GL 2101 Geologi Fisik

02. The Rock Cycle

and
Plate Tectonics
 The Rock Cycle
Rock – a naturally formed, consolidated
material usually composed of grains of
one or more minerals

Rock cycle – shows how one type of

rocky material gets transformed into
another
• Representation of how rocks are
formed, broken down, and processed
in response to changing conditions
• Processes may involve interactions of
geosphere with hydrosphere,
atmosphere and/or biosphere
• Arrows indicate possible process paths
within the cycle

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The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics
Convergent Boundary – magma is
created by melting of rock at a
convergent boundary/subduction zone.

• less dense magma rises and cools to

form igneous rock
• igneous rock exposed at surface
gets weathered into sediment
• sediments transported to low-lying
areas, buried and hardened into
sedimentary rock
• sedimentary rock heated and
squeezed at depth to form
metamorphic rock
• metamorphic rock may heat up and
melt at depth to form magma
Convergent plate boundary

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 How Magma Forms
Heat for Melting Rock
• Most heat comes from the core by
conduction or convection through
the mantle and crust.

The Geothermal Gradient and

Partial Melting
• The geothermal gradient is the rate
at which temperature increases with
increasing depth but it is never high
enough to cause rock to melt
because melting pints of minerals
generally increase as pressure
increases.

• Melting will occur by a reduction in

the melting point by the presence of
water.
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How Magma Forms
Decompression Melting
• Melting occurs when rising
mantle rock is subject to lower
melting points as the pressure
is reduced

Addition of Water (Flux Melting) Decompression Melting

• Water becomes increasingly

reactive at higher temperatures
• At sufficient pressures and
temperatures, highly reactive
water vapor can reduce the
melting point of rocks by over
200°C

Flux Melting

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How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve
A large variety of igneous rocks indicate that there are a large variety of magma
compositions.
Sequence of Crystallization and Melting
Bowen’s Reaction Series - Minerals crystallize in a predictable order, over
a large temperature range.
Bowen’s Reaction Series

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How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve
A. Differentiation – process by which different ingredients separate from an
originally homogenous mixture.
B. Crystal Settling – changes the magma composition as the crystals are
removed from the melt as they settle downward.
C. Partial Melting – process by which the magma composition varies as
different minerals/rocks melt at different temperatures.

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How Magmas of Different Assimilation Magma Mixing
Compositions Evolve (cont.)

Assimilation – process
whereby a hot magma
composition will change
as it melts and
assimilates adjacent
rocks into the magma.

Magma Mixing –
composition of a magma
body changes as it
mixes with another
magma body.

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Intrusive Bodies
• Intrusive rocks exist in bodies or structures that penetrate or cut
through pre-existing country rock
• Intrusive bodies are given names based on their size, shape and
relationship to country rock

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Intrusive Bodies (cont.)
Shallow Intrusive Structures
• Igneous bodies that apparently solidified near the surface of the Earth.
• Relatively small compared to bodies formed at great depth.
• Tend to cool more rapidly than those that form at greater depth and likely fine-
grained.
Volcanic neck - Shallow intrusion formed when magma solidifies in throat of
volcano.

Shiprock, NM

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 Intrusive Bodies (cont.)
Shallow Intrusive Structures
Dike : Shallow, tabular intrusive structure that cuts across any layering
in country rock
Sill : Shallow, tabular intrusive structure that parallels layering in country
rock
Basaltic sill

Light-colored dikes

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Intrusive Bodies (cont.)
Intrusives that Crystallize at Depth
Plutons – deep, large, blob-shaped intrusive body
formed of coarse-grained igneous rock, commonly
granitic in composition
 Stocks: small plutons (exposed over <100 km )
2

 Batholiths: large plutons (exposed over >100 km2)

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Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks
• Granite - Most abundant rock in mountain ranges and interior
lowlands of continents.
• Andesite - the building material of young mountain ranges
• Ultramafic rocks make up the upper mantle.
• Gabbro and basalt - the predominant rocks of the oceans.
Ancient basement plutonic rocks are exposed in just a few places such as Grand
Canyon, Arizona.

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Explaining Igneous Activity & Plate Tectonics
Igneous processes at Divergent Boundaries
• mafic igneous rocks such as basalt and gabbro are
commonly formed at divergent boundaries

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Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics

Intraplate Igneous Activity

• Rising mantle plumes can

produce localized hotspots and
volcanoes when they produce
magmas that rise through
oceanic or continental crust
• Hawaii is an example

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Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics
Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries:

The Origin of Andesite

• differentiation of mafic magmas
• partial melting of oceanic crust

The Origin of Granite

• partially melted lower continental
crust
• Magmatic underplating

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Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies
• intrusive igneous rocks form when magma solidifies underground
• extrusive igneous rocks form when magma solidifies at the Earth’s surface (lava)

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Igneous Rocks

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Classification of Igneous Rocks
• Texture – the rock’s appearance with respect to the size,
shape and arrangement of grains or other constituents.
Crystal size is determined by the rate of cooling of
the magma.
• Intrusive – formed deep underground and typically
cools slowly
• Extrusive – formed at or near the Earth’s surface
and cools quickly.

• Chemical Composition – mineral content indicates origin

and evolution of the magma

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Igneous Rock Textures
Crystalline Textures

• Fine Grained or Aphanitic –

crystals are too small to see
easily with the naked eye.
Magma cooled quickly at or
near the surface

• Coarse Grained or
Phaneritic – crystals are Fine-grained (Aphanitic)

large enough to see with the

naked eye. Magma cooled
slowly.

Coarse-grained (Phaneritic)

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Which ones are aphanitic?

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Igneous Rocks Textures
Crystalline Textures (cont.)

• Porphyritic – includes two distinct crystal sizes, with the larger phenocrysts
having formed first during slow cooling underground and the smaller
groundmass forming during more rapid cooling at the Earth’s surface

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 Igneous Rocks Textures
Crystalline Textures (cont.)

• Pegmatitic– extremely coarse–grained (most crystals >5 cm), formed when

magma cools very slowly at depth

Pegmatitic Texture

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 Igneous Rocks Textures
Glassy Textures
• Glassy – contains no crystals at all, and is
formed by extremely rapid cooling of the
magma.

Textures Due to Trapped Gas

Obsidian • Vesicular – contains cavities (vesicles) in
- Glassy Texture
extrusive rocks resulting from gas bubbles
that were in the lava. Scoria and Pumice
are examples.

Pumice – Vesicular Texture

Fragmental Texture
• Pyroclastic – consolidated pyroclastic
debris such as ash, pumice or crystalline
rock. Tuff and Volcanic Breccia are
examples

Tuff – Pyroclastic Texture

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Chemistry of Igneous Rocks
Rock chemistry, particularly silica (SiO2) content, determines
mineral content and general color.
• Felsic (silicic) rocks – >65% silica by weight, and contain light-
colored minerals that are abundant in silica, aluminum, sodium
and potassium. Rhyolite and Granite are examples.
• Intermediate rocks – silica contents between 55% and 65% by
weight. Diorite and Andesite are examples.
• Mafic rocks – silica content between 45% and 55% by weight,
contain dark-colored minerals that are abundant in iron,
magnesium and calcium. Gabbro and Basalt are examples.
• Ultramafic rocks – <45% silica, by weight, and composed almost
entirely of dark-colored (black/green) ferromagnesian minerals.
Peridotite and Komatite are examples.

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Igneous rock identification

Identification is based on
texture (grain size) and
mineral composition

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End of week 2