomass Energy
● Except biogas production, the other
biomass energy sources have to be
established a significant role.
● Availability is limited.